Research Bulletin OF THE National Education Association VOLUME X January to November, 1932 The Research Bulletin is issued by the Research Division, a section of the headquarters staff of the National Education Association. This divi- sion was created in February, 1922, for the purpose of conducting scien- tific studies of special interest to members of the teaching profession. Bulletin One was issued by the Research Division in June, 1922, and Bulletin Two, in November, 1922 The first number of the Research Bulletin is Volume I, No. 1, January, 1923, entitled “Facts on State Educational Needs.’”” With Volume I, No. 1, the Research Bulletin became a regular publication, issued five times each year—January, March, May, September, and November. The Research Bulletins composing Volumes I, Il, 111, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, and X are listed on the inside back cover of the November, 1932, Bulletin. RESEARCH DIVISION THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1201 Sixteenth Street Northwest, Washington, D. C. 1932 CONTENTS Foreword Introduction ; Training Requirements for Newly Appointed Teachers 5 Increases in statutory requirements 5 Necessity of adequate training 5 The desirable minimum training 6 What is the ultimate goal? Present practice in city school systems Comparison of survey results in 1931, 1928, and 1923 i) Trend of training requirements in city systems 9 Effect of supply and demand upon standards Need for higher qualitative standards for admission 10 Need for research. . 1] Experience Requirements for Newly Appointed Teachers 12 Present practice in city school systems 12 Trend of practice since 1922-23 Fa 13 Employment of Married Women as Teachers Wide differences of opinion Arguments against married women as teachers Arguments in favor of married women as teachers Opinion in educational literature The attitude of parents Ji de be 0 Surveys of opinion among educators 7 Studies of relative efficiency 17 Legal aspects of the married-teacher question 18 Present practice in city school systems 19 Trend of practice in recent years 20 Leaves of absence for maternity 20 Appointment of Local Residents as Teachers 22 Present practice in city school systems 2 Routine Procedures in the Selection of Teachers 3 Selection a function of the superintendent 23 Definite search for desirable prospects 3 Use of formal application blanks 24 Use of reference blanks and letters of recommendation 25 Personal interviews with applicants 26 Observation of classroom work 26 Written examinations 26 Physical examinations 27 Other practices 27 Wide variation in plans for selecting teachers 27 Selected and Classified Bibliography 8 Questionnaire Used in Collection of Data 30) LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Educational Qualifications Required of Newly Appointed Teachers in 1930-31 8 ? 2. Comparison of Educational Qualifications Required of Newly Appointed Teachers in 1927-28 and 1930-31 10 3. Experience Requirements for Newly Appointed Teachers in 1930-31 13 4. Illness per Year among Single and Married Women Teachers in Cleveland, 1922-23 18 5. Policies Concerning Employment of Married Women as Teachers in 1930-31. 19 6. Comparison of Policies Regarding Employment of Married Womesi as Teachers in 1927-28 and 1930-31 ; 20 7. Policies Concerning Appointment of Local Residents as Teachers in 1930-31 22 8. Routine Procedures Used in Selection of Teachers in 1930-31 24 a ) : OIE + ae FOREWORD N TIMES of stress we need to come back frequently to the essentials of Ame: ican educational philosophy. We need to remind ourselves and the public that our democracy is based upon complete educational opportunities fo: all children and that good teaching is an indispensable element in such an op portunity. School administration primarily exists to bring children under the influence of trained teachers possessed of a high degree of ability and character. How to attract such individuals to the teaching profession, how to retain thei: services, how to help them to improve professionally and culturally, are prob lems of first importance. They are even more important in times of adversit than in times of prosperity. This bulletin, therefore, appears at an opportune time. This is the first of two new bulletins dealing with the field of teache: personnel administration. ‘These bulletins summarize a wealth of material bearing on various problems involved in the development of efficient teaching staffs. They report findings from the Research Division’s latest inquiry as to current practice concerning these problems in city school systems. ‘They place the reader in touch with the best professional opinion in this important field. The present bulletin discusses practices in the selection and appointment of teachers, while the one for March, 1932, will be devoted to practices affecting the retention, promotion, and improvement of teachers. During the past ten years the National Education Association has become a great clearing-house for information and discussion of the problems involved in keeping a capable and well-trained teacher in every classroom. This bulletin and the one to follow are important contributions to the Association’s program in this field. School boards, schoo! executives, teachers, college specialists, and civic groups studying such problems will find these two bulletins particularly) useful in furnishing a factual basis for their work. J. W. Crastree, Secretary, National Education Association [2] Introduction School administration is not an end in itself, it rather a means of providing a wholesome environment and effective instruction for chil- ren. Good administration seeks to plan, guide, nd coordinate the entire school system so that +} e outcomes will be of maximum value to the pupils and to society in general. Of the many specific factors which contribute to the success influential of the school, probably the most ire the character and status of its classroom teachers. Sound educational administration, therefore, must give major attention to the na- ture and needs of the teaching staff. It cannot treat its teachers as if they were unskilled la borers working by the hour or by the day in a wholly impersonal relationship with their em- ployers. Wise administration will devote care- ful study to the principles and practices in- volved in recruiting and continuously improv- Such study should cover all aspects of teacher im- ing a high-grade teaching personnel. provement: professional, cultural, economic, and social. In formulating principles and evaluating practices, of course, an objective point of view should be maintained. The pri- mary question to be answered is not What do teachers deserve as rewards for devoting their lives to a great cause? Rather, it is What polli- cies and practices will best procure and retain teachers of splendid ability, foster their self- respect and initiative, and stimulate them to improve continuously the quality of their service? That this philosophy is being increasingly) accepted is attested by the many requests re- ceived by the Research Division from super- intendents, principals, and teachers, asking for reliable information on problems of teacher personnel. The lines of interest revealed in these requests have been used as the basis for 1 National Education Association, Salary Committee. (E Trends in 1923. Washington, D. C.: the United States." p. 48-57. S. Evenden, Chairman). Report: Teachers’ the Association, July, 1923. Chapter III, ‘Special Provisions Affecting Teachers’ Salaries in a continuing study of theory and practice in various phases of this field. Earlier surveys by the Research Division In 1923 the Research Division, in cooperation Nation il Education Association, made its first systematic with the Salary Committee of the effort to collect data on personnel practices in city school systems.' Although this first in quiry dealt mainly with the larger problems of schedules, it also such as the teachers’ salaries and salary included certain special topics, amounts of training and experience required of newly appointed teachers, the rating of teachers, salary allowances for summer school attendance and for professional courses com pleted during the school year, leaves of absence for study and educative travel, sick leave with pay, tenure of position, and retirement pro visions. Responses to the inquiry were received from approximately 1,000 city from 2,500 to over 100,000 in population.? school systems In 1928 a second survey was made of prac- tices affecting teacher personnel. This survey included most of the special items enumerated Usable above, and several others in addition. 1,532 school information was received from systems in cities over 2,500 in population. Si ope and procedure of this study Because of the constant demand for up-to-date informa- tion in this field, a third investigation was un The plan of this survey was similar to that of the dertaken in the spring of 1931. general 1928 study, but was somewhat more compre hensive. A four-page printed questionnaire, which is reproduced at the end of this bulletin, was sent to all school systems in the 2,880 cities over 2,500 in population according to the . total of 1,489 usable replies were received. The following this 1920 census.* From these a summary shows how response compares Salaries and Salary _? Since 1923 the Research Division has conducted a biennial survey of the salaries paid teachers and other school employees in city school systems of the 1 nited States. The latest of these is summarized in: National Education Association, Research Divi sion. ‘‘Salaries in City School Systems, 1930-31." Research Bulletin 9: 161-228; May, 1931. Washington, D. C.: the Association * National Education Association, Research Division. ‘‘ Practices Affecting Teacher Personnel.’ Research Bulletin 6: 205-56: September, 1928. Washington, D. C.: the Association. * At the time the questionnaires were mailed out, the names of superintendents ot schools were not available for those com- munities whose populations had changed from less than 2,500 in 1920 to 2,500 or above in 1930. [3] a ee a se oes ao — eet Se with the total number of cities in each popu- lation group according to the 1930 census: Number of cities Cities replying according to aioe 1930 census Population group Number Percent Over 100,000 93 85 | 91.4 30,000 to 100,000. 224 188 83.9 | 10,000 to 30,000. 663 402 60.6 | §,000 to 10,000. 886 415 46.8 2,500 to 5,000 1467 399 | 27.2 i Total 3333 1489 | 44.7 A large majority of the cities over 100,000 and of those from 30,000 to 100,000 in popu- lation responded, while a substantial propor- tion of the 10,000-to-30,000 and the 5,000-to- 10,000 groups did so. The group of cities from 2,500 to 5,000 in population was not so well represented in this respect. ‘here is, however, no reason to believe that the representative- ness of the cities reporting in any population group was affected by factors of selection. The data given in the following pages may there- fore be accepted as fairly typical of all cities in any particular population group. It should be borne in mind, however, that no information is included concerning the thousands of rural and village school systems having populations below 2,500. The data as given cannot be re- garded as representative of American public schools in general, but only of city systems of the sizes indicated. Plan of presenting the results—The results of the 1931 survey are published in two sepa- rate numbers of the Research Bulletin. Part I, which deals with practices affecting the selec- tion and appointment of teachers, is presented in this issue. Part II, which discusses practices affecting the retention, promotion, and im- provement of teachers, will appear as the issue for March, 1932. Each of these bulletins is organized accord- ing to a threefold plan, as follows: 1. It summarizes what is believed to be the best available opinion concerning the issues involved and the merits of various practices. 2. It presents recent and representative data as to the nature of present practices, and to some ex- tent the trend of practice during recent years. 3. It gives a selected list of pertinent references for further study. These bulletins do not attempt to draw final conclusions concerning the problems studied. Each problem alone might be subjected to- much more intensive study than is possi here, and still many points would remain vu settled. As in most other phases of school ministration, the influence of various pract upon the effectiveness of instruction is dificult to measure. Moreover, actual exp: ence with many of these practices has be: too meagre to permit an adequate estimate their value. Final judgment concerning th must, therefore, be suspended until more fa are available. Further scientific investigati plus longer and more carefully evaluated « perience are needed before authoritative swers can be given as to the specific relati between different practices and school efficien: But in the meantime the schools must co: tinue to operate. Children must be taught Teachers must be recruited, trained, appointed paid, and stimulated to develop themselves and | to give increasingly finer service to the con munity. Superintendents, school boards, an: teachers’ organizations are constantly making decisions. They should make them according to the most reliable evidence available, limited though it may be. This is not to suggest that common practice should be followed wheneve: experimental evidence is lacking. While con mon practice is sometimes a better criterion than unsupported individual opinion, adminis trative decisions should be influenced also by the judgment of experts and by the conditions peculiar to each individual community. Topics included in this bulletin—As stated above, this bulletin deals with problems and practices involved in the selection and appoint ment of classroom teachers. It does not pre tend, however, to cover all of the detailed problems which arise in this field. Rathe: discusses five topics about which questions ar frequently received from administrators an teachers. These are as follows: 1. Training requirements for newly appoint teachers. 2. Experience requirements for newly appoint teachers. 3. Employment of married women as teachers 4. Appointment of local residents as teachers. 5. Routine procedures in the selection of teachers Additional material concerning these prob lems, particularly with reference to details o1 related aspects which are beyond the scope otf this study, may be found by consulting the — selected bibliography at the end of the bulletin. — [4] aking rding nited that Weve! con Prion MINIs O by tions ate and int pre ile iers ob ot the Hin. Training Requirements for Newly Appointed Teachers Specialized training for any type of work ecomes necessary when that work has devel- ped to the point where it requires knowledge ind skill of a relatively high order. When such work is of great value to society as a whole, ind when the general public becomes aware of this fact, barriers are set up which prevent the admission of persons who are unprepared to give a high grade of service. ‘The state now examines with extreme care the qualifications of prospective physicians. Persons planning to enter the legal profession must usually meet special requirements as to character and pro- fessional training. Society protects itself simi larly in many other forms of professional and husiness service. ‘Teach- ing service is now among the fields of work in Increases in statutory requirements which the public insists upon some measure of protection against incompetence. This has not always been true. In our early history the formal instruction of children was considered neither sufficiently complex and difficult nor suficiently vital to require teachers of high calibre. However, as our philosophy of edu- cation has broadened and deepened to include many different aims, services, and technical procedures, and as society in general has grad- ually realized the importance of the influences under which the child develops, minimum re- quirements for admission to teaching have been established. The oldest method of certificating persons for teaching is by examination, and for many years most states were satisfied with this type of requirement. Many states have now gone beyond this stage and are maintaining stand ards in terms of scholarship prerequisites, either with or without the use of special examina tions in addition. Especially within recent years great progress has been made toward higher’ scholastic requirements. As recently as 1921 thirty states maintained no definite scholarship standards for certification, and the four states most advanced in this respect re- _. 1} Cook, Katherine M. State Laws and Regulations Governin Education, Bulletin, 1927, No. 19. Washington, D. ( 2 Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teaching Staff quired less than one year of professional train- ing beyond high-school graduation. In 1926, however, only 15 states had no statewide scho- lastic requirement for entrance, while nine required one full year of professional training beyond the high school, and four required two vears of work beyond the high school.t The tendency in certification is clearly in the direc- tion of increased training and less dependence upon examinations. Moreover, in a number of states common practice even in rural areas is considerably above the minimum statutory re- quirements. In addition to the minimum requirements for admission to the profession, some states re- quire higher and more specialized qualifications for teaching in the high school and in various special subjects. Necessity of adequate training—Competent authorities in education are now generally agreed that every state and local community should set up professional training require ments which not only will protect children from unprepared teachers, but will aim to raise teacher competence to the highest possible level. Lewis expresses this philosophy as fol lows: Teaching, if it is to be skilled, and no other kind should be acceptable, demands a trained, experi- enced, and competent teaching personnel. ‘The product of the public school will in many cases continue to be disappointing until our children are instructed by teachers properly qualified for this important service. Making good citizens is a skilled service and cannot be performed by unskilled workers. ° Buckingham points out that the increased need for trained teachers is due to the growing demands of a complex society : The modern demands of society and of civiliza- tion require an everlengthening and intensive period of training for children and young people. Longer and longer grows the period of infancy—the period of dependence of the human child upon adult guid- ance. Of supreme importance, therefore, it is, that there be at the service of society as the teachers of its dependents, men and women of “first-rate in- tellect, morals, and skill.” ‘ g Teachers’ Certificates. U.S. Department of the Inter Bureau of Government Printing Office, 1927. p. 12-16. New York: Century Company, 1925. p. 33 , *Buckingham, B. R. Supply and Demand in Teacher Training. Ohio State University Studies, Vol. II, No. 15. Bureau of Educational Research Monographs, No. 4. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, March 15, 1926. p. 3-4 [ 5] no a Se —— ee ee Robinson offers four reasons why present- day teachers should have more ability and training than in the past: 1. As society advances and becomes more com- plex, a broader educational background is de- manded before specialization begins. More time for acquaintance and interpretation is needed than when civilization was less developed and less com- plex. 2. During the past quarter of a century the sciences dealing with the physical and mental make- up of the child have developed at an unprecedented rate. The science of education has added much tech- nical information that is needed by the prospective teacher. This vast amount of information is now available in suitable form for the teacher's guid- ance and makes a legitimate claim to a place in the normal school curriculum. 3. The application of such principles of phil- osophy as “one learns to do by doing,” demands more observations, participations, conferences, and teaching by the prospective teacher than heretofore. The addition of one or two years to the course al- lows for more of this type of laboratory work in the normal school curriculum. 4. More liberalizing subjectmatter is being intro- duced into the training courses. These courses are designed to lead students to the everwidening circle of related subjectmatter more “advanced” in char- acter and thus to awaken and promote the broaden- ing of their intellectual horizon. This in turn will be passed on to pupils through richer teaching. * The right of the state to prescribe desirable minimum standards for entrance to the teach- ing profession is stated vigorously by Bucking- ham as follows: There are those who, for selfish reasons, want entrance into teaching made easy. They regard it as their “right” to become teachers or to have their relatives and friends become teachers. There is no right in the matter except the right acquired by paving the price of competency. The state has rights, the community has rights, and the children have rights. . . . and one of the undoubted rights of the state—in this case acting for the com- munity and the child as well as for itself—is to say what kind of teachers it wants in its schools. This is one of its inherent rights, one of the rights which no individual may infringe. . . . The school does not exist to furnish jobs for anybody.’ A few, however, would qualify the gener- ally accepted views stated above. Although such persons agree that standards of service must be kept high, they consider other factors more important than a large amount of forn training. Dillard fears that an overempha upon professional teacher training will produ mechanized teachers who lack originality, spiration, and initiative. He recalls the ti when: teaching was hardly thought of as a prof: sion. Young men and women and older men a: women took it up to make a living or an ext penny when nothing better seemed at hand. A; plan of professional preparation, as for law medicine, was nowhere in the landscape, nor ev: on the horizon. . . . While the thing we call px sonality cuts a figure in whatever anyone does, is in teaching that personality cuts deepest. All of us know personally numbers of fine teach¢ who have not had professional training... . . Ar yet, of course, teaching has become a profession. such it demands some professional preparation. No: however so very much. It is easily overdone. | can easily fall into the vice of killing originalit and making molds.’ Champlin, on the other hand, believes ther: is little danger of overtraining our teachers He states: the claim. .. . that the professional training of teach ers is easily overdone and that it destroys origi nality and individuality is hardly borne out by the facts. Most of us would have to search for a prett long time to discover any actual case of an ove: trained public school teacher and those in a positior to observe most widely will testify that the most thoroughly prepared in pedagogy for classroon work are the very ones who possess the greatest amount of adaptability, resourcefulness, and spor taneity in the daily round of instructional responsi bilities. .. . The professional preparation of publi school teachers has been so conspicuously unde: done in past generations that it is inopportune t condemn the present program and premature to in dict the leaders who so loyally and zealously see} to elevate the professional standards of the severa hundreds of thousands now engaged in some for: of teaching employment.‘ The desirable minimum training—Leaders in the field of teacher preparation are gene: ally agreed that beginning elementary teachers should have not less than two years, and begin ning high-school teachers not less than fou years of training beyond graduation from high school.® State school surveys are urging th establishment of such requirements almost im- ! Robinson, William M. ‘‘ Shall Untrained Persons Be Employed to Teach Our Children?"’ School Life 11: 59; November, 1925 2 Buckingham, B. R. Supply and Demand in Teacher Training. Ohio State University Studies, Vol. II, No. 15, Bureau Educational Research Monographs, No. 4. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, March 15, 1926. p. 155-6. ? Dillard, J. H. ‘What Is Teacher Training?’’ School and Society 25: 406; April 2, 1927. «Champlin, Carroll D. ‘‘What Teacher Training Is."’ School and Society 25: 572-3; May 14, 1927. § See these references: National Education Association, Research Division. ‘“‘A Self-survey Plan for State School Systems Part II. Handbook.” Research Bulletin 8: 113-14; May, 1930. Washington, D. C.: the Association. Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1922. p. 226. Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teaching Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. p. 58-9. [6] torn ipha rodu ediately, even where standards have been very low. For example, the preliminary report of the recent survey of the public schools of Mis- souri recommends that after July 1, 1932, (1) n applicant for a high-school teacher’s certifi- cate of the lowest grade should have completed four years of work in a standard 4 college or its equivalent in academic or scientific courses, § which at least 12 semester hours should have been in professional education and prac- tice teaching of high-school subjects; and (2) an applicant for an elementary teacher’s cer- tificate of lowest grade should be a graduate of a standard senior high school and have com- pleted in addition thereto a teacher-training course of two years as prescribed by the State Department of Education.’ Myers sums up the consensus of expert opinion regarding quantitative standards of teacher preparation as follows: The day has passed in American education when it was necessary to try to prove that one year of training beyond the high school was an insufhcient amount of training for teachers. No important rec- ommendation or proposal regarding training re- quirements for teaching has been made within the last ten years which contemplated a minimum train- ing of less than two years beyond the high school for elementary teachers and four years for high school teachers.’ What is the ultimate goal?—There are some who assert that the standards mentioned above should be regarded as only temporary; that we should be satisfied with these goals only so long as is practically necessary; and that as soon as conditions permit, the minimum requirements should be increased still further. Buckingham contends that the two-year course for elementary teachers is insufficient, although it is a desirable step toward something better. He reminds us that four years of training is customarily regarded as a minimum for ad- mission to a truly professional calling. There- fore he believes that: The goal should be a four-year course for every teacher; and this goal should not be a visionary one. It should at this moment form part of the defi- nite plans of our educational leaders; its realiza tion should be anticipated at an early date. Almack is less certain as to the desirability of requiring more than two years as a mini mum training period for all beginning ele mentary teachers. While asserting that he does not oppose four years of collegiate preparation for such teachers, he contends that: e} : we have no conclusive evidence that it is worthwhile to extend the training period this far It is better to set down a reasonable standard say two years—leaving it to the future to increase this minimum in the light of experience and invest! gation." On the other hand, we occasionally find institutions for teacher preparation which ad vocate more than four years of college train ing for both elementary and high-school teach ers. Such an institution is the ‘Teachers Col lege of the University of Cincinnati. Follow ing are some selected statements trom one ot its descriptive publications: The Teachers College operates as a fessional college within the University, maintaining a three year professional program, based upon a two years and awards the strictly lucation, herein liberal arts prerequisite .... professional degree of Bachelor of I conferring a degree equal in rank to the professional degrees conferred in law, engineering, etc. The op legrees of portunity of the student to secure the Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science in Educa tion at the end of the fourth college vear is in agree ment with the same opportunities offered to students who have transferred to other professional schools of the University. It is not a requirement that stu dents secure such a degree, as taking such fails to mark the completion of the standard three-year pro fessional course in teacher trainin msidered es sential by the Teachers College The final year is devoted to practice teaching related practicum instruction, and advanced courses in the University, upon the successful completion of which the student is awarded the degree of Bachelor of Education, and becomes eligible for the appro priate type of State Provisional Certificate and rat ing on the preferred lists for appointment in the Cincinnati Public Schools.* Present practice in city school systems—The preceding pages indicate the trend of compe- tent opinion concerning minimum training re quirements for teachers. We now pass to a consideration of the quantitative requirements set up for initial appointment in city school 2 Strayer, George D., and Engelhardt, N. L., directors. ‘‘A Preliminary Report of the Survey of the Public S Ils and Hig Institutions in the State of Missouri.” Eightieth Report of the Public Schools of the State of Missouri. Part 1. Jackson City, M State Superintendent of Public Schools, 1930. p. 140-41 2 Myers, Alonzo Franklin. A Teacher-Training Program for Ohio. Contributions to Education, No. 266. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1927. p. 108. _. § Buckingham, B. R. Supply and Demand in Teacher Training. Ohio State University Studies, Vol. II, No. 15, Bureau of Educational Research Monographs, No. 4. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, March 15, 1926. p. 154 * Almack, J. C., and Lang, A. R. Problems of the Teaching Profession. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1925. p. 23 5 Announcement of the Teachers College, 1931-32. University of Cincinnati Record, Series I, Vol. 27, No. 2. Cincinnati, O the University, April, 1931. p. 14-15. [7] systems. Table 1 summarizes such data for from 40 percent in cities of 2,500 to 5,00 nearly 1,500 cities of all sizes in 1930-31. to 72 percent in cities over 100,000 in pop The table reveals the following main facts for . lation. the school systems reporting: 3. More than 98 percent of all the citi 1. Only 3 percent of all the cities ap- reporting now demand at least four years o! point new elementary teachers with less than higher education of their newly appoint: two years of training beyond high-school gradu- teachers in senior high schools. A few requi: ation. This percentage varies from zero five years, and two cities report a minimu: among cities over 100,000 to 5.5 among cities requirement of six years. In 12 percent of t! »f 2,500 to 5,000 population. Most of the cities over 100,000 in population the requir: cities in each group require just two years, ment is five years beyond high-school gradu but about 22 percent in all groups combined ation. insist upon even more. Among the cities over Examination of the individual respons: 100,000 about 20 percent require three years upon which Table 1 is based suggests that th and 15 percent require four years of collegiate figures given understate slightly the requir: preparation. ments for admission to teaching in cities. |; Practically all cities which have junior reporting, several cities stated that while on! high schools require at least two years, and two years of college training are require about halé of them require four years of col- officially for elementary teaching, in actua lege preparation for initial appointment in practice teachers with no more than that these schools. ‘The proportion having mini- amount are rarely given consideration. Simi mum requirements of four years or more ranges larly, some cities have officially set four years TABLE 1.—EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS REQUIRED OF NEWLY APPOINTED TEACHERS IN 1930-31 Cities over | Cities 30,000 | | Cities 10,000 alone 5,000 | Cities 2,500 All cities 100,000 in | to 100,000 in to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in cae Number of years training re- population | enemas teenie’ | population population P 8 quired beyond high-school aclakibeeeine eas graduation l i Num-| Per- Num-| Per- |Num- | Per- | Num. | Per- | Num-/| Per- | Num-/ Per- ber cent ber cent | ber cent ber cent | ber cent ber | cent & | | } } 1 2 3 4 5 | 6 7 8 ok. | 10 | 2 | Elementary schools: | Less than one year eae ‘ 1 SS ae 2 | 1 3 3 2 One year...... . 3 1.6 | S | 8.3 13 | B.2i 32 §.2 42 2.8 Two years..... 54 64.3 126 67.4 | 310 78.3 | 311 75.1 } 306 76.3 1107 74.7 Three years... , 17 20.2 40 21.4) 60 15.1 62 15.0 | 59 14.7 238 16.1 Four years. . 13 | 15.5 17 9.1 20 5.0 | 26 6.3 | 14 3.5 90 6.1 Five years ; 1 5 1 ae aes 2 1 ae re 84 100.0 187 |100.0 | 396 100.0 | 414 '100 0 | 401 100.0 | 1482 |100.0 Junior high schools: Less than one year ‘ gaa 1 3 1 3 2 2 One year 2 6 | 3 9 + 1.3 a 7 Two years. 7 10.1 24 | 14.6 72 21.4 93 | 27.9); 95 29.9 291 23.8 Three years 12? 17.4 31 18.9 |} 79 23.4 86 25.8 91 28.6 299 24.5 Four years 47 68.1 107 65.3 | 183 | 54.3 | 150 | 45.1 | 126 39.6 613 | 50.2 Five years 3 4.4 2 4.2 | 1 | on ied 1 3 7 6 ™ - — — j | -_— , Raa ; . 69 100.0 164 (100.0 | 337 100.0 | 333 |100 0 | 318 {100 0 1221 |100.0 Senior high schools: Less than one year = ome peekes 1 a 1 | 1 One year Pai : : ‘eae Pee See Two years Se aa 3 6 1.6 | 2 a 1 3 12 9 Three years 2 2.3 1 3 3 8) 5 | 1.3 > 5 13 9 Four years 73 | 85.9 162 91.1 356 93.7 } 365 | 95.5 366 98.1 1322 94.6 Five years 10 11.8 11 6.2; 15 3.9 | 9 | 2.4 3 8 48 3.4 Six years. 1 5 | | ee 4 3 2 1 Total - 85 (100.0 | 178 (100.0 | 380 |100.0 | 382 |100.0 | 373 |100.0 | 1398 |100.0 Read table as follows: Of the 84 cities over 100,000 in population which reported requirements for newly appointed elementary teachers, 54, or 64.3 percent, require 2 years beyond high-school graduation; 17, or 29.2 percent, require 3 years, etc. Similarly read data for other teacher and population groups. This tabulation is based on the replies to question 1 of the inquiry blank reproduced on page 39. 1 One of these cities requires 2 years in the 7th and 8th grades, and 4 years in the 9th grade. 2 One of these cities requires 3 years in the 7th and 8th grades, and 4 years in the 9th grade. (3] ee ee dint equil imur of t} quir¢ radu yons* at th quire s. Ii onl ulre: ictua that Simi years pesesiatnectsts shamed training as the minimum for high-school ichers, but in practice employ very few vith less than five years beyond high-school vraduation. A few of the cities also reported that the inimum training required varies somewhat cording to the amount of teaching experi- nce which the applicant has had. For exam an elementary teacher who has had two three years of experience may be employed with only two years of professional prepara tion beyond high school. On the other hand, me who has had no experience may not be onsidered for appointment unless he has had level. all such cases have been four years of training at the college In Table 1, however, tabulated according to the absolute minimum amount of training required, irrespective of the corresponding experience requirements. Comparison of survey results in 1931, 1928, and 1923—Wherever possible in this bulletin, ind in the one to follow, comparisons are 1930-31 studies 1922-23 drawn between the findings of the survey and the made by the Research Division in those of two earlier and 1927-28. On certain questions of practice this was not possible, either because the items were not included in the questionnaires used in the two earlier years, or because they were not worded uniformly enough to yield com parable results. The comparisons are not limited to exactly the same cities in the different years. It is as- sumed that the sampling of cities for each year was reasonably adequate and that, therefore, the comparisons between the different years are valid. There is, of course, some error due to the fact that some cities in each population group failed to report. The figures given here for the 1927-28 su vey are slightly different from those presented in the original report of that survey.’ These differences are due primarily to the fact that in the original report the cities were classified according to population as given in the 1920 Federal census. For purposes of comparison in the present bulletin, however, the data for 1927-28 the grouped according to the 1930 census. This were recalculated with cities procedure seems justified on the ground that 1See: National Education Association, Research Division 205-56; September, 1928. Washington, D. C.: the Association 2 See: National Education Association, Salary Committee. Rep D. C.: the Association, July, 1923. Chapter III, “‘Special Provisions Affecting Teachers ‘Practices Affecting Teacher Personnel in 1928 the populations of most cities were probably much nearer to the 1930 census fig ures than to the 1920 census figures. On the here other hand, the figures presented the 1922-23 the same as those originally reported. Tor study are exactly In this case it appears likely that the 1920 census figures, which were used in the classification of cities in 1923, were much more applicable than the populations given in the 1930 census. With these explanatory statements in mind, we may proceed to the comparison of the mini mum educational qualifications required of newly appoiated teachers in cities in 1927-28 and in 1930-31. Trend of ‘Table 2 reveals a general increase in training requirements in city systems quantitative requirements in all population groups and in all three types of schools. ‘This is especially marked in the percentage of cities than appointment in requiring more two years of college preparation for elementary schools. For all population groups combined this proportion increased from 12 percent in 1928 to 22 1931. The increase is even more impressive with percent in respect to the requirement of four or more years of college work for appcintment in junior high schools. The percentage of cities having such a requirement jumped from 31 to 51 in the three-year period. For teachers in senior high schools, where standards were already much higher than in the other two types of school, the increase is less striking. Among all cities reporting, the four or more years ot 92 cent. Those requiring more than four years he Among cities over 100,000 in population, how proportion requiring training increased from percent to 98 per constituted only percent in both years. ever, the proportion having a requirement of more than four years increased from 6 percent to 12 percent. Effect of supply and demand upon standards The data just presented indicate a marked tendency among city systems to raise quantita- tive training standards above two years for new elementary teachers, and a slight tendency to increase them above four years for new senior Research Bulletin 6 and Salary Trends in 1923. Washington Salaries in the United Stat p wi: Teacher Salarie [9] A | 22.4 More than two years 1 5 7 1.8 2 | 5 7 1.7 1 1.1 i eee 85 (100.0 | 186 (100.0 | 392 (100.0 | 407 /|100.0 | 400 (100.0 | 1470 |100.0 Junior high schools: No experience 28 40.6 75 460 141 42.4 | 152 47.4) 171 54.8 567 7,3 One year ‘ 11 15.9 36 22.1 72 21.6 57 17.8 55 17.6 231 19.3 Two years 26 37.7 47 28.8 109 32.7 103 32.6; 78 | 28.7 359 30.0 More than two years 5.8 5 3.1 11 3.3 9 7.9% 2-1 3,9 41 | 3.4 Total 69 190.0 163 100.0 333 100.0 321 100.0 312 100.0 1198 |100.0 Senior high schools: | No experience 24 8.2 56 31.5 | 154 | 41.0 | 186 | 48.8] 238 | 64.1] 658 | 47.3 | | One year : 11 12.9} 42 23.6 79 21.0 | 68 7.8 | 46 | 12.4] 246 | 17.7 | | Two vears 44 51.8 75 42.1 118 31.4 116 30.5 73° | 19.7 | 426 | 30.6 | | More than two years 6 7.1 5 2.8 | 25 66} 11 | 2.9] 14 | 3.8] 61] 4.4 : sant, Ss é Total ’ 85 100.0 | 178 (100.0 | 376 (100.0 | 381 /|100.0 | 371. {100.0 | 1391 |100.0 | | | | } Read table as follows: Of the 85 cities over 100,000 in population which reported concerning experience requirements | for newly appointed elementary teachers, 56, or 65.9 percent, do not require any experience; 9, or 10.6 percent, require 1 year of experience, etc. Similarly read data for other teacher and population groups. | This tabulation is based on the replies to question 2 of the inquiry blank reproduced on page 30. . a [13] I LE CCT TIT TE AAA ATCT A TT Sen Employment of Married Women as Teachers Should married women be employed as new teachers? Should single women teachers who marry be permitted to continue in their posi- tions? These questions have been the subject of much discussion and some research. Wide differences of opinion—There is a rather sharp cleavage of opinion on these ques- tions among both educators and laymen. Al- though much of this opinion can hardly be characterized as expert, it deserves considera- tion as a means of illuminating the problem and of helping school authorities see and avoid the fallacious reasoning in which many discussions of the subject become entangled. Lewis de- votes an entire chapter to this problem.' He lists 31 arguments for, and 31 against the em- ployment of married women teachers. Some of these are patently absurd or trivial, and many are only slight modifications of others in the list. Arguments against married women as teach- ers—Most of the arguments against the em- ployment of married women which merit con- sideration may be grouped under three heads, as follows: 1. Married women who teach cannot give the necessary attention and care to their homes and families. It is frequently argued that motherhood is the first duty of women and that nothing should be allowed to interfere with it. Employment of mothers outside the home robs their children of the care to which they are entitled. It is asserted, moreover, that the state stands to benefit more by having chil- dren well cared for in the home, even if this results in some loss of efficiency in the school. The training of teachers is not wasted when they leave teaching to make a home because this training is highly useful to them in rearing the next generation. Finally, it is assumed that the proper care of a home and family takes a woman's full time. For these reasons a married woman's place is said to be in the home and not in the schoolroom. 2. Married women in general are less effi- cient and less satisfactory as teachers than are single women. It is contended that married women teachers are usually too preoccupied with home interests to give their best efforts + the school. They teach only for the money, o; if they do not especially need the money, they feel more independent of educational autho; ity and are not willing to assume their share of responsibility in the school. Furthermore. they either do not have time or are unwilling to obtain additional professional training. They tend to stagnate professionally. Finally, even when they are obviously inefficient, it is diffi- cult to remove them. Often they are persons of local residence, and the pressure of publi opinion plus the influence of friends and rela tives keep the school authorities from handling them according to the best interests of th school system. 3. In the employment of teachers, persons who are dependent upon themselves for suf port should be given preference over those who have other means of support. Most married women have husbands who can support them, whereas the single woman must depend upon ‘her own earnings. Hence the schools should use single women so long as the supply of com petent ones lasts. This argument appeals strongly to many laymen, particularly in times of business depression and consequent unem ployment among many groups, including teach ers. It is felt that the married woman usually does not need money except for luxuries, an that in working she is really taking some mor needy person’s job. This attitude is especially common in regard to employment in the public service. The notion still persists that work which is financed by the public should be given to the persons who need it most. Arguments in favor of married women teachers—Those who support the policy of employing married women as teachers begin by rejecting the arguments advanced against the policy as largely irrelevant or without foundation in fact. They then appeal to a more vital consideration, contending that schoo! boards should constantly strive to attract and retain efficient teachers and to eliminate in efficient ones, and that this principle should be applied impartially to all teachers, whether married or unmarried. The principal argu 1 Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teaching Staff. New York: Century Company, 1925. Chapter X, ‘The Problem of the Married Woman Teacher.” p. 173-89. [14] VY, O1 they the: share nore, lling hey even diffi- iém, pon yuld om eals mes em ich ven on this side of the question may be sum ed as follows: There is no evidence that married women ers in general are unable or unwilling to sufficient attention to their homes and s. Modern methods and conveniences in rhe home make it unnecessary for a wife to nd full time at housework and related du- The problem of childbirth among mar | women teachers can be handled by grant leaves of absence during critical periods. leaching provides mental and cultural stim _ together with an increased opportunity to nderstand children, which should be valuable the mother in providing a wholesome en ronment for her own children. Moreover, it extremely doubtful that the school should set itself up as an agency to determine the proper organization of the home. The woman teacher who remains childless though married may perhaps serve society better by teaching well a group of school children than by rearing children of her own. Finally, even if a con- siderable proportion of married teachers were neglectful of their families, that fact would not constitute a reasonable excuse for barring those who are not. 2. There is no evidence that married women in general make poorer teachers than single women. In fact, it is often contended that mar- ried women generally make the better teach- ers. Many of them, being economically inde- pendent, teach solely because of love for the work. Moreover, those who have children of their own often have a more intelligent inter- est in children and are better fitted by experi- ence to handle them. At least, a good teacher with children of her own usually has some- thing to contribute to education which an un- married teacher does not. Moreover, with re- spect to occasional absences from duty, it is better for the pupils to be under a substitute teacher for a time than to have excellent and attractive teachers leave the system because of marriage. Finally, one of the strongest argu- ments is that the inefficiency of some married women teachers is not a logical reason for dis- criminating against all of them. ? ‘yr’ . - 3. The school is not an agency to provide employment for needy persons with teaching certificates. The school should employ a suff- cient number of competent teachers to pet form well the task assigned to it, namely, the education of children. Its appointments should ignore the relative economic needs of appli cants for positions, except perhaps when the professional qualifications of the applicants are approximately equal. ‘The fact that many ma: ried women teachers have husbands capable of supporting them has no fundamental bearing upon efficiency of instruction in the school. Moreover, there are doubtless many families in which the husband does not earn enough to support his family at a comfortable standard of living. Women are increasingly recognized as having a place in the economic and pro fessional world, and have a right to assume their fair share of the financial responsibility for a family. Most of the opinion on this subject in educational lite: Opinion in educational literature ature is opposed to discrimination against mat ried women teachers as a class. In a careful analysis of the problem Reeves makes the fol lowing statements: Such married teachers as are inefficient or lack professional training should, of course, be excluded But this applies to unmarried teachers as well It seems plausible to suppose a rule that will elimi- nate the inefficient and non-professional unmarried teacher should be sufficient, if applied, to eliminate the inefficient and non-professional married teacher without resorting to a special rule against married teachers as a class. It should be possible adequately to protect the schools against interruptions due to pregnancy with out exclusion of the whole class of married women Would not a simple clause in the married woman’s contract providing that contracts become void in case of pregnancy be as successful in meeting the objections to their services as the rule providing that contracts shall become void in case of mar riage? Such provision would save excellent married teachers for the school and would operate to cause fewer interruptions in the middle of the term than the voidance of contracts in case of marriage Any provision for the employment of married women teachers who depend upon their own efforts for the support of themselves or a family, while excluding married women teachers, equally well or better qualified, who have a husband to support them, is clearly opposed to the interest of the schoo! Such a provision would never be tolerated in any efficiently managed industry. It is even more im portant that it not be tolerated in a school system the product of which is the educational conditiom of the next generation of Americans.’ ' Reeves, Charles E. ‘“‘Why Discriminate Against Married Teachers?"’ Nation's Schools 2: 53-6; September, 1928 See aleo: Reeder, Ward G. The Fundamentals of Public School Administration. New York: Macmillan Co., 1930. p. 70 [15] “ In another article Reeves lists nine different ways of handling the married-teacher prob- lem. Most of these he believes are undesirable.‘ 1. An ironclad rule excluding all married women from service as teachers in the schools. Few boards of education, even those making rules against the employment of married women teachers, go to this extreme. 2. An ironclad rule excluding all married women not emploved as teachers at the time of the passage of the rule. This seems to be the form the rule against employment of married women teachers usually takes. 3. The temporary rule against employment of married women teachers. The object here is to keep a balance between the two groups of teach- eee 4. The use of married women, usually former teachers, as substitutes. .. . 5. Discrimination against all married women except such as are dependent upon their own ef- forts for support. . 6. The employment of some married teachers, but the giving of preference to unmarried ones. 7. Reserving the right, in the teacher’s contract, to demand the resignation of any woman teacher who marries during the period of her contract... . 8. No regulations concerning the employment of married women teachers. This is probably still the practice in the great majority of school systems... . 9. The placing of married women upon the same basis as unmarried women both as to selection and tenure, having the requirements for both classes sufficiently rigid to exclude those who are inefficient or undesirable. .... Ewing, writing in Harper’s Monthly Maga- zine, sees the married-teacher question as part of a larger one involving the traditional re- striction of personal freedom among teachers. He says: It is surprising that so little has been said in de- fense of the school teacher and her right to live her own life. For it is a lamentable fact that in any number of communities the public school teacher no more dares call her soul her own out of the school- room than she does in it. If she dresses too youthful, if she has too many “dates,” ... . in short, if her social behavior is at all out of the ordinary, she lays herself open to censure, or perhaps even dis- missal when her year’s contract expires. And finally, if she commits the indiscretion of marrying, she is more than likely to become persona non grata. On this point Reeves comments as follows: The argument that married women should be ex- cluded from teaching because of tradition is hard to answer, simply because it is not based upon rea- son. If the tradition of a city demands that married teachers shall not be employed, one can well sympa thize with a board of education that tries to carr out its community’s desires. .. . However, the boar of education should ascertain definitely whether th tradition of the community really does demand tha all teachers be unmarried or whether the deman is merely a loud expression by a few self-interested persons in the community. When tradition is the only reason for exclusion of married women teach ers, a campaign should be inaugurated to wean the public from such an unreasonable attitude.’ After opposing discrimination against mar ried women on several grounds, Ewing's arti- cle emphasizes the social and economic loss t: society which this policy often involves: But the most cogent argument of all has not yer been mentioned, and that is that our public schools cannot afford to sacrifice teachers who have had extensive training and experience if the latter are willing to continue to serve the community. Indeed such teachers represent a social investment, for the, have been trained by the normal schools and univer sities, institutions supported by the state or by private endowment, and as beginners they hay: gained their experience at the expense, let us say of the public schools themselves. An analogous s uation arises when young women doctors, who ha been trained by medical schools at great expense the latter, marry and give up their profession—t the horror of the leaders of the profession, fo they, being wiser than our school heads, realiz what an enormous loss is involved. Experience an training in any profession are the ultimate criteri and can hardly be affected by the married or un married status of the individual.‘ The attitude of parents—A few years ago in Washington, D. C., the employment of mar- ried women as teachers was made the subject of a city-wide discussion and referendum.’ It had been suggested that the policy of employ- ing such teachers be modified. Accordingly the superintendent of schools made the following recommendation: Since this question originated with the citizens and since it is a social problem affecting home life, as well as an administrative and educational prob- lem, the superintendent is of the opinion that the matter should be thoroughly discussed by the public before any final conclusion can be reached regard- ing what, if anything, should be done. The Parent-Teacher Associations and vari- ous civic groups of the city were then furnished with information concerning the policy of the Board, and were given an opportunity to ' Reeves, Charles E. ‘Should the Married Woman Teacher Be Disqualified?"’ Nation's Schools 2: 13-18; October, 1928 ? Ewing, Stephen. ‘ Blue Laws for School Teachers."’ Harper's Monthly Magazine 156: 329-38; February, 1928. § Reeves, Charles E. op. cit. * Ewing, Stephen. of. cit. § Report on the Referendum on Married Women Teachers in the Public Schools. Board of Education of the District of Columbia, Washington, D. C. December 21, 1927. (Mimeographed) 12 p. [16] Te = al { ; tudy, discuss, and vote upon the question. ‘The ite trom 70 organizations was as follows: favoring married women as public school teach- ers and as normal school students.. . 87 Opposed to the above “0 RS ay errr 7 Non-committal (“Let the board decide,” et 6 otal 7 The most frequent reason given for the votes favorable to married women was that eficiency or merit and not the marital status of a teacher should be the guide. In the relative Surveys of opinion among educators absence of conclusive data as to the eficiency of teachers, competent superintend- ents of schools are perhaps best qualified to iudge the desirability and practicability of employing married women in the schools. In 1926 the American Educational Digest pre sented a survey of opinion on the subject, 954 superintendents.’ One question was: Are mar- based on the questionnaire responses of ried women with equal training and experience as efficient as unmarried? The replies were as follows: Married women equally efficient. 597 or 63 percent Married women less efficient 1740r 18 percent Married women more efficient... 420r 4percent Conditional ..... sesasevcess MLor 15.percent Total 954 or 100 percent McGinnis found considerable difference between the opin In a later questionnaire study, ions of superintendents on this question and the policies of their boards of education.2 Of 255 superintendents in cities of 25,000 popula- tion or more, 60 percent stated that where women teachers are not on permanent tenure the board’s policy is not to re-elect those who marry while in service, while 36 percent stated that the board has no such policy, and 4 per- cent failed to answer. In contrast, only 39 percent of these superintendents expressed the opinion that the displacement of successful women teachers when they administrative policy, 52 percent believe it to marry is a good be a poor policy, and 9 percent failed to an swer, or stated that they are undecided. McGinnis’s study also showed that of 146 professors of education answering a separate questionnaire, only 12 percent gave the opinion '**Employing Married Women in the Schools.” American IF 2 McGinnis, W. C. ‘The Married Woman Teacher S ‘Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teaching Staff. New Jucational Digest 46: 57: York: Century ( [17] that discrimination against married teachers is a sound educational policy, 86 percent be lieve that it is not a sound policy ind per cent omitted the question. Following are a few typical excerpts fron letters received from educators who participated in the foregoing study: 1. I have always felt that the only standard upon should be system is that of efficiency and ability which a teacher retained in the ind willing ness to do good schoolroom work. It is not the ques tion as to whether the teacher is married or un married, but more a question of her general attitude and her real worth to the school system. I, there fore, have in my school system married women who as the No one has objected to their pre are regarded best teachers of my teachin corps. ence in the classroom; neither has there been any ection on the part of the board of education, principals, and supervisors to increasing the salaries of these teach ers to the super-maximum limit. 2. As superintendent of schools I know that the married woman teacher is a source of friction. As a rule they are not among my best teachers The present rule against them has increased the efficiency of this system. 3. I am convinced that other things being equal, the woman teacher is The that the outside interests does not married the better teacher argument married teacher has more The interest is agree with the facts. young, unmarried teacher's principal a constant, active, The interests marriage expectancy, and it is and time-consuming interest, as it should be married woman teacher has less outside that interfere with her teaching than the unmarried one. A maternity absence for child of granting leave of the policy cases overcomes tendency for less marriages 4. A teacher should be selected on the basis of he ability to teach. I do not see that other factors should enter into the matter. If I were to choose a teacher, however, I think that if I found two teachers of equal merit, one married and the othe single, I would likely give the preference to the one who was single, but to say arbitrarily that mar ried teachers should be released merely on the basis of marriage seems to me a very poor argument Studi § of Although there is plenty of opinion on the question of little relative efficiency employing married women as teachers, scientific evidence is available conc: relative teaching efficiency of married and un married women. eh] these Lewis reports a study in Detroit by M man of the relative teaching efficiency of The « two groups of teachers.® nclusion was October, 1926. ecutives Magazine 50: 451-53: June, 1931 »., 1925 Pp 179-80 rning the “< —— ee al ond SS a ae a ALD married teachers as a that women group ranked a little higher than the general average of all women teachers, according to the ratings given them by principals. The same investiga- tion led to two other tentative conclusions which are pertinent: (1) that teaching by mar- ried women did not decrease the number of children in the families below the general average; and (2) that the ratings of women teachers in service both before and after mar- riage were generally somewhat higher after marriage. Carrothers collected data bearing upon the physical efficiency of teachers in Cleveland.’ He found that married women teachers were subject to more illness, on the average, than were single women teachers. The differences between the two groups, however, as shown in Table 4, were not large. It hardly seems prob- able that such small differences would affect significantly the relative efficiency of teachers in the classroom. TABLE 4.—ILLNESS PER YEAR AMONG SINGLE AND MARRIED WOMEN TEACHERS IN CLEVELAND, 1922-23 Single women Married women Ages of teachers Average Average Number) days of Number days of illness | illness 21-39 1,180 §.2 141 7.8 31-40 921 5.0 | 200 6.1 41-50 525 4.7 128 6.3 51-70 322 4.7 61 5.4 All 2,948 | 5.1 §33 6.6 1 Adapted from datain The Physical E ficiency of Teach- ers, by George E. Carrothers, 1924. p. 35. Goodier studied a group of 95 women teachers with respect to (1) the number of days of absence per year, and (2) the number of teachers pursuing additional courses at edu- cational institutions. Data concerning absence during the five years from 1923 to 1928 led him to conclude :* 1. Married teachers were absent more than un- married teachers in four of the five years. In two of the years .. . the amount was about double. 2. With the exception of one year, the amou of absence due to personal illness did not diff materially in the two groups. 3. The really significant figures... . relate ¢ absences for reasons other than personal illness Without exception, the married teachers misse: school from three to seven times as much as those teachers who were not married. The same study revealed that in the ye 1926-27, 24 out of 80 unmarried wome teachers continued their work at higher ed cational institutions, while only one of 15 married women did so. In 1927-28 the cor: sponding figures were 31 out of 78 sing women, and only one out of 17 women, The evidence presented in the foregoine studies does not warrant any final conclusions as to the relative efficiency of single and mar ried women teachers as groups. The measure ment of teaching efficiency has not yet been developed to the point where highly reliab|. and valid comparisons of this sort can be made. However, from the viewpoint of those who oppose discrimination against married women as a class, no amount of scientific re search comparing groups of single women teachers with groups of married women teach ers will ever give a satisfactory answer to the problem. Such persons contend that no matte: what the results of such comparisons, ever teacher should be handled according to her in dividual merits. They assert that whether she is married or single, and whether married teachers or single teachers are superior in gen eral, are questions entirely beside the point. marrie Legal aspects of the married-teacher ques- tion—Apparently no state has passed any legis lation with respect to married women as teachi- ers. In at least six states*® and the District ot Columbia, however, decisions on the question have been handed down by the courts, the chief state school official, or the state board of edu cation. Brubacher* and Allen® conclude from their analyses of these decisions that in these states marriage is not in itself a valid cause fo: dismissing a teacher who is under contract o1 who is teaching under a tenure law which per- mits dismissal only for specified causes. It is, 1 Carrothers, George E. The Physical Efficiency of Teachers. Contributions to Education, No. 155. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1924. ? Goodier, Floyd T. ‘‘ Another Conclusion Regarding the . 34 and 76. arried Woman Teacher."’ Nation's Schools 2: 51-2; December, 1928 * Indiana, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, and West Virginia. ‘ Brubacher, John S. ‘The Judicial Status of Marriage and Maternity as an Obstacle to the Education of Women for Pro- fessional Careers in Public School Teaching."’ School and Society 26: 428-35; October 1, 1927. § Allen, Ira M. The Teacher's Contractual Status. Contributions to Education, No. 304. New York: Bureau of Publications. Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928. p. 73. {18 ] ao oe arth Mie? see WA te cae oN sil hae aw ee tes EET WIS vi Paks Ts A eI ell, course, unsafe to assume that similar de as a reason for termination of the contract ‘ons would be made in the other states if He points out that such a practice is contrary ‘ces of this kind should come up for adjudica- to the general court rule in states where de- cisions on the question have been handed down. on. [he most recent decision on the subject was The decisions referred to here do not meat nded down on December 21, 1931, by the that a board of education cannot refuse to em \farvland State Board of Education in re- ploy a married woman, or that it cannot re nse to an appeal from Wicomico County. fuse to reemploy her at the termination of het (he Board ruled that a woman teacher in the contract. On the other hand, when an unmat blic schools of Maryland cannot be dis- ried woman is employed under conditions ssed because she marries. It also stated that where just and reasonable cause must be shown lause in a teacher’s contract reading, “If a prior to dismissal, marriage alone is not con female teacher marries in any school year she _ sidered a satisfactory cause. will be expected to resign at the close of the hool year,” is in plain conflict with the state Present practice in city school systems tenure law. This law provides no basis for dis- Table 5 shows the general policy of nearly crimination on account of sex or marital 1,500 city school systems in 1930-31 with re status.’ spect to (1) the employment of married In 1927 Anderson found that teachers’ con- women as new teachers, and (2) the reten- racts in cities of 18 states specified marriage tion of single women teachers who marry. Of 1 Educational Notes and News."’ School and Society 35: 15-16: January 2, 1932 Anderson, Earl W. The Teacher's Contract and Other Legal Phases of Teacher Statu Contributions to Ed No. 246 New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1927, p. 117-18 TABLE 5.—POLICIES CONCERNING EMPLOYMENT OF MARRIED WOMEN AS TEACHERS IN 1930-31 Cities over | Cities 30,000 | | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 ° 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in All ian ae population population population | population earn Policy snout — ° ne | | Num- | Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- Num- | Per- | Num-| Per- ber | cent ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber cent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Married women employed as new teachers: |, ano ; i 26 | 31.3 44 23.8 80 20.3 97 | 23.6 98 24.6 345 23.4 No — ; 57 68.7 141 76.2 | 315 79.7 314 | 76.4 301 75.4 1128 76.6 Total ‘ . 83 ¥ 100 0 | 185 /|100.0 | 395 |100.0 | 411 |100.0 | 399 |100.0 | 1473 |100.0 Single women teachers who marry Required to resign at once 26 31.3 73 39.5 | 156! 39.8 | 117 | 28.7 115 28.9 487 33.2 Required to resign at end of school year . ; & 9.7 42 22.7 105 26.8 142 34.8 121 30.4 418 | 28.5 May continue to teach... 47} 56.6 692 37.3 | 1294 32.9 | 1435 35.0 | 1568 39.2 544 37.1 May continue to teach or are required to resign at option ee 2 2.4 1 5 2 5 6 1.5 6 1.5 17 ‘.3 Total ‘ ’ R3 100.0 185 100.0 392 100.0 408 100.0 398 100.0 1466 (100.0 Read table as follows: Of the 83 cities over 100,000 in population reporting on this question, 26, or 31.3 percent e mploy married women as new teachers; 57, or 68.7 percent, do not employ married women as new teachers. Of the 83 cities over 100,000 in popul: ation reporting as to their policy concerning single women teachers who marry, 26, or 31.3 percent, require resignation at once; 8, or 9.7 percent, require resignation at end of school year; 47, or 56.6 percent, all teachers to continue in service; and 2, or 2.4 percent, leave this to the option of the board in each case. Similarly read data for other population groups. This tabulation is based on replies to questions 4 (a) and (b) of the inquiry blank reproduced on page 39 1 Nine of these reported that women teachers who marry may continue teaching if employed for permanent service; otherwise they must resign. 2? Ten of these reported that women teachers who marry may continue teaching if employed for permanent service; otherwise they must resign. 3 Two of these reported that women teachers who marry must resign at once but may later be reinstated 4 Fifteen of these reported that women teachers who marry may continue teaching if employed for permanent service; otherwise they must resign. 5 Nine of these reported that women teachers who marry may continue teaching if employed for permanent service; otherwise they must resign. Two reported that women teachers who marry may continue to teach provided they do not marry during the school year * Three of these reported that women teachers who marry may continue teaching if employed for permanent service; otherwise they must resign. [19] ee fens Baoe -~ the cities reporting in all population groups, about 77 women as new teachers. 69 percent in cities over 100,000 to 80 per- cent in cities of 10,000 to 30,000 in popula- tion. No definite relationship is apparent be- married The figures vary from percent do not employ tween the size of cities and their practice on this point. The lower section of Table 5 reveals that only 37 percent of all cities reporting permit single women teachers to continue teaching after marriage, and a number of these permit it only in case of teachers who have been elected for permanent service. More than one- half of the remaining 63 percent require women teachers to resign at once if they marry, while nearly as many require their resignation at the close of the school year. In a mere hand- ful of cities the rules make it optional with the school board in each case as to whether the teacher may continue or is required to resign. Trend of practice in recent years'—A com- parison of the results in this study and the one made by the Research Division in 1928 indi- cates a marked decrease in the consideration given to married women as teachers by city school boards. This decrease occurred in all population groups, but the greatest differences occurred in the groups of smaller cities. ‘Table 6 shows that the proportion of cities over 100,- 000 employing married women as new tea ers decreased from 40 percent in 1928 to percent in 1931, while the corresponding p portion of cities 2,500 to 5,000 in populati decreased from 47 percent to 25 percent in ¢ same period. For all cities combined, the p centage dropped from 39 to 23. Decreases also occurred in all but the larg: population group with respect to the perce: age of cities retaining single women w! marry, although these decreases were small: than those referred to in the preceding par graph. For all population groups combined the percentage dropped from 49 in 1928 to 3) in 1931. Both in 1928 and in 1931 the pe: centages of cities retaining single women why marry were higher than the percentages of cities employing married women as new teachers. Leaves of absence for maternity—A nun ber of school systems have adopted leave-ot absence provisions governing cases of mate nity among married women teachers. ‘Uhes: plans recognize the desirability of retaining successful married women in the schools, ev: after they have acquired children. Such pro visions are designed, meet thi usual objections to permitting a woman to r main in the classroom after pregnancy becomes evident and while the child still needs most o: her attention. however, to ! See page 9 for explanation of the assumptions and methods involved in the comparison of data for different years. TABLE 6—COMPARISON OF POLICIES REGARDING EMPLOYMENT OF MARRIED WOMEN AS TEACHERS IN 1927-28 AND 1930-31 married women as new teachers. single women who marry. the option of the school board. i | Cities over Cities 20,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 All cities | 100,000 in to 100,000 in to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in cenertia Policy population | population population | population population eos a Seek mr ae Sa SORE GCSE 1928 | 1931 | 1028 | 1931 | 1928 | 1931 1928 | 1931 | 1928 | 1931 | 1928 | 1031 1 2 3 4 5 6/7/s8|o | 10 | a | 12 | 13 Employing married women as | | | new teachers: | | | | Number of cities 5 ane | 35 26 58 44 145 | 80 155 97 | 180 | 98 $83, 345 Percent of cities ‘ , 39.8 31.3 32.6 23.8 35.5 20.3 | 37.3 23.6 | 46.9 24.6 | 39.0 | 23.4 Total number reporting 2 iia 88 &3 178 185 409 395 | 416 | 411 | 405 399 | 1496 1473 — ss SS Se See ee \—_——— ——= Retaining single women who | | | | marry: Number of cities'... ‘ ‘ 50 47 78 69; 192} 129 199 143 209 | 156 | 72 S44 Percent of cities 56.8 | 56.6 | 44.8 | 37.3 | 47.2 | 32.9 | 48.4 | 35.0 | 52.4 | 39.2 | 49.2 | 37.1 Total number reporting. ........ 88 83 174 185 407 | 392 411 | 398 | 1479 | 1466 Read table as follows: Of the 88 cities over 100,000 in population which reported their policies concerning the em- | ployment of married women as new teachers in 1927-28, 35, or 39.8 percent employed married women as new teachers. Of the 83 cities in the same population group which reported on this question in 1930-31, 26, or 31.3 percent employ Similarly read figures for other population groups and for the question of retaining 1 These figures do not include cities reporting that single women who marry may be either retained or dismissed at | é 408 | 399 = > imag i ‘ans SAAN Seg MR els + ab coe ee ay Regulations governing maternity sually require that the teacher remain away from duty for a considerable pericd, and allow no pay during the absence. Sometimes they included in general plans governing all pes of voluntary absence without salary. Following are excerpts from the regulations of certain school systems which grant mater nitv leave: Minneapolis, Minnesota Any person teaching in the Minneapolis Publis Schools, whether regular or substitute, must be al sent from school service four months before ma Written notice of the approach of maternity must be given ternitv, and for one year after maternity by the teacher at least six months before the birth of the child. Death of the child within the year may terminate the leave, and the teacher may be employed, if there is a position to which she can appointed with advantage to the service Long Beach, California Che conditions upon which leaves of absence are granted are: 1) That the teacher has served successfully for at least four years in the Long Beach schools 2) That the leave of absence is requested for one or more of the following reasons a) Advanced professional and academi training. (b) Travel in foreign countries. (c) Rest and recreation (d) Maternity. No leave of absence is granted for more than one year, except in the case of maternity, when the leave of absence shall be for two years. teacher, principal, head of department, director or supervisor, absent on leave, is given assur ance by the Board of Education that upon ex- piration of the leave, he will be assigned to a position which is the same as or similar to the - one held when the leave of absence was granted; Schools is notified on or before the first day of June by said teacher, principal, head of de- partment, director, or supervisor, that it is his intention to return to the service for the next ensuing school year. 1. That upon his return any member of the teaching force who has been absent on leave for profes- sional and academic training shall be given credit on the salary schedule the same as if he had remained in continuous service.* provided the Superintendent of 1 Minneapolis Public Schools: Charter, Rules, and Regulations ?Long Beach, California. The Admin:strative Code of the Li 1929. p. 15-16. * District of Columbia. By-Laws, Rules, Regulations, and Education, 1926. p. 39, as amended on November 16, 1927 leay e Selected Statute District of Columbia 1. Any married woman employed by the Board of Education who shall become pregnant and shall have advanced to the beginning of the fourth calen- dar month of pregnancy shall request leave of ab sence and shall be placed upon leave without salary until the child shall have reached the age of nine months 2. Such leave of absence when granted by reason of pregnancy may be terminated by the Board of Education upon application by the employee ap- proved by the Superintendent of Schools Provided: to its ninth month, the mother shall be eligible for That if the baby dies at any time prior reappointment upon her application, and upon the recommendation of the Superintendent of Schools and approved by the Board of Education 3. Upon application for reinstatement in the serv ice by any married woman absent on maternity leave, it shall be the duty of the administrative of ficers to ascertain if a normal birth has occurred and the date of such birth, and to determine the eligibility for reinstatement in accordance with the following procedure: a. Said employee shall be eligible for reinstate- ment in accordance with paragraph 4 of this section if due notice was given and leave of absence taken as otherwise prescribed in this section not less than 175 calendar days prior to the birth of such child. b. Said employee shall be ineligible for rein- statement when such failure to comply with the provisions of paragraph 1 of this sec- tion computed as aforesaid exceeds 45 calen- dar days. c. For every calendar day less than 175 calendar days and not exceeding 45 calendar days that the proper notice and leave of absence from such employee shall have been received and granted, the date of eligibility for rein statement shall be postponed 3 calendar day provided that in applying the penalty of 3 calendar days, the months of July and Au- gust shall not be counted. 4. Such employee eligible for reinstatement shall be appointed to the position for which she may be qualified occurring after the expiration or termina- tion of her leave of absence, in accordance with the order of making appointments in section 1, para graph 1, of Chapter X, provided the application for reinstatement be made within a period of two years dating from the application of leave.’ Minneapolis: Board of Education. 1929. n. 55 mg Beach City Schools. Long Beach, Calif.: Board of Education, September, 1926. Washington, D. ¢ ——————————————— — a A Appointment of Local Many school superintendents are confronted with the problem of whether to give local resi- dents preference over outsiders in filling teach- ing positions. Board members and other lay- men often urge the appointment of local teach- ers for one or more of the following reasons: 1. Local teachers often can be obtained more cheaply than teachers from outside. 2. City loyalty or pride demands that local resi- dents who are unemployed be the first to receive economic assistance through employment. 3. Family, social, and political influence is used to obtain favors for relatives or close friends in the community. The foregoing statements are reasons, but can hardly be considered justifications, for a policy favoring local teachers as a class. Fol- lowing are some of the arguments against such a policy: Residents as Teachers The welfare of the schools, and not the lo tion of the teacher’s home, should govern appo ments. 2. Local teachers are generally more difficult dismiss in case they prove unsatisfactory. 3. School systems need the stimulus that con from teachers with a variety of community back grounds and experiences. Present practice in city school systems Table 7 presents data concerning the policies of city systems in 1930-31 on the question 0! giving preference to local applicants. Of thy entire group of cities reporting, 58 percent: give preference to local residents, while 42 percent do not. The practice of favoring loca! candidates is much more frequent among thy larger cities than among the smaller ones; in fact, there is evidently a positive relationship between the size of cities and the proportion TABLE 7.—POLICIES CONCERNING APPOINTMENT OF LOCAL RESIDENTS AS TEACHERS IN 1930-31 | | Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 All citi 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in ioe —_ population | population population | population | population reporting ‘olicy e oe | } Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | ber cent ber cent | ber cent | ber cent | ber cent ber cent = - ————— cece ae _ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 il 12 | 13 Preference for local residents... . . 68! 80.0 | 1462 77.2 | 2424 60.5 | 2258 54.7 1778 43.9 | 858 $7.7 | No preference for local residents. .| 17 20.0 43% | 22.8 | 1585 | 39.5 | 1867 | 45.3 | 226° | 56.1 | 630 42.3 WOE: bh anGicdvecvicediienin 85 100.0 | 189 (100.0 | 400 [100.0 411 100.0 | 403 [100.0 /1488 |100.0 — ; ' | Read table as follows: Of the 85 cities over 100,000 in population reporting as to their policies governing the appoint- ment of local residents as teachers, 68, or 80 percent, give preference to local residents, and 17, or 20 percent, do not give preference to local residents. Similarly read data for other population groups. This tabulation is based on the replies to questions 3(a) and (b) of the inquiry blank reproduced on page 30. 1 Of these 68 cities giving preference to local residents, 29 indicated that this preference is given only if the qualifica- tions of local residents are at least equal to those of outside candidates, 14 indicated that local residents must meet the minimum training and experience requirements; and 1 indicated that experience requirements are waived for local residents. 2 Of these 146 cities giving preference to local residents, 63 indicated that this preference is given only if the qualifica- tions of local residents are at least equal to those of outside candidates, and 33 indicated that local residents must meet the minimum training and experience requirements. + Of these 43 cities giving no preference to local residents, 3 indicated that preference is given to outside candidates, and in 2 cities more experience is required of local than of outside candidates. 4 Of these 242 cities giving preference to local residents, 96 indicated that this preference is given only if the qualifica- tions of local residents are at least equal to those of outside candidates, and 65 indicated that local residents must meet the minimum training and experience requirements. * Of these 158 cities giving no preference to local residents, 5 have a rule or policy against the employment of loca! residents, 3 indicated that a preference is given to outside candidates, and in 15 cities more experience is required of local than of outside candidates. * Of these 225 cities giving preference to local residents, 101 indicated that this preference is given only if the qualifica- tions of local residents are at least equal to those of outside candidates, and 60 indicated that local residents must meet the minimum training and experience requirements. 7 Of these 186 cities giving no preference to local residents, 13 have a rule or policy against the employment of local residents, 7 indicated that a preference is given to outside candidates, and in 35 cities more experience is required of local than of outside candidates. 8 Of these 177 cities giving preference to local residents, 76 indicated that this preference is given only if the qualifica- tions of local residents are at least equal to those of outside candidates, and 61 indicated that local residents must meet the minimum training and experience requirements. * Of these 226 cities giving no preference to local residents, 27 have a rule or policy against the employment of local residents, 14 indicated that a preference is given to outside candidates, and in 43 cities more experience is required of local than of outside candidates. [22] Sn th Ick ar las inte llowing this practice. This proportion varies from 44 percent among cities of 2,500 to 5,000 in population, to 80 percent among cities over 100,000. Some caution, however, is necessary in in- terpreting these figures. As explained in the footnotes to Table 7, many of the cities in all population groups which reported a prefer- ence for local teachers stated that this prefer- ence is given only if the qualifications of local applicants are at least equal to those of out- side applicants. In such cases the preference given probably does not conflict with the best interests of the schools. It is not implied here that administrators should discriminate against home talent as such. Rather, as in the case of married women teachers, school boards will probably do well to make appointments primarily on the basis of fitness for the job. However, if several ca pable candidates possess approximately equiva lent qualifications, there appears to be no sound reason why a local resident should not be selected from their number occasionally. The danger in constant discrimination in favor of local people is that incompetence may creep in, thus gradually devitalizing the school system over a period of years. Routine Procedures in the Selection of Teachers Once the board of education has determined the quality of teachers which it wishes to em- ploy, the question arises as to the best methods of obtaining such teachers. Selection a function of the superintendent— Authorities in school administration are gen- erally agreed that the selection of teachers is a function of the superintendent of schools and his assistants. Board members are not ordi- narily trained for this task, and should limit their activity to the approval or rejection of the superintendent’s nominations. Even when the board disapproves of a candidate nomi- nated by the superintendent, it should not sub- stitute a candidate of its own. Rather it should ask the superintendent to make another nomi- nation for the position. Candidates should be instructed to send all applications to the su- perintendent, and not to the board.’ Definite search for desirable prospects—A second well-established principle is that the superintendent or his representatives should actively seek desirable candidates. A school sys- tem should not depend upon the chance receipt of applications as a means of locating good teachers.” In a questionnaire study of 188 school sys- tems in Texas, Adams found that a majority 1 See the following references: of the superintendents made an active search for prospective teachers. This practice was es- pecially common in the smaller school systems. The larger systems have many more applica tions and apparently depend upon these to greater extent.® There are several sources to which the su perintendent can turn for suitable candidates. Among these probably the most important are: (1) commercial teachers’ agencies, (2) ap- pointment bureaus in normal schools, colleges and universities, (3) other school systems, and offices states by the state department of education or (4) appointment operated in some the state teachers’ association. Adams found that in Texas the college appointment bureau was the most popular while the commercial- ized teachers’ agency was the least popular. Table 8 shows the practice of city school systems in 1930-31 with respect to the use of two of these sources, namely, other school sys- tems and teacher-training institutions, While about 53 percent of all the cities search for prospects in other systems, 77 percent do so in institutions for teacher preparation. The pro- portion of cities going to each of these sources is much higher among the smaller cities than among the larger cities. Reeder, Ward G. The Fundamentals of Public School Administration. New York: Macmillan Co., 1930. p. 57-59 Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teaching Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. p. 117-18. Almack, John C., and Lang, Albert R. Problems of the Teaching Profession. Boston: Houghton Mifflin ¢ , 1925. p. 39-40 Engelhardt, Fred. Public School Organisation and Administration. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1931. p. 180-85 ? Reeder, Ward G. op. cit. p. 63-64. * Adams, Logan S. ‘‘ Methods of Selecting and Appointing New Teachers in Texas."’ Educational Administration and Super- Piston 13: 85-9; February, 1927. [ 23 ] Use of formal application blanks—Although the alert superintendent will not wait for ap- plications in making his list of candidates, he will usually find it convenient to obtain infor- mation about candidates on an application Ordinary letters of application are unsatisfactory, particularly in those form. usually school systems where large numbers of new teachers are appointed each year. Such letters often omit important items of information, and there is little uniformity in the arrangement of the items included. A formal application blank, on the other hand, is uniform, readily filed, and easily referred to at any time. ‘The number and percent of city systems re- porting the use of application forms in 1930-31 are given in Table 8. This is a widespread practice in city systems of all sizes, and par- ticularly so in the largest cities. Eighty-eight percent of all the systems reporting use some kind of formal application blank. In a detailed study of teachers’ application blanks from 41 large cities in the United States, Nietz found great variation in the number of questions asked on the different forms. smallest number of items was 24, while largest number was 117. This study reve that in general these questions could be c! fied under the following heads: 1. Introductory matters, such as the type of | tion desired, the time when a position could be a cepted, and the salary that would be accepted. 2. Personal data, such as name, address, marita! status, physical matters (health, weight, etc.), date and place of birth, and race and citize: ship; also photograph. 3. Training and educational data, such as name and location of institutions attended, dates of tendance, year of graduation, credits and degrees received, course taken, professional reading, abilit to teach specific subjects, and certificate held. 4. Experience, such as nature and kind of sch: length, dates, and place of last experience, present salary, and reasons for desire to change positions 5. References, preferably from those who have observed the candidate’s teaching. height Similar findings were reported by Wang in his study of 244 application blanks used by city superintendents, county superintendents and teachers’ agencies.” ! Nietz, John A. ‘‘ The Current Use of Teachers’ Application Blanks.’” American School Board Journal 76: 55-6; March, 1928 * Wang, Charles K. A. “‘A Study of the Basic Information 48: 355-74; February, 1928. TABLE 8.—ROUTINE PROCEDURES Utilized in Employing Teachers in the United States."" Educatioy USED IN SELECTION OF TEACHERS IN 1930-31 | Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 | All citi | 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000in | "Ses a population population population population population | P 8 ; j | Num-| Per- Num- | Per- |Num-/| Per- |Num-) Per- Num- | Per- |Num-| Per- ber cent | ber | cent ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent —————————— Ks - So Soe kee na RE) Sates oe icant ‘ . S 1 rR 4 s| 6|] 7} 8] 9] 0] | 12] 23 Definite search for desirable pros- | | | | cts: | | Ta other school systems 29 | 34.1 83 | 43.9 | 218 | 54.2 | 240 | 57.8 | 230 | 57.1 800 | 53.5 In teacher-training institutions.| 46 | 54.1 | 142 | 75.1 | 303 | 75.4 333 | 80.2 | 333 82.6 | 1157 | 77.4 Use of formal application blanks..| 82 | 96.5 | 173 | 91.5 | 365 | 90.8 | 367 | 88.4 | 332 | 82.4 | 1319 | 88.3 Collection of information and | opinion from persons given as references eps Soa | 74 | 87.1 | 160 84.7 330 82.1 | 35S | 85.5 | 337 83.6 | 1256 | 84.1 Personal interviews with appli- | cants pptn'e ad's Weld eo-a4 76 89.4 184 97.4 388 | 96.5 | 392 | 94.5 | 383 95.0 | 1423 | 95.2 Written examinations........ | 24 28.2); 11 5.8 7 oe st 23 o 2 Se | 46 |) 3.1 Physical examinations...........| 42 | 49.4 | 47 | 24.9.) 65 | 16.2| 56 | 13.5 | 36 8.9 | 246 | 16.8 Observation of classroom work | | | | | tl 38 44.7 | 101 §3.4-| 253 62.9 | 252 60.7 | 235 | 583 | 879 58.8 Consultation with teachers’ agen- | | | | cies and appointment bureaus 3 3.8 | SL 68 16 4.0 13 3.1 - tT. 27.1 si 2.8 Investigation of scholastic records | | and other qualifications. ..... | 2 2.4 4 a & 2.0 6 1.4 4 1.0 24 1.6 Other practices!............... he. - ee 1.1 8 2.0 4 1.0 4 1.0 20 ‘3 = eae Pe) Sie a eae Ee Ovi, Te ; Total number reporting.....| 85 (100.0 | 189 |100.0 | 402 |100.0 | 415 /|100.0 | 403 [100.0 | 1494 |100.0 Read table as follows: Of the 85 cities over 100,000 i for this and other population groups. tenance of waiting list of el zinles; and oral examinations. teachers, 29, or 34.1 percent search for desirable prospects in other school systems; 46, or 54.1 percent search in teacher- training institutions for such prospects; 82, or 96.5 percent use formal application blanks, etc. Similarly read other figures This tabulation is based on the replies to question 5 of the inquiry ‘blank reproduced on page 31. ' Includes such procedures as: Written applications outlining qualifications; try-outs given in local system; main- n population which reported procedures used in selection of [2 4] ee CALI eee te oy a oe Davis analyzed application forms from 148 s and found wide differences in the pro- tion of systems asking various questions.’ While nearly every blank inquired concerning health of the candidate, only about one- rd of them asked whether the candidate had ious defects of sight or hearing, while fewer in one-half asked whether the applicant had inv other bodily defects. About one-half in red specifically as to church afhliation and religious interest in general. Fewer than 10 percent included a question on the use of topacco, \ll of the 148 blanks asked about the high- school, normal school, and college training of the candidate in general, but relatively few 18 in quired about the major teaching subject; 16 were specific on any one point. Only nguired as to the minor teaching subject ; and only 32 asked about graduate study. Only 38 f the blanks inquired about work in education courses, and only 8 of these required a de tailed list of such courses. Such lack of uni formity probably means either that many school systems are including a number of useless items on their application forms, or that many others are omitting valuable items. While com plete uniformity as to details may not be de sirable, some general agreement is needed as to which types of data are essential on an ap plication blank. Use of reference blanks and letters of recom- mendation—lf a candidate’s application is seri- ously considered, his qualifications should be further investigated. One well-known method of doing this is to obtain the opinions of com- petent persons who are acquainted with the candidate. Some superintendents prefer to re- ceive personal, informal letters from such per- sons, while others provide formal reference blanks for recording the desired information. Table 8 shows the number and percent of city school systems in 1930-31 which make a prac- tice of collecting information, in one way or inother, from persons given as references. Of the cities reporting in all population groups, 84 percent obtain such information, and the situation differs but little among the several population groups. 7 ! Davis, Calvin O. ‘‘What Qualifications Are Demanded of 71-6, May; 46-50, June; 1929. 3 Adams, Logan S., op. cit. 3 Davis, Calvin O., op. cit. * Wang, Charles K. A., op. cit. Teachers?” In this connection it should be noted that cad iy are usually general letters of recommendation of the whom it may concern” variety frowned upon by school administrators. Adam’s study of 188 cities in Texas shows that 65 percent of the superintendents rejected this type of letter outright. Most of the responses indicated that such recommendations are prac tically worthless unless the writer is known. On the other hand, 89 percent of these supe intendents required personal references of ap plicants, and then followed up these refer ences.’ Davis, analyzing reference blanks from 85 school systems, found a wide variety of types used.* Nearly one-half were personal unstand ardized forms, while slightly more than half were more or less standardized and formal in A few superintendents employed the letter, nature, form of a_ personal while an even smaller number used no form of any kind, but sought their information as the circumstances and need suggested. Of the standardized forms in use, more than half asked that a check be made against certain items concerning the qual ities of teachers, usually according to a five point scale. Davis classifies the information re quested in the reference blanks under these heads: (1) personality traits, (2) character traits, (3) education, (4) ments, (5) professional attitudes, (6) social 3 teaching achieve Ss interests, (7) miscellaneous facts. Davis's criticism of reference blanks in gen eral is that they are too formal and too de tailed. He also recommends the use of a three point scale instead of a five-point scale for the rating of prospective teachers by persons who are not expert in the work of rating. Wang's analysis of 145 vielded similar returns.* He found blanks also that reference the number of items on the blanks used by su perintendents was much larger in general than the number on the blanks used by teachers’ agencies. The items were classified under the following main heads: (1) personal equip- ment, (2) social and professional equipment, (3) professional efficiency, (4) endorsement by persons given as references, and (5) mis cellaneous items. Nation's Schools 3: 31-4, January; 62-8, February; Of the 188 Texas school systems studied by Adams, 71 percent did not use reference forms. Most of these preferred a personal letter from the candidate’s former superintendent. However, although only 29 percent were using formal blanks, 44 percent believed them to be valuable.’ Dozier studied 1,132 letters of recommenda- tion in the files of the Teachers’ Appointment Committee at the University of Texas. These letters, which concerned 179 different candi- dates, were written by faculty members, su- perintendents, principals, supervisors, teachers, and laymen. From this investigation the author concludes as follows: * 1. The value of recommendations varies with the point of view and training of those who write them. 2. Great care should be exercised in the formu- lation of rating sheets for collecting data concern- ing the ability of teachers. 3. Such forms should fit the point of view and training of those who make use of them. 4. The value of recommendations depends in a measure upon the amount of detail recorded. 5. All writers of recommendations place large emphasis upon the social qualities of teachers. Personal interviews with applicants—The personal interview with candidates for teach- ing positions is now one of the most widely used procedures in city school systems. Table 8 shows that for all population groups com- bined, 95 percent of the cities employ this method. The popularity of the personal inter- view, however, does not mean that it is a simple tool which always yields reliable and satisfac- tory results, On the contrary, a good interview requires considerable skill and planning on the part of the interviewer. Steiner suggests four general rules for successful interviewing.® 1. Keep control of the situation by carefully judg- ing the quality of salesmanship used by the candi- date as distinguished from his quality as a teacher. 2. The interview must be entirely free from per- sonal embarrassment on the part of the applicant. .. . Make every applicant so sure of a fair hearing that he can satisfactorily present his best qualities. 3. The person interviewing applicants should be able to visualize or to list the qualities which a suc- cessful teacher must have in the position which he is desiring to fill. 1 Adams, Logan S., op. cit. 4. The interviewer should use a list or an ov of qualities on which he desires to be informed a score card of some kind for recording the r: of the interview. Who should interview applicants? In ¢ eral this should be done by the superintende: or by one or more delegated members of administrative or supervisory staff. The ‘Tex. study referred to above* revealed that in t}y cities replying, no candidate was appointed w! had not been interviewed by the superintend ent. In about half of these systems board men bers also interviewed prospective teachers. |p about 20 percent of the cases the board com mittee, the principal, and the supervisor assisted the superintendent in this task. Observation of classroom work—Probab|: the best way of determining the teaching abil- ity of an applicant is to observe him teach Steiner reports that over a period of nine years of those teachers in his school system who wer selected by correspondence alone, 75 percent were not recommended for reappointment. 0: those chosen by means of an interview, 24 pe: cent were not reelected; while of the teachers selected after observation of their teaching none failed to be reappointed on account of unsatisfactory teaching or discipline.° Table 8 shows that although it is not s generally used as the procedures previous|\ discussed, observation of an applicant’s class room work is practiced consistently in mor than half of all the cities answering the Re- search Division’s questionnaire in 1930-3). Apparently this method is somewhat more fre quent in the smaller cities than in the larger. Written examinations—The written exam- ination as a device for the selection of teachers is apparently little used by city school systems. The relative unreliability of such measures fo: predicting success in teaching limits their pra: tical value at present. This, however, is n reason why school systems should discard writ ten examinations entirely. Further experimen tation in this promising field is greatly needed, and perhaps it can be carried on nowhere else so well as in the school systems themselves under the direction of competent specialists ? Dozier, Miriam. “Confidential Recommendations as a Basis for Selecting Teachers.'’ Journal of Educational Research 14 325-35; December, 1926. * Steiner, M. A. ‘The Technic of Interviewing Teachers."’ American School Board Journal 76: 65-6; June, 1928. 4 Adams, Logan S., op. cit. + Steiner, M. A., op. cit. [ 26] But until methods of testing are developed h further than at present, considerable ution should be exercised in the interpreta- n and application of test results. lable 8 indicates that only 3 percent of all the cities reporting in 1930-31 require pros- pective teachers to take written examinations. More than half of the cities having such a re- quirement are over 100,000 in population ; con- sequently the percentage for these larger cities is considerably higher than for all cities com- bined. Physical examinations—A physical examina- tion is required of candidates more frequently than is a written examination, but the per- centages are small except in the larger cities. Table 8 shows a fairly definite relation be- tween size of population group and the per- centage of cities requiring physical examina- tions. The figures range from 9 percent in the smallest population group to 49 percent in the group of cities over 100,000. Other practices—Other items of procedure reported by city school systems include the study of reports from teachers’ agencies and college appointment bureaus, examination of scholastic records, giving the applicant a try- out in the local system, maintaining a waiting list of eligible candidates, oral examinations, etc. None of these were reported by many cities, but it is probable that some cf them were presumed to be included under one or more of the items discussed in the preceding paragraphs. Wide variation in plans for selecting teach- ers—Surveys of practice in the selection of teaching personnel show a wide variety in the combinations of technics used by different 1 Wang, Charles K. A., op. cit. ? Tiegs, Ernest W. An Evaluation of Some Techniques of Teac 1928. p. 79. ~ , results school systems. Wang summarizes the of his study as follows: The practice concerning the items of information secured in employing teachers by the various school officials throughout the country is very indefinite and lacking in uniformity. From the simplest method of relying upon “evidence of graduation from nor- mal school” to the most complicated process of eval- uating a stack of documents including application blanks, reference blanks, scholastic records, state- ments from former superintendents, teachers’ agency reports, and possibly other papers, as well as go- ing through personal conferences and demonstration teachings, there is an almost unmeasurable and in- describable range of variation among the various school officials. Not only do they vary from one another in their methods of securing information on their prospective teachers and in the items of in- formation they try to secure, but also they do not always follow the same procedure among them- selves for all applicants coming to their own at- tention.” It is evident that much additional research will be necessary before the selection of teach- ers can be placed upon a scientific basis. There is great need for procedures of testing and rat ing which will predict future teaching success with a high degree of accuracy. Tiegs’ con- clusions from his analysis of the technics of teacher selection are suggestive on this point: It appears, therefore, that the most promising way of progress in the evaluation of teaching service, and the prediction of teaching success, must con- template procedures which give an increasing em- phasis to the minutiae of teacher and pupil acti- vity; that such evaluations as are made should be based on a number of individual samplings, made over a period of time, and in each instance on a definite piece of work; and that the criterion of teaching success should become more and more a combination of definitely defined goals and methods of achieving them toward which teachers may con- sciously strive, rather than the often indefinite, in- tangible, and personal concepts of success, on the basis of which we are at present striving to make adequate professional judgments.” her Selection. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing ( te Selected and Classified Bibliography Training Requirements for Newly Appointed Teachers . ALMACK, J. C., and LANG, A. R. Problems of the Teaching Profession. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1925. Chapter II, “Professional Training of Teachers,” p. 19-37. Discusses requirements for admission to the teaching profession, and recommends improve- ment in the kind of training offered before at- tempting to increase quantitative requirements above the minima now recognized as desirable. BACHMAN, FRANK P. Training and Certification of High School Teachers. Nashville, Tennessee: Division of Surveys and Field Studies, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1930. 175 p. Reviews status of training and certification of high-school teachers, and discusses obstacles in the way of raising teaching in the secondary schools to a strictly professional level. BUCKINGHAM, B. R. Supply and Demand in Teacher Training. Ohio State University Studies, Vol. II, No. 15, Bureau of Educational Research Monographs, No. 4. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, March 15, 1926, 182 p. Discusses the problem of supply and demand with respect to the amount and kind of training demanded of teachers by local school systems, and the amount and type of training given by institutions for the preparation of teachers. . Cook, Katuertne M. State Laws and Regula- tions Governing Teachers’ Certificates. U.S. De- partment of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1927, No. 19. Washington, D. C.: Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1927. 296 p. A study of progress in improving state laws and regulations governing certification of teachers. FRAZIER, BENJAMIN W. “Professional Education of Teachers.’ Biennial Survey of Education in the United States, 1928-30. Chapter XIV. U. S. Department of the Interior, Ofhce of Education, Bulletin, 1931, No. 20. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 40 p. Summarizes progress during recent years in the field of teacher preparation. . “How Can We Regulate the Supply and at the Same Time Improve the Quality of Candidates Legally Available to Enter the Public School Service as ‘Novice Teachers’ ?” Ninth Yearbook. American Association of Teachers Colleges. Washington, D. C.: National Education Associa- tion, 1930. p. 22-50. A series of five addresses by Ambrose L. Suhrie, Joseph E. Burk, Alonzo F. Myers, Edwin W. Adams, and Charles C. Sherrod. . Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teaching Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. Chapter IV, “Personnel Problems in Teacher Training,” p. 53-71. Discusses the importance of training, and the 10. 11. amount and kinds of training which sho, demanded of the beginning teacher. NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION, Res Division. “Teacher Demand and Supply.” | search Bulletin 9: 305-400; November, 1931 Discusses major problems of teacher su and demand, and points out their significance + the welfare of the teaching profession. . Reeper, Warp G. The Fundamentals of Pu School Administration. New York: Macmi Co., 1930. p. 85-89. Presents points of view as to the amounts . pre-service training which teachers should h Discusses also the question of local versus s| institutions for the preparation of teachers Employment of Married Women as Teachers BRUBACHER, JOHN S. “The Judicial Status Marriage and Maternity as an Obstacle to 1 Education of Women for Professional Car: in Public School Teaching.” School and So 26: 428-35; October 1, 1927. Reviews judicial decisions and rulings of stat superintendents on the validity of marriage an maternity as causes for the dismissal of wom from public school teaching positions. “Employing Married Women in the Schools American Educational Digest 46:57-61; Octobe: 1926. Summarizes facts and judgments from 954 school superintendents concerning thé status of married women teachers. obtained . Ewinc, STEPHEN. “Blue Laws for School Teach 13. [ 28] . Housman, Ipa E, . McGinnis, W. C. ers.” Harper’s 156:329-38; February, 1928. Discusses restrictions upon the private lives of teachers, including provisions for dismissa of women who marry and the refusal of man) school boards to employ married women. GooorrR, FLoyp T. “Another Conclusion Regard ing the Married Woman Teacher.” Nation Schools 2:51-52; December, 1928. Considers the amount of absence and the tend ency to continue professional study among single and married women teachers. “Teachers and Marriag: School Executives Magazine 50: 502-04, 543; July, 1931. A review of fact and opinion on the subject of married women in the schools. . Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teac ing Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925, Cha; ter X, “The Problem of the Married Woman Teacher,” p. 173-89. Presents arguments for and against the en ployment of married women as teachers, and reports trend of opinion, court decisions, and school board policies concerning the question “The Married Woman Teacher.” School Executives Magazine 50:45! 53; June, 1931. Aare 2 n\ LD NEO NA SNE RD SRORIG IIIS en ‘ 4 3 9 a] 7 ho — i) wn Report of practice in 255 cities over 25,0 population, and of opinion among the supe: ntendents and professors of education \gainst hools 2: 53 eves, CHARLES E. “Why Discriminate \larried ?” Nation's S September, Teachers 1928. The first of two articles presenting a thorough inalysis of the problem and some data as to ractice and opinion among superintendents of No. 18. Reeves, CHARLES E. “Should the Married Woman (eacher Be Disqualified?” Nation's Schools 2: 13-18; October, 1928. See also reference cho Is. [he second of two articles on the married teacher question. See also reference No. 17 Waits, LocAn A. “Board Rules Affecting the Status of Married Women Teachers in Ohio.’ School and Society 33:867-71; June 27, 1931. \ detailed study of the status of married women teachers in Ohio. Other Problems in the Selection of Teachers \pAMs, LocAn S. “Methods of Selecting and Ap pointing New Educational 13: 85-89; Teachers in Texas.” Idministration and Supervision February, 1927. Discusses sources of teacher supply, appoint ment of local residents, active search for desira- ble candidates, personal references, and inter- views. ArMACK, J. C., and Lane, A. R. Problems of the Teaching Profession. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1925. Chapter III, “The Selection 38-58. treatment of of Teachers.” p. A concise problems and pro cedures in vacancies on the teaching staff. Carney, E. P. filling ‘Principles Governing the Em ployment of Teachers.” 4 merican School Board Journal 76:50; 1928. Emphasizes the disadvantages of a February, general policy favoring home talent on the teaching staff. “What Qualifications Are Demanded of Teachers?” Nation’s Schools 3 31-34, January, 1929; 62-68, February, 1929; 71-76, May, 1929; 46-50, June, 1929. Four articles describing an exhaustive study of practice with respect to application blanks Davis, CALVIN O. and reference forms in city school systems. Dozier, Miriam. “Confidential Recommendations as a Basis for Selecting Educational 1926. A study of statements of recommendation on file with the Teachers’ Appointment Committee at the University of Texas. Teachers.” Journal of Research 14:325-35: December, Eviassen, R. H. “Teacher Selection and Place ment.” Review of Educational Research 1: 83-85; April, 1931. Washington, D. C.: American Edu cational Research Association, National Educa tion Association. under these headings: re Reviews studies 28 9, 3 w i] sponsibility for selection, technics in selection and placement of teachers, qualities influencin teaching success, function of the placement of fice, and adjusting teachers to the position ENGELHARDT, FRED. Public Scho Organization and Administration. Boston: Ginn and Co 1931. Chapter VIII, “Personnel Management Qualifications and Appointment p. 164-88 Che last part, pages 180-87, deals more spe cifically with the actual task of selecting new teachers in local school systems Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teach ing Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. Chap ter VII, “Problems in Selecting Teachers.” p 115-144 } Discusses the principles and methods to be used in selecting a high-grade teaching person nel. Nretz, Joun A. “The Current Use of Teachers Application Blanks.” American Sch Board Journal 76:55-56; March, 1928 Summarizes an analysis of teachers’ applica tion blanks used in 45 large cities. Finds wide variation in the number of items include Oertet, E. E. “How Shall intendents Be Selected ?” American § Journal 82:47-48:; February, 1931 A general discussion of principles of selection Reever, WArp G. The Fundamentals of Publi School Administration. New York: Macmillan Co., 1930. Chapter IV, “The Selection of Teach 55-84. Teachers and Super hool Board ers.” p. A good discussion of some of the principles and practices to be followed in selecting, ap pointing, and placing teachers SHousE, J. B. “Objectionable Practices in the Ap pointment of Teachers.” Teachers College nal 2:147-50; May, 1931. Discusses four especially objectionable prac Jour tices in teacher selection: nepotism, patronage partisanship, and provincialism STEINER, M. A. “The Technic of Inte ing Teachers.” American School Board Journal 76: 65-66; June, 1928. rview Considers the personal interview of real value when conducted by a skilled person. Suggests four principles of interviewing, and gives a form for recording the results of an interview Tiecs, Ernest W. An Evaluation of Some Tech niques of Teacher Selection. Bloomington, Illi nois: Public School Publishing Co., 1928. 108 p A critical study of methods used to select teachers in large city school systems Makes suggestions as to the most promising way of progress in the evaluation of teaching and in the prediction of future teaching success Wana, CuHarves K. A. “A Study of the Basic Information Utilized in Employing ‘Teachers in the United States.” Education 48: 355-74; Febru ary, 1928. Contains data on application blanks, refe1 ence blanks and letters, personal interviews demonstration teaching, reports of teachers agencies, and various other sources Questionnaire Used in Collection of Data THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATEY 1201 SIXTEENTH STREET WASHINGTON, D. C. June, 193! ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES AFFECTING CLASSROOM TEACHERS Professional Qualifications of Teachers 1. Educational requirements.—Check below the number of years of training beyond high school graduation req initial appointment as teacher in your city: Qu i Required Number of Years’ Training Beyond High School One year I wo years Three years Four years Five years Elementary School Teachers Junior High School Teachers Senior High School Teachers 2. Experience requirements. appointment as teacher in your city: Check below the number of years of previous teaching experience required for initia Number of Years’ Experience Required No experience required One year Two years More than two years Elementary School Teachers Junior High Senior High School Teachers School Teachers | Personal Factors Related to Appointment No 3. (a) Local teachers.—Does your policy give preference to the appointment of local residents as teachers? Yes (b) Please state briefly your practice with regard to the employment of local residents as teachers: . (a) Married women as teachers —Has your board of education a rule or policy against the appointment of ew teache: who are married women? Yes_._._. No_- (b) Does your school board require women teachers who marry to give up their positions at once? Yes No . At the end of the school year? Yes-- [30] Questionnaire (Cont.) Appointment and Contractual Status tion of teacher Check any of the following practices which you follow consistently in the select ie Definite search for desirable prospect 1) In other systems. No 2) Int titutions. Yes Ni Use of formal application blank. Ye N Collection of letters from persons given as referer Yes No Personal interview with applicant. Ye N Written examinations. Ye N Physical examination. Ye Ni Observation of classroom work of applicant. NX, Other practices (please describe rm of employment.—What method of employment is followed? (Please indicate | ‘ Method of Employment For newly- For teachers with several years : elected teachers experience in your system | A ciect | or te re i t engt s } t 1 for an efhnite pe x ject ter na t t { < inent servi Other an (ple describe 7. Contracts—Are teachers required to sign a contract? Ye No Basis for paying teachers’ salaric Over how many months does the pay: of a teache , al sa a) Nine months . (b) Ten months Eleven month 1) Twelve month ), How often are payments of teachers’ salaries made? 1) Monthly b) Semi-monthl: Or please describe notional examinations.—Does your school system conduct written examinations in connection wit romot teachers within the service? Yes No Ratings.—Are all teachers given a definite rating (e.g., A, B, C, D, E, or Excellent, Good, Fair, P lica as to quality of service rendered? Yes . No Salary Schedule Features 2. Salary schedule—Has your city a definite schedule for teachers’ salari Ye N If a salary schedule has been adopted, check below the factors which automatically determine a cla t ” place on the schedule: a) Number of years of service. Yes No b) Amount of professional training. Yes.-.... No (c) Ratings on efficiency scale. Yes...... No (d) Position held! (e.g., elementary, high school, et Ye No (e) Other factors (please describe) ' Remember that this blank applies only to classroom teachers [ 31 ] Questionnaire (Cont.) 14. Salaries of men teac! Are men t rs paid higher salaries than women of equal training and « In elementary schools? Ye N b) In junior high schools? Yes No In high schools? Yes Ni 15. Supermaximum salari Above the regula aximum of your salary schedule do you have a supermax which regular teachers with special qualifications may be promoted? Yes No 16. If a supermaximum salary is provided, please check below the bases upon which a teacher’s promotion fr regular maximum to the supermaximum 1s dependent: a) Additional training. Yes No (b) Superior rating and performance. Ye No (c) Extra duties. Yes Ni (d) Length of service. Yes No. (e) Written examination. Yes No (f) Other bases (please describe * a, 17. Indicate below the statement which describes the general situation as it affects teachers’ salaries in your city in 193] (a) The regular salary schedule will be followed as usual, with teachers receiving the customary annual increm b) The 1930-31 salary schedule is to be replaced by a new schedule which provides larger salaries for 1931-32 . ' (c) The regular salary increments will be withheld: 1.e., teachers will receive the same salaries in 1931-32 that tl 1 ry IR es oe oe oo nau cal casaskakseemnnbaneoawen (d) Other situation (please describe ‘ | Summer School and Travel ; 18. (a) Is a bonus (apart from the regular salary schedule) granted to teachers for attending summer school Yes j ) No (b) What is the amount of such bonus? (c) For how many consecutive years may it be granted? , | 19. (a) Do you make any direct financial reward for educative travel? Yes _ No (b) What is the amount of such reward? = | Sabbatical Leave 20. Do you grant extended! leaves of absence to teachers: (a) For professional improvement? Yes- - ._ No { (b) For travel? Yes No . (c) Forrest? Yes...... No . (d) For any other purpose? | “ 21. What part of the regular salary is paid to teachers taking leave for professional improvement? (Check below. ; (a) No salary ; IN ag on deta ie eaP is Seekes beste anaes nknkecheaeeen ‘ (c) Half salary , Or Sie (d) Full salary, less pay of substitute PR eine Me ee : 2 ~~ a Not including sick leaves. See Question 23. : } c ; [ 32] CONTENTS a. Se eee Introduction ......... The Term of Employment for Teachers Types of laws and regulations governing duration of teachers’ contracts Present practice in city school systems General principles for establishment of contractual regulz tions Use of formal contracts...... Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Scheduling Salary Scheduling as a Principle. Salary schedule defined. ..... Advantages of a salary schedule Recognition of the scheduling principle in city sc hool syste ms.. Factors Determining the Teacher's Place on the Regular Salary Schedule ae Amount of professional training Efficiency rating as a salary factor i Position as a salary factor. Sex as a factor in fixing salaries. Combinations of factors used in determining salaries. . Supermaximum Salaries........ rica ore lcew acai thal ees Xa Present practice in city school systems Trend of practice in recent years IN NIN ore sped nid nn 62s asst ascidian al Direct Financial Rewards for Additional Training or Travel j How meet the cost of professional competency? Present practice in city school systems Trend of practice in recent years Period and Frequency of Salary Payments......... Number of months over which salary payments e xtend. TIT SI Soon. 5-3 doves ccdork'sasdd eacda: oma és Sources of Information on Salaries and Salary Scheduling... . Sick Leave and Related Problems............................ Suggested principles governing leave-of-absence policies eguarding pupil welfare during absence of teachers..... ' Conditions for granting leaves of absence with pay... . Amount of leave and proportion of salary granted... Financial protection against long illnesses................... Safeguarding the leave-of-absence privilege against abuse. Reducing ill health to a minimum. Need for further study......:.. Importance of flexible administration. ; Extended Leaves of Absence for Professional or Cultural Improvement. . Agreement in theory.. Present practice in city school sy stems. Principles governing administration of sabbatical fiowe ; Plans in effect... . Teacher Rating as a Means of Improvement Rating as an efficiency measure. . . Administration of a rating system Present practice in city school systems... Trend of practice in recent years... . Selected and Classified Bibliography. . List of Tables 39 39 39 39 39 40 40) 40 40 59 61 61 61 63 64 64 64 65 65 66 ; { : { : ' FOREWORD TY IS HIGHLY important to place a well-trained and capable teacher in every | classroom. It is equally important to keep such teachers in the schools and to encourage them to improve constantly the quality of their work. After selecting and appointing a competent teaching staff, perhaps the most important function of school administration is to retain successful teachers and to help in crease their usefulness to the school and the community. Such a program re- quires both unusual administrative skill and adequate financial resources. Every legitimate means for increasing the economic security of good teach- ers, thus encouraging them to serve the schools longer, will contribute to economy and efficiency in education. Likewise, every useful procedure for the improvement of teachers in service, even though it costs money, will in the long run help to give the public more for its school dollar. These truths should be called to the attention of those who clamor for drastic reductions in educational revenues, The proper administration of public schools should be among the very last services to have financial support withdrawn in times of depression. This is the second of two new bulletins devoted to problems of teacher personnel administration. While the January bulletin dealt principally with practices in the selection and appointment of teachers, this one discusses prac- tices affecting the retention, promotion, and improvement of teachers. Like its predecessor, this bulletin presents information from the Research Division's latest survey of personnel practices in city school systems. These data are given additional meaning by the accompanying discussion of competent opinion and other research findings in regard to the issues involved. School boards, adminis- trators, teachers, college specialists, and other groups will find this bulletin a valuable companion to the January issue in facilitating their study of teacher personnel problems. J. W. Crastreg, Secretary, National Education Association [34] ie een fo € S as Part 1 of this study, published in the January sue of the Research Bulletin,’ dealt with sev- ral important aspects of the selection and ap- ointment of classroom teachers. Part II, pre- -ented in this issue, follows logically the dis- cussion in Part I. Its contents reflect the princi- ple that once a good teaching staff has been recruited, wise schoo] administration will de vote major attention to the problems of retain ing, promoting, and improving teachers in serv- ce. The turnover among teachers in the public schools is relatively large.* This situation is ex pensive and unsatisfactory because it interferes with the continuity and effectiveness of teach ers’ efforts both in the school and in the com munity. In many school systems there is seri ous need for policies governing tenure and pro motion which will provide economic security for teachers and thus encourage them to serve their communities for longer periods of time. There is also a widespread need among teach- ers in service for continuous study of the prob- lems of instruction. Uninformed complacency and habitual opposition to change do not char- acterize the teaching staff of an efficient school system. Increased responsibilities, a broader philosophy, and improved methods in education require constant adjustment on the part of teachers if they are to meet their problems with increasing success. An important function of educational leadership, therefore, is to stimu- late teachers by every legitimate and practical means to maintain a progressive attitude to- ward their own professional and cultural de- velopment. Plan and procedure of the study—The gen- eral background, scope, and procedure of this survey of personnel practices, including both Part I and Part II, were outlined in the Janu- ary Research Bulletin.2 Hence a somewhat briefer statement will suffice here. The study was conducted according to a three-fold purpose, as follows: Introduction best available 1. To summarize the opinion con cerning certain controversial issues and the merits of various administrative practices. 2. To present up-to-date and representative in formation as to the nature or practices in city school systems, and on some points to indicate the trend during recent years as revealed by a comparison of present practice with corresponding data collected by the Research Division in earlier years.‘ 3. To give a selected and classified list of refer ences for further information and study Information concerning administrative prac tices in city school systems in 1930-31 was ob- tained by means of a four-page printed ques- tionnaire, which is reproduced at the end of this bulletin. The same questionnaire contained all of the items for both Part I and Part II of the study. This form was sent in June, 1931, to all superintendents of schools in the 2,880 cities of 2,500 or more in population according to the federal census of 1920.° Of these cities, 1,489 returned replies which were usable wholly or in part. The following summary shows how the number of responses compares with the total number of cities in each of the five population groups according to the census of 1930: N umber of cities} “ities replying according to 1930 census | Population group Number) Percent | Over 100,000. ... 93 85 91.4 30,000 to 100,000. 224 i88 83.9 10,000 to 30,000. 663 402 60.6 5,000 to 10,000.. | 886 415 | 46.8 2,500 to 5,000.. 1467 399 | 27.2 Total 3333 |} 1489 44.7 The percentages of usable returns from the larger cities were very high. Moreover, al- though the percentages of smaller cities re- sponding were considerably lower, there is no reason to suppose that those reporting in any population group are not fairly typical of all cities in that group. Topics discussed in this bulletin—As indi- cated above, the information obtained concern- 1 National Education Association, Research Division. ‘Administrative Practices Affecting Classroom Teachers—Part | The Selection and Appointment of Teachers.” Research Bulletin 10: 1-32; January, 1932. Washington, D. C.: the Association * Evenden, E. S. ‘‘The Supply and Demand for Senior High School Teachers"’ and ‘‘The Supply of and Demand for Ele mentary Teachers.” School Life 17: 92-93; 112-14; January and February, 1932. * National Education Association, Research Division. 0. cit., p. 3-4. ‘ For complete reports of these earlier studies, see the following references: National Education Association, Salary Committee (E. S. Evenden, chairman). Report: Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Trends in 1923. Washington, D. C.: the Association, July, 1923. Chapter IIT, “Special Provisions Affecting Teachers’ Salaries in the United States."’ p. 48-57. National Education Association, Research Division. ‘‘ Practices Affecting Teacher Personnel.” Research Bulletin 6: 205-56; September, 1928. Washington, D. C.: the Association. * At the time the questionnaires were mailed out, the names of superintendents of schools were not available for communities whose populations had increased from less than 2,500 in 1920 to 2,500 or more in 1930. [35] ing practices affecting primarily the selection and appointment of teachers was presented in the January issue of the Research Bulletin. The present bulletin summarizes the data collected as to practices affecting the retention, promotion, and improvement of teachers. Fol- lowing are the main topics included : 1. The term of employment for teachers. 2. Teachers’ salaries and salary scheduling.’ 3. Sick leave and related problems. +. Extended leaves of absence for professional or cultural improvement. 5. Teacher rating as a means of improvement. There are, of course, many other ways by © which teachers may be helped to achieve gr. efficiency and satisfaction in their work. In | nearly every factor in the school system have some influence upon the effectivenes instruction. Good working conditions, a m ern and dynamic curriculum, a helpful pr, : gram of classroom supervision, cooperative lations between school and community,- may play an important part in facilitating +} improvement of teaching. Such topics, how ever, are outside the scope of this bulletin. s—nceeisire salag The Term of Employment for Teachers One very important factor affecting the effi- ciency of teachers is the assurance that their positions are secure so long as they continue to give satisfactory service. Efficiency in the classroom depends considerably upon the eco- nomic security of teachers, and their economic security in turn rests in no small measure upon the promise of continuous employment. Although the probability of an efficient teacher being dismissed is not great under ordi- nary circumstances, such teachers unfortu- nately are discharged occasionally for political and personal reasons. The harm done to the effectiveness of the schools by such dismissals or by the threat of such dismissals is often much greater than the number of cases in- volved might seem to indicate. Teachers should therefore have a reasonable amount of protection against dismissal during efficiency. Types of laws and regulations governing du- ration of teachers’ contracts*—The duration of teachers’ contracts in local school systems is usually governed in one or more of the follow- ing ways: (1) by state legislation, (2) by municipal ordinances, (3) by regulations or policies of local school boards, and (4) by the provisions of the contracts themselves. All of these methods are subject to review and inter- pretation by the courts. Moreover, to be effec- tive continuously, any such regulations must be backed by public respect for the importance of effective teaching in the classroom. There are four principal types of legislation or regulation governing the term of teachers’ employment. The most common of these | vides that teachers shall be elected annua!|) and that the school board shall not employ an) teacher for more than one year at a time. No reason is needed for the dismissal of a tea at the end of any year under this type of r lation. A second type of regulation permits school board to make contracts with teac! for specified periods of more than one yx The courts, however, generally hold that « tracts of this sort must not extend over an reasonably long period. The laws applying all school districts in Texas and Ohio, those applying to limited groups of districts Mississippi, Nebraska, and North Dakota ar: clear-cut examples of this type of regulation In Texas, contracts may be made for periods of three years or five years, according to th size of the school district. In Ohio they may be made for three years or four years, accord- ing to the type of district. A third kind of regulation provides for a continuing contract between the school board and the teachers. This plan requires that the board notify a teacher by a specified date if his ! services are not desired for the following year If the teacher is not notified by the date set, his contract continues automatically for at least | another year. The continuing-contract plan, as defined here, is distinguished from perma- nent tenure arrangements chiefly by the fact that it permits a teacher to be dismissed at the j end of any year, irrespective of the reason, pro- ee * This section is not to be confused with the Research Division's biennial survey of the salaries paid teachers and other schoo! employees in city school systems of the United States. The latest of these is summarized in “Salaries in City School Systems, 193 31." Research Bulletin 9: 161-288; May, 1931. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association. 2 See these references: National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. “‘*The Economic Welfare of Teachers."’ Sixth Year boo®. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1931. Chapter ITI, ° a Efficiency,”’ p. 39-46. our oster, Richard R. “Continuous Employment for the Teacher. December, 1931 of the National Education Association 20: 343-4) [36] tee nae ait ‘ded he has been notified by the specified date. Evidently the annual election plan is still Laws in Pennsylvania and Nevada are ex- the most prevalent in all except the group of unples of this type of regulation. largest cities. Its relative frequency varies from The fourth type of plan establishes a pro- 39 percent in cities over 100,000 in population tionary period of one or more years during to 67 percent in cities of 2,500 to 5,000. The which the school board may discharge a teacher :t the end of any year for any reason or for 19 reason. If the board wishes to reemploy the icher at the close of the probationary period, must place him on permanent tenure. The yoard cannot dismiss the teacher at any time -hereafter except upon proved charges of in- ompetency, insubordination, immorality, or ther specified causes. In case of dismissal after : oermanent appointment, the teacher is entitled POTNE- to a hearing, and under some laws may appeal The continuing contract plan, or election to higher authority such as the courts or the for an indefinite period subject to termination hief state school official. The tenure laws in without cause at the end of any year, is fol- California, Indiana, Maryland, New Jersey, lowed in only about 12 percent of the cities, New York, and the District of Columbia while fewer than 1 percent elect teachers for istrate this type of protection. specified periods of more than one year. Present practice in city school systems plan of election for permanent service after a probationary period, on the other hand, be- comes more common as the size of city in- creases. The proportion of cities using it ranges from 21 percent in the smallest population group to 56 percent in the group over 100,000. One or the other of these two practices is found in nearly 88 percent of all the cities re- General principles for establishment of con- tractual regulations—In any attempt to pro- tect teachers against unfair dismissal, it is essential also to guard pupils against incom- lable 1 presents a distribution of the city school systems reporting in 1930-31, accord- ng to the plans they follow with respect to the rm of employment for teachers. In this table ) attempt is made to distinguish between ties with regard to the source of the regula- petent or undesirable teachers. A good law or regulation should aim to obtain and retain only tions. In some cities the practice is required by those teachers of first-rate ability and char- tate law, while in others it is determined by acter. The National Education Association, municipal ordinances, or by regulations of the through its Committee on Tenure, has sug- cal school board. gested twelve guiding principles for the adop- TABLE 1.—POLICIES GOVERNING THE TERM OF EMPLOYMENT FOR TEACHERS IN 1930-31 Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 All cities | 100,000 in to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in conord Policy population | population population population | population thea! , . sass ; | | | | | Num-/| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num- | Per- _Num-! Per- | Num-| Per- | cent | ber | cent ber cent ber cent ber | cent| ber | cent ber | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Annual election or contract for | one year only.... pe nae Bs 33 39.3 Election tor permanent service after a probationary period Election for an indefinite period | 106 57.3 | 231 | 59.5 | 242 60.0 | 255 66.6 | 867 60.1 55.9 | 64 | 34.6 | 105 27.1 | 100 | 24.8] 80 | 20.9 | 396 | 27.5 — ~ subject to termination at the | | | | end of any year......... +sel 4 4.8 14 | 7.64 St 13.1 59 | 14.7 47 | 12.3 | 175! 12.1 Election for a specified term of | | | | more than one year a 2 S$}; 1 | 3 2 | «5S 1 2) S| 3 0 Total sli 84 100.0 185 100.0 388 100.0 | 403 100.0 383 100.0 |1443 100 Read table as follows: Of the 84 cities over 100,000 in population which reported policy governing the term of em- ployment of teachers, 33, or 39.3 percent, stated that teachers are elected or contracted for one year only; 47, or 55.9 per- cent, are elected for permanent ¢ervice after a probationary period, etc. Similarly read figures for other pepulation groups This tabulation is based on the replies to question 6 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75. 1 In 61 of these 175 cities newly appointed teachers are elected annually. ? In four of these five cities newly appointed teachers are elected annually. tion of laws and regulations affecting the term of employment for teachers. These principles are designed to guarantee the retention of teachers during efficiency, and also to provide for each community a high grade of teaching service: 1. Tenure laws should be devised and adminis- tered in the interest of better instruction for children. 2. Tenure laws should be accompanied by proper legal regulations governing training, certification, remuneration, and retirement allowances. 3. Tenure laws should be devised and adminis- tered as a stimulus to better preparation and more efficient service on the part of teachers. 4. Indefinite tenure should be granted only upon evidence of satisfactory preliminary training, suc- cessful experience, and professional growth. 5. Indefinite tenure should be provided after suc- cessful experience during a probationary period of adequate length, usually two or three years. 6. The right of dismissal should be in the hands of the appointing board. 7. Laws establishing indefinite tenure should pro- vide for the easy dismissal of unsatisfactory or in- competent teachers for clearly demonstrable causes, such as misconduct, incompetence, evident unfitness for teaching, persistent violation or refusal to obey laws, insubordination, neglect of duty, or malfea- sance. 8. The proposed dismissal of a teacher on account of incompetence or neglect of duty should be pre- ceded by a warning and specific statement in writ- ing of defects. 9. In cases of proposed dismissal, teachers sh be granted right of hearing. 10. Teachers who do not desire to continu: their positions should give reasonable notic: writing of their intention. 11. Suitable psovision should be made for t« ers already in service in putting tenure laws operation. 12. Indefinite tenure should be accorded to classes of certificated school employees on status of teacher, at least. if Use of formal contracts—Formal contracts between school boards and teachers are of value, not only because they specify the amount of salary and the term of employment, but als: because they emphasize certain laws and regu lations, and help to impress upon teachers and their employers the binding character of thei agreement. Although such contracts are not absolutely essential, they are used in a larg majority of school systems. Table 2 shows that of all city systems below 100,000 in popu- lation which reported in 1930-31, over 90 per- cent require their teachers to sign contracts Of the cities over 100,000 in population, how. ever, only about 73 percent have such a requir: ment. A few cities in which permanent tenure regulations are in effect require teachers t sign contracts only during the probationar period. 1 National Education Association, Committee of One Hundred on Tenure Problems. Report. Washington, D. C.: the Associa tion, July, 1930. 3 p. TABLE 2.—USE OF WRITTEN CONTRACTS FOR TEACHERS IN 1930-31 Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 All citi 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to5,000in | Slice | ‘Teacher required to sign contract | P0Pulation | population | population | population | population rans Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-/| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- ber cent ber cent ber cent ber | cent ber cent ber cent 1 2 3 4 5 5 8 9 | 0! wu iz | 13 ea yr ee cween 61 73.5 | 174 92.1 | 378 94.0 | 3898 93.7 | 3774 93.5 |1379 92.4 ih da «bn ch Sade teen ented 22 26.5 15 7.9 24 6.0 26 6.3 26 ; 6.5 | 113 7.6 i ee, eae ee 83 |100.0 | 189 {100.0 | 402 |100.0 | 415 |100.0 | 403 {100.0 1492 /|100.0 Read table as follows: Of the 83 cities over 100,000 in population which reported concerning the question of written contracts, 61, or 73.5 percent, require their teachers to sign contracts, while 22, or 26.5 percent, have no such requirement. Similarly read figures for other population groups. This tabulation is based on the replies to question 7 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75. ‘Four of these reported that contracts are used during the probationary period or until the teacher is under per- manent tenure. * Five of these reported that contracts are used during the first years of service or until the teacher is under per- Manent tenure. * Two of these reported that contracts are used until the teacher is employed for permanent service, and 3 reported that the teacher must submit a letter of acceptance. ‘Two of these reported that contracts are used until the teacher is under permanent tenure, and one reported that they are used in the case of non-resident teachers. [38] es wlailegh Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Scheduling Salary Scheduling as a Principle Salary schedule defined—The term “salary chedule” is used here in accordance with the efinition given in a previous issue of the Re- earch Bulletin: By a salary schedule is meant a plan for the savment of school employees formally adopted by the Board of Education or School Committee, which 1 large degree automatically determines the be- ginning salary, the amount and number of yearly increases, and the maximum salary received by va- ious groups of teachers, principals, and other em- jloyees with specified qualifications.’ Such a schedule reflects the school board’s oolicy with reference to the financial compen- sation of those responsible for the education § the community’s children. The drafting of such a plan is not simple. It involves a con- sideration of many factors, sound judgment in balancing these factors, and an intimate knowledge both of local conditions and of poli- ‘ies and practices throughout the nation.? Advantages of a salary schedule—It is widely relieved that a definite salary schedule is a real idvantage in the efficient conduct of the schools. [Individual bargaining has often led to resent- ment within the teaching, force, favoritism in the payment of teachers with personal or po- itical influence, and endless disagreements ! National Education Association, Research Division. ‘The May, 1927. Washington, D. C.: the Association. ? Ibid., p. 159. ibout salaries. The adoption of a salary sched ule tends to eliminate the element of personal pressure and permits the development of a broad and well-balanced policy.’ The danger of over-standardization doubt- less lurks in salary scheduling as it does in every other plan for managing a large enter- prise. Such dangers must be frankly admitted and faced. A machine-like plan of campensa- tion which permits no adjustments for dealing with exceptional individuals or situations is a perversion of the salary-scheduling principle. Growth and not stagnation is the ideal condi- tion of a teaching staff, and the salary sched- ule, together with many other administrative devices, should contribute to this desirable end. A reasonable degree of flexibility is therefore essential in the development and administration of a successful salary schedule. Recognition of the scheduling principle in city school systems—Table 3 shows that of the 1,479 school systems reporting on this point in 1930-31, 79 percent have definite salary schedules for their teachers. This practice is much more common among the larger cities than among the smaller ones. All of the cities from 30,000 to 100,000 in population reported that they have salary schedules, while only 65 percent of those from 2,500 to 5,000 have such schedules. Scheduling of Teachers’ Salaries."" Research Bulletin 5: 159 + For a good brief statement on the advantages of salary schedules see the introductory chapter in: Elsbree, Willard S. Teachers’ Salaries. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931 TABLE 3.—USE OF DEFINITE SALARY SCHEDULES FOR TEACHERS IN 1930-31 Cities over | Cities 30,000 100,000 in to 100,000 in Definite salary schedule for population population teachers: = Num-/| Per- | Num-/| Per- ber cent ber cent Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 to 30,000 in to 10,000 in to 5,000 in population population population All cities reporting | | 1 Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- ber cent ber cent ber cent | Num-| Per- ber cent | 6 7 8 9 10 11 | 12 13 330 82.5 | 305 74.2 | 264 65.5 |1163 78.6 70 17.5 | 106 25.8 | 139 34.5 | 316 21.4 1 2 3 4 5 PE er reer ee eee re 98.8 | 180 /|100.0 eee bow kee’ ss Bee wus Ss rere ar 85 100.0 | 180 |100.0 400 |200.0 411 |100.0 | 403 |100.0 |1479 |100.0 population groups. Read table as follows: Of the 85 cities over 100,000 in population which reported, 84, or 98.8 percent, have adopted a definite salary schedule for teachers, while 1, or 1.2 percent, has no definite schedule. Similarly read figures for other This tabulation is based on the replies to question 12 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75. Factors Determining the Teacher’s Place on the Regular Salary Schedule Factors used to determine the place of a given teacher on the regular salary schedule include: (1) number of years of service, (2) amount of professional training, (3) ratings on an efficiency scale, (4) position held, and (5) sex. Some of these factors are widely ac- cepted as desirable. Others are used in only a few school systems. The following discus- sion deals with each in the order named, and concludes with a summary of practice as to the combinations of certain factors in the schedules of city school systems. Years of service—Agreement is practically universal that successful experience adds to the skill and value of the teacher and should be recognized by increments in the salary schedule. The most desirable number and frequency of such increments, however, have not yet been agreed upon. The number of years during which increases are provided in most schedules ranges between five and fifteen. Some authori- ties, however, assert that such increases should be continued during a period of from twenty to thirty years. They contend that if the maxi- mum salary is reached too early in the teacher’s career, professional stagnation is likely to occur during the later years. In many cases, of course, factors other than length of service 1 seotionad Education Association, Depa on, D. C.: the Association, 1931. p. 34-35. ’ The rating of teachers as a supervisory pages 64-66. may affect the total number of years d\ which salary increments may be received. The universal use of experience as a fac! in determining the place of the teacher on schedule is shown in Table 4. Amount of professional training—Adm trators and teachers are coming to realize : experience alone cannot be depended upo: produce high-grade teaching service. To mak the most of his experience, a teacher must | abreast of progress in educational philoso; psychology, and methods. He should also h a thorough mastery of the materials he is tempting to teach. Thus it is that the amoun: of professional training, although less fy quently used than years of service, is no rather common as a factor in determining tea ers’ salaries. Table 4 shows that in 75 percent of the 1,077 salary-schedule cities reporting, the amount of a teacher’s professional training \: one of the factors which automatically dete; mine his place on the schedule. The propor tion is approximately the same for each of th: five population groups. Efficiency rating as a salary factor’—|\\ highly valid and reliable measures of a teache: ability and performance were available, man of the problems of personnel administration including salary scheduling, would be muc! nearer solution. The limitations of amount: of experience and training as measures of teac! rtment of Classroom Teachers. “‘The Economic Welfare of Teachers."’ Sixth } ¢c device for the improvement of instruction is discussed in a subsequent sectio: TABLE 4.—CERTAIN FACTORS AUTOMATICALLY DETERMINING A TEACHER'S PLACE ON THE SALARY SCHEDULE IN 1930-31 Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities igs 2.900 All cities | 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in poco population | population | population | population | population porting Factors' = Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-/| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-/ Per- ber | cent ber | cent ber | cent ber | cent ber | cent ber | cent a? aa 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 | 10 | a | 12 | 13 Number of years of service. ..... 84 |100.0 | 171 |100.0 | 306 |100.0 | 277 {100.0 | 239 |100.0 |1077 {100.0 Amount of professional training. .| 61 72.6 | 134 78.4 | 229 74.8) 211 76.2 | 175 73.2 | 810 75.2 Rating on efficiency scale ....... 5 6.0 25 14.6 32 10.5 29 10.5 23 9.64 114 10.6 PD Pe n4+ 5st bevncccane | 66 78.6 | 116 67.8 | 227 74.2 | 234 84.5 | 197 82.4 | 840 78.0 Pies wtéene Ger chagwewanwas 84 |100.0 | 171 100.0 | 306 |100.0 | 277 |100.0 | 239 [100.0 {1077 |100.0 number of Read table as follows: Of the 84 cities over 100,000 in population which reported, 84, or amount of Techesional training is a determining factor, etc. Similarly read figures for This tabulation is based on the replies to question 13 of the inquiry blank 1 For figures on sex as a factor in salary schedules, see Table 5. In this table no attempt is made to give the fre- quency of various combinations of the factors used in determining a teacher's place on the schedule. For combinations of the factors listed above, see Table 6. 100 percent, indicated that the on the a - Seer i. 6 percent, indicated that the her population groups. ak on pages 72-75. years of service is a factor in determining a teacher's [40] A oem, ibility have long been recognized, Author- determined in part by efficiency ratings. ‘This s are ‘generally agreed, however, that al- small increase was characteristic of all five ch the rating of teachers may be a useful population groups.* rvisory device, it has not yet been sufh- A number of cities reported that they grant tly refined to permit any but rather rough _ no salary increments to teachers rated as doing iy listinctions between different grades of teach- entirely unsatisfactory work. This, of course ‘ng ability. For this reason the use of rating is quite different from granting increments of scales in the administration of the regular sal- varying amounts according to different degrees iry schedule cannot be undertaken with great of merit as measured by ratings. However, if confidence in the outcome.’ Teachers are par- a teacher’s work is wholly unsatisfactory, he ticularly resentful of anything akin to the probably ought to be dismissed from the school capricious in a matter so important to them as __ system. their salaries. A suspicion that they are not Position as a salary factor—Should teachers getting a fair deal will soon undermine the ef- in elementary schools be paid lower salaries fectiveness of any staff of teachers. Conse- than high-school teachers, experience, training quently, although it cannot be asserted defi- and other qualifications being equal? ‘Those nitely that the use of efficiency rating as asalary who answer this question in the affirmative as- factor is unwise under a circums ances 1 ser lat 1e WOrK O 1e lig 1-scn 0] teacher fac | ll t , the t that tl k of the high-scl dangers involved in this practice should be rec- makes greater demands on time and energy ogn zed and guarded against in any plan of than that of the elementary-school teacher, salary payment, that it calls for more unusual personal quali Table 4 indicates that only about 11 per-_ ties, and that the limited supply of qualified cent of the cities having salary schedules use high-school teachers, especially in certain fields, efficiency ratings as a factor in determining makes a higher schedule for this group essen a teacher’s place on the schedule. There is tial if high standards are to be maintained. apparently little relationship between size of Formerly, it was also argued or implied that cities and their practice on this point, but it high-school teaching was intrinsically more im is perhaps significant that of the 84 cities over portant than elementary-school instruction. 100,000 in population, only 6 percent use rat- This latter view is no longer seriously ad ings as a salary determinant. vanced. During the three-year period from 1927-28 Those who favor salary provisions which ap to 1930-31, however, there apparently has _ ply uniformly to high-school and elementary been a slight increase in the use of efficiency school teachers argue that elementary teaching ratings as a factor in determining teachers’ demands as high a degree of intelligence, abil- salaries. Of 1,412 cities reporting on this point _ ity, and character as high-school work, and that in 1928, including several hundred which did salary discriminations between the two groups not have definite salary schedules, only 67 used are therefore unfair and unwise. They argue ratings as a salary determinant. In 1931, of also that a differential in pay between element- 1,077 cities having salary schedules, 114 re- ary and secondary levels is a relic of the days ported that the salaries of their teachers are when teachers’ pay was fixed primarily in 1 See these references: American Educational Research Association. ‘‘Teacher Personnel."’ Review of Educational Research 1: 99-107; April, 1931 Washington, D. C.: the Association. Chapter VII, ‘‘ Teacher Rating’ (by Russell L. C. Butsch) Elsbree, Willard S. Teachers’ Salaries. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. p. 84 Almack, John C., and Lang, Albert R. Problems of the Teaching Profession. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1925. p. 189-92 McGaughy, James R., director. Teachers’ Salaries in New York City. Final Report of Citizens’ Committee on Teachers’ Salaries New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1927. p. 105-07. ? Wherever possible in this bulletin, comparisons are drawn between the results of the 1930-31 survey and those of two earlier studies made by the Research Division in 1922-23 and 1927-28. On many questions of practice this was not possible, either because the items were not included in the questionnaires used in the earlier studies, or because they were not worded uniformly « ugh to yield comparable results. he comparisons are not limited to exactly the same cities in the different years. It is assumed that the sampling of cities for each year was reasonably adequate and that, therefore, the comparisons between the different years are valid " The figures given here for the 1927-28 survey are slightly different from those presented in the original report of that survey (See “‘ Practices Affecting Teacher Personnel."’ Research Bulletin 6: 205-56; September, 1928. Washington, D. C.: National Edu cation Association.) These differences are due primarily to the fact that in the original report the cities were classified according to population as given in the 1920 federal census. For the purpose of comparison in the present bulletin, however, the dat 1927-28 were recalculated with the cities grouped according to the 1930 census. This procedure seems justified on the ground that in 1928 the populations of most cities were probably much nearer to the 1930 census figures than to the 1920 census figures _ On the other hand, the occasional figures presented here for the 1922-23 survey are the same as those originally reported (See Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Trends in 1923. Report of the Salary Committee, National Education Association, Washington, D. C.: the Association, July, 1923. Chapter III, ‘‘Special Provisions Affecting Teachers’ Salaries in the United State p. 48-57.) In this case it appears likely that the 1920 census figures, which were used in the classification of cities in 1923, were more applicable than the populations reported in the 1930 census. [41 ] eee. = terms of the grade taught, and that such dis- crimination reflects an outworn educational philosophy. Table 4 reveals that most city school sys- tems have not yet adopted the principle of the ” Of the salary-sched- ule cities reporting on this question, 78 percent ae , single salary schedule. make salary distinctions among classroom teachers according to the type of school in which they teach. In three of the five popula- tion groups, the position held is used by more cities than is the amount of professional train- ing as a factor automatically determining a teacher’s place on the schedule. Sex as a factor in fixing salaries—Probably no other factor affecting teachers’ salaries has received as much attention as the question of whether men and women of equal merit, do- ing similar work, shall be paid the same salary.’ The arguments in favor of higher salaries for men are usually listed somewhat as follows: 1. If salaries of women teachers are raised to the level of those paid men teachers, great increases in taxes will be necessary. 2. On the other hand, if salaries of men teachers are reduced to equal those of women, many capable men teachers will leave school work for other oc- cupations. 3. Our public schools are already suffering from overfeminization. Growing children should have contacts with both men and women teachers. 4. The supply of men teachers is limited; higher salaries must therefore be paid to secure their services. The arguments on the contrary side have been stated thus: 1. Equal pay for equal work is a growing prac- tice and is fundamentally sound. 2. Salaries should be based on service rendered and not on extraneous questions, such as sex. 3. The assumption that men are the only ones whe carry the burden of dependents is fallacious. 4. Women are rapidly attaining equality with men in other occupations and in other aspects of life. Objective data against which these conflict- ing claims might be checked are limited. Some 1A comparison of the statements by the Schoolmen’s Club of Kansas City and the Women Teachers’ Committee of ( cinnati brings out clearly the various problems involved. See “Equal Pay for Equal Service.” American Educational Digest 4 113-14; November, 1925. Also, ‘‘ Men's and Women’s Salaries in Cincinnati Schools."’ School and Society 24: 39; July 10, 192 2 Phillips, Frank M. Statistics of State School Systems, 1927-1928. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulle 1930, No. 5, Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1930. p. 28, Table 11. E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teaching Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. p. 272. 4 For example, the recent salary surveys in New York, San Francisco, Yonkers, ‘Pittsburgh, and Minneapolis. * Koch, Harlan C. ‘Is There a Difference Between the Problems of Men and Women Teachers?” Educational Research Bullet 5 Lewis, 5: 163-66; April 14, 1926. ‘ Briggs, Thomas H. The Junior High School. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1920. p. ? Woolley, Helen Thompson. “A Review of the Recent Literature on the Psychology of ‘Sex." Psychological Bulletin 7: 335-4 October 15, 1910. of the previous objective studies of this , : lem are reviewed below. Others will be { ; by consulting the bibliography. Percent of men teachers—The percent of ’ teachers in elementary and secondary schools between 1920 and 1928 from 14.1 percent to percent.This increase, however, has only part placed the general decline in the proportion of ; since 1880 when no less than 42.8 percent of nation’s public school teachers were men. C tions vary greatly among the states. In West ginia 29 percent of all teachers are men; in only 7.9 percent.” Dependents—In 1925 Lewis estimated “that a 90 percent of the women teaching in high schools and grade schools are unmarried and that abo to 70 percent of the men are married.” “Of cours: he adds, “the fact that women are not ma: does not mean that they do not have other dep: ents.” * A number of local studies * of teachers pendents have been reported but there is no recent comprehensive survey of the problem. Relative demands upon men and women teacher; -Koch® collected and classified the difficulties . perienced by a small group of men and wome: teachers in their work. His findings showed no sig nificant difference between the men and women respect to the number and kinds of problems ported. His findings, he says, support the views Briggs that “the qualities desired of a teacher much more characteristic of an individual than of a sex.” * The psychological literature which deals with sex differences also supports the conclusion that no striking dissimilarities exist.’ Table 5 contains a distribution of salary- schedule cities according to whether or not men teachers are paid higher salaries than women of equal training and experience. These data are limited to teachers in junior and senior high schools, as most cities employ few if any men teachers in their elementary schools. Of the 962 cities reporting on the situation } in junior high schools, 42 percent pay highe: salaries to men teachers than to women teachers in such schools. Of the 1,098 cities eeerene as to the policy in senior high schools, 55 pe: cent pay higher salaries to men teachers. ‘Ihe discrimination in favor of men is more frequent in cities under 30,000 in population than in those over 30,000. Of 71 cities over 100,000 Woolley, Helen Thompson. ‘‘ The Psychology of Sex."’ Psychological Bulletin 11: 353-79; October 15, 1914. [42] 2 tw im aga 1 et ee ypulation only 13 percent pay higher sala- Combinations of factors used in determining »s to men teachers in junior high schools; salaries—Table 6 contains information con 84 cities in this population group only cerning the various combinations of factors, ex 5 percent pay higher salaries to men teachers cluding sex, used by city school systems in de- senior high schools. termining the place of teachers on their salary ABLE 5—DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN SALARIES OF MEN AND WOMEN TEACHERS IN 1930-31 Cities over Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in All cities reporting Men paid higher salaries than population population population population population women of equal training and ex- ead perience: | | Num-j| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-/| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num Per- ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent l 2 3 + 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Junior high-school teachers: Yes... ° ‘ 9 12.7 59 36.4 133 49 0} 113 46.1 91 42 105 42.0 No ‘ 62 87.3 103 63.6 138 51.0 132 53.9 122 57.3 55 sz 0 Total reporting 3 71 100.0 162 100.0 | 271 100.0 245 100.0 213 100.0 ) 100.0 Senior high-school teachers: Yes... ; 13 15.5 73 ‘2.2 1 167 60.5 | 179 63.5 | 150 60.0 | 60 54.8 No ; 71 84.5 100 5 8 122 $9.5 103 36.5 100 40.0 40¢ 15 Total reporting R4 100.0 173 100.0 309 100.0 282 100.0 250 100.0 (109 0 0 g on this q zyher salaries than women of equal tra ng and ex lestion [for inior 1-8 Read table as follows: Of the 71 cities over 100,000 in pop teachers, 9, or 12.7 percent, indicated that men teachers are pai perience, while 62, or 87.3 percent, indicated that men are not paid higher salaries. Similarly read figures for senior high school teachers and for other population groups ) This tabulation is based on the replies to question 14 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75 TABLE 6—COMBINATIONS OF FACTORS DETERMINING A TEACHER’S PLACE ON THE SALARY SCHEDULE IN 1930-31 Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in to 10,000 in to 5,000 in Combination of fectors population | population population | population population | | | | All cities reporting | Per- Num-/ Per- | Num Per- cent | ber | cent ber | cent Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num- ber cent | ber cent ber cent | ber 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Number of years of service only 1 6 3 1.0 | S 20 9 3.8 18 1 Number of years of service po amount of professional train- } ing ‘ . bane 18 21.4 39 22.8 55 18.0 31 11.2 25 10.5 168 15.6 Number of years of service, | amount of professional training, | | | | and rating on efficiency scale : 14 8.2 20 6.5 6 | 2.2 | 5 2.3 45 4.2 Number of years of service, amount of professional training, | rating on efficiency scale, and position held. 2 2.4 | 8 4.7 9 2.9 19 6.9} 18 7.5 56 5.2 Number of years of service, amount of professional cceeneinen and position held....... Number of years of service, rat- ing on efficiency scale, and position held. . ; 3 a1 2 itd | AO 4 Bah 12 1.1 41 | 48.8] 73 | 42.7] 145 | 47.4] 155 | 55.9] 127 | 53.1] S41 | 50.2 | Number ot years of service and _rating on efficiency scale.......| a rere 1 6 | . ‘ 1 1 Number of years of service and | position held. : P 20 23.8 | 33 19.3 71 23.2 57 | 20.6 55 23.0 | 236 21.9 Total 84 |100.0 | 171 |100.0 | 306 {100.0 | 277 {100.0 | 239 {100.0 |1077 {100.0 Read table as follows: Of the 84 cities over 100,000 in population which reported, 18, or 21.4 percent, indicated that a teacher's place on the salary schedule is determined by the number of years of service and the amount of professiona training; 2, or 2.4 percent, indicated that a teacher's place is determined by the number of years of service, amount of professional training, rating on efficiency scale, and position held, etc. Similarly read figures for other population groups This tabulation is based on the replies to question 13 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75 % [ 43 ] ‘es «% schedules. Of the 1,077 salary-schedule cities reporting, about one-half place teachers on the schedule according to a combination of three factors: years of service, amount of profes- sional training, and the teaching position held. Only two other combinations are used with marked frequency. Years of service and posi- tion held determine a teacher’s salary in 22 percent of the cities, while years of service and amount of professional training determine it in 16 percent of the cities. These three com- binations are the most frequent in all popula- tion groups, and in general the percentages of cities using them do not vary greatly from one population group to another. Of the entire 1,077 cities, 2 percent use only one factor to determine salaries, 38 percent use two factors, 55 percent use three factors, and only 5 per- cent use all four of the factors included in Table 6. Supermaximum Salaries The desirability of a flexible administration of salary schedules has already been mentioned. One of the most widely used and approved plans for doing this is the supermaximum salary. Definition—The supermaximum salary has been defined as follows: The supermaximum, as its name implies, provides one or more additional salary steps beyond the nor- mal maximum established for the majority of the teaching staff, for the elect few who are fortunate enough to qualify for it. The number of teachers who can secure this extra compensation is neces- sarily limited, either informally in practice or for- mally in the schedule itself, since otherwise the supermaximum would soon become the regular max- imum for the entire personnel. Eligibility is usually restricted to those with the greatest amount of train- ing who have already reached the normal maximum for their respective positions and who have dis- played superior teaching ability.’ The same authority cautions against allow- ing the existence of a special supermaximum to depress the level of the regular maximum to which all teachers of satisfactory ability may attain. He writes: If there is to be a supermaximum, it should be added on as a postscript after the regular maximum has been definitely and finally determined. In fact, the question of whether to have a supermaximum should not even be raised until the normal maxi- mum has been fixed, because schedule-maker, super- intendent, and school board cannot help being | fluenced in establishing the regular maximum they know that a supermaximum is to be included the schedule. A high supermaximum should ney be regarded as a justifiable substitute for an quate maximum for the entire staff.* Present practice in city school systen Table 7 shows that of 1,153 salary-schedul: cities reporting in 1930-31, 44 percent hay supermaximum salaries to which regular tea ers with special qualifications may be promot There appears to be no definite relationship be- tween the size of cities and the proportion using this device in their schedules. The various bases upon which a teache advancement from the regular maximum ¢t the supermaximum depends in these cities are also shown in Table 7. Considerable diversity in practice is evident here. Among the entire 509 cities reporting supermaximum salaries additional training is used most frequently as a basis, while written examinations are em- ployed least frequently. Extra duties and su perior rating and performance are used as bases in somewhat more than half of the school sys. tems, while length of service as a factor is considerably less common. While additional training is required more frequently in cities over 30,000 than in those of smaller popula- tions, just the reverse is true with respect to superior rating and performance, extra duties, and length of service. Trend of practice in recent years—A com- parison of data concerning the use of super- maximum salaries in 1930-31 and in 1927-28 indicates some increase in the popularity of this device during the three-year period. Of 1,454 cities reporting on the question in 1928, in- cluding those with regular salary schedules and those without such schedules, 436 had super- maximum provisions for teachers. In 1931, of the 1,153 salary-schedule cities reporting, 509 stated that they grant supermaximum salaries. This increase was characteristic of all popula- tion groups except that over 100,000.* Illustrative schedules—A few schedules i! lustrating the actual operation of various bases for promotion to supermaximum salaries are presented below. They have been chosen at random and their inclusion does not imply particular recommendation of any one of them. * The factor of sex is not included in these combinations because its use varies somewhat according to type of school. For example, some cities pay men teachers higher salaries than women in senior high schools, but not in junior high schools. ? Elsbree, Willard S. Teachers’ Salaries. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. p. ¢ # /did., p. 106-7. * See footnote on page 41 for explanation of the methods used in comparing data for different years. [44] Catal a + aA rE 8 ~~ —_—-~ rrenton, N. J.—Illustrating supermaxima depend- on professional training.—The regular maxi- vm for elementary school teachers is $2400. ‘al maxima are fixed as follows: For those ssessing %4 year of professional preparation be- nd the standard normal school training, $2500; those possessing 1 year beyond the standard, 0: for those possessing 112 years beyond the randard, $2700; for those possessing 2 nd the standard, $2800. A similar plan is followed r other members of the teaching and supervisory iff. Oakland, California—lIllustrating supermaxima ependent on training plus special performance— he normal maximum for elementary school teach- rs is $2460. A special maximum of $120 annually years be- is paid to those meeting the following requirements: 1. At least one year’s experience at the maximum rating provided in one of the regular schedules. ['wenty units of credit, not heretofore counted on salary schedule, earned while in the employ of the Oakland Public Schools, these units to be in the general field of education and in the teacher’s special field—not more than one-half of these units to be in the special field—and a research study on some approved problem in education affecting the Oakland Public Schools which shall be adjudged the equivalent of a thesis for the Master’s Degree. > 3. Recommendation of supervisory staff, including principals and superintendents. 4. Application for first special maximum must be submitted to the Superintendent and adjudged by the Professional Study Board. A second special maximum of $180 annually is available to those who meet the following require- ments: 1. Two years or more experience under the first special maximum. 2. A creative contribution to while in the service of the Schools and upon a problem the Oakland Public Schools, to consist of the equivalent of a dissertation for the Doctor’s Degree. The merit of this con- tribution to be judged by the Professional Study Board.” 3 and 4. Similar to items 3 and 4 under the first special maximum.’ Washington, D. C.—Illustrating supermaxima de- made Public affecting such contribution education Oakland directly pendent on success in teaching, plus written exam- inations, plus other factors—A number of elements enter into this plan, the most heavily weighted sin- gle item being the recorded ratings of the teacher's success. The normal maximum for elementary school teachers is $2200; the supermaximum is $2600 Corresponding figures for senior high-school teach- ers are $2800 and $3200. Junior high-school teachers ' Trenton Public Schools. Salary Schedule adopted, June 6, 1930. Mimeographed. 3 p. * This board consists of the deans of two neighboring colleges of education. i Po : * Oakland Public Schools. Selection of Teachers and Schedule of Salaries. Administrative Regulation Series No. 2, 1927. p. 11 TABLE 7.—SUPERMAXIMUM SALARIES FOR TEACHERS IN 1930-31 Cities over | Cities 30,000 100,000 in to 100,000 in population population Policy | Num-| Per- nen | Per- ber | cent | ber | cent ee aig | a cae Rea 1 2 3 4 5 Supermaximum salary available to regular teachers with special qualifications: hihi beeen as nienisss 34 | 40.5] 75 | 42.4 Wide» seGRhente s86es se eves 50 | 59.5 | 102 | 57.6 Total reporting............ | 84 |100.0] 177 |100.0 Bases upon which a_ teacher's | - a“ — advancement from the regular maximum to the super- maximum is dependent:! Additional A 30 88.2 56 75.0 Superior rating and perform- cca scsccccsesccscees 16 47.1 34 45.3 ee 10 29.4 32 43.0 Length of service............ | & 1 28.5.) s }:28.3 Written examinations. ....... 1 2.9 4 8.8 Total number reporting | supermaximum salaries....| 34 | 100.0 75 | 100.0 Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 All cities to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in re rtin population population population PaaS || | a = | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-/ Per- ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent 6 7, |} @ 1 8 11 mi a | 165 50.5 134 44.5 101 38.3 509 44.1 162 49.5 167 55.5 163 61.7 | 644 | 55.9 327 |100.0 | 301 |100.0 | 264 |100.0 |1153 |100.0 —— ‘| = | —————| |__| — | : : | | 101 | 61.2 | 88 | 68.7] 63 | 62.4 | 338 | 66.4 90 | 54.5 | &5 63.4 65 64.4 290 57.0 95 57.6 80 59.7 65 64.4 | 282 5.4 50 30.3 45 34.0 29 28.7 151 30.0 1 BP Inet ctcdinacee , » J 6 a seat | ; on : } } | 165 100.0) 134 100.0) 101 100.0; 509 100.0 Read table as follows: Of the 84 cities over 100,000 in population replying, 34, or 40.5 percent, reported supermaximum salaries to which regular teachers with special qualifications may be promoted, while 50, or 59.5 percent, do not give super- maximum salaries. Of the 34 cities in this population group reporting supermaximum salaries, 30, or 88.2 percent, in- dicated that additional training is a factor upon which promotion to the supermaximum depends; 16, or 47.1 percent, stated that superior rating and performance are factors, etc. Similarly read figures for other population groups. This tabulation is based on replies to questions 15 and 16 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75. 1 In this table no attempt is made to give the frequencies of various combinations of these factors used in promoting teachers to supermaximum levels. The frequencies given for each factor are independent of those for all other factors. [45] are divided into two groups. The normal maxima for the lower and higher salaried groups are $2400 and $2800, respectively; the supermaxima, $2800 and $3200. In order to be considered for advance- ment to the supermaximum, a score of at least 700 credits must be made. Credits may be earned as shown in Table 8. Direct Financial Rewards for Additional Training or Travel The recognition of academic and profes- sional training in the regular salary schedule and in plans for granting supermaximum sala- ries has been discussed in preceding sections." This section summarizes practice and opinion with respect to granting special salary bonuses or other direct financial rewards to teachers pursuing courses in summer schools or other- wise improving their professional equipment. The relative merits of summer schools, travel, extension courses, or other forms of profes- sional development are not discussed here.” How meet the cost of professional compe- tency ?—Professional competency must be paid for at some point. Teachers of sound scholar- ship and full professional preparation, with broad experience and contacts, cannot be ob- tained for the same cost as teachers with little training and contacts no wider than those of their local communities. As the demand for increasingly skilled service grows, the financial rewards offered must be stepped up somewhat proportionately. Good schools require good teachers; good teachers possess aptitude, train- ing, knowledge, and cultural background ; and 1 See pages 40, 43, and 44. 3 For “Gecnasian of this point see: National Education Association, Research Division. tN . Bulletin 6: 228-29; September, 1928. Washington, D. C.: sonnel.” the services of persons possessing such qu cannot be purchased cheaply. However, whether the cost of maintain corps of able and well-trained teachers s}).\\\) be met through a system of petty and pice. meal financial rewards is another question. S \\¢| methods probably were temporarily nece after the war. The lowered purchasing power; of salaries had forced many of the best tea from the profession. They had been rep! in many instances by relatively unprepared re cruits. When a school system finds itself \ it) a large percentage of such teachers, the picce meal method of lifting the professional pre) ration of its teaching staff to an accep! minimum may be desirable as a temporary ex pedient. Ultimately the aim should be to employ none but well-prepared teachers and to maintain standards of performance in the classroom which can be met only by those who keep abreast of the best school theory and practice. The keystone to such a situation must be a salary schedule which makes it economica!|; practicable to expect first-rate people to equi; themselves with the pre-service and in-service training essential for classroom work on a high level. That this view is becoming rather well ac- cepted is indicated by the following quotations from a symposium on the question: Should teachers receive a bonus for professional study ?° These quotations are representative of the “Practices Affecting Teacher Per the Association. mposium on Professional Study: Should Teachers Receive a Bonus for It?” Journal of Education 111: 91-92; January 119- 20; y pS 147; February 10, 1930. TABLE 8—SYSTEM OF CREDIT ALLOWANCES FOR PROMOTION TO SUPERMAXIMUM SALARY LEVELS IN WASHINGTON, D. C.1 Maximum Basis of credits Basis of allowance credits allowed Recorded success in teaching. ................. NS le ange Pepeustuness osien oka 325 | Familiarity with modern educational theory and SERA RS a ae ee One-hour written examination................0.00055 200 Educational preparation WE Geena! Grnetling. . . 1 TOMI s oon n cs cckos occ sdcecdsgncescecsiecsiees 140 | Constructive educational work................... Well-organized educational plans and investigations. ... 100 essional interest and growth. ................ Publications on educational subjects, affiliation with professional organizations, travel Sk Whe dalde es ov © 35 BO Se a eee eee ee Membership and participation in civic groups, lectures, | and other outside contactsS..............-6+0-05+:- 50 | Assigned work other than teaching............... Assignments by superior officers. ...............-.+-. 50 | cine peak JG eeenwinwad.wes Any of the above items and matters related thereto as determined through an oral examination............ 100 si: ivailable. are at present no reliable nation-wide figures 3. Where can I secure statements of the on cost of living for teachers alone. Several eneral theory of salary scheduling? Such _ agencies, however, compile national estimates statements can be found in almost any good of the cost of living. The publications of the U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Statistics of State School Systems, 1927-28. Bulletin, 1930, No. 5. ) Washington, D, C.: Government Printing Office, 1930. 58 p. 10c. ? Comstock, L. M. Per Capita Costs in City Schools, 1929-30. Pamphlet No. 19, U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 13 p. 5c. } National Education Association, Department of Superintendence and Research Division. City School Expenditures, 1930-31, } I itional Research Service Circular No. 1, 1932. Washington, D. C.: the Association 36 p. | *U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Statistics of City School Systems, 1927-28. Bulletin, 1929, No. 34. l Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1929. 193 p. 30c ‘ Elsbree, Willard S. Teachers’ Salaries. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. 86 p 5 National Education Association, Research Division. ‘‘The Scheduling of Teachers’ Salaries."’ Research Bulletin 5: 130-92; May, 1927. Washington, D. C.: the Association. } TABLE 11.—POLICIES AS TO PERIOD AND FREQUENCY OF TEACHERS’ : SALARY PAYMENTS IN 1930-31 } , i - | Cities over | Cities 30,000 Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 Cities 2,500 All cities | 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in fe - population population | population population | population | POTERS i Policy ESSE ee eS We: ey: cientiaanamaisoae ieiiacemaliea [ | | | | | Num-| Per- | Num-/| Per- | Num-| Per- Num. Per- Pom Per- | Num- | Per- | | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent 1 Bakraic@itk titers ec Ase 11 12 13 Number of months over which | | teachers’ salary payments ex- | | tend: | | | CEES ere See see | 1 5 | how 3 2 2 1 Se 8! 9.5 | 373 | 19.7 1274 31.7 | 1778 43.0 | 2169 | 53.8 | 565 | 38.0 Ten months........... er 58 69.1 | 111 | 59.1 | 2025 | SO.4 | 1857 | 44.9 | 147% | 36.6 | 703 | 47.3 Eleven months.............. 1 1.2 1 | °s | bgt a tea a. a 5 3 Twelve months.............. 17 20.2 38 20.2 70 17.4; 50 eee ao f 212 14.3 lh andaniaibenite iannenel * a | - PE sie C8GAa cesses 0% | 84 |100.0 | 188 j100.0 | 401 \100.0 | 412 }100.0 | 402 |100.0 |1487 1100.0 Frequency of payments: cy mee, . pay | | SE icce0 hig 30s wr nae aes 652 78.3 136 72.7 303 77.1 3048 73.6 | 306" 77.1 |1114 75.6 Semi-momthiy.......cccccces 15 18.1 7 45 24.1 88 22.4 106 25.7 90 | 22.7 344 23.3 ' . > = Reeekebetppeee S738), 8 2 3.21 2 5 | 3 7 rT. wie 1.0 UT GO Vic Soret ce sw cchiecccnfescsice 1 so Bees ae erie ree aA ae 1 | 1 ——— | | ———| ——— | — a | | | DE heats ineseceses. | 83 |100.0 | 187 |100 0 | 393 |100.0| 413 |100.0 | 397 |100.0 |1473 |100.0 | ! | | | | Read table as follows: Of the 84 cities over 100,000 in population reporting period over which payments of teacher extend, 8, or 9.5 percent, indicated that these payments extend over 9 months; 58, or 69.1 percent, indicated over 10 months, etc. Of the 83 cities in this population group reporting frequency of payments, 65, or 78.3 percent, indicated that monthly payments are made; 15, or 18.1 percent, indicated that semi-monthly payments are made, etc. Similarly read figures for other population groups. This tabulation is based on replies to questions 8 and 9 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75. : 1 Four of these reported salaries paid for 94% months. ¢ 2 One of these reported that 20% of the teachers are on a weekly payment plan. + Seven of these reported 944 months, and two reported 944 months. 4 One of these reported 934 months; nine of these reported 9144 months; five reported optional 9 or 12 months; two 4 reported also 10 months plan used and one reported the use of 12 months plan in a few cases. 5 One of these reported optional for 10 or 12 months; another reported that 12 months plan was used in special cases. * Four of these reported 944 months; five reported 944 months; two reported also some teachers on 10 months plan; two reported also some teachers on 12 months plan; and two reported also some teachers on 10 and on 12 months plan ; 7 Seven reported optional for 10 or 12 months, one reported optional for 10 or 11 months, and one reported also some : teachers on 12 months plan. § One reported some teachers on semi-monthly plan. j * Five of these reported 914 months, 7 reported some teachers paid on 12 months plan, one reported optional for 9, j 10, or 12 months, and one reported also some teachers on 10 months plan. t ” Five of these reported that some teachers are also paid on a 12 months plan. : " Four also pay semi-monthly in some cases. i — ER a _ [ 49 ] U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics and of the National Industrial Conference Board should be consulted. Facts on the effect of changes in the cost of living on the purchasing power of teachers’ salaries are conveniently summa- rized in a recent publication of the National Education Association.! 5. How can I compare salaries paid teach- ers with those paid other occupational groups? The U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics fre- quently publishes figures showing the prevail- ing wage rates, especially for union labor in the various cities and districts of the nation. The publications of this Bureau are available in most city libraries. Comparisons on a na- tional basis between the salaries of teachers and of certain other occupational groups for 1928 are available in a recent publication of the National Education Association.” 6. Where can I get data on the salaries ac- tually paid city school employees of various types? Data concerning salaries paid to 368,- 418 employees in 1,632 city school systems for 1930-31 are available in the Research Bulletin for May, 1931.* 7. Where can I secure the latest information on salaries paid rural school teachers? This in- formation is collected by the U. S. Office of Education and has been published in its Bul- letin No. 6, 1929.4 A summary of a number of comparative studies of salaries paid rural and urban teachers is available in the Research Bulletin for September, 1931.5 8. How can I compare in detail the salaries paid teachers and other school employees in a group of cities of comparable size? The bien- nial salary survey conducted by the Research Division is reported in two ways. The general facts and averages are reported in one of the 1 National Education Assouw.ation, Research Division. What's Ahead for Teachers’ Salaries. Washington, D. C 1930. (ee : National Education =e Yay Research Division. ‘Salaries in City School Systems, 1930-31." 228; ee es Washington, D. C.: the Association. Research Bulletins.6 For those who wish more detailed information, special salary tabulati ys are prepared and reproduced by a planog: ing process, These tabulations are sold cost sufficient to pay for reproduction mailing. The cost of collecting the dat the first place is borne by the Association. ‘I’ who wish to make highly detailed compari should order the Special Salary Tabulat: mentioning the size of the city which is to included in the comparison and the types oj employees to be covered. A folder descri! the Special Salary Tabulations will be ; upon request.’ 9. How can I get in touch with the sal surveys that have been made in various ¢ii) school systems? A large number of such sur- veys have been published in recent years and are available for purchase or distribution. For a list of such surveys consult the Sixth Y. book of the Department of Classroom Tea ers, pages 182-86.° 10. Where can I get recent information « cerning the effect of the business depression on teachers’ salaries? This topic has been covered in a recent publication of the National Educa- tion Association.® 11. Where can I get criteria for judging state salary legislation? The Research Divi sion publishes an annual summary of schoo! legislation including laws enacted affecting the salaries of teachers.’° This legislation as it af- fects the welfare of teachers has been sun marized in a recent magazine article.’ Stand- ards for judging state salary laws are proposed and discussed in the March and May, 1930, Research Bulletins.” 12. Where can I get helpful publicity ma .: the Associati * Research Bulletin 9: 1¢ ment of the Sasoeion, Office of Education. Salaries and a Trends of Teachers in Rural Schools. Bullet 1929, No. 6. Washington, D. C.: * National Education Association, Research Division. September, 1931. Washington, D. C.: the Association. * National Education Associat tion, 228; May, 1931. Washington, D. C.: the Association. ’ National Education tion, Teachers, Principals, and Certain Other School Em ministrative and Supervisory Oficers. Washington, * National Education Association, book. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1931. 244 p * National Education Associatio: tion, Researc the Association, 1931. 42 p. Department of Classroom T. Government Printing Office, 1929. 54 p “The Outlook for “Rural Education.” Research Bulletin 9: 230-30 Division. “Salaries in City School Systems, 1930-31." Research Bulletin 9: 16 Research Division. Special Salary Tabulations, 1930-31—(I1-A—V-A)—Salaries Pa ae Soecias Salary Tabulations, 1930-31—(1-B—V-B)—Salaries Paid A : the hesscintion. ee. $5.00 a set. “The Economic Welfare of Teachers.”” Sixth Y« h Division. Childhood and the Depression: A Look Ahead. Washington, D. %” National Education wort -y Research Division. State School Legislation, 1931. Studies in State Educational Administ: tion, No. 10. Washington, D. C.: ™ Carr, Wil ® National Education Association, Division. Research Part II: Handbook.” Research Bulletin 8: 54-88; March, 1930; 90-164; May, 1930. Washington, D. [ 50] tion, February, 1932. 20 p. liam G. “ Recent po That Affect the Teacher Directly. " Nation's Schools 5: $3-55; May, 1930. “A Self-survey Plan for State School S\ stems. Part I: Checklist .: the Association. —--— aw. | for use in salary campaigns? A recent ‘cation of the National Education Asso- -stion showing the relationship between edu- cation and business has been widely used for purpose.’ A series of specific suggestions for observing American Education Week, ny of which can be used in an all-year pro- I gram of school publicity, are available in a pamphlet prepared by the Division of Publi- cations, National Education Association.? Most recent textbooks on school administration and related problems contain good chapters on methods for interpreting the needs of the schools to the public. Sick Leave and Related Problems It has been estimated that more than 250,- 10,000 working days are lost annually in the United States on account of sickness.* Surveys health conditions show that the average wage earner in the United States loses between six ind seven working days a year because of sick- ness.* Personal illness, however, is not the only compelling reason for absence from duty. Per- sonal responsibility may take precedence over professional duty when there is grave sickness or death in the home, in the case of legal pro- cedures, in response to certain religious obliga- tions, and in meeting other personal claims not to be ignored. It will be agreed that teachers have an obli- gation to reduce to the barest minimum their absence from work for personal reasons. A teacher’s absence from school usually means a loss to the school system. The pupils must be taught by a substitute whose service often does not equal that of the missing teacher. In spite of every resolution, however, teachers will at times be unable to respond to the morning bell. ‘Two important questions arise in connection with the absence of teachers for unavoidable personal reasons: (1) What provisioa shall be made to care for the classes of the absent teacher? and (2) What proportion, if any, of the absent teacher’s salary shall be paid by the school board, and how long shall such payment continue ? The only defensible answer to the first ques- tion is that the classes of absent teachers should be met by the best substitutes that can be found. The provision of competent substitutes should not be left to chance, but should be as thought- fully administered as the selection of regular teachers. The conditions of employment of sub- stitutes should be so planned as to lead to maximum efficiency in this part of the teaching service, One answer to the second question might be that the teacher has contracted to deliver his professional service in full, and that any failure to do so should result in a proportionate reduc- tion in pay. On the other hand, the more pro- gressive school officials and citizens are gener- ally agreed that the welfare of both the teacher and his pupils is enhanced if a limited amount of absence, for imperative personal reasons, is permitted without entire loss of pay. The teacher’s efficiency is strengthened by the sense of personal security that comes with protection of his income against loss due to unavoidable emergencies. A reasonable leave-of-absence pol- icy, properly safeguarded, places the school board in the position of a fair employer who is responsive to the human element in the teacher’s relation to his profession. The improved morale derived from knowing that a few days of neces- sary absence will not be penalized by salary deduction, and the gains in teachers’ health de- rived by their remaining away from the class- room while ill have important values for the school system, Suggested principles governing leave-of-ab- sence policies—There is probably no adequate statement of the principles upon which leave- of-absence policies should be based. In most cases such policies probably have developed in a more or less haphazard fashion under the in- fluence of local custom and tradition. The fol- lowing tentative list of principles is suggested 1 National Education Association, Research Division. The Schools and Business. Washington, D. C.: the Association. 1930 p- * National Education Association, and the Department of Superintendence. Things To Do. (A Handbook for the Schools and the Public on the Observance of American Education Week, November 9-15, 1931.) Washington, D. C.: the Association, and the Department of Superintendence, July 1, 1931. 52 p. * Riegel, Robert, and Loman, H. J. Imsurance Principles and Practices. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1929. p. 249 * Dublin, Louis I., and Lotka, Alfred J. The Money Value of a Man. New York: Ronald Press Co., 1930. p. 110. [51] » by common sense and by an examination of provisions for administering teacher absence in a large number of cities: 1. The education of pupils during the absence of regular teachers should be safeguarded by pro- viding trained, capable, and well-paid substitute teachers. 2. The conditions under which leave of absence with pay may be granted should be clearly and definitely stated. 3. The remuneration of absent teachers and the number of days during which such remuneration may be received should be determined by a consid- eration of (1) lengths of absences among teachers for various reasons in the local school system, (2) the financial ability of the system, and (3) current practice in other communities. 4. Some financial protection should be provided against long attacks of illness, when the teacher’s economic security is most endangered by loss of income. 5. The plan for allowing leaves of absence should be safeguarded against abuse. 6. Constructive measures should be taken to keep at a minimum the amount of absence due to ill health (1) by testing physical fitness when teachers are selected and periodically thereafter, and (2) by maintaining healthful working conditions in the schools. The next few pages discuss each of these gested principles in turn, and present pertinent data as to policies and practices in city sc! systems. Safeguarding pupil welfare during absence of teachers—A few cities have set up det rules for the administration of substitute s ice, but much remains to be done in man school systems before substitute teachers employed with the care which the importan of their service warrants. There are two eral classes of substitutes: (1) tempora emergency, or day-to-day substitutes, and (2) permanent or annual substitutes. The first c! includes teachers who are paid at a flat rate per day and those who are paid in some direct p portion to the salary of the absent teache: In some cases the method of determining a ‘For example, see: Oakland, California. Principal Rules and Regulations, 1928. p. 91-93; Minneapolis, Minnesota. Rule and Regulations 1929. p. 47-48; and Cleveland, Ohio. Administrative Code, 1925. p. 59. TABLE 12.—POLICIES GOVERNING EMPLOYMENT OF SUBSTITUTE TEACHERS IN 1930-31 Cities 5,000 Cities 2,500 day... All substitutes are on temporary basis, receiving pay in some direct proportion to the absent | Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 All citi 100,000 in to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in to 5,000 in ~— Policy population population population population population oporting Num-/| Per- |Num-| Per- | Num-/| Per- |Num-| Per- | Num-/| Per- Num- | Per ber | cent ber | cent ber | cent ber | cent ber | cent ber cent 1 2 3 | 4 5 4 7 x 9 | 10 | | 12 | 13 All substitutes are on temporary | basis, receiving a flat rate per COERESOKO CESARE SH OMeA gol 94.1 165? 88.2 | 354? 88.9 | 3848 93.7 | 33% 85.0 |1322 89.4 | | il . eee See ton 3 1.6 15 3.8 22 5.4 515 | 12.8 oa i «(6.1 | All substitutes are on permanent, | full-time basis, receiving regular monthly salary............... 1 1.2 3 1.6 7 1.8 3 i 6 1.5 20 | 1.4 Both temporary and permanent | substitutes are employed...... 46 4.7 168 8.6 | 226 5.5 16 a 36 7) 466) 3.1 Total number reporting. .... 85 |100.0 187 800.0 398 (100.0 | 410 (100.0 | 399 [100.0 |1479 (100.0 | according to regular salary schedule. the regular teacher's salary. the regular teacher's salary. substitutes are paid a flat rate per day. stitutes, 44 indicated that their tempora cities 10,000 to 30,000 in population and t other in cities Read table as follows: Of the 85 cities over 100,000 in population reporting, 80, or 94.1 percent, indicated that all substitutes are on temporary basis, receiving a flat rate per day; 1, or 1.2 percent, indicated that all substitutes are on per- manent full-time basis, receiving regular monthly salary, etc. Similarly read figures for other population groups. This tabulation is based on replies to question 26 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75. 1 One of these cities reported that after a substitute remains in the same position for 3 months or more, he is paid 2 Three of these cities reported that after a substitute remains in the same position for a specified period, he is paid | * Four of these cities reported that after a substitute remains in the same position for a specified period, he is paid the regular teacher's salary, and one reported that elementary substitutes are paid on a temporary basis at a flat rate per day while high-school substitutes are paid monthly on a full-time basis. * Three of these cities reported that after a substitute remains in the same position for a specified period, he is paid * One of these cities reported that elementary substitutes are paid 75 percent of regular teacher's salary and high-school * Out of a total of 46 cities in all population groups which reported employing both temporary and permanent sub- substitutes are paid a flat rate per day. The remaini ,500 to 5,000 in population—indicaied t substitutes are paid in some direct proportion to the salary of the absent teacher. two cities—one in t their temporary [ $2] on. ae nporary substitute’s pay is changed after he .s been teaching in a given classroom for sev- eral weeks. The second class of substitutes is mposed of those who are employed on a full- me. annual basis, with a regular monthly sal- y, in recognition of the fact that there will be ough absence to justify their continuous em- loyment. Table 12 shows the types of substi- tutes employed by city school systems in 1930 31. While a few cities reported that all of thei: substitutes are on a full-time basis, and a few thers indicated that both temporary and per- inent substitutes are employed, the almost universal practice is to employ all substitutes on a per diem basis for days of actual teaching. In some cities (for example, Minneapolis, Omaha, and Cleveland) the daily rate of pay ncreases with years of experience in substitute service. \ recent editorial on substitute service em- nhasizes the need for outstanding ability in sub stitute teachers if the classes of absent teachers ire to maintain their standard of achievement and conduct. The solution to the problem of substitute service proposed in this editorial is that of employing substitute teachers for full time, demanding of them the highest qualifica- tions, and paying them adequate salaries. Conditions for granting leaves of absence with pay—Personal illness of the teacher and death in the immediate family are the most com- monly recognized reasons for leave of absence, but many others deserve consideration. One fairly complete list is that given in the rules of the Boston public schools, as shown in Table 13. A study of teacher absence in the Baltimore schools during 1927-28 shows the proportion of total absence due to each of seven causes.” The leave-of-absence policy in Baltimore pro- vides sick leave on half pay—65 days to teachers who have been less than 10 years in service, and 130 days to teachers who have been employed 10 years or more. Leave of absence on full pay is allowed for death in the family (4 days), visiting schools (2 days), and an indefinite number of days for attending educational meetings and for responding to court summons in cases not concerning the teacher’s personal interest. Table 14 shows the relative incidence of these and certain other causes of absence in the Baltimore schools. Although the teachers’ ill health was responsible for 83 percent of the absence, nearly a fifth was for reasons other than sickness. The provisions made by many school systems for leave of absence in the case of severe illness or death in the immediate fam- ily would seem justified by this distribution. TABLE 13—CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH LEAVES OF ABSENCE WITH PAY MAY BE GRANTED TO TEACH- ERS AND SUPERVISORS IN THE BOS- TON PUBLIC SCHOOLS’ | Amount of leave with: Causes of absence? Part pay Full pay . Personal illness. . . . Weddings...... In the immediate family . Ordinations or entrance in- | to religious orders In the immediate family. 4. Death in the immediate ES ARP ee epee ate . Critical illness in the im- mediate family (in each SCHOOL VERT)... cc ccccce 6. Attendance at the funeral of a teacher or school officer in the employ of the city, or of a principal CE, ec itiekseenes 7. Attendance at funerals... When travel is required, not more than......... 2 days 8. To act as readers for col- | lege entrance examination ON iis nite bonded eis | 9, Jewish holy days........ 10. Service in state teachers’ institutes, or to take part in teachers’ associations (in each school year) 11. Court attendance on school IER Ps 12. To take promotional ex- aminations or examina- tions for certificates of qualification............ 13. To receive a degree at a college or university...... 14. Visiting other schools... . 5. Physical incapacity caused | by accidents which occur during the performance of | duty on premises under the | control of the School Com- | mittee 1 year 3 days® 1 day N 1 day w 1 day ; 1 day 5 days* an 20 days ese . 1 day 1 day ‘ Unspecified 3 day Ss 3 days Unspecified Unspecified 3 months 1 Boston, Mass. Rules of the School Committee and Regulations of the Public Schools of the City of Boston School Document No. 14, 1926. Boston: Printing Department, 1927. p. 146. Amendments to the Rules and Regulations, Secretary's Circular No. 2, 1928-29. 9 2 Extended leaves of absence for study, travel or rest are not included in this table. 8 For directors and principals. 4 Consecutive calendar days, which period shall include and may also immediately precede or im- mediately follow the day of the death. 1“ When a Teacher Becomes Ill, Who Shall Take Her Place?” Nation's Schools 8: 74; July, 1931. ?Chapman, H. B. Statistical Report for the School Year, 1927-28: Absence of Teachers. Baltimore, Md.: Bureau of Research, Department of Education, 1928. Table 28. [ 53] a When leave of absence is granted because of death in the immediate family a question of definition may arise, and many such rules have been supplemented by a list of the relatives making up the “immediate family.” A com- monly accepted interpretation is to include par- ents, husband or wife, children, brothers and sisters.’ Aunts, uncles, nieces, nephews, grand- parents, and relatives by marriage are some- times included, and some rules avoid the ques- tion by providing leave of absence on account of “the death or serious illness of a relative.”’ TABLE 14.— CAUSES OF ABSENCE AMONG BALTIMORE SCHOOL TEACHERS IN 1927-28' Percent of Cause of absence total | absence IIR ino bs 6s este cauence Wie year. Quotes by- laws of departments of education relative to the granting of sick leave in six large Cities. Rocers, JAMES Freperick. “Wide Variation of Practice in Matter of Sick Leave.” School Life 13: 28-29; October, 1927. Gives data on sick leave for teachers in cities reporting to U. S. Bureau of Education, and lays down a few principles, relating to the health of the teacher, which should govern in the admin- istering of sick-leave system. States that a cumu- lative plan is “the next best thing” to allowing as many days as are needed and deciding each case on its individual merits. 2. “Safeguarding the Teacher’s Health.” (A sym- posium) WNation’s Schools 3:50-56; January, 1929. Tells of the progress made in various com- munities in protecting the health of teachers. Describes programs in 23 cities. 3, “Sick Leave Allowances for Teachers.” (Edi- torial) American School Board Journal 78: 69; May, 1929. Quotes seven conclusions on sick-leave prac- tices developed by I. M. Allen, Superintendent of Schools in Highland Park, Michigan. Edi- torial states that public interest, based upon the interests of the children, should be the guiding principle upon which school boards should base their sick-leave policies and regulations. . TeRMAN, Lewis M., AND ALMACK, JOHN C. The Hygiene of the School Child. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1929. Chapter XXII, “The Teacher’s Health,” p. 437-71. Reviews studies made in Europe and the United States; offers a suggested program for improving and safeguarding the teacher’s health. . U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, BUREAU OF EpucaTion. Pay Status of Absent Teachers and Pay of Substitute Teachers. City School Leaflet No. 21, April, 1926. Washington, D. C.: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1926. 14 p. Gives provisions of school systems in 163 cities of 30,000 or more population as to: the number of days teachers are granted leave for sickness; the pay of teachers during leave for sickness; and the rate of pay for substitute teachers. Woop, Tuomas D., chairman. The Teacher's Health: What Some Communities Are Doing To Conserve It. Monograph No. 4, School Health Bureau, Welfare Division. New York: Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., about 1928. 32 p. Includes results of a questionnaire answered by 48 school systems; makes detailed recom- mendations for a school board policy to promote good health among teachers; reproduces forms used in Philadelphia in making periodic health examination of school employees. Extended Leaves of Absence for Profes- 47. 48. 49. 50. si. 52. 53. 54. [ 69] sional Improvement BrickHouseE, Lucy N. “Leaves of Absence for Study and Travel.’ Fourth Yearbook. Washing- ton, D. C.: Department of Classroom Teachers, National Education Association, 1929. p. 139-41. Lists cities granting leave of absence for pro- fessional improvement on half salary, or full salary less pay of substitute. Reports that less than eight percent of the school systems give financial encouragement for travel Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teach ing Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. 460 p. Chapter V contains a brief summary of prac- tices in granting sabbatical leave to teachers in seven cities. Gives two plans in some detail. MacCaucuey, V. “Sabbatical Leave for Teach- ers.” Journal of the National Education Asso- ciation 15:18; January, 1926. Reviews outstanding points in report on sab- batical leave for teachers to the California Council of Education. Lists cities which have plan in some form. McGtape, JoHN C. “Leave-of-Absence for Study.” Sierra Educational News 24: 9-10; Janu- ary, 1928. Summarizes data from two studies of prac tice in American cities. Benefits to teachers, school system, and community are discussed. MorGAN, KATHERINE M. “Report of the Com- mittee on Sabbatical Year.” Proceedings, 1925. Vol. 63. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1925. p. 369-72. Report of a committee of the Teachers’ Co operative Council, Kansas City. cities granting leave, and surveys variations in practice. Concludes that sabbatical leave is fast becoming a recognized means of securing for the community the benefits of teacher improve- ment. Lists typical NATIONAL EpucaATION AssociATION, Resgarcu D1- VISION. “Practices Affecting Teacher Personnel.” Research Bulletin 6: 205-256; September, 1928. Washington, D. C.; the Association, p. 225-27. A survey of conditions in 1928. NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION, RESEARCH D1- vision. Sabbatical Leave for Public School Teachers. Washington, D. C.: the Association, July, 1927. 31 p. A study directed by the Representative As- sembly of the Association. Brings together data on systems for sabbatical leave in thirty cities. Discusses purpose and value of sabbatical leave and essential elements of plans for granting leave to teachers and characteristics of existing plans. Includes tabular analysis and an exten- sive bibliography. “A Practical Plan for Sabbatical Leave.” Na- tional League of Teachers’ Associations Year- book, 1926. Minneapolis: the Association, 1926. p. 40-43. States that plans of sabbatical leave have met with general approval, and that the expense is 5 wn 56. 57. 59. small. Gives some of most widely accepted regu- lations governing sabbatical leave. Names bene- fits accruing to teachers and to school systems. . “Sabbatical Leaves for Teachers.” Elementary School Journal 27: 321-23; January, 1927. Abstracts from an article in 1926 Yearbook of the National League of Teachers’ Associa- tions. Lists eleven regulations generally applica- ble to sabbatical leave plans. Describes plans in Rochester, Richmond, and New York. SKINNER, VerRNE P. “Sabbatical Leave for Teachers.” Fourth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: Department of Classroom Teachers, Na- tional Education Association, 1929. p. 135-39. Reports that about sixty-five cities provided some form of sabbatical leave, fifty percent of these paying half salary or more. Leave may be granted for professional improvement only, for travel and study, or for rest and restoration of health. Teacher Rating Atmack, J. C., anpb Lane, A. R. Problems of the Teaching Profession. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1925. p. 175-94. Discusses objections to the rating of teachers and the use of various devices of measurement. Names six purposes for which rating schemes are used. Maintains that chief value of rating lies in professional improvement. . Brueckner, L. J. “Scales for the Rating of Teaching Skill.” University of Minnesota Bul- letin. Vol. 30, No. 12. Minneapolis, Minnesota: College of Education, University of Minnesota, February 18, 1927. 28 p. Names three functions of teacher rating. Points out difficulties in the use of existing scales and seeks to develop a more objective plan. This plan provides for rating of teachers according to teaching methods used. Burscu, Russett L. C. “Teacher Rating.” Re- view of Educational Research 1: 99-107; April, 1931. Washington, D. C.: American Educational Research Association, National Education As- sociation. 61. 62. 63. [70] i.) a 60. research A summary of the scientific teacher rating up to November, 1930. Exten bibliography. CHARTERS, W. W., AND WapLes, Douc as. 7 Commonwealth Teacher-Training Study. ( cago: University of Chicago Press, 1929 14-19. Presents an extensive list of traits of succ: ful teaching arranged in order of estimated portance. Crapes, LetAH Mag. Measuring Efficiency Supervision and Teaching. Contributions Education, No. 175. New York: Bureau of P lications, Teachers College, Columbia Uniy sity, 1925. 98 p. Describes a program of supervision based measurement and attempts the evaluation such a program. Describes results of apply a teaching efficiency formula to urban and ru teachers. Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teac/ Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. p. 190-2! Briefly describes the theory of teacher rati: presents evidence concerning its reliability, a: mentions a number of score cards. Rippite, ANNA, chairman. “Report of the Co: mittee of One Hundred on Classroom Teach: Problems—Teacher Rating.” Proceedings, 19 Vol. 63. Washington, D. C.: National Edu tion Association, 1925. p. 200-15. A summary of the teacher rating situation American schools. Arguments for and agai: rating are compared and fundamental princip! are presented. . Wuirney, Freperick L. The Growth of Tea: ers in Service. New York: Century Co., 192 p. 42-55, 143-53, 206-12. Discusses methods of teacher rating. Sugges activity analysis and the “trade-test” forms being most helpful. States that a number school systems have abandoned schemes fo basing salaries on merit as measured by ratin devices. Summarizes details of reports o teacher-rating plans in thirty-one small scho: systems. LIST OF TABLES Table 1 ~ 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. Policies Governing the Term of Employment for Teachers in 1930-31. . . Use of Written Contracts for Teachers in 1930-31. Use of Definite Salary Schedules for Teachers in 1930-31. . Certain Factors Automatically Determining a Teacher’s Place on the Salary Schedule SaaS CIE ef Serer ; Picncclenunmmnootaeaant hr Differentiation between Salaries of Men and Women Teachers in 1930-31 ....... . Combinations of Factors Determining a Teacher’s Place on the Salary Schedule in 1930-31.... . Supermaximum Salaries for Teachers in 1930-31. . . System of Credit Allowances for Promotion to Supermaximum Salary Levels in Wash ington, D. C. Da a Sloe abe ota Se aER he RN, Te To a Sor Air oA oa . Granting Special Bonuses for Summer-School Attendance and Educative Travel in ee FAS GARE soso seb Ser SSeS REM DREW kN a LNRM OR SMe eae . Comparison of Policies as to Granting Special Bonuses for Summer-School Attendance A OE GS : ee ee nee nae PE res tee os . Policies as to Period and Frequency of Teachers’ Salary Payments in 1930-31. . Policies Governing Employment of Substitute Teachers in 1930-31...... Conditions under Which Leaves of Absence with ‘iad May Be Granted to Teachers and Supervisors in the a Public Schools . Sg PERS ee Causes of Absence among ‘Baltimore School Teachers in 1927-28........... Brief Leaves of Absence with Some Salary Granted for Various Reasons in 1930-31 Full Pay or Part Pay Allowed during Brief Leaves of Absence in Cities erueeees Leave ee hen a weiracee ements t.e'cnensaeeaas sack yr Frequency of Cumulative Sick-Leave Plans in 1927-28 and 1930-31..... . Amount of Sick Leave and Proportion of seins Granted in Cities Over 100,000 in Popuiation in 1990-31 ............0.0cececcccss . Amount of Sick Leave and Proportion of Salary Granted in Cities 30,000 to 100,000 in Nc ans oc dataa cay udedst del deed pcos alicn. eek achi MONA a id AAA Amount of Sick Leave and a of Salary Granted in Cities 10,000 to 30,000 in Population in 1930-31.. late Sarthe ea RE lag Sahl en eaate Wn , Amount of Sick Leave and Proportion of Salary Granted in Cities 5,000 to 10,000 in EE SN, ce cncndentdnw tenes rovec awd aceece pale oleate Broa AGN Exes Amount of Sick Leave and Proportion of Salary Granted in Cities 2,500 to 5,000 in kas aid ks hip Sco GRR Bod cb ODN ErP Oro E R-OLe Oe eathG Oe Extended Leaves of Absence for Professional Improvement, Travel, or Rest in 1930-31. Extent of Teacher Rating in 1930-31........ Peo eer ee rie errr eT rT Te ease [71] Questionnaire Used in Collection of Data THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1201 SIXTEENTH STREET WASHINGTON, D. C. ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES AFFECTING CLASSROOM TEACHERS Professional Qualifications of Teachers 1. Educational requirements.—Check below the number of years of training beyond high school graduation require initial appointment as teacher in your city: June, 193 Required Number of Years’ Training Elementary unior — Senior High Beyond High School School Teachers ool Teachers School Teachers i 606 Eb 90 cise OF ora dne een at hhyeueaedssecinbexmeceendkddddibemdbeseniakasebusscddsddowseadecastuc ey ib cheek a ebdnik cn phi DeRSWEsOdd 00 e-vand ONT peneeénegeetbdbebedsteiiibatdndibbadsaalbntmeninnseeneen Oe CEE Ce TT ee a eS SE ey Cee ae i isé oe Ke etinad CU6 Sede Kekb Es 6 00kesnnhed as dieecectwnnsenabaanenen Five years 2. Experience requirements.—Check below the number of years of previous teaching experience required for in appointment as teacher in your city: et Number of Years’ Elementary unior Senior High Experience Required School Teachers ool T ers School Teachers PEO GUO CONIOE oi os ccc ccc sssvdesscccustecssces | peecevccch ccedcnscaceninousessecceesseswedceslcconocessecccces< ik in cht odd a hhc OURS bd 06 0:96.046560 0005 6005658 ncescncnns dads eeetsSdmaeeteeeetdadabnstbneescecasncecs? Pon kd dbietai ect destievencasucdsivecsccesen | pnsaedéhesenbndereeeelbanttheenntabheesaehh aeheeetdbbeneons Dave Chae CWO FOR. occ cccccsissevcccas Seesercescoce | Secceseetocsouséaneasclesnecssches cesthmmses she cbs ccdecccccce Personal Factors Related to Appointment 3. (a) Local teachers—Does your policy give preference to the appointment of local residents as teachers? Yes Tr eer TTT TTT TT TT TTT TTT LE 4. (a) Married women as teachers —Has your board of education a rule or policy against the appointment of mew teachers who are married women? Yes_..--- | ee (b) Does your school board require women teachers who marry to give up their positions at once? Yes--- At the end of the school year? Yes.....-. ee [72] l Questionnaire (Cont.) Appointment and Contractual Status ction of teachers.—Check any of the following practices which you follow consistently in the selection of teacher Definite search for desirable prospects: (1) In other systems. Yes . No_...-.. (2) In teacher-trainir institutions. Yes...--- No Use of formal application blank. Yes...... No Collection of letters from persons given as references. Yes No Personal interview with applicant. Yes No Written examinations. Yes . No f) Physical examination. Yes . No g) Observation of classroom work of applicant. Ye No Other practices (please describe): - : Term of employment.—What method of employment is followed? (Please indicate below Method of Employment | For newly- For teachers with several years’ ° | elected teachers experience in your system Annual! election Election for term of more than one year (state length of term in years Election for an indefinite period subject to termination at any time ag Election for permanent service Other plan (please describe) Contracts.—Are teachers required to sign a contract? Yes . No 8. Basis for paying teachers’ salaries —Over how many months does the payment of a teacher’s annual salary ext (a) Nine months- ----- (b) Ten months ... (c) Eleven months d) Twelve month 9. How often are payments of teachers’ salaries made? (a) Monthly b) Semi-monthly Other p please describe) itrasasies eer: “re teachers within the service? Yes...... No 11. Ratings.—Are all teachers given a definite rating (e.g., A, B, C, D, E, or Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor) | lical as to quality of service rendered? Yes__.... No- Salary Schedule Features 12. Salary schedule—Has your city a definite schedule for teachers’ salaries? Yes . No 13. If a salary schedule has been adopted, check below the factors which automatically determine a classroom teacher’s place on the schedule: (a) Number of years of service. Yes...... No-- (b) Amount of professional training. Yes...... No (c) Ratings on efficiency scale. Yes..-... No-- (d) Position held! (e.g., elementary, high school, etc.). Yes...... No__.-- (e) Other factors (please describe)...............-.-.----- Pe cay ' Remember that this blank applies only to classroom teachers. [73] ). Promotional examinations.—Does your school system conduct written examinations in connection with promoting 14. Questionnaire (Cont.) Salaries of men teachers —Are men teachers paid higher salaries than women of equal training and experie: In elementary schools? Yes...... No . (b) In junior high schools? Yes...... No . (od ir high schools? Yes No . Supermaximum salaries —Above the regular maximum of your salary schedule do you have a supermax which regular teachers with special qualifications may be promoted? Yes_..... No.- . If a supermaximum salary is provided, please check below the bases upon which a teacher’s promotion fi regular maximum to the supermaximum is dependent: (a) Additional training. Yes...... No (b) Superior rating and performance. Yes No (c) Extra duties. Yes No.. (d) Length of service. Yes- . No. (e) Written examination. Yes _ No (f) Other bases (please describe) . Indicate below the statement which describes the general situation as it affects teachers’ salaries in your city in 193 (a) The regular salary schedule will be followed as usual, with teachers receiving the customary annual increm (b) The 1930-31 salary schedule is to be replaced by a new schedule which provides larger salaries for 1931-32. (c) The regular salary increments will be withheld: i.e., teachers will receive the same salaries in 1931-32 that « are now receiving..............-- spe Seca eee eee ear ee aceee Pe ee (d) Other situation (please describe)... ...._.__........-.---..-- Se ee ee Summer School and Travel . (a) Is a bonus (apart from the regular salary schedule) granted to teachers for attending summer school Yes . (a) Do you make any direct financial reward for educative travel? Yes...... No-_-- (b) What is the amount of such reward?......________.._________- Fa RO oes ho Be eg es Sabbatical Leave . Do you grant extended! leaves of absence to teachers: (a) For professional improvement? Yes_..... No (b) For travel? Yes...... No....--.. (c) For rest? Yes._..-- | eae (d) For any other purpose?_- . What part of the regular salary is paid to teachers taking leave for professional improvement? (Check below.) OI shes aoe Sake poe sa tacnuds ondnascncwssncaulteancendee on ce beeen ae ewe uues: J | ee a Se Ae se Ba Pe NN ii RP is RS fe St eee La Zs EE Ee SEER, Rett a= Oe ae * Not including sick leaves. See Question 23. [74] Questionnaire (Cont.) Other plan (please describe) How many teachers in 1930-31 took extended! leaves of absence for profes [ sional improvement, with some part of alary paid? Sick Leave and Absence of Teachers Is sick leave with some salary granted to teachers? Yes No If sick leave with some salary is granted: a) Please indicate, after the fraction of salary allowed, the number of days of sick leave allowed each year: Fraction of Salary Allowed Number of Days of Sick Leave Allowed Each Year Full salary... Half salary. 3) Full salary, less pay of substitute Other fraction of salary (b) Is the allowance cumulative; that is, may the days not used during one year be added to those of later years? (c) If so, what is the maximum number of days of sick leave which may accumulate? (d) Is a doctor’s certificate required to receive salary for days absent on account of sickness? Yes No 25. For what reasons other than personal illness, and for how many days, do you permit teachers to be absent with some salary? (Indicate below.) Reason for Absence | Number of Days Allowed Number of Days with with Full Pay Part Pay Oniy (a) Death in immediate family. . b) Visiting other schools... .. (c) Attending educational meetings (d) Religious holidays. . e) Other reasons:. . 26. Payment of substitute teachers.—Please check below your method of paying substitute teachers: (a) Flat rate per day--- (b) Percent of regular teachers’ salary- (c) Monthly salary, on full-time basis- (d) Other plan (please describe) Name of person reporting. - Official position. - ‘ ae 2 — oti we Return one copy only, to: Research Division, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C. Please inclose a copy of any printed or mimeographed rules of your school system dealing with any of the above topics. 'Not including sick leaves. See Question 23. [75] 1932 YEARBOOKS ON CHARACTER EDUCATION TTT) Two viewpoints on one of the crucial problems of modern education THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE PRESENTS. Character Education This Yearbook, published in February, 1932, includes a treatment of such topics as the agencies of character education, sex education, character education in the life of the school, the teacher and character education, home and school cooperation, and tests in character education. 526 pages. Price, $2.00 each. | THE DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS PRESENTS: The Classroom Teacher and Character Education This volume, available in June, 1932, will include such topics as character education in the regular school subjects, i use of the case method, character education through out- of-class activities, the community in character education, and character growth through provisions for individual differences. Price, $1.50 each. ery These two volumes supplement each other in such a way that both are necessary in any complete professional library. a Make checks payable to the department concerned and send to 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. Discounts allowed when ordered in quantity. [76] CONTENTS yreword [Introduction ; What is Efficiency ? How is State School Ethciency Measured ? Purpose and Scope of This Study The State School Survey.... Characteristics of State School Surveys Purpose and scope of state school survevs Survey research procedures Organization and administration of the surveys Summary of the state school survey Che Self-Survey Plan Bibliography of State School Surveys State-Wide Achievement Testing Programs The Achievement Test in State-Wide Surveys State Testing Programs.. Selected Bibliography on Extensive State Testing Programs Statistical Analyses of State School Systems Indexes of State School Efficiency .N Indexes of City and County School Efhciency Estimates Based on a Single Factor Difficulties Involved in Statistical Analyses Bibliography on Statistical Measures of School Efficiency 3 Present Standing of State School Systems on Five Factors Related to Efficiency Problem and Purpose of the Section Discussion of Factors. Proportion of children reached Holding power of the schools Quality of teaching provided Material school environment Percent of literacy Review of the Standing of the States Estimating School Efhciency in the Future LIST OF TABLES lable 1. Methods Used in 35 State School Surveys for Estimating Efficiency 2. Illustrative Interstate Comparisons: Missouri Survey 3. Illustrative Interstate Comparisons: New Jersey Survey 4. Self-Survey Plan for State School Systems as Applied to Seven States 5. Statistical Factors Used in Indexes of School Efficiency . Amount of School Attendance by States, 1930 Holding Power of the Schools in the Age Range 14 to 17 Years, by States, 1930 8. Relationship Between Education and Salaries of Teachers 9. Salaries Paid Teachers, Principals, and Supervisors by States, 1930 0. Value of Public School Property per Child Enrolled by States, 1930 1. Percent of Literacy of Native-born Population by States, 1930 2. Standing of the States on Five Factors Related to School Efficiency, 1930 LIST OF CHARTS Chart I—Relative Amount of School Attendance, 1930 Chart II—Holding Power of the Schools, 1930 Chart I1I—Salaries Paid Teachers, 1930... ; Chart IV—Value of Public School Property per Child Enrolled, 1930 Chart V—Percent of Literacy, 1930 [77 ] FOREWORD STIMATES of school efficiency will be made as long as people are sufficient!) interested in education to establish and maintain schools. The citizens of each of the forty-eight states in the Union want to know how the state school system which they support compares with those of the other states. Educators are eager to compare the effects of different plans of organization and methods of teaching. Such comparison is not only inevitable but also de- sirable. A standard of judgment and a critical attitude are necessary to prog ress. Naturally, therefore, there has been a general and insistent demand that the National Education Association publish useful materials on this topic. While the development of a perfectly satisfactory scale for rating school efficiency is still a task for the future, every honest attempt to evaluate the achievement of school systems is a step toward its final solution. This Bulletin brings together and evaluates the more important attempts to estimate the efficiency of school systems. ‘This is an important contribution since the investi- gations on this topic have previously been widely scattered and inaccessible to the general student of the problem. In addition to the resumé of past studies, a plan for making a self-survey of state school systems is presented and com- parative data are submitted with respect to the present standing of the states on five important factors related to school efficiency. This Bulletin does not advance a final or complete solution to the problem of estimating state school efficiency. No such solution is possible in the present state of our knowledge of what makes schools efficient and in the face of the incompleteness of comparable educational statistics. Nevertheless, the technics described and the facts presented should make this Bulletin indispensable to state departments of education, state and local education associations, local school administrators, and civic groups interested in the progress of thei: school systems. J. W. Crasrresr, Secretary, National Education Association Introduction What is Efficiency? mechanical engineer defines efficiency as tio of useful work produced to the energy led in producing it. The efficiency of a m engine, for instance, is computed by di- the energy delivered at the driving wheel energy consumed in the burning of the Such a concept has no concern with the Jute amount of work done by the engine or solute amount of fuel used. The mechan- | concept of efficiency is a matter of relation- of output to input, of effort to results.’ the application of scientific methods to jucation and other types of social engineering, erm efficiency has been borrowed from the chanical field. However, the concept of efh- ney used by the mechanical engineer is not vell-suited to the field of education. Even tho e educational results accomplished are not in lirect proportion to the effort expended, it may e socially desirable to put forth a large addi- tional effort in order to achieve a relatively small additional gain. A school that costs $2,000 a year might not be as much as four times as educative as a school that costs only $500 a year. Nevertheless, the former would ilmost certainly be more effective and achieve results which would be superior enough to jus- tify abundantly the additional expenditure. In estimating the efficiency of a social institution, such as the school, human values, satisfactions, ind benefits are basic considerations. The costs, oth in money and in effort, cannot be ignored, but the mere ratio of costs to results cannot be iccepted as a complete and satisfactory measure of school efficiency. lf the school system makes a contribution to social welfare and individual happiness, it is an efhcient social institution. The greater this con- tribution, the greater is its efficiency. State school efficiency as used in this Bulletin reters to the amount and quality of educational services rendered. Educational service is nar- wly construed to mean, primarily, the work ot organized schools below the collegiate level. No special attention is given to higher educa- tion as such, to the program of adult education, or to auxiliary educational agencies such as libraries and museums. The several states face educational problems of varying difficulty. Some are _ relatively wealthy ; some have a relatively low per capita income and wealth. Some have many children in proportion to their total population; others have a low ratio of children to adults. Some have a population largely concentrated in cities ; others are predominantly rural. Some have a relatively homogenous school population; others have wide racial, social, or economic dif ferences among their school children. These and other factors make it relatively easy or rela tively difficult for a given state to provide satis factory educational opportunities. However, in general, these differences in ability are left out of consideration in this Bulletin.* These factors should always be considered in interpreting any survey of school efficiency, but they are not within the scope of this study. Here the dis- cussion centers around methods for estimating state school achievement, without reference to the relative ease or difficulty of making that achievement. How is State School Efficiency Measured? The application of objective methods to edu cation has led to the development of a number of devices and technics for measuring state school efficiency. These have been used in con nection with three general methods of studying this problem; namely, (1) the state-wide sur- vey, (2) standard tests and measurements, and (3) statistical analysis. The survey method employs a variety of technics in order to collect a wide range of facts pertaining to a school system. These facts are then organized and interpreted by experts in charge of the survey. With these data as a basis, estimates are made of the effectiveness of the school system. The chief characteristic of the survey method is its reliance on the con sidered judgment of professional educators who Slichter, S. H. ‘* Efficiency.” Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences 5: 437-39. . Sete : ? National Education Association, Research Division. ‘‘The Ability of the States to Support Education.” Research Bulletin +: 1-88 January and March, 1926. Washington, D. C.: the Association. 179) have attained expertness through breadth of knowledge, wide experience, and scientific re sea;©rce h. Objective educational tests attempt to meas- ure directly the relative achievement of a school system in terms of the amount learned by the children in the regular school subjects. Statistical analysis, the third method of esti- mating school efficiency, undertakes to discover objective data regarding the functioning of a school system by studying certain factors be- lieved to be closely related to school efficiency ; as, school expenditures, the number of children enroled, teachers’ salaries, literacy, and similar factors. ‘These three methods are not always distinct and the first, the survey, frequently makes in cidental use of both standard tests and statisti- cal analysis. Purpose and Scope of this S: This Bulletin presents, first, a revir of the more important attempts to state school efficiency by the three me: scribed above. In addition to this review of past self-survey plan for evaluating the effe of state school systems is presented with illustrations of its application to a of states. With this plan as a basis { work, educators and laymen are en and assisted to make a continuous su their own school system. Finally, this Bulletin submits rece; parative data on several factors genera ceded to be essential to the effective fun of state school systems. The data are or; in such a way as to give each state its res rank with regard to each of the factors. mon-School Education. No community should rest contented with being superior to other communities, while it is inferior to its own capa- bilities —Horace Mann on Means and Objects of Com- The State School Survey school survev has been defined as “‘a inquiry which obtains facts about the eficiency of a school system, and on the f these facts offers constructive proposals rable improvements.”* This definition - the essential features of state-wide sur- ditter with respect to organization, methods ithough such investigations may ed, and types of problems attacked. conscious use of the modern survey | as a means of systematically collecting relating to a school system began about with city school surveys. ‘The practical Iness of the method immediately recom ed it to school officials with the result in a short time, its use was extended to all s of school units, from a single school, as a school or university, to a whole school as large as that of a state. he survey method has the advantage of not g limited to any one procedure in its inves- tions. It has at its disposal any or all exist research technics. Not only has the survey ed itself of methods and technics already ind, but it has devised many of its own mproved others in the effort to solve par- problems. Thus, the survey has made le contributions to research procedures. | surveys have developed scales for evalu- teaching efficiency, score cards for rating school plant and tests for measuring edu- onal achievement. \n important outcome of the survey move nent has been the development of a critical at- tude toward school efficiency. Surveys by out- le agencies are often followed by self-surveys onducted by educators and laymen within the stem. A plan of self-analysis affords oppor- tunity to understand the points of strength and weakness in the schools. The chief objective of Sears, Jesse B. The School Survey. Boston Houghton Mifflin Co., sucl system from within and not comparison among ™ hool a plan is the improvement of a school units. Characteristics of State School Surveys In order to discover the nature and chara teristics of the state school survey as a means of estimating efficiency, the reports of thirty five general state school surveys were studied. The purposes of the survey, the scope of the report, the research methods emploved, and the organization and administration of the survey Findings staff itself were noted in each case. from this analysis follow. Purpose and scope of state school surveys— \ state school survey may be confined to som« particular phase of education or it may involve an investigation of the entire school system Quotations from a few surveys reveal a wide ranve ot objectives : Washington. The studie d school system of the state was readjust school with a view to the “revision and ment to existing conditions” of the common laws. Kansas. The State School Code Commission was appointed “for the purpose of clarifying, revising and codifying the school laws of the state Indiana. As its name indicates, the Indiana Rural Education Survey Committee confined its efforts to an investigation of the problems of rural education; and this scope was narrowed still further to include only problems relating to teachers, administration and finance Mississippi. In 1927 the Bernard B. Jones Fund ‘ conducted an “investigation of the intellectual status and educational progress of pupils in the elementary and high schools and freshmen in the colleges, public and private.” In contrast to the relativels Narrow scope covered by the above surveys are the following widely inclusive studies: 1925. p. xi-xii of Preface For the list of surveys consulted, see p. 94 of this Bulletin. Copies of the work-sheets used in analyzing the surveys may btained by addressing the Research Division 7p, » Be = : . . P . » Public School Administrative Code Commission of the State of W ashington. Report delivered to the Governor and the slature, January 11, 1921. Olympia, Washington. p * State School Code Commission of Kansas. Report. Topeka, Kan.: Indiana Rural Education Survey Committee. Report. Indianapolis, Ind March, 1926. 130 p. : State School Code Commission, 1929. Vol. 1, p. 3 : State Superintendent of Schools, State House , * O'Shea, M. V. A State Educational System at Work. (Mississippi). Hattiesburg, Miss.: Bernard B. Jones Fund (F. S. Harmon, reas., Box 477), 1927. Title page. [ 81 ] Alabama. schools and educational institutions supported in whole or in part from public funds, to determine the ethciency of the same and to report its findings with recom- mendations for increased efficiency and economy.” The survey investigated Florida. It was the object of the survey “to make a complete and thoroughgoing survey of the public school system.’ Delaware. The included “the schools for both white and colored children in the state, to study the administration of the said schools, to consider the appropriations made therefor, to in- vestigate the use of funds so appropriated, to har- monize, unify and revise the school laws, to develop an educational system suited to the conditions exist- ing in the state.” survey public Indiana. The survey of 1923 investigated the “en- tire educational system of the state with a view to standardizing, unifying and correlating the various policies and agencies of such system in order that they may be in harmony with the educational re- quirements of the state.” ‘ Survey research procedures —Vhe survey method is seldom a single, clearcut research procedure, but rather a collection of procedures. The method used in any particular case is de- termined largely by the nature of the problem 1 U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of ppcnention. ton, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1919. p. involved, the data already at hand, ability of reliable measuring devices, time and money to be expended. Analysis of thirty-five state schoo! shows the frequent application of . ferent methods to the problems met in the surveys. Table 1 gives the metho frequency of use, and the problems each was applied. Analysis of existing statistical Analysis of existing records is the on], used in every survey. Data were used pe to such factors as tax rates, school fur penditures, indebtedness, illiteracy, en: and attendance, transportation, school te school day, and the tenure and turnoy: ries, certificates, training, experience, an of teachers. Questionnaires. When records cont the desired information were not a\ questionnaires were circulated among readily be obtained. Probably the most exten sive use of this method, in point of num inquiries circulated, was made by the Ca! An Educational Study of Alabama. Bulletin, 1919, No. 4 * Florida Educational Survey Commission. ans Report to the Senate and House of Representatives. Tallahassee, |! of Florida, April 2, 1929, p. 9. * General Education Board. Public Education in Delaware. New York: General Education Board, 1919. p. vii of P: * Bachman, Frank P. p. v-vi. TABLE 1.—METHODS USED IN 35 STATE SCHOOL SURVEYS FOR ESTI Public Education in Indiana. New York: General Education Board, 1923. See letter of t: MATING EFFICIENCY + | Number of Method of Study | Surveys | | 1 2 1. Analysis of Existing Statis- 35 | School tical Records 2. Questionnaires Circulated Es- 27 pecially for the Survey | ers; finance, school term and day, teacher tenure, salaries, certificates, trai experience, and teaching load. Salaries, training, tenure, age, experience and certification of t courses of study; personnel of board of education; | opinion concerning the educational system as a whole; schoo! | — school day; consolidation of schools; supervision; attend ofmicers; Problems to Which Method Was Applied 3 illiteracy, attendance, enrolment, transport medical inspection and school nurses; office equip: and clerical assistance; family, salaries, expenses, savings | investments of rural teachers; teachers’ institutes; school gr: | | | buildings, equipment, sanitation and janitor service; arrange! | of class schedule; distance of pupils from school. 3. Interviews and Conferences | 6 Organization and administration of school systems; curriculum stu ; | the effectiveness of the vocational program. 4. Statistical Comparison with | 30 | Salaries, enrolment, attendance, school support, illiteracy, trai: Other States pore eames of teachers and school officials, achieveme: pupils. 5. Rating Scales 10 Teaching efficiency, buildings, courses of study. 6. Age Grade Studies and Related | 18 Elimination, retardation, failure, promotion, acceleration. Methods of Determining | Pupil Progress 7. Standard Tests of Achievement 13 Achievement of pupils; teaching efficiency; the effect on achic\ ment of term length, amount of salaries paid teachers; cos‘ instruction; attendance and supervision. | 8. General Observation 27 Teaching efficiency, buildings, courses of study, recitation period [8 ] , nose from whom the desired information could » ¢ # 7 : \ j ¥ (5 | : - + | nin 0 vec T n speci! ? [ypu he e {pp & i, Ca m Edu : the 4 | ean ion dua 4 g State z coleg eade 1SOT educ was State nite lata tal lina’ ese he \ 5 S x oO 4 : ’ 4 ? - . - ? § 5 t g : ‘9 ‘ Kegs ee i —csigtlaraenmmmmeNens. 2 SER tel * arash ae Np mn AIRE + rel aoe a i! Ss jon for the Study of Educational Prob- e Commission circulated among resi- California more than fifty thousand stionnaires printed on post cards in an + to learn “what the general public con- be the most outstanding school prob- \ summary of the results is given in the f the Commission. Twenty-six other used the questionnaire in attacking problems (see Table 1), usually cir- them among school administrators and } Interviews and conferences. Most of the staffs held conferences at one time or Generally, these were for the purpose { organizing the work of the survey or for ob- raining general information concerning the hool situation. Most of such conferences were incidental to the study; but at least six veys used a series of definitely planned con- ferences and interviews as a means of obtaining specific information on particular problems. nical accounts of the use of the conference ind interview taken from these surveys show he type of problem to which this method was plied and the procedure followed. rr California. The Commission for the Study of Educational Problems reports: “A major part of the Commission’s investigations was conducted by eans of personal interviews between the Commis- as a body and more than one hundred indi- viduals possessing special knowledge on one or re of the problems being studied. The list included te, county, and city school officials, university and college professors and administrators, teachers, labor eaders, agriculturists, county auditors, county super- visors, employers of young people, and others.”* Florida. In attempting to evaluate the vocational education program, the method chiefly relied upon was that of the conference or interview. The report states that most of the work was carried on “through conferences with public school officials The lata were secured by personal conferences with a total of 60 school administrators, supervisors, coor- linators, and teachers, and with a total of 31 rep- resentative citizens called into conference for the ose of determining community attitude toward the vocational program. Some of the state and local school officials sat in a number of the 46 hearings the total attendance at hearings so. that these ulifornia Commission for the Study of Educational Problems. Report. Vol. 1 Instruction, 1930. p. 12. *A study of the questionnaire as a research tool is available in: National Education Association, Research Division naire.” Research Bulletin 8: 1-52; January, 1930. Washington, D. C amounted to 193 people. Sample data were secured from 18 different public school communities repre- senting an average spread of the rural and urban Florida.” * West Virginia. Members of the survey staff met with the superintendents and boards of education of communities in the largest cities in the state “to study, in general, the administrative organization with particular ref erence to relationships affecting administration.” 4. Statistical comparisons with other states. A useful means of estimating the relative efh ciency of a school system, or of some part of it, is that of direct comparison with other systems. Thirty of the thirty-five surveys made statis tical comparisons between the particular school system under investigation and other systems with respect to such factors as teachers’ salaries, enrolment and attendance, school support, il literacy, training and experience of teachers, and achievement of pupils. ‘The Missouri and New Jersey surveys contain good illustrations of this procedure, part of which are reproduced as Tables 2 and 3. 5. Rating scales. As a rule the surveys’ esti mates of such factors as teaching efficiency, the school plant, and courses of study were based on random observation. Six of the surveys, however, attempted to supplement direct obser vation of the work of the teacher by objective ratings; eight used building score cards; and one used a score card for courses of study. Survey reports from Indiana, New York, Texas, Utah, Virginia, and West Virginia give accounts of the use of various methods of rat- ing teaching efficiency. Descriptions of the de V ices used follow. Indiana. The Indiana “success schedule” for rating teachers was developed in compliance with an act of the State Legislature of 1915 which required the State Superintendent of Public Instruction to provide from time to time “such schedule of items as should, in his judgment, enter into the record and grading of a teacher’s success by the city, town, and county superintendent of schools.” The “success grades” of 428 rural teachers were obtained by the survey commission by means of a questionnaire. The schedule” rated teachers on “success personality, preparation, teaching technic, pupil achievement, Sacramento, Calif.: State Department of “The the Association. + ¢ alifornia Commission for the Study of Educational Problems. op. cit. p. 12 ; ‘Florida Educational Survey Commission. Oficial Report to the Senate and House of Representatives. Tallahassee, Fla.: State rida, 1929. p. 356. * Cavins, Lorimer V., director. Surrey of Education in West Virginia. Vol. 1. Charleston, W. Va.: State Board of Education, 8. p. 130 { 83] management, professional attitude, and professional reading.’ New York. Personal observation of classroom instruction in the rural high schools of New York was controlled to some extent by the formulation of a plan which would direct the attention of the ob- server to certain phases of classroom work generally The items The class conceded to be indicative of its quality. collected were subjected to statistical treatment. outline of the observation plan included: (1) routine; (2 conduct of the recitation, with five special items for assignment and study guidance; (3) dure. as far as possible the personal reactions a; The tained in the form emphasize the nature of in which pupils were engaged: as practising The purpose of this form was “to ments of the classroom observers.” or memorizing; reading and discussing sto: ing or reporting the point of view of th: preparing or making reports to the class vidual assignments; and related activities. were checked, giving the number of pupils in each.® working on group | Twenty-four such Utah. The survey staff rated 141 teach: ing to a ranking system devised for the the survey.’ The teachers were ranked on ality traits, teaching skill and technic, include such factors as stimulating pupils make judgments, use initiative, pupil skills, fund of information, appreciat ating wholesome ideals and attitudes.” \ drill subjects such as mathematics and languages, and for recitations in other subjects; (4) general One hun- dred seventy-nine recitations, taught by 144 different trained observations; and (5) critical comments. the | were observed by instructors, a carefully staff of seven persons.” execute; i Texas. The staff form to aid in the observation of classroom proce- Texas survey also devised a Copy ot ‘success schedule,’ p. 118-21. Indiana Rural Education Survey. Report. Indianapolis, Ind.: State Su of Schools, State House, 1926. 130 p. ? Ferriss, Emery N. The Rural High School. Rural S on Rural Schools, 1922. p. 127-46 § Works, George A., director. Courses of Study Texas Educational Survey Commission, 1924. See ‘U.S. Department of the Bureau of Government Printing Office, 343-44 *hool Survey of New York State. Vol. 7. Ithaca, N. Y and Instruction. Texas Educational Survey Report, Vol. 5 Appendix L, p. 517, for copy of form. Interior, Education. Survey of Education in Utah. Bulletin, 1926, No. 18 D. 1926. p 2.—ILLUSTRATIVE INTERSTATE COMPARISONS: MISSOURI SURVEY’! Research Bulletin of the National Education Association, Vol. VII, No. 1, p. 9) TABLE (Computed from Data in Percentag« Income Expende for Al Public Education Percentage of Income Ex- nded for blic Ele- mentary and Higher —s Schools Education Percentage of ncome Expended for Public Average for United States Average for Eleven Comparable States Missouri Missouri's Deficiency from United States Average Missouri's Deficiency from United States Average in Percent Missouri's Deficiency from Average of Comparable States Missouri's Deficiency from Average of Comparable States in Percent Individual States: Arkansas Illinois Indiana lowa Kansas Michigan Minnesota Missouri Nebraska Ohio Oklahoma Wisconsin NNwONWwWNwWNnNe nt NNN wWNWwWwwwwnn N on rt: 1 Missouri. Eightieth Report of the Public Schools of the State of Missouri, School Year Ending June 30, 1929. \ Jefferson City, Mo.: State Superintendent of Schools, 1929. p.9 ? Computed thus: 2.41 (for United States) —2.22 (for Miecart <.19. Then .19+2.41=8%(nearest whole numbe: 84 | C, D, and E. were assigned to each letter according to alle five letters was used: A, B, ( = suggested by Rugg.’ For each teacher trait, site of traits, each survevor was asked to eing the best in this respect he had ever 3) a teacher to be rated as “C,” m his experience: a teacher to be rated ) ind ge teacher. Teachers judged between were rated “B” Be ws | the type of instruction, classifying it a teacher to be rated as being the being “A” and similarly those between were rated “ID.” The surveyors also as ary, socialized, or purposing, using the plan ilysis developed by Courtis. Virginia. In this survey teachers were rated on: (?) rsonality; (2) teaching ability, as indicated vation, pupil activity, vital material used, isis on topics, effective drill, organization, and (3 4 to seat work and study; general rating; al attention; disciplinary ability; 5 plementary activities, as Junior League, di- play, contests with other schools, etc f certificate; and (8) experience. Seven coun- of the and various sections of the total of 103 rs were observed, the period of observation presentative were visited a elementary y lasting fifteen or twenty minutes.’ gg, Harold O. ‘*Self-I[mprovement hool Journal 20: 670-84; May, 1920 Teachers Through Manual ea, M Edu I of Directions for Making Efficiency Card Rating V., director. Public Education in Virginia. Ret itional System of the State. Richmond, Va V., director. S of Educati urve min West und Measuring ale f ty, Calif.: School of Education Board Journal 70: 52-54; January John C. Check List Stanford Unive i merican Scho cK ‘ lding w Unly rei West Virginia. The staff followed a definite procedure in developing a rating system for teach ing. With the help of local educators they constructed > a 20-point scale with five divisions: (1) classroom i? management, (2) the teaching process, 4 was rated A, B, C, D, and E, according to the ex 3) questions assignments, and (5) directed study. Each point cellence of the item. In order that persons using the scale might be as nearly uniform as possible in their judgments, three members of the staff observed the same recitations and compared results. This process was repeated until the staff members were able to agree rather closely. In all, over 500 teachers were observed and rated by this scale.’ Fight for measuring the efficiency of the school plant Arizona, Florida, Missouri, New York, Texas, Utah, Virginia, and West Virginia. ‘The meth surveys report the use of rating cards ods used are summarized below. Arizona. In order to make an appraisal, the school buildings were first divided into two classes: those with five or more rooms and those with less than five. Separate forms were devised for each class." of a check-list sheet and a detailed score card. The check These forms consisted or inventory list called a New Scale Teachers’ Effi r Rating : Board of Education, 1923 ‘ational Commission of Public Printing, 1928, Ww Virginia 77-78 p ' est Va.: State Department of yn, ssroom { ay Bui ind Che Veasuring n ( Almack, John nd Idi Soe ng Surveys anc » 1925 TABLE 3.—ILLUSTRATIVE INTERSTATE COMPARISONS; NEW JERSEY SURVEY Percent of Wealth in Public Schools Income De Rank ssourl ntana Nebraska evada ew Hampshire $1 3 19 30 6 > ew Jersey ew Mexico . 2 ew York 2 rth Carolina ) rth Dakota ( 613 314 230 S. (Exclusive of D.C 484 2.039 Ss ate of New Jersey, 1930. p be exact figures in all cases, but are substantially correct an Public Schools ! New Jersey. Report of the Commission to Survey Public Education 32. The data in this table were gathered from various sources picture of the situation in 1926. Only part of the table is rep Per Capita Investment in Public Schools voted to Appropriation for Public Schools Rank Amount Rink Amount Rink $46 125 69 07 8. 63 95 66 $15.56 Trenton, N. J They do not purport t Survey, an approximate Harlan Updegraff, director) d represent, according to the roduced here [ 85 for actual measurements, inventories, and other ob- jective data. An article or item was judged (1) worthless, (2) in need of repair, (3) good enough to be usable, (4) in good condition, or (5) new and in excellent condition.’ Florida, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia. The elementary, high school, and college buildings of these four states* were scored by one or more of the three rating cards designed by Strayer, Evenden, and Engelhardt*® for these three types of buildings. Missouri. The survey staff supplemented its study of school buildings by means of a checking schedule for specifications which was developed from an analysis of specifications of some of the best re- cently constructed school buildings of the country. Then the survey staff checked sets of specifications from 30 of the most recently erected buildings in Missouri. The items of the working drawings were rated as excellent, mediocre, poor, or omitted. In the course of the survey the plans of 125 buildings were checked “for three different purposes—(1) to discover the adequacy of the working drawings sub- mitted by architects and purchased by boards of education; (2) to determine the adaptability of the plan to educational needs and its fitness for educa- tional use; and (3) to discover whether the condi- tions of the contract were favorable to the board of education and whether sufficient detail was writ- ten into the specifications to make possible highly competitive bidding to the ends that boards were purchasing school buildings at the lowest possible price. New York, Texas, Utah, West Virginia. The 4 small rural schools in these four state surveys were rated by a scale designed especially for the small school by Butterworth.° 1 Tapper, C. Ralph. A Survey of the Arizona Public School System. Phoenix, Ariz.: Virginia. The small school buildings by a score card developed by the survey buildings and grounds were rated on suc} general condition of the school plant, heat ing, and ventilating systems, cloakrooms, to ties, fuel storage facilities, and articles of « as desks, maps, globes, window shades, a: books. Each item was rated on a five- Independent ratings, as made by different of the staff, were compared and individu tions in grading were eliminated as far as While courses of study are usually . by general observation, the Missouri Report* mentions the use of criteria f. courses of study developed by the Bu Curriculum Research, Teachers Coll: lumbia University.® Further attempts to supplement ran: servation with quantitative analysis in ing either the course of study or the ski teacher in applying it to the daily prog indicated in seven surveys which take of the time allotted to recitation peri jects, or grades. 6. Methods of determining pupil Eighteen of the surveys undertake to de! the progress of pupils through school by, of age-grade studies and related methods cluding studies of the number of pupils moted, accelerated, retarded, or from school. The Florida survey*® investi the age-grade status of the children in ten State Board of Education, 1925 ? Florida eee Survey Commission. Oficial Report to the Senate and House of Representatives. Tallahassee of Florida, 1929. p. 660. S. Dept. a the Interior, Bureau of Education. Survey of Education in Utah. Bulletin, 1926, No. 18. Washing Government rinting Office, 1926. p. 383. Inglis, Alexander, director. Virginia Public Schools, Part I. Yonkers, N. Y.: Survey Staff, 1920. p. 24 Virginia Education Commission a: Cavins, L. V., director. Survey of Education in West Virginia, Vol. 3. Charleston, W. Va.: State Board of Educa “School Buildings,” p. 69. _ _ # Strayer, George D., and Engelhardt, N. L. College, Columbia University, 1923. 57 p Score Card and Standards for Elementary School Buildings. New York Strayer, George D., and tngelhardt. N. L. Score Card and Standards for High School Buildings. New York: Teache: Columbia University, 1924. 95 p. Evenden, E. S. . Strayer, G. D., and Engelhardt, N. L. College, Columbia U niversity, 1929. Score Card and Standards for College Buildings. New York ‘Strayer, George D., and Engelhardt, N. L., Division of Field Studies, Institute of Educational Research, Teacher: Columbia University. A ” Preliminary Report of the Survey of the Public Schools and Higher Institutions in the State of | Jefferson City, Mo.: Schools, 1922. 131 p. ‘ois sion, 1925, 313. veorge A., director. Texas Educational Survey Reports, Vol. State Superintendent of Public Schools, 1929. p. 78-85. * Works, George A., and others. Rural School Survey of New Yorr State, Vol. 3. Ithaca, N. Y.: Joint Committe: 1. Austin, Texas: Texas Educational Survey Ss. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Education. Survey of Education in Utah. Bulletin, 1926, No. 18. Washing! Government Printing Office, 1926. p. 381. Cavins, Lorimer V., director. Survey o ; Education in West Virginia, Vol. 3. Charleston, W. Va.: State Board ot |! 1928. p. 10 * Butterworth, Julian E. ‘‘A Score Card for One and Two-Teacher School Buildings." September, 1922. Journal of Rural Educatso ? Inglis, Alexander, director. Virginia Public Schools, Part I. Yonkers, N. Y.: Virginia Education Commission and Survey Staff, 1920. p. 240-41, and Table 104 * Strayer, George D., and Engelhardt, N. L., Division of Field Studies, Institute of Educational Research, Teachers Columbia University. A Preliminary Report of the Survey of the P: ic Schools and Higher Intstitutions in the State of | Jefferson City, Mo.: State Superintendent of Public Schools, 1929. p. ‘109. * Stratemeyer, Florence B., and Bruner, H. B. Rating Elementary School Courses of Study. Bulletin No. 1. New Yor! of Curriculum Research, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1926. 193 p. *” Florida, op. cil., p. 214-28. [ 86 ] elimina th these data as a basis it reports on rdation and failure, acceleration and ‘ion of pupils, and the holding power of ida schools beyond the compulsory age [he other surveys using this method similar reports. > Standard tests. Thirteen of the surveys d data on pupil progress and achieve educational This method is considered of sufficient nce to merit a more detailed treatment could well be given it at this point. For ssion of this topic see the next section s Bulletin. 8 General observation. 1y means of standardized One of the most used of the survey methods is that of | observation. Twenty-seven of the sur- ive specific accounts of its use in estimat- teaching efficiency, the school plant, and irses of study. In many cases the survey re- lied solely upon this method to supply data on these problems; in some instances its use was supplemented by objective ratings. The older irveys indicate almost complete reliance on ceneral observation supplemented by whatever school records were available. As the survey movement advanced, more objective methods were increasingly employed, but these have never been used completely to supplant the method of direct, personal observation which has its own peculiar contribution to make in the study of a school system. It remains as yet the only way of providing the vital, personal experience by which to judge certain subjective and yet important elements in a school situa- tion, as the “atmosphere”’ of a school, the “per- sonality” of the teacher, or the “attitude” of the pupils—all intensely subjective factors which do not readily lend themselves to ob- jective treatment. The most extensive school surveys supplemented objective methods by a certain amount of general observation. It is omitted only from those confined to some par- ticular problem, as school legislation, where this method does not well apply. Organization and administration of the sur- veys—The organization and administration of i state school survey doubtless has much to do with its accuracy and effectiveness. One or more experts are always placed in charge of the investigation, but a study of the administrative aspects of the thirty-five surveys shows that no single, general plan of action is followed. While the staff usually consists of fifteen or sixteen members, its size ranges from one to forty-six. The typical state school survey as revealed by this analysis is authorized by the state legislature. In a few instances surveys have been authorized by state departments of education, superintendents of public instruc tion, governors of states, or even by committees of laymen interested in the educational welfare of the state. The cost of the typical state school survey is usually covered by a state appropriation of $25,000, although the cost may run up as high as $75,000. In some cases the expenses of the survey are borne wholly or in part by individ- uals or by organizations. The time allowed for field work varies from ninety to more than five hundred days. A year usually elapses between the acceptance of the survey commission and the publication of the report, the time varying from three months to two years. The report is usually published by the or ganization or individual sponsoring the investi- gation. Of the 35 state survey reports ana lyzed, sixteen were published by the state, ten by the Federal Government and nine by private means. The complete report may be quite brief, as in the case of the Minnesota report which contained only 56 pages, or it may comprise Ex- clusive of the New York and Texas reports, two, three, four, or even eight volumes. which together occupy sixteen volumes and over four thousand pages, the median number of pages in the thirty-three remaining surveys is about 250. Much of the objective data con- tained in the reports are in the form of tables which are in many cases illustrated by graphs and charts. ‘Ihe emphasis of the report is usually given to school costs, rural education, school laws, and state and local school adminis tration. The state school survey does not directly at tempt to remedy the weaknesses of a state school system. This is outside its province. Corrective measures are in the hands of the people of the state and their representatives. The survey may be said to have performed its mission when it has investigated the school sit- uation as carefully and scientifically as possible with the means at its command; when it has made a report of its findings with recommen- dations for improvement; and when it has | 87 | aroused public interest sufficiently to assure that at least the most outstanding difficulties will be subjected to remedial action. A study has been made which throws some light on factors which contribute to or hinder the suc- cess of the school survey. Garlin has collected data from 21 states and 48 cities on factors which condition its success. According to fre- quency of mention by the states reporting, the twelve factors contributing most to the success of the state school survey were (1) support of the newspapers, (2) cooperation of the state department of education, (3) presenting actual facts, (4) placing copies of the survey report in the hands of leaders, (5) reasonable recom mendations, (6) leadership of teachers and co- operation of county and township superintend ents, (7) support of leading citizens, (8) out- side survey staff, (9) sensible view of school conditions and problems by the survey staff, (10) support of the survey by the women of the state, (11) emphasis on evident school needs, and (12) presenting a complete school code. ‘The six most frequently mentioned obstacles to the success of the state school survey were (1) reaction against taxes, (2) the fact that considerable time is required to reap the full benefits of a survey, (3) conservatism of the people, (4+) politics, (5) increased cost of pub- lic education, and (6) failure to prepare enough local leaders.' Many of these factors are largely within the control of the survey commission. Proper or- ganization, cooperation, and publicity contri- bute much to the success of the state school survey. Summary of the state school surveys—The foregoing analysis of the scope, methods, and administration of thirty-five general state school surveys reveals at many points the im- portant contributions to research technics made by these investigations. These contributions, as far as the measurement of school efficiency is concerned, are of three general types. First, the surveys have independently developed and applied a number of useful statistical proced- ures, score cards, and other devices which throw light on some of the problems involved in esti mating the various aspects of state school achievement. Second, the surveys have served ' Garlin, R. E. “ Factors Conditioning the Success of School Surveys."’ School and Society 28: 337-40; September 15, |! as proving grounds for trying out t other measuring devices developed e|; Chey have supplied an important practi let for the product of individual researc} ers. Finally, the survey movement as to state school systems has made educat, the general public alive to the values o} tinuing appraisal of efficiency from wit school system. The special technics of : vey have tended to become a part of the work of state school leadership and The report of a state school survey m have an indirect influence extending vears beyond the date of the survey its: The Self-Survey Plan A systematic review of the importan: concerning the organization of a stat: system may be made with advantage eit those within or without the state concern The self-survey plan for estimatin school efficiency provides a means w! those interested in the educational wel! a school system may discover for then its weak and strong points. The Research |) sion of the National Education Associat recently published such a plan,? consisti: fifteen check-lists, and a handbook for thy pose of explaining and supplementing the lists. This plan may be used either by edu or laymen to review the facts basic to t ciency of their own state school systen plan is not a substitute for a highly det appraisal by experts called in for consul: from without the school system. The check-lists and handbook are pu separately, the March, 1930 Bulletin Research Division containing the chec! and the May, 1930 Bulletin, the hand! The criteria of administrative efficienc\ prising the check-lists are derived fron composite judgment of leading American thorities on school administration. Such posite was secured through conferences leading state school experts and twent\ departments of education and through an of more than two hundred state school su: theses, monographs, and books. ‘The va of the plan is based, therefore, on a systen attempt to secure a cross-section of thi judgment and experience available. * National Education Association, Research Division. ‘‘A Self-survey Plan for State School Systems. Part I, Che Part II, Handbook.” Research Bulletin 8: 53-88, 89-164; March, May, 1930. Washington, D. C.: the Association. 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VSIM19Y}O JO BSulljas-saiZap 1}U0D OF JBMOd BY} UOTBINPa JO psvOd 9}eIS VY} BAIS YOIYM SUOILINBII IANeIYSIUIWIpPE JO SUOISIAOIC [PBI] slay? sIy ; ‘*ZA4]Np jo SuUOTNSIT[elep payldeds JayIO puke adUeSseasTeUI JO SasieYyD padoid uo AjuUO adYJO JO W119} Jlay BULNP paaouras aq sprvOg 10 pseOg BuYjoOI]UOD. ay} JO SIBquIOUI Aew ‘9 éAIETLS IE[NF91 YNOYIM VAs SpIeOg 1O PILOg BuljjO1IUOS ay} Jo SIaquIeW OG “¢ ¢AP]J9AO Spiv0g JO p1vOg BuTjjO1UOD ay JO SiequIdUI JO SUIIa} 39YI OG “F “¢ x4 T ¢ 2981P] 2B 33eIS VY) WIOI] pajIa]as SpIeOg JO P1eOg Fuljjosuod ay} JO sisquisUI ay éSp1PoOq BuljjO13UoOd ayi JO Yea UO JO PIPOg Zuljjosuo0s ay} uo sioquiseul 9] 40 US) Viet} aIy 9A UPAVBS ISB] JE SUOTININSUT JoyBIY 97S JO Sp1vo0g 10 PIvOg Buyj[oOiUOd dy2 Jo SiaquIauT JO VdYJO JO u1Ia} By} 8] :uOnPONpPYA wNpy pue soysyy 103 ystTHIeyD The check-lists provide for the evaluation of five aspects of state school administration: (1) The child and his welfare, including at- tendance laws and their enforcement, child labor laws, and pupil personnel and adjust- ment; (2) The teaching profession, including teacher training and supervision, certification of teachers, employment and contracts, state salary laws, professional organizations and teacher retirement systems; (3) State school finance, including sources of school revenues and apportionment of school funds; (4) Ma terial equipment; and (5) Administration and control, with special reference to the state board of education, the state department of education, and higher education. There are 162 questions in the check-lists. Each question may be answered in three dif- ferent ways: “yes,” “no,” or “does not apply.”’ Space for comments is provided at the bottom of each page in which qualified answers may be written. A question answered in the affirma- tive indicates that the administrative system of a school organization has met a criterion of ef- ficiency, while a negative answer usually means that it has failed to meet such a criterion. How- ever, the interpretation of the data depends to some extent upon the particular situation under investigation. The handbook discusses separately each cri- terion. It analyzes the implications of each, explaining terms used, indicating relationships to other criteria, giving special directions for their application to given situations and mak- ing suggestions for further study of the issues involved. In places it includes a brief summary of arguments intended to establish the validity of the criterion as a reliable indication of school efficiency. Table 4 illustrates the application of the self-survey plan to states located in various parts of the United States. These states have not been selected as examples of either good or bad educational conditions. They are merely used to show how the plan works and what problems may arise in applying the check-lists to practical situations. No attempt has been made, nor should be made, to add the number of affirmative answers for each state for the purpose of comparing the totals and drawing conclusions concerning the OP. cil., p. 60. relative efficiency of the school organi: of these states. Such comparisons cou! produce wholly unreliable results, sinc: bining the various points into a total ; tates the assignment of a weight of one : criterion with no justifiable basis fo: each an equal weight. Lack of knowl the exact weight to be given each crite: viously prevents the combination of wei into one mathematical quantity. No one whether the criteria on attendance laws be more heavily weighted than those on of school revenue, or vice versa. As th: ductory paragraphs to the check-lists* poi: the self-survey plan is a guide for diagno “not a micrometer for making hair-lin parisons between states with respect to efficiency.” The fundamental purpose plan is the improvement of state school s rather than determining the educationa!| of each or formulating an index of effi Under this plan each system is to be c! against a series of generally accepted « of efficiency, with no attempt to redu results to a single mathematical expressiv: Those who would avail themselves o! help afforded by the check-lists must criminating rather than arbitrary. Co: sense should guide in interpreting the These criteria of administrative efficienc) selected with the general educational situa: of the United States as a whole in mind possible that certain criteria may not ap; particular situations which deviate widely | the average. A state may be meeting a « criterion very effectively and yet receive 1 credit on the check-lists because the parti situation involved in that individual case covered by the check-lists. It is clear that situations arising from time to time als: vent the use of the self-survey plan as a n of objective comparison between states. Bibliography of State School Surveys These are the thirty-five surveys which analyzed as a basis for the discussion o! survey method in the first part of this Bullet The list includes practically all the organi/ed comprehensive state school surveys that been published. It does not include ro' [94] reports. Nor does it include, as a rule, of some single aspects of state school stration.’ S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. An Educational Study of Alabama. Bulletin, 1919, No. 41. Washington, D. C Government Printing Office, 1919. 522 p. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. Educational Conditions in Arizona. Bulletin, 1917, No. 44. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1918. 200 p. Tupper, C. Ralph. 4 Survey of the Arizona Public School System. Phenix, Arizona: State Board of Education, 1925. 112 p. +. U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. The Public School System of Ar- kansas. Bulletin, 1923, No. 10. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1923. 79 p. nia California Special Legislative Committee on Education. Report, As Authorized by Senate Concurrent Resolution, No. 21 by the Forty- third Session of the Legislature of California. Sacramento, Calif.: California State Printing Office, 1920. 96 p. 6. California Commission for the Study of Edu- cational Problems. Report. Vols. 1 and 2. Sacramento, Calif.: State Department of Edu- cation, 1931. 197 p. lorado U. §. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. Report of an Inquiry into the Ad ministration and Support of the Colorado School System. Bulletin, 1917, No. 5. Washing- ton, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1917. 93 p. mare 8. General Education Board. Public Education in Delaware. New York: General Education Board, 1919. 202 p. Flor da 9. Florida Educational Survey Commission. Official Report to the Senate and House of Representatives. Tallahassee, Florida: State of Florida, 1929. 743 p. Indiana 10. Bachman, Frank P. Public Education in Indi- ana. New York: General Education Board, 1923. 304 p. 11. Indiana Rural Education Survey Committee. Report. Indianapolis, Ind.: State Superintend- ent of Schools, 1926. 130 p. ' For a study of state school reports, consult. Shaw, F. L tk: Teachers College, Columbia University 1926. 142 p. Kansas 12. State School Code Commission of Kansas. Re- port. Topeka, Kansas: the Commission, 1929 Vol. 1, 88 p.; Vol. 2, 156 p.; Vol. 3, 99 p Kentucky 13. Bachman, Frank P. Public Education in Ken tucky. New York 1921. 213 p. General Education Board Minnesota 14. Foght, H. W. The Rural School System of Minnesota. A Study in School Efficiency. U.S Department of the Interior, Bureau of Educa Bulletin, 1915, No. 20. Washington D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1915. 56 | tion, Vississippi 15. O'Shea, M. V. Work. Bernard B. Jones Fund (F. S$. Harmon Box 477), 1927. 368 p. 16. O'Shea, M. V., director. Public Mississippi. Miss.: ment of Education, 1926. 362 p 1 State Educational System at Miss I reas., (Mississippi). Hattiesburg, Education in Jackson, State Depart Missouri 17. Strayer, Engelhardt, N. I directors, Division of Field Studies, Teachers Geo. D., and College, Columbia University. “A Preliminary Report of the Survey of Public Schools and Higher Institutions in the State of Missouri Eightieth Report of the Public Schools of the State of Missouri, Parts I-III. Jefferson City Mo.: State Superintendent of Public Schools 1929. 464 p. Missouri School Survey Committee. Facts Con cerning Public Education in Missouri. Supple ment to Seventy-fifth Report of the Public Schools of the State of Missouri City, Mo.: State Superintendent of Schools, 1924. 139 p. Jetterson Public New Jersey 19. Commission to Survey Public Education. Ha: lan Updegraff, director. Report. N. J.: State of New Jersey, 1930. 204 p York . Works, George A., and Others. Rural School Survey of New York State. Ithaca, N. ¥ Joint Rural Schools, 1922. 8 Volumes. lrenton, Committee on North Carolina 21. General Education Board. Public Education Report to Public School York: in North Carolina. North Carolina. New General Education Board, 1921. 137 p Morrison, Fred W., and Others. Report on the School North Commission of System of Carolina, I-III. Stale School Reporis. Contributions to Education, No. 242. New For a list of state school surveys in special fields, consult: National Education Association, Research Division. Bibliographies n Eight Problems of School Legislation. Studies in State Educational Administration, No. 5. Washington, D. C.: the Association, September, 1930. Revisions of this bibliography are to be prepared biennially. [95] Raleigh, N. C.: State Educational Commis- sion, 1927. 644 p. . North Carolina Educational Commission. Re- port. Raleigh, N. C.: State of North Carolina, 1927. 269 p. Oklahoma 24. U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. Public Education in Oklahoma. Bulletin, 1923, No. 14. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1923. 420 p. Pennsylvania 25. Pennsylvania Committee on Appropriations and Subsidies, High Schools, Normal Schools, Rural Schools, Teachers’ Institutes. Educa- ttenal Surveys, 1925. Harrisburg, Pa.: De- partment of Public Instruction, 1925. 398 p. South Dakota 26. U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. The Educational System of South Dakota. Bulletin, 1918, No. 31. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1918. 304 p. Texas 27. Works, George A., director. Texas Educa- tional Survey Reports. Austin, Texas: Texas Educational Survey Commission, 1925. 8 volumes. Utah 28. U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. Survey of Education in Utah. Bul- letin, 1926, No. 18. Washington, D. C.: Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1926. 510 p. Vermont 29. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. A Study of Education in Vermont. Bulletin No. 7, 1914. New York: ( Foundation, 1914. 241 p. Virginia 30. O'Shea, M. V., director. Public Edy Virginia. Report to the Educational ( sion of Virginia. Richmond, Va.: § tendent of Public Printing, 1928. 634 . Virginia Education Commission and Survey Staff, Alexander Inglis, direct ginia Public Schools, I-11. Yonkers, World Book Co., 1921. Part I, 400 ; II, 235 p. Washington 32. Public School Administrative Code ( sion of the State of Washington. Report. De livered to the Governor and the Leyislatuy, Jan. 11, 1921. Olympia, Washington: s+ Washington, 1921. 117 p. . U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureay Education. Survey of Educational Institutioy of the State of Washington. Bulletin, 1916, N 26. Washington, D. C.: Government P Office, 1916. 228 p. Virginia . Cavins, Lorimer V., director. Survey of Edu cation in West Virginia. Charleston, W. Va State Board of Education, 1928. + volumes Wyoming 35. Monahan, A. C., and Cook, K. M. Educationa Survey of Wyoming. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1916 No. 29. Washington, D. C.: Printing Office, 1916. 120 p. Government improvements. . . A survey is a scientific inquiry which obtains facts about the present efficiency of a school system, and on the basis of these facts offers constructive proposals for desirable Actual administration, supervision, and instruction are pro fessional in character only when they are carried on in the light of such facts and proposals as a survey would provide, and, accordingly, all teachers, supervisors, and administrators must do survey work. This is merely saying that the technique of the survey ts essentially a part of the proper technique of administration, supervision, and teaching.—Jesse B. Sears, The School Survey. State-Wide Achievement Testing Programs [he standardized objective test of achieve- nent is by far the most widely used method which undertakes to measure directly any phase of the product of state school systems. Other methods collect data on factors which are be- to bear a close relationship to school ef- for example, school costs, length of Hrvene : NICICTILY y ession, the holding power of the schools, the raining of teachers, etc., but the objective test secures data on actual scholastic achievement. The reliability of this procedure as a measure of school efficiency obviously depends on the validity, reliability, and objectivity of the tests themselves; the care with which they are ad- ministered ; the extent to which all educational outcomes are covered by the tests used ; and the co rect interpretation of the data procured. The Achievement Test in State-Wide Surveys State-wide testing programs were carried on by thirteen of the thirty-five state school surveys analyzed for the purpose of this study. The ex- tent of the program ranged from tests in a few tool subjects in some of the surveys to the concentration of all the time and effort of the survey staff on a rather complete state-wide testing program. The state surveys including achievement testing among their procedures are those of: Arizona, Arkansas, i lorida, Indiana, Kentucky, Mississippi, New York, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Texas, Utah, Virginia, and West Virginia. the achievement test with respect to its use in school surveys are summed up by the New York Rural School Survey report: The advantages and limitations of The advantage of such standardized tests is that they give objective results which are uninfluenced by the personal judgment of individual observers. Such results lack concreteness, picturesqueness, and the lively sense of reality inherent in the direct observation of pupils in action, but they are objec- tively statable in mathematical terms and thus aid greatly in the objective evaluation of the school system. A brief description is given below of ex tensive testing programs reported in state school surveys. Lhe summaries include a review of the methods of sampling used, the administrative procedure followed in giving the tests, and the school subjects CoV ered. The Mississippi survey Mississippi. fined to the problem of securing “precise data relat was con ing to the intellectual status and educational achieve ment of pupils in the elementary and high schools and of students in the freshman year of college.” * In order to obtain such data, achievement and in- telligence tests were administered to 14,480 white and 3,439 negro pupils in grades one to eight; 10,075 white and 1,591 negro high-school students; and 1,667 white and 55 negro freshmen college stu dents. The criteria: (1) validity, (2) reliability, (3) compre tests used were selected according to four hensiveness, and (4) administrative feasibility For the purpose of applying the tests to a random sampling of pupils, and also for administrative con venience, the state was divided into five sections, with one of the investigators in charge of the work done in each section. In addition to the studies made from these five centers, several independent investi gations were made in the larger cities of Missis- sippl. Ihe data thus secured were used not only to de- termine the and the pupils tested, but were applied to such problems intellectual educational status of as the classification of pupils on the basis of mental maturity and ability, race and sex differences in intelligence and achievement, sectional and com munity differences in educational achievement, the relation of achievement to ability, and the over lapping in achievement of high-school seniors and college freshmen.’ West Virginia. An extensive testing program was also given a prominent place in the West Vir- ginia survey. The first step in the program was to divide the state into following geographic and industrial lines. These zones in cluded the eastern mountain region, the southern coal section, the Ohio Valley section, the northern coal section, and the northern manufacturing sec tion. To assure an equal representation in the sur- vey, the percent of total population living in each “zones” natural ‘Works, Geo. A., and Others. Rural School Survey of New York State. Vol. 6. Ithaca, N. Y.: Joint Committee on Rural Schools, 1922. p. 14, *O’Shea, M. V. A State Educational System at Work. (Mississippi). Hattiesburg, Miss.: Bernard B. Jones Fund (F. S. Harmon, Treas., Box 477), 1927. Title page. ' Ibid., digest of volume. [97] zone was computed. One reason for thus dividing the state into zones was to secure a fair representa- tion of all interests and sections of the state; an- other was to measure the efficiency of districts typi- cal of a particular kind of organization or school situation. “For example, certain districts were selected because they are exceedingly wealthy, others because they are extremely poor; some dis- tricts were selected because they have a high de- gree of consolidation, others because they have a large number of one-room schools; some districts were chosen that have a high percent of daily at tendance; others in which the attendance is as low as 50 percent; again, some districts were chosen be- cause of the superior training of their teachers, others because of their poorly qualified teachers.” ' Of the schools included in the sampling, 690 were the one-room type; 118, the two-room; 97, the three- or-more-room; and 22, high schools. Both white and colored schools were included. Ten tests were selected on the basis of validity, ease of administration, and the amount of compara- tive data that could be obtained from surveys of similar character. Intelligence tests adapted to the various levels of mental ability to be tested were given in grades one to twelve. An achievement test which is a collection of nine separate tests, cover- ing reading, arithmetic, nature study and science, history and literature and language was given in the elementary grades, and a test covering English, mathematics, science and history and the social sciences was given to high-school students. These tests were given to a total of 19,847 pupils in grades one to twelve. Although the program called for the visitation of approximately 1,200 schoolrooms housed in about 900 separate school buildings, practically all tests were given during the second and third weeks of October. This was made possible through the co- operation of local teachers and school administra- tors. In order to insure uniformity in the training of the various testing crews a complete manual of directions was prepared by the central office of the survey staff. This manual explained the procedure to be followed in administering the tests and gave suggestions regarding the training of assistants. The careful sampling plan made it possible to apply effectively the results of the tests. The re- sults of the tests in larger and smaller school or- ganizations were compared; racial differences in intelligence and achievement were noted; and the findings on the achievement tests were also applied to such administrative problems as teachers’ salaries, length of term, attendance, supervision, and type of district organization.? New York. The Division of Tests and Measure- ments of the Joint Committee on Rural Schools made definite inquiry into the product of the ru: of New York State. Generally, the method personal observation was employed, but supplemented by achievement tests on | subjects. For the purpose of the survey was divided into seven sections on a gx economic, and social basis. It was the int: to secure “a fair and accurate picture of ing conditions throughout the state.” M 5,000 children were tested in grades on 6,000 in grades five to eight; and 2,500 nine to twelve. In all, about 14,000 pupi schools were examined. Tests on the vario subjects were given in different schools, th: varying with the school situation, but a test reading was given to all pupils tested.” Texas. Tests of both intelligence and ment were administered in the Texas sur) largest number of pupils was tested in rr total of 8,562 white and 400 colored ch grades three to seven, and 3,965 white colored high-school students in grades eleven, inclusive. The “commissioner's pre: taken as the geographical unit of testing in | sections. The state was divided into seven the timbered region, the blackland, “‘cross : Central West, Plains (Anglo-Saxon), s (Mexican and American), and Central (Eu Some testing was done in the larger cities 0! for comparison with the data secured fr: schools. The plan called for testing all negro sc the areas chosen for testing. A special inves was made of the colored and of the Mexica children relative to mental ability as meas a non-verbal test. Assistants were trained the tests and these cooperated with the sur\ An Examiners’ Manual served as a guide. The data obtained from the tests were a such administrative problems as the size of t in relation to efficiency, selection as a facto: relative efficiency of small and large rural the relation of the length of the school achievement, and similar problems.‘ State Testing Programs Several states have adopted the p giving standardized tests at regular in! in the schools of the state as a means ot ating the school product. A few such p: are described below: Delaware.” Testing programs were admi! in 1926-27 in all the white and colored sch the state. The tests were given in grades ' Cavins, L. V., director. Survey of Education in West Virginia. Vol. 2. Charleston, W. Va.: State Board of Education, 1° 2 [bid., digest of volume. * Works, Geo. A. and Others. Rural School Survey of New York State. Vol. 6. Ivnaca, N. Y.: Joint Committee on Rural 1922. 223 p. * Works, Geo. A., director. Texas Educational Survey Report. Vol. 4. Austin, Texas: Texas Educational Survey Com 1925. 233 p. * Delaware. Annual Reports of the Department of Public Instruction for the Years Ending June 30, 1927, and June 3 Dover, Del.: State Board of Education, 1927, 1929. p. 117-38, and 129-49. [ 98 } in January and in April. The purpose was the vement of instruction by: Diagnosing individual differences, Measuring result of teaching and the im proving of teaching methods, Classification of pupils according to educa tional achievements, Comparison of individual results with stand ard, grade with grade, school with school, Using results as a factor in classification and promotion of children.” [ests were given in the elementary schools in ng, spelling, history, geography, and arithme- [he same tests in reading and spelling had been n in each of the three preceding years. May, 1927, standard tests were given in high | in spelling, reading, arithmetic, biology, gen- il science, civics, chemistry, physics, stenography, ookkeeping, French, and Latin. Practically the same testing program was carried it in 1928-29. Florida.’ Members of the Division of Elementary ervision have given standards tests to the ele- tary schools, and have trained teachers to ad- ster them. “The purposes in giving these tests (a) to demonstrate the results to be secured m giving standard tests, and (b) to familiarize eachers and others with the procedure of giving and ring the tests.” Che following is a statement of the extent this activity: -28 Both 342 1926-27 hools giving reading tests... 139 hools giving spelling tests. . 41 hools giving arithmetic tests. 6 hools giving English tests. . 0 19 Maryland.” The State Department of Education does not give standardized tests every year in all subjects. In 1924 tests were given in reading and rithmetic only. No state-wide standard tests were given during 1925-26, but the State Department pre- pared an annotated list of standard tests which was sent to the counties in the fall with the suggestion that the counties select those best suited to their plans. Six counties cooperated in testing pupils in grades seven, eight, and nine. The supervisors in twenty counties gave information concerning the tests used, in their annual reports to the State Super- intendent. The tests given were in reading, English, arithmetic, American history, geography, and hand- vriting. Several intelligence tests were also given. In 1927-28 pupils in grades two to seven through- it the state were tested in reading and English in October and May. Pupils in grades four to seven throughout the state were tested in history in May. In 1928-29 standard county in Maryland except Baltimore of the to remedial work. Tests were given in the elementary tests were given in every The purposes tests were diagnostic and provide for schools in mental capacity. Achievement tests were given in the following subjects: reading and litera- ture, English, geography, arithmetic, and history Appropriate tests were given each grade in all sub- jects covered by that grade. The counties which did not have their schools at standard or above in read ing in 1927-28 were asked by the State Department of Education to give re-tests in the spring of 1929. In October, 1928, and in April, 1929, practically all high school pupils were given diagnostic tests in English composition. Approximately 40,000 pupils were tested. Virginia.® school achievement and mental ability in eighty-five 1929-30. The four to nine, but Over 50,000 pupils were tested in counties in tests administered were suitable for grades testing was emphasized in the sixth grade. Data were also col- lected concerning the teachers of the pupils tested, since the plan is to relate the data secured in the tests to the experience and certificate of the teacher; also to other factors related to school efhciency such as length of school term and size of school. The school officials of Virginia expect, with the aid of these cumulative records, that educational standards, methods, and facilities can be studied “under natu- ral field conditions.” Washington.‘ During 1927-28 the eighth grade examination questions were changed from the essay to the objective type. In response to requests for measurements of pupils prior to the eighth grade final examination, a test in arithmetic for grades four to eight, inclusive, was prepared and sent to county superintendents for use, September, 1927. The aim of this test was to give a common measure in arithmetic and to diagnose the difhculties of in- dividual pupils. It also provides a means of com- paring individual schools with the county or state as a whole. The Stanford Achievement Tests were also given throughout the state in grades four to eight inclusive in schools of every type and in all parts of the state. The chief purpose of this study of achievement was said to be diagnostic. Wyoming.’ Rural schools were visited for the purpose of making mental and educational surveys. Handicapped children were detected by means of the tests given in these surveys. The extent of their defects was ascertained, and provision made for exclusion from school, removal to an institution, or for their training in the local school. The results of these surveys also serve as a basis for educational guidance including preventive and remedial work and better classification of pupils. Florida. Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the Year I nding June 30, 1928. Tallahassee, Fla > Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1928. p. 83. 2 Maryland. Sixtieth, Sixty-second, and Sixty-third Annual Reports of the Siate Board of Education for the Year and 1929, Baltimore, Md.: State Department of Education, 1927, * Virginia. Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the Commonwealth of Virginia with Ac« 1926, 1928, 1929, and 1930. p. 77-79, 11-23, 44-48. ompanying uments, 1929-30. Richmond, Va.: Division of Purchase and Printing, 1930. p. 86. Be. Washington. Twenty-ninth Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the Biennium Ending June 30, <8. Olympia, Wash.: Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1928. p. 33. Wyoming. Biennial Report of the State Department of Education of Wyoming for 1928-30. Sheridan, Wyo.: Mills Company, 30. p. 66-73. [ 99 | In addition to mental and educational measure- ments made in rural schools, a reading survey was conducted in the fall of 1928 and in the spring of 1929. Gates Diagnostic Reading Tests were given to 10,183 pupils in 1928-29. This survey was conducted by the County Superintendents’ Association. The teachers were supplied with the testing material and instructions for administering them, by the county superintendents. After the tests were given by the teachers the papers were returned to the county superintendents to be scored. A copy of the results was given to each teacher, with recommenda- tions for the improvement of reading. In the cities of Wyoming intelligence and achieve- ment tests were used for the purpose of homogene- ous classification, promotion, diagnosis of educa- tional deficiences, improvement of instruction, and comparison of teaching methods. Nineteen thousand four hundred seventy-six children were tested in the cities of Wyoming by the use of 1,872 individual mental measurements, 11,263 group-mental measure- ments, and 13,019 educational tests, making a total of 26,154 mental and educational measurements. The value of regularly evaluating the work of a state school system by means of direct measurement is readily apparent. A continuous testing program yields comparative data which enable a school system to keep informed of certain phases of its educational achievement at all times. At the same time, it must be recog- nized that many of the most desirable results of education, such as the development of stand- ards and ideals of conduct, the effect of train- ing on the emotions, the building of desirable attitudes, and other attributes which go to make up the sum total of personality, have not yet been scientifically measured. Selected Bibliography on Extensive State Testing Programs . BACHMAN, FRANK P. Public Education in In- diana. New York: General Education Board, 1923. 304 p. Chapter one gives an account of the measure- ment of pupil progress in elementary schools by means of standardized tests in reading, spelling, arithmetic, and history. These tests were given to 15,691 pupils located in 10 cities. . BACHMAN, Frank P. Public Education in Ken- tucky. New York: General Education Board, 1921. 213 p. In all, 16,700 pupils were given examinations. In the elementary schools tests were given in reading, spelling, arithmetic, and history. High school pupils were tested in reading and algebra. . Cavins, Lorimer V., director. Survey of Educa- tion in West Virginia, Vol. 2. Charleston, W. Va.: State Board of Education, 1928. 160 p. Gives plan and scope of the testing program, the names of the tests used, and the results of their application to approximately 30,000 pupils. 4. Ciirton, J. L., and Woop, E. R. Report December 2, 1930 ‘Every Pupil Test’. Co Ohio: F. J. Heer Printing Co., 1931. 55 I An account of a state-wide testing prog which achievement tests were given in and high schools to several thousand pu; . COLVIN, STEPHEN S., and McPuat, A. H. / gence of Seniors in tne High Schools of Ma chusetts. U. S. Department of the Interi: reau of Education, Bulletin, 1924, No. 9. \\ ington, D. C.: Government Printing Offic: 39 p. A mental survey was given to 3,333 students in Massachusetts high schools December, 1922 and January, 1923. A qu: naire supplemented the results of the tes . Comparative Results of a State-Wide | Standard Tests and Measurements No. 15% tension Series No. 29. Chapel Hill, N. ( versity of North Carolina, 1918. 24 p. Report of a cooperative research plan { vising tentative state standards for the certain educational tests and measur Tests given in October and May in al! grades. . Covert, Timon. Educational Achievements One-Teacher and Larger Schools. U. S. Vy partment of the Interior, Bureau of Educati Bulletin, 1928, No. 15. Washington, D. C.: G ernment Printing Office, 1928. 23 p. Summarizes the results of a number of testi programs given in large and small schools . CRAM, Frep D. “Tests and Measurements Rural Schools—Tentative Conclusions from the Special Investigation Being Carried on fo: Committee on Rural Education.” Proceedin 1921. Vol. 59. National Education Associat Washington, D. C.: the Association, 192! 357-62. Report of procedure followed and tentat conclusions reached in extensive testing prog in one-teacher rural schools. . CRAM, Freo D. “Tests and Measurements Rural Schools.” Proceedings, 1923. Vol. 61. Na tional Education Association. Washingto D. C.: the Association, 1923. p. 322-45. Gives detailed account of a testing prog: designed to include a “sample” of rural schools in the United States. . Decaware. Annual Reports of the Department of Public Instruction for the Years Ending Jun 30, 1927 and June 30, 1929. Dover, Delawar State Board of Education, 1927, 1929. p. 117-35 and 129-49. State-wide testing programs are administered the purpose of these tests in elementary high school subjects is the improvement o! |! struction by: (1) diagnosing individual differ ences, (2) measuring the results of teaching (3) classification of pupils, (4) comparison ot individual results with standard, (5) using re sults as a factor in classification and promot of pupils. [ 100 } s, W. C. “Use of Standard Tests in 72 Pub- shed School Surveys.’ School Life 14: 168-69; May, 1929. Report of the analysis of 72 school surveys 1914-1928) using standardized tests. The sub cts tested most frequently and the tests used r each are given. A comparison is made be veen the frequency of use of certain tests in ese surveys and their rating by experts. LorIDA. Biennial Report of the Superintendent f Public Instruction for the Year Ending June 1928. Tallahassee, Fla.: State Department f Public Instruction, 1928. p. 83. In 1927-28 tests were given in the elementary schools in reading, spelling, arithmetic, and English. This testing program was administered under the direction of the Division of Elemen tary Supervision. FLoRIDA EDUCATIONAI SURVEY COMMISSION Oficial Report to the Senate and House of Representatives. Tallahassee, Fla.: State of Florida, April, 1929. 743 p. A number of elementary and high schools were selected for testing. Tests were given in reading, spelling, composition, writing, and mental ability in the grades, and content ex aminations together with tests covering indus- trial arts, music, and mental ability were given in the high schools. GERBERICH, J. R., and Stopparp, G. D. “Person- nel Survey of 10,000 Iowa High School Seniors.” School and Society 30: 515-20; October 12, 1929. This high-school testing program was inau- gurated in 1923 and has been given annually to an average of more than 1,700 lowa high school seniors since that year. The survey has had as its objective the use of a mental-educational test battery in the senior year of high school as a foundation for educational and vocational guidance. More specifically the aims have been: (1) the determination of the selective factors in operation between high-school graduation and college entrance; (2) the discovery of the gifted high-school graduate; (3) the determination of the degree to which tests can be used in pre- dicting scholastic success in college. Grecory, C. A. The Efficiency of Oregon School Children in the Tool Subjects as Shown by Standard Tests, Vol. 1. Eugene, Oregon: Uni- versity of Oregon, 1919. An extensive testing program carried out in the schools of Oregon, including city, village and rural schools. Tests were given in arithmetic, language and grammar, spelling, reading, and handwriting. Haccerty, M. E. “Educational Achievement.” Rural School Survey of New York State, George A. Works, director. Ithaca, N. Y.: Joint Com- mittee on Rural Schools, 1922. 223 p. Approximately 14,000 pupils in 441 schools were given objective standardized tests of in- telligence and achievement. The latter included reading, American history, spelling, arithmetic, algebra, and Latin. { 101 } INGLIS, ALEXANDER, director, Educational Survey Commission. Virginia Public Schools, Part IU Yonkers, N. Y.: World Book Co., 1921. 235 p Standardized tests of intelligence and achieve ment were used in this survey. The latter in- cluded reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic composition, and algebra. A summary of results is given with recommendations referring espe- cially to factors influencing efficiency as term length, trained teachers, uniform standards of achievement, supervision, attendance, and other tactors. KANSAS STATE ScHooL CopE CoMMISsION, SUR veEY COMMITTEE. The Results of Instruction in Different Types of Elementary Schools in the State of Kansas. Pittsburg, Kansas: Kansas State Teachers College Press, 1922. 45 p Four thousand two hundred forty-four pupils located in fifteen cities and seventeen counties participated in this testing program Mapsen, I. N. “Some Results from a Testing Program in Idaho.” School and Society 13 668-71; June, 1921. Reports results of extensive testing programs carried on for several years. Mental and edu cational tests were given to several thousands of pupils in both rural and city schools. MARYLAND. Sixtieth, Sixty-second, and Sixty- third Annual Reports of the State Board of Education for the Years 1926, 1928, and 1929. Baltimore, Md.: State Department of Educa- tion, 1927, 1929, and 1930. p. 77-79, 11-23, 44-48. For some years Maryland has undertaken extensive testing programs. In 1928-29 standard tests were given in every county except Balti- more. The purposes of these tests are diagnostic and provide for remedial work. Morrison, J. Cayce. Some Administrative Uses Made of Standard Tests and Scales in the State of New York, 1921-22. University of the State of New York, Bulletin, No. 772. Albany, N. Y.: University of the State of New York Press, 1923. 37 p. Sixty-one city and village superintendents and 102 district superintendents reported that they had used standard tests and scales during the year, using 70 different tests. Two hundred fifty thousand children were tested. NorkTH CAROLINA EDUCATIONAL COMMISSION. Public Education in North Carolina. New York: General Education Board, 1921. 137 p Standardized achievement tests were given in reading, spelling, arithmetic, history, algebra, and Latin. More than 10,000 children in various counties and cities were tested. NortH Dakota. Twentieth Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the Period Ending June 30, 1928. Bismark, N. Dakota: Department of Public Instruction, 1928. p. 40-77. Reports a state-wide survey in the minimum essentials of English. Fourteen thousand one hundred twenty-six pupils in 442 public schools of all classes and from every county were in- cluded in this testing program. In addition, 409 pupils from private and parochial schools par- ticipated. . Overt, CHARLEs W. Conservation of Intelligence in Illinois High Schools. Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin, No. 25. Urbana, Ill.: Univer- sity of Illinois, 1929. 58 p. The writer analyzed the educational status of 12,300 seniors from 368 Illinois high schools. The testing program was supplemented by a questionnaire. . OKLAHOMA EDUCATIONAL SURVEY Public Education in Oklahoma. U. S. ment of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Bul- letin, 1923, No. 14. Washington, D. C.: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1923. 420 p. Twenty-six thousand eight hundred forty-five pupils were tested in all types of public schools and in all sections of the state. . O'Suea, M. V. A State Educational System at Work. (Mississippi). Hattiesburg, Miss.: Ber- nard B. Jones Fund (F. S. Harmon, Treas., Box 477), 1927. 368 p. The scope and character of the measurement program are treated in Part I. Gives a de- tailed account of the organization of the meas- urement program, the selection of tests to be used and methods employed to secure adequacy and accuracy. . Ratney, Homer P. A Survey of the Achievement ef Oregon Pupils in the Fundamental School Subjects. Education Series, Vol. 1, No. 3. Eu- gene, Oregon: University of Oregon, 1927. 168 P COMMISSION. Depart- An objective survey of the achievements of 1,049 Oregon school children, representing schools of various sizes. . Rewwoent, CuHartes M. “A Study of Instruction in Montana Rural Schools.” Montana Education 17: 197-98; January, 1922. Summarizes results of standardized educa- tional tests reported by 11 consolidated and 34 one-teacher schools. Of 42 corresponding median scores for six grades in each subject, 83 percent are favorable to the consolidated schools. . Reynoios, ANNig. Supervision and Rural School Improvement. U. 8. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1930, No. 31. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1930. p. 18-21. Gives an account of experiments made in South Dakota, Indiana, Michigan, and North Caro- lina which attempted to measure the results of supervision by means of objective achievement tests given to pupils. . Stevenson, P. R. “Report of the State-Wide Testing Project in Plane Geography.” Educa- tional Research Bulletin 2: 118-19, 128; April 18, 1923. An account of a state-wide test in geography in which 50,000 children participated. . Tupper, C. Ratpn. A Survey of the Arizona Public School System. Phoenix, Arizona. State Board of Education, 1925. 112 p. 32. Intelligence and achievement tests wer, in grades one, five, and eight and in th, schools of Arizona. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, Buy Epucation. Survey of Education in Uta) letin, 1926, No. 18. Washington, D. ( ernment Printing Ofhce, 1926. 510 p. Pupil achievement in the elementary s was measured by means of standardized of both mental and educational ability. } thousand four hundred and fourteen pupils the combined tests. Tests of achievemen: intelligence were also administered in ten and eight junior high schools. . U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, Bua EpucaTion. The Public School System kansas. Bulletin, 1923, No. 10. Washi D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1923 In all, 3,824 pupils were tested, of wh 403 were in one-teacher schools and 2.4. rural schools having more than one tea . VAN WaGENEN, M. J. Comparative 4A. ment in Rural, Town, and City Schools. M apolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota | 1929. 144 p. More than 150 town and city school s, and over a thousand rural schools scat throughout nearly every county in the cooperated in this project. The major p: involved was to determine the success « outstanding policies of the State Departm Education: (1) the advocacy of an increa: the length of the school years from 7 to 9 mont for rural schools, and (2) the encouragement consolidation of small rural schools. . Vircinta. Annual Reports of the Superint ent of Public Instruction of the Commonzca of Virginia with Accompanying Document: the Years 1927-28, 1929-30. Richmond, Va vision of Purchase and Printing, 1928, | 136 p., 189 p. In 1929-30 over 50,000 pupils were test: school achievement and mental ability i counties in the fall of 1929 and again in spring of 1930. Plans have been made to use ‘hy data from these tests to study the effect pupil learning of: (1) length of term, (2 of school, (3) certificate of teacher, and experience of teacher. . WASHINGTON. Twenty-ninth Biennial Repo: the Superintendent of Public Instruction fo: Biennium Ending June 30, 1928. Olym Wash.: State Department of Education, |! 203 p. During 1927-28 the eighth grade examin: questions were changed from the essay to objective type; also comprehensive achieven tests were given throughout the state in grades four to eight in schools of every type. . Wisconsin. “Education in Wisconsin.” Bien: { 102 } Report, 1924-26, of the State Superintendent Public Instruction. Madison, Wis.: State | partment of Public Instruction, 1926. 220 p. Chapter eight gives a full account of the tes! ing program formulated and administered Division of Tests and Measurements. in- ence tests and achievement tests in read- arithmetic, language, grammar, spelling, aphy, and history were used extensively. idy of children’s interests was included in program. py, CLIFFORD. Achievement in Ninth-Grade ish in Various High Schools of Michigan. ilts of the May Testing Programs. Report he Testing Program for October, 1931. Bu- of Educational Reference and Research, etins No. 67, 140, 142. Ann Arbor, Mich.: versity of Michigan, 1924, 1931. Reports on testing programs carried on in nentary and secondary schools throughout Michigan. Works, GEorGE A., director. Texas Educational Survey Report, Vol. 4. Austin, Texas: Texas Educational Survey Commission, 1925. 233 | Gives detailed account of the testing progran carried out in connection with this survey. In telligence and achievement tests were given in all grades. WyromiInc. Biennial Report of the State Depart ment of Education of Wyoming for 1928-3 Sheridan, Wyoming: Mills Company, 1930. p 66-73 Both rural and city schools were given men tal and achievement tests. The results of these tests aided in the detection of handicapped chil dren who needed special provisions for thei: education. These tests, also, served as a basis for educational guidance, including preventive and remedial work and better classification of pupils. Tests will not replace skill, they will not replace tact, they will not replace kind ness, they will not replace enthusiasm, or nobility. On the other hand, they will not in any sense harm us, and they will be useful as helps, no matter how ideal our aims Our ideals may be as lofty and subtle as you please, but if they are real ideals, they are ideals for achieving something; and if anything real is achieved it can be measured. Not perhaps now, and not perhaps in fifty years from now; but if a thing exists, it exists in some amount; and if it exists in some amount, it can be measured.—E. L. Thorndik: [ 103 ] Statistical Analyses of State School Systems Statistical analysis of state school efhiciency is defined as the direct measurement or count- ing of quantitative facts. It usually involves also the combination of these facts into a single index or estimate of efficiency. It deals with such factors as: average number of days schools are in session, per capita cost of education, average daily teaching load, and similar items. When such a criterion is applied to a given state school system, the response is always a numerical expression — two hundred days, eighty-three dollars, one hundred pupil-clocl.- hours, and so on. A dozen different statistical indexes have been made in this field and these are summarized in this section. Indexes of State School Efficiency Comprehensive rating of the state school systems on quantitative standards was first at- tempted by Ayres in 1912.1 This little-known pioneer investigation was followed eight years later by his index number for state school systems,* which immediately attracted national attention. In this second index Ayres selected 10 sets of statistical data which, he believed, reflected educational conditions. Five of these items were concerned with attendance and enrolment; five were concerned with financial matters. These 10 sets of data were then aver- aged and the states arranged in order according to this average. Indexes were computed for every year from 1871 to 1918 for the United States as a whole. For each of the individual states the computations were made for 1890, 1900, 1910, 1916, and 1918. In evaluating the results of his work, Ayres* made this significant comment: If some great national agency were to undertake a survey of each of the 48 state school systems, it would surely report on many phases of ¢} not included in the items of the index. Am phases would be the legal bases of the sy organization, professional leadership and vision, business management, course of stud ing staff, plant and equipment, and the re: standard tests of classroom work. Although the limitations of the ind: thus frankly recognized by its auth study, on the whole, had a tonic effect . school leadership. States which were rank: high were urged to maintain their positions leadership. States in the lower ranges we: urged to make a better record in the fy The Ayres Index is still used from time to tiny in the official school reports of several s: At the same time, the Ayres study \ received with unanimous approval. ‘The inde) method itself was not generally questioned new attempts at ranking were usually made | weighting certain of the Ayres items, o; omitting certain items, or by adding new ones Myers,° Blair,® Brooks,’ and others have jected to the implications of the Ayres | ndex on the ground that it combined unlike denomi nations, that it measured quantity of instru tion and omitted the quality, that certain of th: items were not significant, that it did not appl) well to states with large private school enr ments, and that high rank on the financial item: might mean either educational efficiency fiscal inefficiency. Some of the criticisms di rected against the Ayres Index arose from fail ure to understand its meaning and to use it a the author intended. In other cases the in cautious statements of over-enthusiastic cham- pions of the Index increased the skepticism with which it was received. On the whole, however the criticisms made were justified although the) frequently indicated weaknesses which Ayres himself fully recognized. ! Ayres, Leonard P. A Comparative Siudy of the Public School Systems in the Forty-Eight States. New York: Russell Sag dation, 1912. 33 p. ? Ayres, Leonard P. An Index Number for State School Systems. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1920. 70 p 3 Jbid., p. 58. ‘See, for example: Maryland, State Board of Education. Sixty-third Annual Report, Year Ending July 31, 1929. B Md.: Maryland State Department of Education, 1929. p. 276-79. 5 Myers, Charles Everett. ‘‘ Educational Ranking of States."" Pennsylvania School Journal 75: 237-40; December, 192 * Illinois, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Educational Press Bulletin, Nos. 252, 253; February, March, 193 No. 273; March, 1932. ? Brooks, E. C. “The Taxpayer's Idea of School Business Administration.” School Executives Magazine 49: 553-55; 1930, [ 104 ] riticisms of the Ayres Index were sum- ized in 1924 by Frank M. Phillips, then Chief of the Statistics Division of the U. S. Ofice of Education. Phillips made, in addi- tion, two important adaptations of the Ayres Index: (1) the financial items were revised to w for the decreased purchasing power of dollar, and (2) the states were classified urban, mixed, and rural types to make possible the comparison of ranks among states { similar population characteristics. In addi- on, a method of ranks based on different sta- tistical factors was suggested to supplement the ndex method as evolved by Ayres. In the Phil- ips’ rank method ten items were used. The number of general financial items was re- duced from five to two, and statistics concern- ing illiteracy, teachers’ salaries, and teacher training were substituted for the three financial items which were discarded. The attendance and enrolment items were also modified con- siderably. In 1926 Schrammel,’ in the course of an of of types of state educational organization, found investigation the effectiveness certain it advisable to rank the states according to their general educational efficiency. He departed from the precedent of ten-point ratings as established by Ayres and followed by Phillips and used the average of eleven statistical items. Three of his factors dealt with school finance, two with literacy, and the remaining six with enrolment and attendance statistics. In spite of these differences he found a close relation- ship between his own ranking of the states and that calculated by Ayres.® Indexes of City and County School Efficiency Paralleling the work of Ayres, Phillips, and Schrammel in the field of state school ad- ministration, a series of attempts have been made to find a quantitative basis for evaluating city and county school efficiency. Since many of these attempts might well be applied to states, a few of them will be described at this point. A study of the effects of fiscal independence * to attempt an evaluation of the efficiency of 169 ot city boards of education led Frasier city school systems on a quantitative basis. He made use of six statistical items which he com- bined into a single rating by a method based Harrell ® ot efficiency based on the average of eleven statis- on standard deviations.5 has pro posed a tentative measure city school tical items. ‘hese include factors of class size and the supervisory program which are seldom represented in ratings of this kind. Still an other attempt to rate cities and towns was made in 1927 by ‘Thompson of the Connecticut State Board of Education, Division of Research and Surveys.’ This study, being applied to only one state, admitted many refinements in the basic statistics which are seldom possible when cities in different states are compared. Another important new feature of the Connecticut rat ing is the use of the standard score technic in combining the eight items chosen into a single measure. The rating of county systems has also been attempted many times. A large number of these studies have consisted simply of the application of the Ayres Index to the counties of a state. However, several investigators have used other combinations of statistical data, or have used one or more of the Ayres factors combined with other data. ! Phillips, Frank M. ‘‘ Educational Ranking of States by Two Methods."’ American School Board Journal 69: 47-49; Decem ber, 1924. As this Bulletin goes to press, a 1930 revision of both the Ayres and Phillips ratings is being published. See: Phillips, Frank M “Educational Rank of States, 1930." American School Board Journal 84: 25-29; February, 1932, and subsequent issues ? Schrammel, Henry E. The Organization of State Departments of E-ducation. Ohio State University Studies, Bureau of Educa tional Monographs, No. 6. Columbus, Ohio: the Ohio State University Press, 1926. Chapter 9. * Correlations by the rank-difference method ranged from .62 to .78. See: Schrammel, op. cit., p. 128. ‘Frasier, G. W. The Control of City School Finances. Milwaukee, Wis.: iter used by the Educational Finance Inquiry. See: McGaughy, J. R York: Macmillan Co., 1924. p. 47-54. Bruce Publishing Co., 1922. 132 p This index was The Fiscal . idministration of City School Systems. New ’ The method is fully described in Chapter VII of Frasier's study § New York Tax Commission. Fiscal Problems of City School Adminisiration tion and Retrenchment. Legislative Document, 1928, No. 66. Albany, N. Y.: State of New York, 1928. p. 65-7. and Alexander, Carter. School Finance and Business ire listed in: Englehardt, N. L., College, Columbia University, 1928. p. 7-9. 7 Connecticut State Board of Education, Division of Research and Surveys Report by the Special Joint Committee on Taxa The same factors Management Problems. New York: Teachers Tentative Index Number for the Schools of Con- necticut Cities and Towns. Hartford, Conn.: State Board of Education. Mimeographed, 12 p. § This technic is not described in the study itself but can be found in: McCall, William A. How to Experiment in Education. New York: Macmillan Co., 1923. p. 98-102. t 105 J TABLE 5.—STATISTICAL FACTORS USED IN INDEXES OF SCHOOL EFFICIEN State ratings | City ratings County ratings Nur Factor » Schrammel _ _— Number of Factors Used Altendance 1. Percent of school population attending school daily Average days attended by each child of school age Average number of days schools were kept open Percent high school attendance was of total attendance. Average days s attended by each child enrolled Percent of enrolment in average daily attendance Enrolment Percent that boys were of girls in high school Percent of total enrolment found in high school Percent of total population enrolled in public elementary and secondary schools. . Percent of school population enrolled in ‘public elementary and secondary schools Percent of those enrolled who graduate from public high school Percent of 16 and 17 year old children in school Percent of those enrolled who graduate from elementary schools Percent that average daily attend: ance in high schooi is of total average daily attendance Distribution of enrolment through the grades Teacher Training Ratio of students preparing to teach to teach- ing positions Percent of teachers who have 6 or more years training above &th grade. ... Percent of elemmentary teachers holding certifi- cates above the minimum requirements. . . Percent of secondary teachers holding certifi- cates above (he minimum requirements Percent of elem: : tary school teachers who are normal school graduates Percent of teachers serene above first grade certificates Percent of all teachers who are normal school graduates Percent of all teachers who are college grz aduate $. Percent of teachers having two or more years of college training School Plant Percent of children who have 60 sq. ft. or more of playground space. . Percent of children enrolled who attend school a full day in adequate buildings owned by the city Percent of elementary pupils with 50 sa. ft. of playground space per elementary pupil con- tiguous to the school Adequacy of educational fz acilities ... Value of school property per child in average | daily attendance F one Te. Fe . Se . x ln ‘ Citations to the published and unpublished studies which form the basis for this table may be readily found in the notes to the accompanying text. TABLE 5.—(Continued ) State ratings Sity re ¢ County ratings Number of times factor is used Factor Phillips Schrammel Harrell Thompson 14 > @ ° General Finance erage expenditure per child in average daily endance erage expenditure per child of school age verage expenditure per teacher employed xpenditure per pupil for purposes other ries . ee Expenditure for education per capita pulation xpenditure for education per $1000 of ‘esti ted true value of all property” recent of current expenditure devoted to in iction x rate necessary to raise amount of money evoted to schools verage annual cost for current expense per ementary school pupil in average daily attend nee over a 3-year period ). Expenditures for education from local funds r capita of enrolment lotal cost of education per school room Expenditures for instruction per child enrolled Expenditures per child enrolled Financial index? True (County) tax rate for element: ary schools True (District) tax rate for schools Operating expenditures per child in average laily attendance Bonded debt for school purposes per $1000 of property valuation Class Size Percent of elementary classes having fewer in 40 children enrolled Achievement Percent of those taking the regents examinations vho passed them. . Academic index ?..... 3. Percent of children not retarded 4. Percent of annual expectation graduating from the eighth grade. .. Percent of annual expectation graduating from high school Supervision Percent of total supervising hours to total teach- ing hours during a typical week Salaries Expenditure for salaries per teacher \verage salary of teachers, principals, super visors Pe srcent of the increased cost of living, 1913-14 ) 1919-20, that was met by increased salaries for elementary women teachers \verage annual salary of elementary teachers Literacy Percent of literates 10 years of age and over P ercent of illiteracy eliminated during preceding lecade Higher Education Percent of high school graduates continuing education. . and items 10, 11, 12, and 13 under genera! ? Financial index is calculated from a formula based on item 1 under salaries, ince, * Academic index is calculated from a formula based on items 1 and 3 under attendance, item 6 under teacher training, m 2 under enrolment, and item 4 under school plant. { 107 ] Grimm ranked the counties of Illinois on the average one of the Ayres criteria; namely, number of days schools were kept open, and on five other factors: percent of total public school enrolment in high school, percent of teachers having six or more years training above eighth grade, percent of elementary school teachers who are normal school graduates, average an- nual cost for current expense per elementary school pupil in average daily attendance over a three-year period, and average salary of teachers, principals, and supervisors. Wiley ranked California counties on twelve items. In addition to items on length of session, attendance, enrolment, teacher training, and school tax and expenditure, he included percent of pupils not retarded and percent of the in- crease in the cost of living since 1913-14 which has been met by increases in the salaries of ele- mentary women teachers. Combs ranked the counties of Virginia ac- — to five educational and five financial He calculated both an academic and a financial index for each county, added the two and took the arithmetic average index upon which to rank the counties. Brown ranked the counties of Oklahoma by factors. as a general The ten indexes which have thus fa; mentioned, Schrammel, Grimm, Combs, Wiley, and Brown, namely, those by Frasier, Harrell, Ayres, ' t P Thor other indexes to be mentioned below (‘S; Witham’s), use, all told, 61 different s+ items. Of*these 61 factors, only 21 in more than one index, and only 9 we more than twice. with the number of indexes l. Average number of days schools were kept open Percent of total enrolment found in high school Percent of school population attending schools daily Average expenditure per child in average daily at- tendance Expenditure for salaries per teacher employed Percent of enrolment in aver- age daily attendance Expenditure per pupil purposes other than salaries. Average expenditure per child of school age for we using the These nine factors, t means of the ten criteria of the Ayres Index in combination with three other factors, namely, the percentage of annual expectation graduat- ing from the eighth grade, the percentage of annual graduating high school, and the percentage of teachers having two or more years of college training. These three items he combined with the Ayres Index by adding the percentage of each item for each county and multiplying by five-thirds times one-tenth to make the three factors count for the same as the five educational or the five fi- nancial factors in the Ayres Index. Average number of days at- tended by each child of school expectation from Out of the total 61 items, 18 are fir 15 deal with enrolment and attendance with the school plant ; 9, with teacher p: tion; 5, with pupil achievement ; 4, with teac! ers’ salaries; and 2, with literacy. Table 5 sun marizes the statistical factors suggested inclusion in indexes of school efficienc) state, county, and city school systems. ‘ The 10 factors used in the Ayres Index of 1912 are not included, since the ones used by Ayres in 1920 are assumed ¢ the items used in his earlier study. The 1912 index was based on these ten items: percent of children 5-17 enrolled in pu private schools; total school revenue; average value of public school property per child of school age; current expend public schools per child of school age, minus private school enrolment; average days attended in public schools per child age, minus private school enrolment; average number days schools were open; average number days attendance for e enrolled; cost per child per day in public schools for current expense; proportion high school enrelment is of elementa: enrolment; average annual salary, teachers, principals, supervisors. ? Other projected, but as yet tentative, studies in this field which have come to the attention of the Research Div An index of efficiency for Ohio school districts, the factors used being based in part on questionnaire returns, by J. J. Lowd State University; an index for state school systems based on six items which is being developed by M. M. Daugherty Delaware School Foundation; and a study planned by the National School Finance Survey. Estimates Based on a Single Factor In contrast to these elaborate methods of es and ranks, brief mention should be f two attempts to estimate the efficiency f a state school system statistically in terms of , single factor. Witham, asserting that ‘‘the eficiency of school systems varies directly as holding power,” proposes a measure of hool efficiency based on the percent of pupils found in each grade. He first fixes certain tandards for the distribution of pupils by ides. The index of efficiency is then found comparing the actual grade-distribution of pupils in a given state with these standards. This “index of holding power” has been cal- culated for each state for 1923-1924." Another item which has been suggested as a numerical index of state school efficiency was used by Sias in 1926. In attempting to evaluate different methods of apportioning state school funds, a need arose for a measure of state school eficiency. The measures then available were tested and rejected method of weighting the various factors could be discovered. A single item was therefore because no _ satisfactory sought which “can be obtained with some de- gree of exactness and which will be, without question, a measure of school efficiency.”* This single item, according to Sias, is the average number of days attendance for each child of school age. Difficulties Involved in Statistical Analyses On the whole, none of these attempts to de- termine relative school efficiency can be said to have failed in its purpose. For its own special purposes each study has made an important, sometimes an exceedingly important, contribu- tion. But as purely objective measures of school eficiency which can command universal ac- quiescence, none of the studies can be said to have succeeded. Statistical criteria for the measurement of state school efficiency possess the great advan- tages of definiteness, appeal to the public, and ease of recurrent application. But precisely be- cause of these alluring advantages certain dan- gers lurk in placing exclusive reliance on them and in hasty or uncritical interpretation of the comparative statistics which quantitative cri teria develop. Before it is possible to derive and to make proper use of quantitative criteria the following difficulties must be faced and overcome: 1. The data from which the criteria are com puted must be If, for are to be ranked with respect to the regularity with which children attend their schools, the validity of such ranking will depend on the fact that “a day's thing in each comparable. instance, states attendance” means the same state under consideration. The degree to which the states do not keep their basic statistical records with rea sonable degree of uniformity * constitutes a first pos sible source of error in applying quantitative criteria to state school systems. must 2 used 2. Every possess a demonstrable relationship to the efficiency of the schools. For example, if state school systems are to be reliably rated according to the percent of according to the percent quantitative criterion to be illiterates in the state or of boys enrolled in high schools, or according to the number of volumes in school libraries, it must be possible to show (either logically or statistically that these factors are directly ethiciency and preferably both and intimately Therefore, the selection of a given criterion at ran- dom, or merely because the data upon it are easily second chance for weight of different must be known. If, for associated with school available, creates a error 3. The relative affecting efhciency instance, the expenditure for teachers’ salaries is factors in school three or twenty or a hundred times more important in determining the efficiency of a school system than, say, the percent of high school graduates entering college, it is obvious that a serious error would be taking as a measure of ethciency the The practice involved by simple average of these two factors. of averaging a number of different factors to secure a single measure of school efficiency is based on the doubtful assuniption that all factors considered are of equal importance. Unless, therefore, the factors con- sidered are weighted according to their importance, a third serious error is likely to occur. Although it is impossible completely to avoid all of the difficulties just mentioned, it does not follow that the ranking of states on quantita- tive criteria is an enterprise of no value or that the attempts to rate the states on such factors should be abandoned. It does mean, however, that results of such ratings should be cautiously interpreted, that the possibilities of error should be recognized, and that such ratings should be supplemented by such other estimates of school efficiency as are available. , ! Witham, Ernest C. ‘Index of Holding Power."" American Educational Digest 46: 548-51; August, 1927. ‘‘ Public School Progress of the States.'’ American School Board Journal 75: 37-39; October, 1927 *Sias, A. B. The Financing of a State School System. Unpublished Ph. D. thesis. Stanford University, Calif., 1926 * Reavis, William C. ‘‘ Items of Information Collected by Departments of Public Instruction of Ten Representative States." Elementary School Journal 29: 666-73; May, 1929. [ 109 Bibliography on Statistical Measures of ence 36, below.) Obtains a correlati: School Efficiency cient of .91 between the data of maca j , . culation and school rating of twenty-siy 1. Al ABAMA, Annual Report for the Scholastic . Brooks, E. C. “The Taxpayer's Idea | Year Ending September J, 1920. Part I. Mont- Business Administration.” School E gomery, Alabama: State Superintendent of Edu- Magazine 49: 553-55; August, 1930. cation, 1920. p. 32-43. This study of the rural elementary schools of A criticism of the Ayres scale for m : Alal a etal h the efficiency of state school systems. the 67 counties of Alabama is based on the . Brown, E. E. A Statistical Survey by Ayres Index. : ' ‘ of Education in Oklahoma. Bulletin . ALEXANDER, CARTER. “Presenting Educational Oklahoma City, Okla.: State Depart Measurements So As to Influence the Public Education, 1925. 62 p. Favorably.” /urnal of Educational Research : 3: 345-58 ; May, 1921. . together with three other factors in m: A criticism of the use of educational measure- the efficiency of the county school sys: ments. Emphasizes the need for a style of pre- Oklahoma. 2 sentation adapted to the public. . “Can We Lift Ohio 22 Notches?” Jou . ALMACK, JoHN C. “Class Size and Efficiency.” Educational Research 3: 71-73; Janua: Journal of the National Education Association 12: 107-09; March, 1923. Formulates size of class and efficiency in- dexes for ten cities based on wealth per pupil, (2) the percent making any use of tes! cost per pupil, cost per class, and pupils per class tematic or irregular. in the elementary schools of 196 cities. . Comps, M. L. Efficiency in Relation to ‘ . ANGOFF, CHARLES, and MENCKEN, H. L. “The High Schools, Vol. 10, No. 3. Richmond, Y Worst American State.” American Mercury Bulletin State Board of Education, Marc! 24: 1-16, September; 175-88, October; 355-71, 124 p. November, 1931. Ranks states on wealth, education, health, public order, and other factors. . Ayres, Leonarp P. A Comparative Study of the Public School Systems in the Forty-eight States. struction, program of studies, material ey New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1912. 33 p. ment, holding power, results of tests, record oi A pioneer investigation of the relative effi- graduates in freshman year at college and per- ciency of the school systems of the 48 states. centage of high schools meeting accredit . Ayres, Leonarp P. An Index Number for State quirements. School Systems. New York: Russell Sage . Connecticut State Board oF Epucarion, |) Foundation, 1920. 70 p. VISION OF RESEARCH AND SurRVEYS. Tentative In dex Number for the Schools of Conn Cities and Towns. Hartford, Conn.: St. Board of Education. Mimeographed, 12 | Employs a modified form of the Ay; Gives an account of an attempt to | 48 states on (1) the percent of cities j state making systematic use of tests, and a A study made to determine what size of | school is most desirable from the standp both cost and efficiency. The schools wer: on teaching staff, salaries, per capita cost A statistical measure devised to make possible a numerical comparison of one state school sys- tem with another, and with that of the United Riche fosters used ap ecteeria tn form States as a whole; also can be used as a meas- ind b an index number. ure of progress of a school system from year to . Cook, ALBERT S. “What Should the Peop! aaa State Be Told About Their Schools?” fluc: - Bactey, Wittiam C. “Do Good Schools Pay?” tional Administration and Supervision 9: ( Journal of the National Education Association February, 1923. 12: 211-16; June, 1923. Gives an account of Maryland’s publicity Contains a comparison of forty-one states as campaign for better schools inspired by th to median scores in “army alpha” with the ranks publication of Ayres Index of efficiency of stat of the same states in school efficiency in 1900. school systems. (Ayres’ Rating). . “Counties Ranked on School Factors.” / 8. Bactey, Wittiam C. “On the Possibility of Teacher 18: 38-39; October, 1929. Securing ‘Moral Ratings’ for the Several One hundred two Illinois counties were ranked States.” Educational Administration and Super- on six factors related to school efficiency. !} vision 11: 289-306; May, 1925. counties were also ranked on ability to su; An attempt to find a causal relationship be- education. tween public education and the morals of the . DeLaware. Annual Report of the Depariment general population of each state as indicated by of Public Instruction for the Year Ending !/ three criteria. 30, 1929. Dover, Del.: State Board of E . Bactey, Wittiam C. “Why Some States Read tion, 1929. p. 219. a More.” School and Society 18: 531-32; Novem- Ranks Delaware on the ten factors inc! ber 3, 1923. in the Ayres Index, from 1890 to 1929. A discussion of Reeder’s statistics of maga- 18. EBaucu, Mary O. Index Number for the Pu): zine circulation distributed by states. (See refer- High Schools in the Counties of Maryland, { 110] 17-18, 1918-19, and 1919-20. Unpublished \aster’s thesis. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hop- is University, 1920. \pplies the Ayres Index to Marvland coun- s, adapting it to the high school situation. NGELHARDT, N. L., amd ALEXANDER, CARTER. hool Finance and Business Management Prob- ms. New York: Teachers College, Columbia niversity, 1928. p. 7-9. An exercise to determine whether or not iny relation exists among the various types \§ administrative control of schools in the state ind the result, other than fiscal, of the influence f the type of control. Each city was to be inked on eleven items. Frasier, GEO. W. The Control of City School Finances. Milwaukee, Wis.: Bruce Publishing Co., 1922. Chapters 7 and 8, p. 65-82. An attempt to discover what method or de- gree of fiscal control is best for city school sys- ems. In working out this problem the investi- gator devised a statistical measure of the rela- tive achievement of city school systems. One hundred sixty-nine cities were rated on six items. GuLick, LUTHER. “Wanted: A Measuring Stick for School Systems.” National Municipal Re- view 18: 3-5; January, 1929. Defends the proposition that “current meth- ids of measuring school performance do not really measure,” but regards the efforts put forth as a manifestation of the “research temper” of our times and a hopeful sign. ILLINOIS STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PuBLic IN- STRUCTION. Educational Press Bulletin, Nos. 252, 253; February, March, 1930. A criticism of the Ayres Index as a measure of school efficiency with special reference to the effect of private schools on rank and errors liable to be present because of diverse methods of reporting data employed by individual states. Ranks states with certain of the Ayres items modified. ILLINOIS STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC IN- stRUCTION. Educational Press Bulletin, No. 273, March, 1932. Refers to the Phillips ranking of the states in 1932 by the Ayres scale. Finds evidence in Illinois high rank which tend to support the writer’s criticisms of Illinois’ former rating on this same scale. MAINE. Report of the State Commissioner of Education. Augusta, Maine: State Department of Education, 1926. p. 45-46. Gives Maine’s rating on the various factors included in the Phillips’ ranking of the states in 1924. MARYLAND. A Graphic Picture of Maryland Schools, 1920-21. Bulletin, 1921. Baltimore Md.: State Department of Education, 1921. 63 r. Applies the Ayres Index to Maryland counties. MARYLAND. Fifty-fifth Annual Report of the State Board of Education for the Year Ending July 31, 1921. Baltimore, Md.: State Department of Education, 1921. 205 p. Compares ratings of Maryland schools from 1918-1921 in accordance with the Ayres Index. [111] Computes indexes for the counties separat p. 7-47, MARYLAND. Measurable Evidence of Progress in Maryland Public Schools, 1926. Baltimore Md.: State Department of Education, 192 213 p. A general review of progress in the schools of Maryland. Contains data on Maryland's index numbers in the various educational ratings which have been made since 1918, Table 121 ranks the counties of Maryland according to the Ayres’ Index of educational efficiency McGaucny, J. R. The Fiscal Administration of City School Systems. Educational Finance In- quiry Commission. New York: Macmillan Co., 1924. 95 p. In studying the relationship between fiscal in dependence and school efficiency the writer used the criteria set forth by Frasier as measures of the efficiency of a city school system. Morr, Paut R., and Hit_esor, Guy L. Ad Rating Scale for Elementary School Organization. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1930. 47 p. A plan for rating the elementary school on the progress and adjustment of pupils, educa tional activities, school environment, and morale and services. Myers, C. E. “Educational Ranking of the States.” Pennsylvania School Journal 75: 237-40; December, 1926. Discusses the Ayres’ system of measuring school eficiency and suggests that two scales are needed; one which measures instructional efhciency, and one which measures financial efficiency. Presents formulae designed to meas- ure school systems according to these two scales New York. Fiscal Problems of City School Ad- ministration. Report by the Special Joint Com mittee on Taxation and Retrenchment. Legisla- tive Document, 1928, No. 66. Albany, New York: State of New York, 1928. 130 p. Chapter four reviews various attempts to measure school efficiency, presents general con clusions concerning the use of such measures and suggests further study of the problem. OpELL, CHARLES W. The Progress and Elimina tion of School Children in Illinois, Urbana, IIL: University of Illinois, 1924. 75 p. Includes a chapter on holding power as an index of school efficiency. PHILLIPS, FRANK M. “Educational Ranking of States by Two Methods.” American School Board Journal 69: 47-49; December, 1924. Brings the Ayres’ index for state school systems up to date with two important adapta- tions: (1) the purchasing power of the dollar was taken into account, and (2) the states were grouped into urban, mixed, and rural types to make comparison possible; also formulates a method of ranks based on different statistical factors on which to rate state school systems. PuHittips, FRANK M. “Educational Rank of States, 1930.” American School Board Journal $4: 25-29; 37-39; 29-30; February, March, April, 1932. A revision and extension of ref- ference 33. 3 v6 40. w Rteeper, Warp G. “Amount and Kind of Read- ing in the Various States.” Educational Research Bulletin 3: 179-82; April 30, 1924. The writer considers the amount and kind of reading in the various states as indicative of the amount of education in a state. The rank of each state was computed by finding the per- cent which the total circulation of twenty-three magazines in the state was of its population. Reever, Warp G. “Which States Read Most?” School and Society 18: 235-40; August 25, 1923. Ranks states according to the percent of population reading ten magazines, a_ study which preceded that cited above. ScHRAMMEL, Henry E. The Organization of State Departments of Education. Ohio State University Studies, Bureau of Educational Re- search Monographs, No. 6. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1926. Chapter 9. An investigation to determine the relation- ship which exists between types of organization and degree of efficiency. In order to obtain the statistical measure of efficiency necessary to complete this study, the author ranked the forty-eight states on eleven items. Scnrope, J. M. dn Index Number for District School Systems of Schuylkill County. Harris- burg, Pa.: State Department of Public Instruc- tion, 1921. Survey of School systems of 68 districts in the county, using the Ayres Index. Sias, A. B. The Financing of a State School System. Unpublished Ph. D. thesis. California: Stanford University, 1926. Uses the average number of days attendance for each child of school age as a measure of school efficiency. STeTsON, Frep L., and ALMACcK, JoHN C. County School Systems of Oregon. Salem, Oregon: State Department of Education, 1921. 26 p. Compares counties of Oregon on ten points of efficiency over a period of six years. Van Sickie, JAMes H.; Ayres, LeonArp P.; KENDALL, CALVIN N.; MAXWELL, WILLIAM H. 43. +4. 45. 46. [ 112] ’ “The Investigation of the Efficiency of § and School Systems.” Proceedings, 1915. \ ington, D. C.: National Education Asso< 1915. p. 379-402. A review of early attempts to measure efficiency objectively. Deals chiefly wir school survey. VirGINiA. Superintendent of Public Inst; Annual Reports, 1923-24, 1924-25, p. 22-2 1925-26, p. 27-30. Richmond, Va.: Superi: ent of Printing, 1924, 1925, 1926. Rates counties of Virginia on twelve | I West VirGINIA. Report of State Superinten le t of Free Schools, 1927-28. Charleston, W. \V, Department of Free Schools, 1928. p. 259 Applies the Ayres scale to the countic West Virginia. Wiey, Ross B. 4n Educational Index Num for California Counties. Unpublished Maste; thesis. Berkeley, Calif.: University of Calif; 1925. Rates county school systems on twelve WILiiAMs, AuBREY W., editor. How Gi Your Town? Madison Wisconsin: Wis: Conference of Social Work, 1931. 124 p Contains forms for making surveys of various institutions and conditions in a \ munity. These forms may be used for organ zing information concerning the hist background, city planning system, municipa government, industry, health, education, library social work, recreation, town and country tions and religion. WirHaM, Ernest C. “Public-School Progress the States.” 4 merican School Board Journal 37-39; October, 1927. Calculates “index of holding power” of the school systems of the forty-eight states. . WirHaM, Ernest C. “Index of Holding Pow American Educational Digest 46: 548-5! August, 1927. Offers the holding power of a school system as an index of its efficiency. Tl { Problem and Purpose of the Section No formula for measuring state school eff- ciency by means of a single mathematical quan- rity has yet been discovered. In the light of present knowledge it is impossible to combine a series of factors related to school efficiency and t) draw from this combination an acceptable single index. The interplay of forces is so com- nlex and differs so greatly from state to state that the discovery of such a formula must wait the results of long and patient research ind the development of new technics and meas- uring devices. It is a problem for the future. Fortunately, however, a formula is not neces- sary in order to present significant data relative to the present educational status of the forty- eight states. It is entirely possible to name a number of factors which are generally conceded to be closely related to the efficient functioning of a school system. Practical experience and educational research combine to demonstrate that certain of these factors are essential, not only to the progress, but to the very operation of an effective school organization, and that progress in any of these results in the advance- ment of the whole school system. To show the standing of the states on such factors is the pur- pose of this section of the Bulletin. Factors selected—From among these basic factors, five have been selected to indicate the present educational situation in the forty-eight states. These five factors have been chosen be- cause they are widely accepted as valid, because their validity is supported by the data avail- able, and because reasonably reliable, nation- wide figures are available on each one. Among the crucial questions which might be raised concerning the quality of a state school system, the following would surely oc cur: How many children does the school system reach? For how long does the school system maintain contact with these children? What quality of teaching service has been purchased for them? Under what favorable or unfavor- able environmental conditions is the education The Present Standing of State School Systems on Five Factors Related to Efficiency’ conducted? What general education advance These questions are covered in the items listed below : ment of the state has been attained ? 1. The proportion of children reached by the services of the schools. The holding power of the schools. The quality of teaching provided. . The school environment. ne Ww bh The percent of literacy. Limitations of the study—While it would be highly desirable to know the exact weight that each of these five factors should have in a single measure of the efficient functioning of a school system, such knowledge is not essential to this study since no attempt is made to com bine the data into a single index number or rank for each state. With our present lack of knowledge of the proper weighting no attempt should be made to combine these factors into a single quantity. The validity of these factors rests chiefly on logical reasoning with a certain limited amount of statistical evidence. The choice of these par ticular criteria depends on certain very prac tical considerations. Obviously, a nearer ap- proach to an exact measure of state school eff ciency would be to obtain direct measures by means of tests of the growth in interests, de sirable social habits and attitudes, and academic achievement of every child within each state, and to compare the data thus secured with the effort (as measured, for example, by school costs, corrected for sparsity of population) which was required to produce the results ob tained. It is equally obvious that the present limits in financial and technical resources pre clude the use of such a plan. The selection of quantitative criteria is limited not only by the requirements that the data used shall be com parable and shall possess a demonstrable rela tionship to school efficiency, but also by the availability of reasonably accurate statistics.’ The essential difference between the figures to be reported here and those presented in the pre- vious investigations summarized above is that in this bulletin no attempt is made to set up a single general measure of school efficiency. ‘ Acknowledgments are due the following for advice in connection with this section: John K. Norton and Paul R. Mort, Teachers College, Columbia University; E. M. Foster, U. S. Office of Education; A. B. Sias, Ohio University. These specialists, wever, are not responsible for the methods used or conclusions reached. ? For the concept of efficiency used in the Bulletin, see page 79. [ 113 ] Sources of Data—The figures presented in this section are as accurate and comparable as possible when comparisons among states are attempted. The reports of two United States official agencies, the Census Bureau and the Office of Education are the only sources used. The Census Bureau figures are the Fifteenth Decennial (1930) Census. These figures are secured by enumerators employed by the Federal Government. The Census Bureau attempts to cover every person living in the United States at the time of the enumeration by a dwelling- to-dwelling canvass. The Census figures are usually regarded as highly reliable for data of this sort. The figures published by the Office of Education are not collected originally by Federal officials but are reported by a responsible member of the State Department of Education in each state. Although the Office of Education sends field workers at inter- vals to assist in preparing these reports, final re- sponsibility for the figures submitted rests with the several State Departments of Education.’ Statistics from the Office of Education used in this Bulletin are for the school year 1929-30. Presentation of data—The figures for the five factors listed above are presented state by state in Tables 6, 7, 9, 10 and 11, respectively, and are brought together in summary form in Table 12. The states are not arranged alphabetically in these tables, since that order contributes little or nothing to the comparison and interpretation of the figures. The arrangement of the states is in order of the percent of their population which is urban. This fact is probably the most significant single social fact on which reliable data exist. As the subsequent discus- sion will show, it has a close connection with many of the factors related to school efficiency. those of Discussion of Factors The five factors used in this part of the bul- letin have been merely listed above. A more complete discussion follows: 1. The proportion of children reached.— However excellent the educational facilities provided by a state, they are effective only to the extent that they reach those for whom schools are primarily provided. Hence, the amount of school attendance is a basic prelimi- nary measure of the effectiveness of a school system. Such a measure should include both public and non-public schools. The relative amount of school attendance in any state depends on (1) the propertio, children who are enroled in school, proportion of those enroled who actus tend, and (3) the number of days sch in session. In this study these three ite; included in a single figure called the ‘ of school attendance.” An attempt is take account of all children 5 to 17 \, age attending schools of any type or public, private, or parochial ; kindergart mentary, secondary, special, or collegiat No data can be obtained at present which to base an exact calculation of th tive amount of attendance in both pul non-public schools. The United States | nial Census reports for 1930? and the Bi: Survey of Education for 1929-30, hoy supply data upon which a rather accurat: mate can be based. The detailed procedu making these estimates is described in th lowing paragraphs. A reader who does nm to go into this detail may readily omit the | graphs which follow, beginning again on 116. pertinent facts may be (1) the number of childre: 17 years of age, inclusive, in the general tion of the state, and (2) the number of ch 5 to 17 years of age, inclusive, who attended » any time between September 1, 1929 and -\ 1930. This number includes children attendin type of school. Since the length of time sch: attended is not specified, the “attendance” 1 by the census is roughly equivalent to enroln school as usually understood.‘ The Biennial Survey of Education suppli: additional pertinent data: (1) The number of dren attending public schools daily for ea: enrolled in school; or in other words, the | which the daily attendance is of the total ment. This includes all children attending school without regard to ages. (2) The a\ number of days public schools are in session Usable figures on attendance and term for private schools and colleges are not avai However, with the above Census and (Of Education data at hand, the calculations sug: by Table 6 were carried out. First, the The following from the Census: ' Some question has arisen concerning the accuracy of the report from Rhode Island for the year 1929-30. The figures this Bulletin are those used by the U. S. Office of Education, which in turn relied upon data from the Rhode Island State !) ment of Education. However, since submitting these figures to the Office of Education, the Rhode Island Department « tion has submitted new data to the Research Division as follows: Number of children 5-17, 166,291; number of children: as attending school, 148,097; average number of days attended by each child enrolled in public schools, 174; number oi « aged 14, 15, 16, 17 years, 46,994; number of children reported as attending, aged 14, 15, 16, 17 years, 32,414; averax paid teachers, principals, supervisors, $1,687. This second set of figures differs markedly both from the Census figures Office of Education gures used in this Research Bulletin. If the figures cited in this footnote were used for the state o! Island the state would rank first with respect to amount of attendance, thirty-sixth with respect to holding power and six respect to average salary paid teachers. These ranks are all higher than those assigned to the state by the figures used Office of Education and reproduced in Tables 6 to 12. 2 Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930. Population Bulletins. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Offic: U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Biennial Survey of Education 1929-1930. Bulletin, 1931, 4 The question asked by the enumerator was: Has the person attended school any time since September 1, 1929? [ 114 ] TABLE 6—AMOUNT OF SCHOOL ATTENDANCE, BY STATES, 1930 Percent | Number of of popu- | children 5-17 lation | years of age urban | in population l ( 1ental Unite i States ,322 D f Colum } 104 889 696 806 Island isetts York Jersey 315 ,224 ,7173 ,057 ° Cn ew 904 562 , 241 lvania vy Hampshire ngton mans oO 553 o 686 , 446 ann , 748 7 , 836 , 796 woonn ,318 , 740 , 464 , 007 ,648 ws 00 00 Ds , 218 2,173 334 , 349 zona nnessee homa ntana ermont 445 795 Virginia yvoming — O~ wwe 723 063 ,201 reorgia = 00 365 236 317 520, 1,030, 127, 592, West Virginia. rth Carolina ew Mexico... yuuth Carolina.. Venue 560, 195,477 613.148 204,010 Arkansas.... South Dakota Mississippi ‘ North Dakota acon \merican Samoa. | 3,306 Canal Zone.... | Gath... << uss | Hawaii ‘| Philippine Islands}. . Porto Ri Virgin Islands 1 Statistics for 1927-28. 274 | Aggregate days Nildren S17 attendance if me f every child psc Ay 5-17 years of | — 0 ——— (according = ; to Census 6,314, 17 33, 197, 554 7,028 | 844 | 7,610 | ,179 ,094 , 090 | ,563 | 324 | 047 | 048 | } Average number of days attend- ed by each child enrolled (in public schools) 6 Estimated number of days aggregate attendance .799 090 ,276 275 , 210 ,072 525 592 939 399 , 280 907 , 896 7,047 2,195 480 874 364 ,218 .554 7,328 385 093 , 268 , 846 ,720 149 695 ‘952 070 , 782 136 261 , 882 .175 091 643 , 192 , 261 467 | , 198 322 ‘392 "531 "107 .772 ,732 "835 , 235 , 180 440 | ,612 | Relative amount of attendance percent which col. | 7 is of col. 4) 8 57 63 61 69 | Rank on col. 8 population § to 17 years of age (Column 3, Table 6) was multiplied by 200. The product (Column 4, Table 6) is the aggregate number of days attend- ance resulting if every child of this age range had attended school every day of a 200-day term. This figure may be arbitrarily taken as the desirable amount of attendance.’ It is to be divided into the total amount of attendance actually secured in order to form a basis for ranking of states on this point. The actual number of children enrolled (“attend- ing’ according to Census terminology) in schools of all types between 5 and 17 is taken from Census data (Column 5, Table 6). This number is multi- plied by the average number of days attended by each pupil enrolled in public elementary and sec- ondary schools (Column 6, Table 6). The only necessary assumption involved here is that the rela- tively small proportion of school children below 5 and over 17, and children enroled in private schools attend school with approximately the same regularity and during approximately the same ses- sions as children between 5 and 17 in public schools. The product (Column 7, Table 6) represents the amount of school attendance achieved by the chil- dren 5 to 17 in each state. If this product be di- vided by the desirable amount of such attendance, the resulting ratio (Column &, Table 6) represents the relative amount of attendance and the state is ranked on this basis (Column 9, Table 6). The above calculations, reduced to a formula, may be represented as follows: Relative amount of attendance=— Actual amount of attendance Desirable and possible amount of attendance Actual: (Enrolment x regularity x term) Desirable: (Enrolment x regularity x term) 5-17 enrolled x (Percent ance)* x (Length of term)? (All children 5 to 17) x ( 100% ) x 200 days (Total enrolment for all schools, ages 5-17) x ( Ave. number days attended by each child enrolled )* (Children of attend- (Total number in population, ages 5-17) x 200 days An example will illustrate the application of this method. According to the United States Census for 1930, 756,763 children between 5 and 17 were “attending” (enroled in) the schools of North Carolina between September 1, 1929 and April 1, 1930. The Biennial Survey of Education reports that each child enroled in public schools of that state attended, on the average, 119.7 days. The ag- gregate daily attendance for the year is computed by multiplying 756,763 by 119.7, or 90,584 total population 5 to 17 years of age in N, lina numbers 1,030,317. If each one of thes: had attended school every day for a 200 the aggregate attendance would have 063,400 days. This figure divided into 9 days, the actual aggregate attendance, giy, which indicates the relative amount of tendance in North Carolina and places th: 43rd position in this respect. The minimum and maximum ages sele: basis for calculating the percent of childr: ing school daily require some discussion. ‘J limit, 5 years, includes only children wh, tained their fifth birthday by April 1, 1930 year level is chosen in order to include childye; kindergarten age. While national statistics available on the average age of entrance to kinds; garten, recent studies show the average ave of ad mission to be approximately 5 years.‘ The kind, garten is now almost universally recognized as integral part of a complete school system, and nea; all states now have laws or provisions of some kind by which kindergartens may be established’ 1) age of 17 is selected as the upper limit because. wit! approximately normal progress through school, 4 pupil entering Grade I between his fifth and sixt! birthdays has had sufficient time to complete the reg lar elementary and secondary course of stud his eighteenth birthday. Table 6 gives the relative amount of attend ance for each state and the rank of each) state with respect to this factor. 2. The holding power of the schools. The power of a school system to hold its pupils in school during the period of their schoo! careers | when this task becomes especially difficult is strong indication of its efficiency.” Statistics on elimination show that this period occurs | dominantly from grades 7 and 10, inclu sive. Koos, in his study of American secondary education, concludes that: “Elimination runs through many schoo! years but it is, after all, chiefly a problem of the second ary school if this school is conceived of as extend ing from the seventh grade into the freshman and sophomore years of college. . The proportionate elimination takes place betw: eight grades and the first year of the convent high school. It is still large between the first second high school years, but tapers off from this point upward, since the great bulk o pupils have by this time been eliminated.” larg ' The choice of 200 days is purely arbitrary in order to give a working basis for the calculations. The rank of the sta be identical if any other figure had been used. 2 The average number of days attended by each pupil enrolled is, in turn, the product of the regularity of attendan: length of the term. In public schools. ‘ Davis, Mary Dabney. Kindergarten-Primary Education. U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, |! 1930, No. 30. * Van de Walker, Nina C. Kindergarten Legislation. No. 7. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1925 Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1930. p. 27. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Bullet * Holding power has important implications for general social efficiency as well as for educational efficiency in pa: The present unemployment situation emphasizes the need for removing the competition of children in the labor market Morrison, Henry C. School Revenue. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930. p. 34-42. Proffitt, Maris M. ‘‘ The Sch Unemployment.” School Life 17: 41-42; November, 1931. National Education Association. Childhood and the Depre Look Ahead. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1931. p. 22-33, 41-42. *Koos, Leonard V. The American Secondary School. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1927. p. 114-15. [ 116] State and local courses of study are generally lanned so as to make it possible for a pupil, completing a grade each year, to complete ‘rst eight grades by the age of fourteen or sfteen. Because of the many factors influenc- -.» individual cases, such as natural ability, interests, economic conditions, and school opportunity, there is a certain amount of deviation from the average high school en- trance age. In order to take account of such variation, the years from fourteen to seventeen, ‘nclusive, have been selected as roughly indicat- ing the range of ages within which most pupils enter high school and pursue the first year or two of their high school course. During this transition period the holding power of the school is most severely tested. lhe combined influence of many forces which tend to eliminate the child from school becomes stronger than at any other time in his school history. Eight grades of school have been com- pleted in the large number of schools still main- taining the traditional organization of eight years in the grades and four years of high school, and a more or less difficult adjustment to a new school situation must be faced if the child is to continue in school. Forces which tend to eliminate the child from school generally originate in one or all of four sources: (1) the home, (2) the child, (3) the community, and (4) the school. ‘Those arising in the home include the financial re- sources of the family, the nationality of the parents, the amount of schooling received by the parents, the interest of the family in educa- tion, etc. Determining factors dependent upon the nature of the child himself are inherent ability, interests, previous success in school, health, age, sex and all others of the complex array which are included under the general term “personality.” The community sets gen- eral standards, determines the opportunity for gainful occupation, and influences the attitude of the child toward the school. The school op- portunity provided, the course of study offered, the effort made to adjust the school environ- _ | Holley, Charles E. ‘‘The Relationship between Persistence in School and Home Conditions.” National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, III.: Public School Publishing Co., 1916. ment to individual differences, the social life of the school, are all factors for which the school system is directly responsible since thev arise within the school itself. It is impossible, at the present time, to state definitely just which eliminating forces of those originating within the home, the child, the school, or the community exert a predomi- nating influence in the greatest number of cases. Various studies have been made of the relation- ship between many of these factors and amount of elimination from school, but the facts pre sented are subject to different interpretations. While certain of the earlier studies conclude that home conditions, with special reference to financial and social status, are among the chief 1 more recent studies causes of school-leaving, have tended to minimize the effect of poverty on elimination, and to emphasize influences arising from within the child himself; such as, native capacity and success in school. In reporting a recent study of school elimi nation in which a number of investigations were summarized, Reed says: “In the elimination to early period, popular opinion ascribed economic pressure, or poverty, whereas survey findings indicated very clearly that groups have a considerable percentage of eliminated came from comfortable homes and could remained in school had they, and their parents, considered it worth while.” ? This investigation also concludes that “in ability to accomplish school tasks is the major cause of school elimination,” and_ further, “economic pressure has continuously accounted for less than one-third of school elimination.’”* Feingold also states: “Some drop out for econ- omic reasons, others because they are not fond of book-learning, and still others because they are eager to become financially independent of their parents’ purse. But when we come to in- vestigate what kind of individuals drop out in the largest proportion, we find that, as revealed by intelligence tests, it is those who lack the sheer mental ability to do regular high school work.” * Van Denburg’s study also seems to support this conclusion. He found that the y Fifteenth Yearbook, Par 119 p. Counts, George S. The Selective Character of American Education. Supplementary Educational Monograph, No. 19. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago, 1922. 162 p. ? Reed, Anna Y. Waste in Human Education. 5 Op. cit., p. 43. New York: Century Co., 1927. p 20-21. ‘Feingold, Gustave A. “Intelligence and Persistency in High-School Attendance.’ School and Society 18: 443-50; October 1923. [117] pupils receiving high marks remained in school longer than those receiving low marks.’ The fact that many forces which tend to eliminate the child arise outside the school it- self in no way releases that institution from its task of providing a democratic education for “all the children of all the people.” Certain problems of the child and the home are also problems of the school; and those upon whose solution depends the continuance of the child in school must be dealt with by the school sys- tem. The fact is, an efficient school organiza- tion is better adapted and equipped to cope ef- fectively with these problems than is any other existing institution. It can establish part-time or continuation schools for those who must work; it can distribute scholarships to deserv- ing pupils; it can provide curricula which meet the needs of all; it can exert its influence toward the legislative enactment of relief legis- lation which will place the relief of poverty elsewhere than on the shoulders of childhood. Even if it be true, as many studies indicate, that a considerable proportion of children leave school because they have not the ability to do the regular academic work required, then it is the business of the school system to provide those of different abilities with a training which they can acquire and use. Too long have some attempted to adjust the child to the school system. The effective school organiza- tion increases its holding power by adapting the school to the needs of the child. Koos comments on this situation: schools “The educational offering must be adjusted te the needs of those who are now being climinated. New curricula must be established, new courses introduced and old courses adapted to the abilities and interests of those whom it is desired to re- tain.” * Palmer also states: “Schools are making their most success{ in solving the problem of adjustment in ¢! grades before the pupil has become consi he is a misfit. When the work in the upp: is especially adapted and pupils are , classes where they can succeed, much earl, tion will cease.” And Feingold says: “Granted that such individuals have nm inclination nor the power to comprehend e' value, or the meaning, or the use of Lati gebra, or ancient history, they nevertheless sess special abilities and tastes for things that are just as worthy of being developed Society is just as duty bound to provide th: kind of education for its young members of mental ability as for its prospective genii Many similar opinions could be cited urbanization of the population, the grea: proved means of transportation, and the quent increase of school brought to the secondary schools a het neous group of pupils. The student bod high school is no longer made up of hig! lected individuals; so that the holding of the school depends in a large measur: its ability to minister to the capacities, int and needs of this widely varying group. recognized that merely kee; opportunit) of course, child in school may or may not produc: worthwhile educational result. The period of schooling has, as a necessary cor the broadening of the school’s recognition of the fact that, properly vised, work itself may be an education perience, provided always that the welt the child is the prepotent consideration. program 1Van Denburg, Joseph K. Causes of Elimination of Students in Public Secondary Schools in New York City. Con to Education, No. 47. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1911. 206 p For further references to studies . the various factors responsible see: Book, William F. Intelligence of High Scho New York: Macmillan Co., 1922. 371 Feingold, Gustave A. 65-82; February, 1924. Flint, Elsie M. ‘‘ Freshman Fatalities." -* Intelligence of the First Generation of Immigrant Groups."’ Journal of Educational Ps) Educational Review 70: 79-82; September, 1925. Hopkins, L. Thomas. The Intelligence of Continuation-School Children in Massachusetts. Harvard Studies in Educatio: Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard College, 1924. 132 p. Thorndike, Edward L., and Bregman, E. O. ** cational Research 10: 271- 78; November, 1924. Waples, Douglas. * 537-46; September, 1924 Palmer, Emily G. Pup: ils Who Leave School. Part-Time Education Series, No. 17. Berkeley, Calif.: Ona the Form of Distribution of Intellect in the Ninth Grade.” ‘Indexing the Qualifications of Different Social Groups for an Academic Curriculum." Journal School Re Division of \ Education of the University of California and of the State Department of Education, 1930. 142 p. Woolley, Helen T. An Experimental Study of Children. New York: Macmillan Co., 1926. 762 p Irwin, eke and Marks, L. A. Fitting the School to the Child. New York: Macmillan Co., Cc ast, G. * Koos, . Vv. OP. cit., * Palmer, Emily G. Op. cit., ‘ Feingold, Gustave A. “ ‘For a good brief statement on this point consult: D. C.: the Council, 1931. p. 8-10, 26-29, 33-34. p. 144-45. p. 69. Intelligence and Persistency in High School Attendance.” Op. cit., National Council of Education. Education and Training. Washing 924. “Elimination of the Unfit: A Problem of Waste in Public Education."’ School and hoe 18: 84-87; July 2! p. 450. { 118 } ting and holding the child in school simple but a complex criterion of school It necessitates successful competition many distracting forces. ‘The holding 1f the school, involving as it does a com | array of problems reaching into every § the school organization from the ad- itive machinery to the personality of cher, may be regarded as an unusually hing indication of the functioning of school system as a whole. At least one in- igator has considered holding power, in il of itself, to be a reliable index of the efh- , of the whole school organization.t While : claim is made for the data relative to holding power of the forty-eight state systems presented in Table 7, it is con- ed a highly important and useful criterion. While the school organization cannot be held sponsible for the removal of all the forces vhich act to eliminate the child from school at ‘oo early an age, an effective school system ins with prudent foresight to build up an sanization capable of competing with these orces with a fair chance of success. ‘Those who re responsible for school administration realize that holding a pupil in school after the age of irteen should depend upon the attraction of the school, the influence of the home and the ture of the child himself quite as much as n the compulsion of the law. By the time the hild is fourteen the hold of the compulsory ttendance laws begins, in most states, to relax. While the average compulsory age limit is six- teen for the United States as a whole, state laws usually include exemption clauses which make it possible for many children to leave school and go to work after the age of fourteen Hence, the selection of the age group trom 14 to 17 years, inclusive, as that which most reliably indicates the holding power of the school. ears, The statistics on holding power given in lable 7 were computed by dividing the total number of pupils in each state, 14, 15, 16, and |7 years of age, who were enrolled in school between September 1, 1929 and April 1, 1930 by the total population of the state at the same ige levels. Enrolments in any kind of school— public, private, or parochial ; full-time or part- time; day schools, night schools, or continua- tion schools—are included. All data are from the United States Census for 1930. For ex ample, there are 16,216 children 14 to 17 vears TABLE 7—HOLDING POWER OF THE SCHOOLS IN THE AGE-RANGE 14 TO 17 YEARS, BY STATES, 1930 Holding power of schools in the age- range 14-17 years Children attending school aged 14, 15, 16, 17 years Children aged 14, 15, 16, 17 years Rank on col. 4 States and territories 1 Continental United States (9 341,221 |5,826,235 District of Columbia 26,099 21,21 Rhode Island 49 974 874 Massachusetts 298 , 808 228,166 New York 841,331 5.373 New Jersey 295 ,470 , 848 Illinois 543,701 , 293 California 333,367 298 , 867 Connecticut 121,355 81,101 Michigan 341,979 267 , 826 Ohio 468 838 3} 403 Pennsylvania 754,579 29 , 236 Maryland 116, 836 .558 New Hampshire 32,017 931 Washington 110,321 5,105 Indiana 231,148 ,218 Wisconsin 224,248 470 Utah 43,528 8,842 Delaware 16,991 2.154 Florida 111,830 718 Oregon 66,513 , 582 Missouri 261,689 ,134 Colorado 76,446 664 Minnesota 197,755 7.039 Texas 480.955 693 Maine 56,579 982 Louisiana 175,255 960 lowa 183.839 575 Kansas 141.200 ,709 Nevada 5,440 613 Nebraska 779 295 Arizona 040 738 Tennessee 339 2,389 Oklahoma 665 O85 Montana 991 33,899 Vermont 25,828 ,957 Virginia 359 914 Wyoming 216 109 Georgia 023 58 O15 Kentucky 298 _ 800 | Idaho 7,158 31,000 Alabama 591 .814 West Virginia 427 North Carolina , 430 New Mexico 874 South Carolina 215 Arkansas 599 South Dakota 56, 986 Mississippi 81,209 North Dakota 2,103 Alaska American Samoa 873 Canal Zone ‘ Guam ,559 Hawaii Philippine Islands Porto Rico Virgin Islands ‘ Witham, Ernest C. ‘Public School Progress of the States.” American School Board Journal 75: 37-39; October, 1927. [ 119 ] of age in Wyoming. Of this number 13,109, or 80.8 percent, are enrolled in school.’ 3. The quality of teaching provided. The education provided by a state school system de- pends primarily upon the kind of teachers em- ployed. Obviously, the more capable the teacher the better the quality of education offered. The influence of the teacher on the school has so long been recognized that it has become prover- bial: As is the teacher so is the school. It fol- lows, that if accurate data could be secured which would give a clear representation of the teaching ability of the teachers of each state, we would have an unusually reliable criterion of school efficiency. Unfortunately, such data are not available at the present time. Lacking a direct measure of ability of teachers, most educators turn to a measure of the amount of training. Even this measure is not available for all states. However, data on the percent of elementary and secondary school teachers hav- ing two or more years of training beyond high school have recently been secured from twenty- nine state departments of education by the Re- search Division for the purpose of this study. The fact that this information is not available for each of the forty-eight states precludes its use here as one measure of state school efh- ciency. However, a factor has been selected which bears a close relationship to the amount of training secured by teachers, and for which there is sufficient data from each of the states. This factor is the average annual salary paid teachers, supervisors, and principals. The relationship between the education of teachers and average annual salary paid in 29 states is shown in Table 8. All states which replied to a request for such information are included in the Table. The coefficient of cor- relation is + .749 + .05 by the Spearman Rank-Difference formula. This relationship is sufficiently high to assure, in most cases, closely similar rankings of the states by average an- nual salary paid teachers and by amount of training. Nineteen out of the twenty-nine states have a difference in rank between salary and training of five or less places. Logical considerations support the above statistical evidence to suggest that the amount paid in teachers’ salaries strongly influen type of teacher selected, and thru the ¢. the quality of education provided. In ¢! run, communities as well as individy only what they pay for, in education as thing else. In order to compete with ot}; fessions for the best ability and trainin also necessary to compete with them w spect to monetary rewards. Most teache not afford to invest in training whic! brings them inadequate remuneration. ‘| that many teaching positions may be s with only a minimum of training stil] furth decreases the incentive to obtain adequate pre; aration, but a school system cannot success{ demand a high grade of personal abilit, professional training unless it is willing « for it. The average annual salary paid to t ers in each state is therefore proposed as able indirect measure of the quality of ¢ struction provided. There is a further subtle, but none ¢! vital, consideration connecting salary and | ciency which applies with special force | work of teaching. The teacher is inevita! example as well as a preceptor. His pupil learn from observing him as well as from listen ing to him. The cultural level of the teache: tends to be reflected in the cultural ideals and standards of his pupils. Cultural level can hardly be separated from the standard of |i ing. A teacher who must wear the cheapest clothing, occupy cramped and unlovely quart ers, and spend little or nothing for music, and the other amenities of life, | bring to his pupils the dignity, the peace mind, the quiet assurance of one who lives somewhat above the level of merest subsistenc: This consideration would apply with greatest force to thousands of teachers in rural and \: lage schools whose salaries are just adequate for the barest necessities of life. It is recognized that increasing the salaries paid by a school system does not automaticall\ and immediately increase the efficiency ot the teachers employed therein; neither does paying a poor teacher more money suddenly trans- form him into a good teacher. However, it a matter of common observation that, ove: ‘ All of the states received credit for children graduating from school at the midyear promotions in February, eve! such graduates did not return to schools of any type thereafter. he presence of seven-year elementary schools in some states, particularly Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, Sout lina, Texas, Virginia and Maryland, probably lessens slightly the comparability of gures on holding power for those +s However, the comparison is not between states with respect to any particular form of school or school organizatien but : with respect to the success of each state in maintaining some form of educational contact with its children from the fourteent the eighteenth birthday. { 120 ] of time, an attractive salary schedule elective influence. At the same time, in- in salaries have practically always been panied by the demand for better quali- teachers. Increase in salaries and higher randards of training are concomitant. Look- .v at the situation from the viewpoint of the «choo! system, W. H. Gaumnitz of the United States Office of Education says: “It is only rea- onable that the schools paying the best salaries ld be able to compete more advantageously - teacher market than those paying poorer ries. A comparison of salaries may there- re be regarded as a significant index of the lity of education provided.” Cavins compared scores made by pupils on ries of achievement tests in five districts imnitz, W. H yn, Bulletin, 1930, No vins, Lorimer V., 153 Availability of Public School Educatio director. Survzy of Education in We 34. Washington, D. ¢ Govert of West Virginia which paid an average yearly salary of $1,335 with those in five districts pay ing an average yearly salary of $617. He found that, in the districts paying the higher salaries, the significantly higher test children made scores. The correlation between the average salary paid and achievement was positive, and high enough to indicate a substantial relation ship between salaries and educational achieve ment. The author regarded his findings as “tangible evidence that the districts paying the better salaries are getting better teachers.’”” That other influences than the selective value of teachers’ salaries may have been at work is admitted. Nevertheless, it is reasonable to sup pose that the better type of teaching service se cured by offering a better salary is responsible Communities. U. S. Department of the Printing Office, 1931. p. 33 Vol. 2. Charleston, W. Va.: State TABLE 8.—RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDUCATION AND SALARIES OF TEACHERS 2 na 1928 1930 1931 1931 1931 \rkansas Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia 1929 1931 1929 1931 1928 Tgia 1929 1929 1930 1931 1930 Kentucky Louisiana ‘ Massachusetts Michigan Mississippi 1930 1929 1930 1930 1929 ew Mexico rth Carolina rth Dakota 1931 1931 1929 1930 1931 nnsylvania ith Dakota ennessee exas ermont Year to which training data apply Percent of Average teachers having, annual salary 2ormore years. of teachers, | of training supervisors, beyond principals, high school! in 1929-302 Rank on training Rank on salaries 3 4 1587 42 673 83 1812 R2 1570 2269 O84 1200 1630 1466 1094 896 941 1875 1534 620 23 1077 1113 900 1620 956 902 924 9603 rginia ishington st Virginia Visconsin 1929-30 1931-32 1556 1930-31 1023 1930-31 ‘ 1399 R61 ' Data secured direct from state departments of education, unless otherwise noted Data on salaries from the Biennial Survey of Education, 1928-30, Office of Education, unless otherwise indicated *+U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Biennial Survey of Education, 1926-28, Bulletin, 1930, N 16. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1930, p. 466 ‘Arizona. Ninth Biennial Report for the Period July 1, 1926 to Public Instruction, 1928. p. 22-23. * Louisiana. Annual Report for the Session, 1928-29, Superintendent of Public Instruction. p. 140-43. June 30, 1928. Phoenix, Ariz.: State Department of Bulletin No. 165. December, 1929. Baton Rouge, La.: State for a share of the difference found by this and by other studies. Data on the average annual salary paid teachers in each state are from the Biennial Survey of Education for 1928-30. This item is obtained by dividing the aggregate sum paid teachers, principals, and supervisors by the number of teachers, principals, and supervisors employed in the state. Table 9 gives the average annual salary of teachers by states and the rank of each state with respect to this factor. This item includes public elementary and secondary schools only ; data for private schools on a comparable basis are not available. Certain facts must be frankly recognized in considering the validity of the comparison of teachers’ salaries between states as one indirect indication of educational efficiency. In the first place, some time must elapse before the effects of differences in salaries will be reflected in differences in the quality of the teaching force. If a state should suddenly raise or lower the level of economic attractiveness in its teach- ing positions, it will be some time before the ef- fects of this policy would become evident. The movement of superior teachers from one part of the country to another is not perfectly free. Superior teachers tend to secure the better paid positions but it takes some time to bring this balance about. On the other hand, the very considerable degree of mobility among the teaching population combined with its high an- nual turnover makes the process of adjustment proceed more rapidly than might at first be expected. A second consideration involves the question of intelligent and capable selection of teachers. If those who are selecting teachers within a state do their work poorly, a considerable por- tion of the value of a higher schedule of sala- ries may be lost. A better salary schedule will not necessarily bring a competent teacher into a school system unless those who are choosing these teachers know how to select the capable from the less capable and consistently do so. A third objection to the use of salary statis- tics, as roughly indicative of the kind of teach- ing service secured, has to do with the varying standards of living and costs of living among the states. That differences exist between rural and urban living costs and between states in different parts of the country is well known. ' Biennial Survey of Education, 1928-30. Op. cil. Ideally, the figures for average salary . ers should be corrected to allow for ference. Practically, such a correctio; TABLE 9—SALARIES PAID TEACH rps PRINCIPALS AND SUPERVISORS. py STATES, 1930. States and territories Continenta! United States District of Columbia Rhode Island Massachusetts New York New Jersey Illinois California | Connecticut Michigan Ohio Pennsylvania Maryland. New Hampshire Washington Indiana Wisconsin Utah... Delaware Florida. Oregon. . Missouri Colorado Minnesota Texas Maine Louisiana Kansas. Nevada Nebraska Arizona Tennessee | Oklahoma Montana Vermont Virginia. . Wyoming | Georgia..... Kentucky... daho.. Alabama. . West Virginia North Carolina. . New Mexico. South Carolina Arkansas...... South Dakota. Mississippi. . North Dakota Alaska....... American Samoa Canal Zone | Guam..... Hawaii Philippine Islands... Porto Rico....... Virgin Islands. —— Average salary | paid teachers, | Ra | principals, and supervisors 2 ,419 , 437 , 875 , 493 1 Statistics for 1927-28. [ 122] e since there are available no reliable tes of the comparative costs of living in eral states. ‘The statistics published by nited States Bureau of Labor Statistics the National Industrial Conference | refer to the United States as a whole or comparatively small group of selected consulting Table 9 some allowance should ide for variations in the cost of living. most reliable comparisons will be among states where the cost of living is approxi- the same. 4. The material school environment. It is onable to conclude that, other things being schools providing comfortable and at- ictive buildings and adequate equipment can sroduce better results than those having the op- - environmental conditions. Cold, poorly shted and ill-ventilated rooms are sources of distraction. Absence frequently results from ill health due to unsatisfactory school build- ings. Lack of suitable equipment and textbooks impedes progress. It is proverbial that good work depends upon good tools. Teachers and pupils require optimum working conditions in the school room in order to produce optimum results. Furthermore, the school building itself is an educational agency. In a twelve-year schooling the average child will spend at least 12,000 hours in the school environment. If that environment be attractive, esthetic, and worthy of admiration, it can make a definite addition to that child’s education. The reverse is also true. After analyzing the school buildings of the state, the Texas Educational Survey Commis- sion asserts: Parents, trustees and teachers do not always realize the effect of the school building and environ- ment upon the physical, mental, and moral develop- ment of the child. This effect may be beneficial or injurious depending upon the standards which ob- tain. Sanitary and hygienic conditions either favor or oppose good health or physical well-being. The arrangement and plan of the building, the kind and quality of furnishings and equipment, and the at- tractiveness or unattractiveness of the classrooms, corridors, and grounds react upon the mind and attitude of the pupil and either help or hinder him in his efforts to learn. The school and its surround- Works, George A. Texas Educational Survey Report, Vol. rganization and Administration.” p. 407. are active forces, not always recognized in moral ings determining and fixing ideals and stand The kind of vided determines in some measure the quality of the Therefore, it that school buildings meeting modern standards be pro- ards building and equipment pro teacher’s work. is essential vided in every community so that both teacher and pupil may work to advantage.” Obviously the kind of school environment provided depends to a large extent on the imoney invested in school property. ‘Vhe skill with which school buildings are planned, con- structed, and equipped also contributes to a degree which cannot be exactly determined. While no definite causal relationship can be statistically proved between the value of school property and the educational results achieved, there is some evidence? which suggests that pupils in schools having better buildings and equipment obtain higher scores on standard tests than those attending schools where a minimum amount is expended on the school plant. In the last analysis, it is possible that the kind of provisions for education found in a school are primarily dependent upon the type of community which supports the school, the more intelligent community providing the bet ter school environment. If this is true, then perhaps the greater achievement shown by pupils in the better school plants is accounted for chiefly by the operation of a selective factor which places the more intelligent groups of pupils in the better school environment. The way in which cause and effect operate in order to the well-built equipped school plant with the greater achieve- associate and adequately ment of the pupils is not of primary concern to this study. The fact that the two are usually concomitant plus the logical considerations al- ready presented, is considered of sufficient im portance to justify the use of the value of school property per pupil enrolled as a measure of school efficiency. It is necessary to assume, of course, that school officials are using reasonable care to get value received for every dollar ex- pended for school buildings and equipment. ‘To the extent that money may be wasted in this direction, the criterion loses its validity. 1. Austin, Texas: Texas Educational Survey Commission, 1925 * For a review of studies made on this problem see: Covert, Timon. Educational Achievement in One-Teacher and Larger Rural Sch Office, 1928. 23 p. ols. U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1928, No. 15. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing 23 | The value of public school property, includ- ing buildings, sites, and equipment of all kinds, is collected biennially by the U. S. Office of Education. The figures secured from the sev- eral states are, of course, estimates of varying accuracy. The Office gives the following ex- planation of this item in the report form sent to the state departments of education. Value of school property—There are three plausible bases on which the value of school prop- erty may be estimated: (1) original cost of the building, (2) replacement value, and (3) present value. To secure uniformity in reports it is sug- gested that the original cost of school property be reported. The replacement value, that is, what it would cost to replace the present building, not represent the true and actual value of such property and does not represent the original cost to the taxpayer. Furthermore, such values are largely gross estimates. The present value of school property is likely to be a mere guess, since, if such sold for commercial use, it might or less than its present purposes. The original cost is, most accurate value, is the easily secured, and represents what a given build- ing cost the community. The original cost, however, does not take depreciation into account, but in many instances this factor is offset by appreciation, or in- creased value in school lots or even in school build- ing. To secure accurately the value of depreciation and appreciation is practically impossible and is not contemplated in this section of the schedule. he value of public school property per pupil enrolled is calculated by dividing the total estimated value of public school property in each state by the number of pupils enroled in public elementary and secondary schools. Table 10 gives for each state the average value of public school property per pupil enrolled in public schools and the rank of each state. Pri- vate school properties are not included. The very minimum does Pp rope rtv were bring considerably value for school therefore, the more most Percent of literacy. acceptable achievement for a state school sys- tem would certainly include the ability to read and write on the part of every youth and adult in the population. This is indeed a very low educational goal. However, many of the states have yet some distance to go before they can achieve it. The percent of literacy reflects not merely the available amount of education gen- erally offered throughout the state but also the minimum amount of education offered to its most remote and handicapped citizens. 1See U.S. Since, however, some of the states re large immigration with an unusually } TABLE 10—VALUE OF PUBLIC SCHoOo, PROPERTY PER CHILD ENROL BY STATES, 1930 | hy ED | — of schoo! rty per chile enrolled States and territories Continental United States. District of Columbia Rhode Island.... Massachusetts. New York New Jersey. Illinois California... Connecticut. . . Michigan Ohio Pennsylvania Maryland New Hampshire Washington. . Indiana Wisconsin Utah Delaware Florida. Oregon Missouri Colorado Minnesota. . Texas.... Maine. . Louisiana Kansas. Nevada... Nebraska. Arizona..... Tennessee Oklahoma Montana Vermont... Virginia Wyoming. Georgia. Kentucky Idaho. ... Alabama... West Virginia North Carolina New Mexico South Carolina Arkansas. . ; South Dakota. Mississippi... . North Dakota Alaska . American Samoa Canal Zone. Philippine Islands Porto Rico........ Virgin Islands. 1929-30 2 Statistics for 1927. 1 Property values for 1927-28 divided by enrolm« a columy special reference to reports to the United States Bureau of Education.” [ 124] Bureau of Education Statistical Circular No. 10, entitled, “Items of Statistics for Public School Systems f illiteracy, it seems advisable to limit the tistics presented here to native-born persons en years of age and over. These figures are theoretically, to the objection that a number of illiterate native-born per- e now residing in a state other than that h they spent their childhood and youth. omplete figures exist on the extent of this to-state migration of illiterates. It is prob- relatively small and certainly is partly npensated for by migration in the opposite lirection. Statistics are given in Table 11 for white nd colored races separately and for the general opulation of the state as a whole. ‘he rank- » of the states is on the percent of literacy nong the general native-born population over ten vears of age. The separate figures for the lored and white races are included so that, those states with a large percentage of colored population, a comparison may, if de- sired, be made for the white population alone. lt may be noted, however, that the ranking of most of the states would not be materially ltered if the colored population were excluded from consideration, although the actual per- nt of literacy would, of course, be higher. Review of the Standing of the States lhe present standing of the forty-eight states n five factors related to school efficiency has been given in Tables 6, 7, 9, 10, and 11, and in Charts I to V. The ranks of the states are sum- marized for convenience in Table 12. Che aim has been, primarily, to present the facts in a way that will permit the reader to interpret them for himself. It is not within the province of this Bulletin to discuss in detail the standing of the states on these five factors, nor to attempt a systematic account for differences in rank. However, the tables and charts have been arranged to show the relationship between the rank of the states on each of the five factors selected and two other factors. The first is that of population distribution; the second relates to geographical differences. The relationship between each of the five tactors and population distribution is shown in the tables. In each table the states have been arranged according to the proportion of popu- [ TABLE 11—PERCENT OF LITERACY OF NATIVE BORN POPULATION, BY STATES, 1930 Percent of literacy among persons over 10 years of age In the native- born white popula- | tion States and territories Rank in liter acy In the total popula- tion? In the Negro popula- tion! l Continental United States District of Columbi: Rhode Island Massachusett New York New Jersey California Connecticut Michigan Ohio Pennsylvania Maryland New Hampshire W n Indian ishingto \labama West Virginia North Carolina New Mexico South Carolina Arkansas South Dakota Mississippi North Dakota Alaska American Samoa Canal Zone Guam Hawaii Philippine Islands Porto Rico Virgin Islands 96.2 83.0 83. &7 1 The Bureau of Census does not give separate figures for native and foreign-born negroes. Practically al! are native born. 2 Except foreign-born white persons 125 | lation which is urban.!. The state having the largest percent of rural population the highest percent of urban population (Rhode Dakota) is listed last. Island) is listed first, while the state having Geographical differences among th, the smallest percent of urban population and with respect to the five factors are prese: Charts I-V. The forty-eight states ha TABLE 12—STANDING OF THE STATES divided into four major groups acco: Or Gat REDICINEEY —- TO rank. The twelve highest ranking states white on the charts; the second twelve are stippled; the third twelve are hatched and the last twelve in rank a States Amount Hold- | Teach- | - Ss black. fxs “> ing | fl | school a Ihe data on attendance, Table 6, ill, ance | Power) | om | strikingly the relationship between ru and attendance. The nine states ranking est on urban population also rank high attendance with one exception, Rhode | which ranks first in percent of urban pop and twenty-second on attendance. The te: rural states, on the other hand, show a d falling-off in attendance. The relationshi between these two factors is further ind cated by their correlation coefficient wh + .750 + .04.? Geographical differences in amount of attendance are presented graphically in ( Rink of the States! for 1930 in: 5 N 1 1 wt NOwNN Rhode Island? Massachusetts New York New Jersey Illinois own mw California Connecticut Michigan Ohio Pennsylvania Vin nen NNNuUs Maryland New Hampshire Washington Indiana Wisconsin Nw awe N x Utah Delaware | 29 | I. The states ranking in the first and s Florida ‘ f | 2 . - . Oregon ee : quarter are, in general, the Northeas: Missouri - i f § ; . an Central and Western. The Southern Colorad i‘ s | aga ranking highest on holding power are gr: Seek Cioelins aa | 4 , a together in the western and northwestern | New Mexico ; of the United States, while most of the s' South Carolina. § t : Arkansas ranking lowest are located below the \1ason South Dakota...) 23 | | |] 2 and Dixon line in the southeastern half ot t)i Mississippi | j North Dakota..}| 31 | | I country. ——____—__—_—— —_—_—— A close relationship is found between av: 1 For full description of terms, see the discussion in J er connection with Tables 6, 7, 9, 10, and 11. annual salary paid teachers, principals ? Consult footnote 1, page 114 ° vonsecet a supervisors, and percent of urban popu! ‘ Urban areas, as defined by the 1930 Census, are incorporated places having 2,500 or more inhabitants; also towns other political subdivisions (not incorporated as municipalities, nor containing any areas so incorporated) which have population of 10,000 or more and a population density of 1,000 or more per square mile. In order to cover exceptional incorp practices in the northeastern section of the country, only those towns are classified as urban in which there is a village or | settled area of more than 2,500 inhabitants and comprising, either by itself or when combined with other villages within ¢! town, more than 50 percent of the total population of the town. ? All correlations in connection with these tables have been calculated by the Spearman Rank-Difference formula. { 126] 9 shows that the first nine states in per- data on the cost of living are not available. f urban population also rank highest on A high degree of relationship also exists be with two exceptions, Rhode Island and tween percent of urban population and value an. The eighteen most rural states have, of school property per child enroled, according ut one exception, less than the median to the data presented in Table 10. The nine n salaries: Wyoming has a rank of 23, highest ranking states on percent of urban ne less than the median. The coefficient of population include eight of the nine states ‘relation between rank on percent of urban ranking highest on value of school property population and salaries is + .812 + .03, also per child enroled. In general the most rural ating a close relationship. states show a decrease in rank in value of school ‘hart III shows sectional differences in property. The data show a wide range between raze annual salaries paid teachers, prin- the highest and lowest values, from $407 to pals, and supervisors. While there is a certain $72 per child enrolled. smount of random scattering throughout the The coefficient of correlation between irious sections of the country, it is clear that rank on percent of urban population and the Western, Central and most of the Middle value of school property per child enrolled is Atlantic and New England states are above -+ .742 + .04, indicating a high degree of the median rank on salaries, while eleven out _ relationship between the two factors. § the twelve lowest ranking states are in the Reference to Chart IV shows the twelve southern sections of the country. It would be _ highest ranking states on value of school prop- highly desirable to correct the data on salaries erty to be widely scattered over the country, for cost of living in the various states and sec- but all states above the median rank are tions of the country. Unfortunately, this is not located in the Western, Central, Northern and possible at the present time because comparable Northeastern sections, while all of the last CHART I RELATIVE AMOUNT oF SCHOOL ATTENDANCE - 1930 | C] First Twelve States ; a | ESS] Second Twelve States oN Third Twelve States | b Re ‘2 MMMM Fourth Twelve States vi Sesearch Dixsuon, Nateonal fdue wote Asst Based. on figures of U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, and U.S Department of the Interior, Office of Education — { 127 ] twelve in rank are located in the southern half of the both eastern and western sections. The relationships between literacy and per- cent of urban population, as shown in ‘Table However, few of the country, 11, is not so evident. states have more than ten percent of illiteracy among native-born inhabitants. In the state ranking lowest in literacy (South Carolina), 85.06 percent of the native population is lit- erate; in the state ranking highest (Nevada), 99.76 percent of the native population is lit- erate, leaving a range of only 14.7 percent be- tween the two. Furthermore, thirty-six of the forty-eight states have a literate population which is between 95.79 percent and 99.76 per- cent of the total population, indicating a rela- tively small difference between these states with respect to literacy. The coefficient of correlation between per- cent of urban population and literacy, as pre- sented in Table 11, is + .319 + .08, a barely significant correlation. However, even within the limited rs difference between the least literate most literate states, sectional differen clearly discernible. The twelve highes: ing states are grouped together in the N, half of the country between the Mis River and the Pacific coast. The twely: ranking lowest are in the southern half country, with the largest proportion eastern section. Estimating School Efficiency in th Future This review of the tools and pr available for estimating state school eff encourages an optimistic outlook for progress. Much careful and valuable w: been done and a great deal more is und One who would evaluate the effective: a state school system has a wide varie methods at his disposal. It is true that these methods are not pletely understood nor universally acc: CHART II — ae << ane, — a ee [~~] First Twelve States E23 Second Twelve States ZA Third Twelve States = Fourth Twelve States G Siete cae ix, “y 4.” vo Ne, - ‘2 one Ry ” Sescarch Dustin, Aatuonal Lducater ——EEE : Based. on mumber of children 14 to [7 years of age who attended school, according ' figures of the U.S. Department. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. { 128 J o, that the coordination of these meth- termining feeble-mindedness. It has far more a unified attack on the problem is still enlightened support than J. M. Rice had But the evaluation of state school thirty years ago when school superintendents ficiency is far better organized than was condemned his suggestion that practical use chological research a half century ago, be- could be made of objective tests. of spelling e Wilhelm Wundt took the first tentative ability. The task of accurately evaluating stat ys toward the organization of a psycho- school efficiency is complex and difficult. Yet, cal laboratory. It has far more technics at in the light of what has already been a ; disposal than Alfred Binet had twenty-five complished in this and in related fields, only a irs ago when the government of Paris re- very bold and pessimistic prophet would dare ested him to find an objective basis for de- to assert that the task is impossible. CHART III — — —— a (—] First Twelve States EE] Second Twelve States Third Twelve States Mmm Fourth Twelve States | Vesearch Based on average annual salary paid teachers, principals, and supervisors, according to figures of the U.S. Department of Interior, Office of Education. CHART IV ==) VALUE # PUBLIC SCHOOL PROPERTY PER CHILD ENROLLED -1930 75 ig “ Yiliyy First Twelve Stakes ei Q ——] Firs ve Gy Ay E34 Second Twelve States | ; a oN Third. Twelve States | 4 oe Sa ..! Ml Fourth Twelve States | a Secscarch Dursiwn, Aateanal ducal Based. on figures of the U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education . Financial, sanitary, and educational considerations justify the assumption of so degree of state leadership and control in the matter of schoolhouse construction. ‘|! best investment in school plants also means the provision of the safest, most health! school buildings and equipment and the best adaptation of the buildings to the needs 0! children as formulated by a progressive educational outlook. In order to assume | proper measure of leadership and control over school buildings the state should pro\ for the inclusion of a division of schoolhousing in its department of education. | precise function of such a division wil! vary from state to state. Research Bull National Education Association, May, 1930. p. 142. _. CHART V PERCENT OF ieee 1930 First Twelve States "3 Second. Twelve States Wiza Third Twelve States MM Fourth Twelve States kescarch Duasin atonal Based. on the percent of literacy among the natwe white and negro populakion 10 years of age and. over, according to figures of the U.S. Department. of Commerce, Bureau of the. Census Illiteracy is a national liability and a national menace. No American citizen, no matter what his color, what his occupation, or what the land of his birth, can, with safety to our social order, be merely “hands and feet to fetch and carry.” The funda mental problem that now confronts us is to raise the common man not so much to a vreater degree of skill and industrial efficiency as to those higher planes of thinking, feel- , and social action which the complexity and interdependence of life demand. This can be accomplished through education and only through education.—George D. Strayer, {ddresses and Proceedings of the Sixty-Third Annual Meeting of the National Edu cation Association, 1925. p. 158. RESEARCH BULLETINS ON STATE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Can the States Afford to Educate Their Children Vol. VII, No. 1, January, 1929. 44 p. A Self-survey Plan for State School Systems—Part I: Check-list, Vol. VIII, No. 2, March, 1930. 36 p. A Self-survey Plan for State School Systems—Part II: Handbook Vol. VIII, No. 3, May, 1930. 76 p. The Outlook for Rural Education Vol. LX, No. 4, September, 1931. 76 p. Teacher Demand and Supply Vol. LX, No. 5, November, 1931. 102 p. STUDIES IN STATE EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION A series of leaflets approximately 30 pages each are also available on the following topics: School Revenues and New Methods of Taxation, Group Insurance for Teachers, Bibliographies on Eight Problems of Schoo! Legislation, State School Legislation, Flat-rate and Percent-of-Salary Retire- ment Systems, The Personal Income Tax and School Support, Staffs and Salaries in State Departments of Education. Single copies of any of the above bulletins, 25 cents. When ordered in quantity the following discounts are allowed: 2 to 9 copies—10 percent; 10 to 99 copies—25 percent; 100 or more copies 33% percent. All orders for publications should be accompanied by funds in payment for same. Orders not oom nied by funds in payment are subject to transportation charges. Make checks or money orders payable to: NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. CONTENTS Foreword Introduction Some Typical Stereotypes or Beliefs Is crime increasing?... Are criminals younger today? Does education cause crime? Other Questions of Interest to Educators Purposes and Organization of the Bulletin Acknowledgments Part I—Statistics on Crime What Is a Crime? Classification of Crimes and Criminals What Is Juvenile Delinquency?.. Tabulations of Adult Crime Total number of law violations. Offenses known to the police Statistics of arrests Court statistics Commitments to prison. Statistics on prison populations. Summary Statistics as to Juvenile Delinquency... Of What Significance to Educators Are the Present Statistics on Crime?. Part II—Crime Costs and School Expenditures: The Public Cost of the Administration of Criminal Justice. Federal costs State costs Municipal costs Private Expenditures for Protection against Crime Protective agencies Protective devices Private detectives Correctional treatment Summary Private Losses Due to Criminal Acts..... Losses due to crimes against the person. . Losses due to crimes against property... Losses of wealth other than direct crimes against property. . Cost of insurance against crime Losses incident to the administration of criminal justice. . Indirect Losses to the Community Due to the Existence of Crime Loss in earning power of criminals... . Loss in earning power of prisoners.... Loss of productive labor of officers. . Miscellaneous labor losses Summary Statement of the Cost of Crime... [ 133] Part I1I—Factors Associated with Crime Illiteracy Poverty EE, cee a bee bd ues DANAD ARO RE REE oes Coed LARA AE he eek Frontier Spirit Prohibition Alcohol and Immigration Unemployment Newspapers Recidivism Schools and Education ... Motion Pictures Chronological Age Intelligence Mental and Emotional Defects Miscellaneous Factors The Factors Associated with Crime and Their Significance to Education Part IV—The Problem of the Delinquent Child Extent of Juvenile Delinquency General Characteristics of Delinquents..................... 0. ccc cece cece cece cece Personal factors Nativity Intelligence Mental defects Physical status Social factors Home environment Employment Truancy Motion pictures Summary Evidence of Maladjustment among School Children Number of maladjusted children Types of behavior problems TE Oe TO Oy Cr) Fee Parental schools Special schools Special classes Behavior clinics Training schools for delinquents What Does the Problem of the Delinquent Child Mean to Education? [ 134] Part V—The Social Agencies of Crime Prevention The Promotion of Economic Welfare. : Extension of Public Health and Recreational Activities. Physical welfare Mental hygiene The special problem of the defective... Recreation Improving the Agencies of Justice Revision and simplification of the law Improvement of court procedures. . Ethics of the legal profession Lawlessness in law enforcement. . Probation and parole Educational programs of prisons and reformatories.... Religion a Vital Force The Need for an Intelligent Public Opinion tein The School’s Opportunity in Cooperation with Other Agencies of Society The home The community Juvenile courts Adult education Character education School efficiency LIST OF TABLES . Percent of Offenses Known to the Police in 1200 Cities Over 2500 Population, 1931. Table . Male Prisoners Received in State and Federal Prisons......... 3. Prisoners Present in State and Federal Prisons in 1927 and 1928.. . Color and Nativity of Delinquent Children Dealt With by Juvenile Courts Reporting Statistics to the Children’s Bureau. . Cost of Federal Police Activities, 1929-30 . Cost of Federal Prosecution Activities, 1929-30. . 8. Cost of Criminal Business of Federal Courts, 1929-30 . Cost of Federal Penal Treatment, 1929-30 . Total Cost of Federal Criminal Justice, 1929-30 . Cost of Criminal Work of State Police, 1928 . Cost of State Penal and Corrective Treatment, 1928... . Cost of Criminal Justice in 300 Cities, 1930 . Private Expenditures for Protection Against Crime . Summary of Insured Losses Due to Direct Crimes Against Property . Summary of Expenditures for the Administration of Criminal Justice and Estimates of the Losses Due to Crime . Per Capita Expenditures for Delinquents in Industrial Schools, Prisoners in Penal Institu- tions, and Students in Public Schools 8. Ratio of Educational Status of Prisoners in 1923 to General Population Over 21 Years of Age . Percent Distribution by Educational Status, by Sex, and Offense of Persons Committed to Prison in 1923 . Educational Achievement of 454 Prisoners [ 135 ] FOREWORD N 1762 Rousseau wrote: “Everything is good as it comes from the hand of the Author of nature, but everything degenerates in the hands of man.” He was striking at a society that permitted its children to grow up amid poverty, vice, and disease—and then blamed the children for their unsocial behavior. This emphasis upon the responsibility of the social group for the behavior of each individual has been lost sight of many times since Rousseau. We have so frequently given our attention to what an offender has done instead of trying to discover why he did it. We have been too willing to shift to the individual the blame for shortcomings of the group. Horace Mann did not make this mistake. In his report of 1847 he wrote: “If any given percentage of all children can be rescued from vice and crime, and can be so educated and trained as to become valuable citizens, but the State re- fuses or declines to do this work, then the State itself becomes a culprit.” Recently the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection has passed on the torch in these words: “For every child a community which recog- nizes and plans for his needs, protects him against physical dangers, moral hazards, and disease ; provides him with safe and wholesome places for play and recreation ; and makes provision for his cultural and social needs.” The criticism heard sometimes today that education has failed to prevent crime is but another way of saying with Horace Mann that “the State has become a culprit.”’ Schools can only be as good as the citizens are willing to demand and to support. Inadequate prevision for schools in times’ of prosperity and retrenchment in periods of depression contribute to maladjustment, delin- quency, and crime among our youth. This latest publication of the Research Division shows the need for aggressive action with certain problems, and cautious general conclusions with all action. The delinquency which we see today is but a symptom of deep-rooted social pres- sures and stresses. It will take the united effort of the home, the school, the gov- ernment, and other social agencies to alleviate the fundamental maladjustments. Teachers, principals, and superintendents will find in this bulletin the basis for many profitable conferences. Parents, police officials, and social workers maj find herein suggestions for cooperative action with the schools. If this period of history is “a race between civilization and catastrophe’’—then education must not fail. The teacher is the savior of the people. J. W. Crasrresr, Secretary, National Education Association Introduction Today, crime is a topic for conversations, conferences, and conventions. Theories as to causes of crime are advanced, discussed, ridi- culed, and dropped, Statistics are cited, criti- cized, revised, and finally filed. Almost every- one has a remedy or an explanation to offer. Out of the swirl of contention and counter statement there are gradually formed certain “stereotypes” or generally accepted beliefs." Some Typical Stereotypes or Beliefs A number of “beliefs” have formed in con- nection with crime conditions. These widely accepted viewpoints have been both supported and denounced by experts. The points of con tention may be illustrated by these three ques- tions: (1) Is crime increasing? (2) Are crimi- nals younger today? (3) Does education cause crime ? Is crime increasing?—The amount of crime and its tendency to decrease or to increase have long been subjects of heated discussion. Louis Seibold? made the following statement in 1926: All federal, state, and municipal reports show that crimes of violence have been steadily increasing in the United States since 1900. Philip Parsons,* also writing in 1926, has taken a somewhat different stand: In fact, with all the data available up to 1922, there is a serious question whether there is actually an increase in the amount of crime out of propor- tion to the increase of population. Although both of the statements were made in 1926, the debate continues today. Disagree- ment arises, first, because arguments are based upon too few facts. Figures are used for such limited areas and such short periods of time that the results do not fairly represent condi- tions. In the second place, many of the available statistics are not comparable because the terms 1 Lippmann, Walter. Public Opinion. New York: Macmillan Co., _ #*Seibold, Louis. “Crime Increase Steady in U. S. September 8, 1926. p. 3. * Parsons, Philip A. Crime and the Criminal. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1926. p. since 1900, All Records Show.” and the procedures used in assembling the data are not standardized. Third, looseness in the use of terms leads to further argument.‘ Are criminals younger today?—lIt is widely believed that criminals today are younger than those who committed similar crimes ten, twenty, or thirty years ago. The evidence cited on this point is often taken from the @gures of the fed- eral Bureau of the Census. For example, Hon. Ellen C. Potter,> Secretary of Welfare of Pennsylvania, made the following statement: Comparing the percent distribution of commit- ments by age for 1910 and 1923, we find an increase of 3.7 percent in the group under thirty-four years of age. In a 1930 bulletin® of the U. S. Children’s Bureau, the data cited from the federal census show that in 1923 the percent (54.4 of male prisoners) between the ages of eighteen and thirty-four years was the same as in 1910. From other data the bulletin concludes: Institution commitments, therefore are only one of the indexes of the extent of crime which should be available. For the period 1910 to 1923 they in- dicate in all age groups a decreasing number of delinquents and criminals committed to correctional institutions. There appears to be some discrepancy in the two statements cited above in spite of the fact that both are based upon federal census sta- tistics. Perhaps the difference may be due to the number of women committed. The first state- ment implies that it includes both men and women, the second statement applies only to male prisoners. However, the point should be clear that general statements based upon the same evidence are often misleading when re- moved from the original context. Does education cause crime?—It is some- times asserted that education today is producing “educated” criminals. Even more common is the statement that the public schools develop 1927. p. 89 Evening Star. Washington, D. C., 143. ‘In 1926, the Children’s Bureau of the United States Department of Labor inaugurated a plan for uniform statistics on juvenile delinquency. The Bureau of the Census and other federal agencies have cooperated with local officers in preparing more exact statistics on prisons and criminals. 5 Potter, Ellen C. “Spectacular Aspects of Crime in Relation to the Crime Wave.” The Annals 125: 14; May, 1926 Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. * United States Department of Labor, Children’s Bureau, Youth and Crime. Publication No. 196, 1930. p. 3. [ 137 ] persons who are irreligious and lawless. In com- menting upon a public address by Mr. Wicker- sham, a Newark editor’ wrote: How does it happen that criminal tendencies are gaining so rapidly at a time when the nation is spending staggering sums on education? Is it pos- sible that the modern school, emphasizing the crea- tive impulses and personality of the pupils, un- wittingly fosters in them a reckless, anarchistic spirit that breeds lawbreaking? A general ans®er to the questions raised by the Newark editor is given in another news- paper statement :* Education does not offer a guarantee against crime and poverty, but it has been proved to be valuable in reducing this tendency of youth to go wrong. Other quotations might be given to illustrate the opinions of those who criticize and praise education. For present purposes the two quota- tions are sufficient to show two more or less opposing viewpoints. Elsewhere this bulletin will present objective evidence on the question. Other Questions of Interest to Educators In addition to the general “beliefs” cited above, the educator is genuinely concerned with many specific relationships between crime and education. For example: 1. What are the most common types of cr mes, and are these amendable by education? 2. How can teachers identify the children who are potential delisquents and criminals? 3. What factors, or so-called causes, are asso- ciated with criminal behavior? 4. What are the comparative costs of crime and education? 5. How can the various social forces, particularly the schools, prevent juvenile delinquency and crim- inal behavior? Purposes and Organization of the Bulletin It is expected that this bulletin will provoke discussion in educational circles. It should do something toward silencing loose and critical talk about the schools. It should show that crime is more than a school problem. It should point the way for schools to prevent crime by dealing more effectively with so-called “problem” children. The bulletin is divided into seven major parts as follows: Part 1. Statistics on Crime—This section the status of statistics on crime showing isting data must be used and interpreted \ tion. Part II. Crime Costs and School Expendit, summary of crime costs by the Nationa mission on Law Observance and Enforcem: pared with data as to the cost of public ed Part II. Factors Associated with Crim: eral treatment of the so-called causes of crin Part IV. The Problem of the Delinquent ( A review of objective evidence on the ma ments of juveniles. Part V. The Social Agencies of Crime Pres —A general statement of the need for judi forms, better schools, enlightened public health programs, and other social means fo prevention. Part VI. Organizations Interested in Crim, P, vention—A list of national committees and ciations that are helping to correct and to | social maladjustments. Part VII. Selected Bibliography—A select of references dealing with the major p: treated in the bulletin. Acknowledgments In the preparation of this bulletin th search Division has drawn upon the investiv tions of numerous individuals and groups. (ne of the most useful sources of informatio: been the reports of the so-called Wicke: Commission, officially designated as the \: tional Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Publications of the U. S. Office of Education, the Children’s Bureau, th reau of Prisons, and the Bureau of the Censu have been utilized extensively. The repor' the New York and Chicago crime commissions have been helpful. The writings of so many individual pe: gists, social workers, teachers, and others been used so as to make it impossible to specific acknowledgments other than found in the footnotes. Special appreciativ: expressed to the following persons for re the manuscript and making important cisms: Katharine F. Lenroot, Acting ( U.S. Department of Labor, Children’s Bu Marjorie Bell, Field Secretary, Nationa! | bation Association ; Lewis E. Lawes, Wa. Sing Sing Prison ; and Sanford Bates, Dir: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Pri The Research Division assumes responsi! for the bulletin in its general interpreta’ other than those quoted fully from other p cations. 1 Quotation from the Newark (N. J.) Call as reprinted in School Executives Magazine 50: 566; August, 1931. * Quotation from the Hornell (N. Y.) Tribune-Times as reprinted in School Executives Magazine 50: 567; August [138 J PART I Statistics on Crime Newspaper accounts, magazine articles, and lic speeches fairly bristle with statistics on These figures, cited to give an impression iuthority, often reflect upon the school’s ef- iveness in developing good citizens. Since chers are at a disadvantage because of the naive use and uncritical acceptance of statistics on crime, it is advisable at this point to treat the briefly. It will be shown that, since exist- ing statistics are incomplete and unstandard- ized, they are commonly misinterpreted." What Is a Crime? Reduced to simplest terms, a crime is an act in violation of any law. A man who drives his ir at thirty miles an hour in a twenty-mile zone isa criminal. Arrest, trial, and conviction taken separately or together are not necessary to change “lawbreaking”’ into a criminal act. More technically, a crime may be defined as follows: A crime is an act believed to be of such serious consequence to the well-being of society or of the public at large, and to affect so adversely the in- terests or the life of the state, that it has been brought within the cognizance of the law and there specifically prohibited—generally with a penalty prescribed for its commission. Likewise the omission of an act expressly enjoined by the law constitutes a crime.* It should be noted that a crime as defined above is not necessarily an anti-social, or moral act. It is simply an act forbidden by law. Warden Lawes of Sing Sing Prison has written on the general point: “Right and wrong in a religious and moral sense are not identical with right and wrong in a lawful sense—a ‘right’ act morally may be a ‘wrong’ (criminal) act legally and, of course, vice versa.’’® im- Classification of Crimes and Criminals may be classified in accordance with the seriousness of the criminal! act or the motive of the offender. Crimes 1 Important references when cited in incomplete end of this bulletin. 2 Best, Harry. Crime and the Criminal Law in the United State Garden City, * Queen, Stuart Alfred. The Passing of the County Jail. p. ® Bonger, William Adrien. Criminality and Economic Conditions. p. Antecedents, * Lawes, Lewis E. Life and Death in Sing Sing. Prisoner's * For example, Table 34 of The 1929. p, $2. ‘From an unpublished special report for the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, 1929. p. 8. Katharine F. Lenroot of the Children’s Bureau, October, form in footnotes are given fully On the atrocity basis crimes are usually clas- The oftend- ers are usually called felons and misdemeanants Although, felons are more dangerous to society than mis- demeanants, a comparison of the laws of the sified as felonies or misdemeanors. respectively. in the popular mind, forty-eight states shows that misdemeanors of one political area are often considered as fel- onies in nearby states. This vagueness and dif- ference led an investigator in 1918 to conclude that “there is nothing inherent in an offense which makes it a misdemeanor or a felony.’’* In other words, the law of a specific political area, not the nature of the offense, determines whether an act is a felony or a misdemeanor. An illustration of a classification based upon the motives of the offender is as follows: eco- nomic crimes, sexual crimes, political crimes, (chiefly Since many crimes have several mo- and miscellaneous crimes of ven- geance).° tives, this basis of classification is never entirely satisfactory. For statistical purposes the United States Bureau of the Census uses the main divisions of (1) offenses (2) (3) crimes against sex morality (e. g., (4) violations of drug laws, against the person (e. g., homi- cide), crimes against property (e. g., theft), bigamy ), (5) vio- lations of liquor laws, and (6) miscellaneous (including crimes unknown as to types) What Is Juvenile Delinquency? The term crime is often used to designate immoral acts which are not contrary law. This misuse of a legal term thwarts attempts at clear thinking. In the same way the word delinquency is carelessly applied to those who are merely naughty, when it should be re- stricted to juveniles who have become seriously maladjusted. Lenroot’ has defined the term as follows: annotated in the bibliog s. New York: Macmillan Co., N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1930: p. 3 1928 Pp 7m 536-37. Bureau of the Census, U. S. Department of Commerce, prepared [139 } Juvenile delinquency may be defined as violation of law by persons of juvenile-court age or conduct on the part of such persons so seriously anti-social as to interfere with the rights of others or menace the welfare of the delinquent himself or of the community. Workers in juvenile courts have pointed out repeatedly the unsoundness of designating all maladjusted children as delinquents. The in- discriminate use of such terms often affects the attitudes of children and tends to increase the difficulty of adjustment.* Tabulations of Adult Crime One source of error in many discussions of crime is that no one takes the trouble to ascer- tain what the quoted statistics are supposed to represent. For example: The extent of crime may be determined for any given period by (1) the total number of law violations, (2) the number of offenses known to the police, (3) the number of persons arrested, (4) the number of persons brought to trial, (5) the number of persons convicted, (6) the number of persons committed to penal institutions annually, or (7) the population of penal institutions in any specific year. It is generally agreed among penologists that, as one moves from (1) to (7), he accepts statis- tics that are increasingly less representative of the amount of actual crime in the community. Total number of law violations—Ideally the best measure of crime is a statistical summary of all law violations. These data would include the persons who ride on street cars without paying their fares, those who drive their autos beyond the specified speed limits, and those who take the property of others either by violence or under the subtle schemes of “high” finance. It is obviously impossible to obtain a record of all law violations. Even though it were pos- sible, it would still be difficult to compare rec- ords between states unless the laws were all uniform. The difficulties would increase as one attempted to compare nations, or races, or civil- izations. Offenses known to the police—The best representation of crime is the rec: offenses known to the police. In 1931, 4 ing to one of the so-called Wickersham re not one state published statistics of ¢ known to the police. Out of about 3,000 over 2,500 in population, only 285 publis| eral criminal statistics, and only 14 cities reports of offenses known to the police.’ The Bureau of Investigation of the D: ment of Justice, in cooperation with the Inter. national Association of Chiefs of Police, is ep deavoring to standardize reports as to offenses known to the police. So far about one-third (1,200) of the cities over 2,500 in popular have cooperated at irregular intervals in su; plying data in connection with seven majo fenses.* Table 1 shows data from about | 20) cities during 1931. TABLE 1—PERCENT OF OFFENSES KNOWN TO THE POLICE IN 1,200 CITIES OVER 2,500 POPULATION, 1931 Feb- ruary Classes of offenses April | May iF Murder and non- negligent man- slaughter........ Manslaughter by — negligence... . . wa oma 6. 3 aon a ry Aggravated assault. Burglary—breaking or entering 22. a3 35. Cre © RIWR & mw > be 00 nw aan Mon a | nN ~ S| eramw~w~n %’ ONFS Uw N — coi nNOS BS NEP OU 3 100.0 8 Taken from: United States Department of Justice, | Bureau of Investigation. _ > Crime Report | Vol. II, No. 5; May, 1931. ashington, D. ( Government Printing Office, 1931. p. 5. It is clear, then, that although splendid prog- ress has taken place in the field of police statis- tics, the incompleteness and lack of uniformit; of the records make it inadvisable for one to draw sweeping conclusions as to crime condi- tions.* Statistics of arrests—Third in value as repre- senting crime conditions should be the police * Van Waters, Miriam. Youth in Conflict. New York: Republic Publishing Co., 1925. “The Attitude of Delinquen p. 146-56. ® Wickersham, Geor Law Observance and Enforcement. Washington, D. W., Chairman. Report on Criminal Statistics. No. 3. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. p. 32-34. April 1, 1931. National Commissio: __ § These several hundred cities over 10,000 in population contain about fifty million persons. There are about cities and towns over 2,500 in population. It should be noted, too, that only a little less than half of the population of | United States live in rural areas. * Consult Report om Criminal Statistics, National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. p. 37-39; 7) Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, November, 1929, p. 75; and standard works ot criminology. [ 140] reports of arrests. Massachusetts is the only state that publishes complete statistics of arrests for the entire state. As compiled at the present time, most police reports of arrests are inaccurate. One cannot tell whether the persons listed were arrested on suspicion, arrested and prosecuted, or merely summoned to appear in court. Police statistics for arrest lack uniformity as to the reporting of such items as sex, age, resi- dence, nationality, color, occupation, and mari- tal condition." Court statistics—Next to the police statistics in theoretical representativeness of crime con- ditions are the data of the courts as to the num- ber of persons brought to trial, convicted, or dismissed. State reports of criminal court statis- tics are published by twenty-three states. The Attorney-General reports annually on the federal courts. Difficulty arises in comparisons of court sta- tistics between states because of variations in the types of offenses included and methods of tabulating the data. A further defect is that many states do not report on the cases handled in police courts.? Commitments to prison—Sometimes discus- sions of crime conditions are based upon the number and types of criminals admitted to prisons in a given year. Table 2 includes data from one hundred state and federal prisons.* Ratios similar to those shown in Table 2 are often cited as evidence of crime conditions. Helpful as these data may be, they have certain definite weaknesses: (1) the number sent to prison in a given year does not include those who committed crimes and escaped detection; those arrested, but not convicted; those con- victed, but placed on probation; (2) the specific offenses in Table 2 include persons in the differ- ent states who committed acts of varying seri- ousness; and (3) data on state and federal prisons nearly always omit the thousands of persons committed to municipal and county jails for short periods.* Statistics on prison populations—A common estimate of the extent of crime is the summary of prison populations during a given year. 1See Report on Criminal Statistics, National Commission on Law Observanec and Enforcement. p. 36 2 See Report on Criminial Statistics, p. 58-71. ’U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 1097 Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Prisoners in State and Federal Prisons and Reformatories, 27. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. This bulletin is published each year. ‘For full discussion and bibliography on statistics of crime, see standard works on penology such as Sutherland’s Criminology, published by J. B. Lippincott Company, 1924. Also, Report on Criminal Statistics, Edwin H, National TABLE 2.—MALE PRISONERS RECEIVED IN STATE AND FEDERAL PRISONS Offense Burglary Forgery Larceny and related offenses Em Fraud Having stolen property Larceny Sex offenses, except rape Violating liquor laws Violating drug laws Carrying weapons Non-support or neglect of family Violating U. S. postal laws, not elsewhere specified... . Violating U. S. revenue laws Prisoners received during 1927, 1926, 1923, and 1910! 1927 | 1926"" | 41,227 | 40,601 | 35,216 | 2,173 | 1,568 | Ratio per 100,000 general population of same sex* 1927* | 1926 Number 1923 | 1910 1923 26,222 | 80.8 | 76.7 61 3,220 1,497 2,923 1,830 6,295 2,568 391 567 3,583 998 101 633 2,535 1,077 1,216 2,610 _ —_ SUSSSSOWANOANK OK UNBSWAwWe _ 1,611 7,709 293 509 231 6,676 796 nN CUOOKOVONGNK OS UNS SIS - - CHVOCSCSOCK ERNE KK Oe BK WN Cee ODM NRE As Om Mm NON OAS WOmw | nN = ° —] - RAK ONK UR Awe UNAwe Ue mR VDUWe PUT ONOR DOOM! PN w | | 'Taken from: and Reformatories, 1927. Washington, D. C ‘These figures ‘Less than one-tenth of 1 per 100,000. United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. .: Government Printing Office, 1931. p. 11. *Based upon estimated population July 1, 1927, 1926, and 1923, and enumerated population April 15, 1910. resent the institutions which furnished detailed information. ‘Based upon estimated population proportional to prisoners of each sex reported in detail. Prisoners in State and Federal Prisons [ 141 ] ‘Table 3 and similar tables always fail to rep- TABLE 3.—-PRISONERS PRESENT IN S71 \1 eS ° AND FEDERAL PRISONS IN 1927 AND resent adequately the number and types of crim- : reer inals. As Bernard Shaw facetiously remarks, “The thief who is in prison is not necessarily | more dishonest than his fellows at large, but | | Aamber ; : <3 mostly one who, through ignorance or stupid- Dea, 3 | eral popula: ity, steals in a way that is not customary. He snatches a loaf from the bakers’ counter and is promptly run into gaol. Another man snatches | Fosaal patties on bread from the table of hundreds. ...and he is |) _ reformatories ‘ . 4 State prisons and re- run into Parliament. | formatories...... While the methods of the Bureau of the Cen- sus are reasonably accurate, the records of the California prisons are often incomplete, based upon the | ©lrde---- prisoner’s word, and lacking in uniformity. |} Connecticut Variations in the length of sentences and the Dist. of Columbia °. . proportion of sentences actually served add to the difficulties in using prison statistics. Further- more, up to 1930, the federal reports did not include the prisoners in local jails and work- houses.” Comparisons between states on the basis of aaa is ati i Maryland 5 prison populations are inadequate because (1) ne ES the police and judicial machinery in some states on " ° ; . Michigan are more effective than in others; (2) in one Minnesota . e 6 ° Mississippi......... state a particular type of criminal is sent to a igsouri state prison, while in another state he may be —— sent to a city jail; (3) some states have effective probation and parole systems which materially reduce the number committed to or kept in prison; and (4) on occasion, newspaper criti- ‘ . . ° | North Carolina cisms may result in a suspension of the parole |) North Dakota...... system or greater severity by courts which in , SE turn produce temporary variations in prison - statistics. — Summary—The purpose of the above section ~ i y—~4 will have been met if the reader realizes (1) athe that the “extent of crime” may be measured in T 3, 864 . ; 208 a number of different ways; (2) that the pres- ermo: » 334 ent status of record keeping of criminal statis- ; tics does not warrant many of the current, ireinia ‘Sei sweeping generalizations as to crime conditions ; } ane oy peeeetee: fe and (3) that there are agencies at work bring- . > : — : 1Taken from: United States Department of C: ing each year great uniformity and accuracy in merce, Bureau of the Census. Prisoners ie os ~ . isons a flormatories, 1927 shi statistics on crime. D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. p. 4. — . : *Based on estimated population Jan. 1, 1928, and Statistics as to Juvenile Delinquency* 1927. ‘ 9 ? No state prison or reformatory in Delaware or t! For several years the Children’s Bureau of District of Columbia. m 4No census report received for 1927. the United States Department of Labor has ‘Includes data for the Maryland house of correct os " and the state tentiary. been at work upon a plan for obtaining uniform ‘Data for 1928 and 1927 include | the state reform: . ° Pee e . women, established 1923. juvenile court statistics on a national basis. ms Hy Hy hn 1, 1928, only the state prison a: The Lo is wholly voluntary. In 1928 there pong Ce m for men; no report in 1927 or th he Prisoners ponent on a given dat 1928 “United States’... Cowon Con < | Kentucky. . son COC eS ee eR) NnNeK ou WON CANON w CouUInNnh Sutherland in his Criminolo p. 25. ‘eport on Criminal Statistics, National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. p. 75-90. : For ph wy as to the trends of juvenile delinquency see Part IV of this bulletin. [ 142] ixty-two courts in sixteen states supplying ind in 1929 the number had increased to three courts. Table 4 summarizes data ted in 1928 and 1929.1 lhe data reported for 1928 in Table 4 came from courts in areas that include 17 percent of the population of the United States. If we as- sume that the prevalence of juvenile delin- quency is the same for the country as a whole as it is for the area reporting, then approxi- mately 200,000 delinquents were dealt with in 928. It is admitted by competent authorities that this figure is only a “rough approximation.” More complete data are available as to the number of children in institutions. In January, 1923, there were 25,233 juvenile delinquents ten to seventeen years of age in institutions for delinquents, prisons, reformatories, jails, and workhouses. Approximately 9 percent of this number were in ordinary prisons, and 91 percent were in special institutions for maladjusted children. Statistics as to offenders of federal laws who were sentenced to jail between July 1, 1929, and June 30, 1930, are shown in Table 5.” These data include only prisoners sent to city and county jails either because of the shor sentence (one year or less) imposed or because Taken from a special unpublished report by Katharine F 2 The whole problem of the federal juvenile offender who is brought before regular federal cotirts jased upon Table 18 in Federal Prisoners in Jails, 1929- of inability to pay the fine. Prisoners sentenced for more than one year are eliminated from these statistics because they are reported in connec tion with federal penal and correctional insti- tutions. Clear recognition should be made of the fact that Table 5 includes those actually sent to city and county jails. It does not include all of the children and adults brought before fed- eral courts. It does not include those sent to state and federal institutions.* Evidence hs been cited up to this point to show that nation-wide statistics as to juvenile delinquency are incomplete, inaccurate, and lacking in uniformity. Attempts to compare break down of terminology and juvenile court procedure. Statistical comparisons between states are even more difficult. Persons interested in this prob- lem must await the fuller development of the program of uniform statistics now sponsored by the Children’s Bureau. cities because differences in Of What Significance to Educators Are the Present Statistics on Crime? What conclusions can be reached as to na- tional statistics on the extent and types of adult crime ? What is known as to the status and types of violations among juveniles? Of what sig- nificance are the present statistics on crime? Lenroot of the Children’s Bureau, October, 1929, | 30. U. S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Prisons, 1931 instead of heing ned by specially staffed juvenile courts, has been discussed in Report on the Child Offender in the Federal System of rice ivO7 state courts, 6, National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement s passed a law authorizing the transfer of federal cases involving persons under 21 years to juvenile courts or ot! Since the publication of this report, (¢ ongress er ‘For further evidence see The Delinquent Child, White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, p TABLE 4. COLOR AND NATIVITY OF DELINQUENT CHILDREN DEALT WITH BY JUVENILE COURTS REPORTING STATISTICS TO THE CHILDREN’S BUREAU 1928 Color and nativity Boys | Percent | dist. Number 29, 29, 24, 21, Color reported White Native en Foreign born ‘ Nativity not reported () Taken from: Lenroot, Katharine F. Juvenile Delinquency. Observance and Enforcement. Washington, D. C.: U Also: Juvenile Court Statistics, 1929, Children’s Bureau, p. 6. ) Less than 1 percent. 62 courts reporting Number }. S. Department of Labor, Children’s Bureau, October, 1929. p. 44 1929 93 courts reporting Girls Girls Boys Percent dist Percent Percent i dist dist. Number Number ,613 38,461 , 851 ,610 ,450 ,078 117 | 255 : ot ,158 } 5; 2 “Sa 023 | | 37,438 31,613 27,469 7,745 219 ,726 148 345 1,526 106 Prepared for the use of the National Commission on Law Among some of the tentative conclusions of interest to educators are the following: 1. Teachers can do much to protect Ameri- can youth from many unsubstantiated charges of lawlessness. Everyone agrees that there is too much social maladjustment among young people. However, the existing statistics do not support the sweeping generalizations so preva- lent in newspaper stories, magazine articles, and public speeches. The real need is not for criti- cism, but for understanding by adults who are willing to assist young people in meeting the problems of an increasingly complex society 2. Educators can help laymen to interpret statistics on crime. The tendency for various persons to charge the home, the school, and the church with failure often leads to irreparable damage to these social institutions. Many of the current charges against these three agencies can neither be proved nor disproved by existing statistics. 3. Classroom teachers and administrators can help to make the statistics of juvenile de- linquency more exact: first, by keeping complete records of each child’s attendance, physical con- dition, mental status, progress, and interests; and, second, by supplying these data to juvenile courts, probation officers, visiting teachers, at- tendance officers, and other authorities. 4. Educators should be able to obtai local statistics on crime, particularly the and juvenile court records, some sugy as to preventive measures which might b in the schools. For example, the existi; tistics might show that delinquency was ring in exceptional numbers among chi!irep who had just completed the eighth grade. Per. haps, the junior high plan of organization continue these youngsters under supe: until more stabilized habits had been formed. Communities have found it worthwhile : chart the districts in the city where delinguenc) is most prevalent. Sometimes this practice sug gests the need for recreational and social cente; programs in the schools. 5. Educators should note in existing data o: crime many suggestions for adult education. |: is reasonable to assume that evening schools and extension classes might be effective in thwarting undesirable community influences. 6. The types and extent of certain criminal acts may indicate to school people the possibili- ties of uniting forces with the local police, the health department, the welfare agencies, the recreational associations, and other interested groups. TABLE 5.—-PRISONERS UNDER SENTENCE RECEIVED DURING THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1930, BY AGE AND SEX Number Percent distribution Male Female 2,388 i) So @Qaowwn Nee / 10.1 30,034 ClO Bs COUR Aue AwoOUnR Ole pe me CNR eNr AUAWO THOU Ss a CFR DONA WHSwwn Nee 100. 0 Taken from: U.S. ment of Justice, Bureau of Prisons. Federal Prisoners in Jails, 1929-30. Washington, D. ( Government Printing , 1931. p. 30. [ 144] PART II Crime Cost and School Expenditures [he two and one-half billion dollar expendi- ture for public education has led to highly or- canized propaganda for retrenchment. Why does not the enormous crime bill of our nation bring forth equally active and well-organized protests ? Are American citizens unaware of the fact that estimates of crime costs range from one billion to thirteen billion dollars annually ?" The purpose of this section is not to contend that the expenditures are too great for the police systems, courts, and penal institutions of the United States. Perhaps if more money were spent on the preventive phases of police work, there might be some reductions in the cost of penal and correctional treatment. This section is chiefly concerned in showing the magnitude of public expenditures for crime control and to compare these costs with those of public edu- cation. What appear to be the most reliable figures on crime costs are those in the Report on the Cost of Crime, compiled in 1931 by the Na- tional Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement.? A portion of the data of the national commission will be summarized in the following pages under the following topics: (1) the public cost of administration of criminal justice, (2) private expenditures for protection against crime, (3) private losses due to crimi- nal acts, (4) indirect losses to the community due to the existence of crime, (5) a summary of the total cost of crime, and (6) the total cost of crime as compared with school costs. The Public Cost of the Administration of Criminal Justice The federal, state, and local governments all participate in the administration of criminal justice, Each type of government has its police officers, prosecution officials, criminal courts, probation and parole agencies, and penal in- stitutions. Federal costs—The largest item in the fed- eral expenditure for criminal justice is for police activities. During the fiscal year 1930, there were sixteen agencies of the federal gov- ernment with police duties. One of these was the Bureau of Inquiry of the Interstate Com merce Commission. The other fifteen agencies were distributed among seven executive depart- ments such as the Department of Justice, the Department of Labor, and the Department of the The cost and extent of these widely scattered police functions are shown in Table 6. Interior. TABLE 6.—COST OF FEDERAL POLICE ACTIVITIES, 1929-30 Criminal! police cost Agency Department of Justice. . Treasury Department Bureau of Internal Revenue. .... , 225.59 Secret Service aie bes ; 577,102.49 Customs Service..... , ,529,113.25 CRS win ceeds oceane ,557,581.50 Bureau of Prohibition , | ; 900.19 Post Office Department........... 387 ,674.98 Department of the Interior General Land Office......... , 875.00 Indian Service gh 104,956.75 Department of Commerce...... 3,000.00 Department of Agriculture Bureau of Biological Survey. | 7,982.89 Food and Drug Administration... .| 50,000.00 Plant Control and Quarantine. . . 2,000.00 Department of Labor | Bureau of Naturalization ‘ 25,000.00 Bureau of Immigration. . ae 1,595,172.00 Interstate Commerce Commission. .. .| 100,000.00 United States Marshals es | 3,020,174.69 $2,658, 156.55 | $35,923, 915.88 Grand Total.... Figures from Tables 1-8, Report on Cost of Crime, National Commission on Law Observance and Enforce- ment, p. 95-106. A close inspection of Table 6 gives a clue to the types of police work of each department. The police activities of the Department of Justice are primarily concerned with the motor theft laws, the investigation of offenses against the United States, gnd the collection of crimi- nal identification records.? The Department of the Interior protects the public domain and suppresses the liquor traffic among the Indians. The Department of Commerce enforces regu- 1 Various estimates are summarized in The Problem of Crime by C. J. Ettinger, published by Ray Long and R, R Smith Ine., New York, 1932, Chapter II. There are also numerous estimates as to the cost of racketeering, such as those by Samuel Crowther in the Ladies’ Home Journal, February, April, and May, 1931. _ ® National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Report on thé Cost of Crime. No. 12, June 24, Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 657 p. 1931 ® Since 1930 the Prohibition Bureau has been transferred from the Treasury Department to the Department of Fustice. [ 145 } lations regarding the sponge fisheries and the transportation of black bass. It is clear that the federal police functions are diverse, highly specialized, and extensive. Supervision of the prosecutions for federal offenses is exercised by the Department of Jus- These activities include violations of the anti-trust, taxation, prohibition, plant quaran- meat inspection, narcotic, postal, and im- migration laws. The immediate prosecution of violations is conducted by eighty-four United States attorneys and their assistants in the various judicial districts. The cost of the vari- ous types of federal prosecution is shown in Table 7 tice. tine, TABLE 7.—-COST OF FEDERAL PROSECUTION ACTIVITIES, 1929-30 Prosecution cost of criminal cases | Agency $198 891.14 1,758,305.72 Department of Justice United States Attorneys. ... General Counsel, Bureau of Internal Revenue ‘4 Total 59,780.00 | “$1, 996, 976. 86 Figures from Tables 9-14, Report on Cost of Crime, National Commission on Law Observance and Enforce- ment, p. 107-114 The trial and sentence of offenders against federal laws takes place in the eighty-four United States District Courts. Under the supervision of the district courts are 1,100 commissioners who conduct preliminary hear- ings, hold persons for trial, and perform other duties in connection with criminal matters. The cost of these various agencies is shown in Table 8: TABLE 8.--COST OF CRIMINAL BUSINESS OF FEDERAL COURTS, 1929-30 Agency | cost for criminal court procedure | ae) ee ee District Courts | ourts Commissioners ‘ Circuit Court of =o os ome Supreme Court... . Sevres | of $5 615, 837.95 588 820.91 95,298.95 | 31,057. 40 I $6,331, 015.21 Figures from Table 21, National Commission on Law Observance and Enforce- Report on Cost of Crime, | ment, p. 129. | The federal government maintains si, and correctional institutions. On Jy 1930, these institutions confined 13,567 ers. All adult prisoners serving terms than a year and a few sentenced for mo; a year are confined in local and state , The federal government pays at an agre: for each prisoner so confined. Person porarily detained in jails for federal must be paid for by the national govern The total annual cost of institutional ca supervision by the Bureau of Prisons an to more than eight million dollars as sh Table 9. TABLE 9.—COST OF FEDERAL PENAL TREATMENT, 1929-30 Agency | Cost | ‘Permanent penal institutions 3 for 8 adults Federal prison camps | | Federal prisoners in local and state) institutions National Training School for Boys. . Supervisory activities of the Bureau of| $4,172,204 « 40,58 | 3,786,511 | 207 , 062 274,171 $8 , 480, 53° Figures from Table 33, Report on Cost of Crim | National Commission on Law Observance and Enfo: ment, p. 133. Table 10 shows the total cost of f criminal justice. It will be noted that 68 cent of the expenditure is for police activi: Prosecution calls for about 4 percent, costs take 12 percent, and correctional ment 16 percent. The various agencies for | bation, parole, and pardon require onl tenth of 1 percent of the total costs.’ figure $52,786,202.94 should be kept in n for later comparisons in this bulletin. TABLE 10.—TOTAL COST OF FEDERAI CRIMINAL JUSTICE, 1929-30 Cost $35 923,915.88 1,996 976. 86 6,331,015. 21 8, 480,530.74 53,764.25 | $52,786, 202.94 | 100 | Penal institutional treatment . Probation, parole, and pardon Figures from Table 40, Report on Cost of Crime National Commission on Law Observance and Enforce: ment, p. 139. 1 Federal expenditures for probation increased to $237,000 in 1931-32 and to $415,000 in 1932-33. [ 146 ] State costs—Data on state costs for criminal cost was about $320 for each inmate. The total ‘stice are not so complete nor so recent as the cost for the care of minors in state custody in presented previously on federal activities. 1928 amounted to fourteen and one-half mil- iny instances estimates have been resorted — lion dollars. The annual expenditure for ope- here exact data were not available. rating costs for juveniles in state institutions State police forces are of four types: (a) amounts to $440.79 per inmate. shway police, (b) semi-military forces for State parole and pardon agencies in 1928 frontier duty, such as the Texas rangers, (c) cost $709,344 or an average expenditure of state police proper, chiefly for rural areas, and $7.25 per adult prisoner. d) miscellaneous agencies, such as criminal Table 12 summarizes the total cost in 1928 identification bureaus. Data are available on of state penal and correctional treatment. It type (c) for the 9 states which have adopted should be noted that these figures, unlike those he state police system. These data are given in’ of the federal costs, do not include the costs Table 11. for state-supported courts and _ prosecution agencies. ‘The total cost of $51,721,122 TABLE 11.—COST OF CRIMINAL WORK OF amounts to about 5 percent of the total amount STATE POLICE, 1928 expended for all general state governmental purposes in 1928. Adding the cost of state _ Cost of police forces (see Table 11) would raise the criminal work aes ee ean ba estimated total cost of state enforcement of Connecticut. . sia mab aha aoe ee ; 21,549 . P P ‘ ro) , Maine. . i ae es criminal justice to $54,382,511 for 1928. Maryland te ee ee 13,805 ae? ~— , os " ° Massachusetts pe 374.816 Municipal costs—The National Commis- Michigan resus am ax er ° ies New Jersey Sede 387 636 sion on Law Observance and Enforcement New York. . 648047 s os ‘tae Pennsylvania.......... et pitt 2 737 ,656 presents facts on the cost of criminal justice Rhode Island pant sia ini 46 ,340 > P Ls , pena CNS aoe 69° 415 in approximately three hundred cities of the West Virginia eS are 262,125 rT? . a + oe . - = : United States. These cities included 70.9 per- € 2,661,389 ° . ° a 1S a cent of the urban population in the United Rn oe States according to the 1930 census. Within Figures from Table 2, Report on Cost of Crime, fii i . . National Commission on Law Observance and Enforte- these cities 1s to be found 38.2 percent of the ment, p. 200. o. 4 total population. The per capita! operating costs of police Data are available on about one hundred activities in 1930 in three hundred representa- state institutions for adult prisoners. Figures tive cities ranged from $ .66 in Massillon, published by the Bureau of the Census indicate Ohio, to $7.45 in Washington, D. C. The total that these prisons cost in 1928 about thirty-six cost of criminal police activities for the cities and one-half million dollars. The operating studied was $194,119,511 for 1930. 1 Based on the 1930 population of each city. TABLE 12.—COST OF STATE PENAL AND CORRECTIVE TREATMENT, 1928 ! Annual expenditures, 1928 Annual per Dicigipsaliamnaibitaaaat PORE ATE. iii ee ___.| capita expend- l l iture (1930 Institutions Institutions Parole Census) for adults for minors agencies Total New England .....| $3,077,313 $1,595,693 S, | $4,888, $.599 Middle Atlantic 6,490,309 ,558,545 576 ,153, 349 East North Central ian 7,988,441 | ,948 243 32,480 } 11,169, .462 West North Central...... Pee: 5,175,155 | ,072, 806 53 966 301, .549 South Atlantic ead 3,684,599 , 563 ,028 34,553 , 282, | .334 East South Central — , 538,675 923 ,082 5,644 467, 452 West South Central 3,049,418 | 766 ,632 971 | 2 315 Mountain — , 284,489 897 ,647 , 866 | , 184, 590 Pacific al "167,140 | 1,230,563 39,020 | 3.436.72: “419 ,455,539 | $14,556, 239 $709,344 $51,721, $. 423 Figures from Table 12, Report on Cost of Crime, National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, p. 240-41. [ 147] Prosecution costs in 1930 per capita ranged from $.01 in Portsmouth, Virginia, to $.67 in New Castle, Pennsylvania. The total cost for the three hundred cities studied was $8,- 484,059 for 1930. A few states, such as California, have adopted the public defender system whereby public employed officers defend indigents ac- cused of crime. In other states provision is made locally for the defense of persons who cannot afford lawyers. The cost for public de- fense in thirty-five cities representing twelve states was $126,621 in 1930. The total cost for municipal and juvenile courts in the cities studied was $20,144,148 in 1930. The per capita costs ranged from $ .08 in Elgin, Illinois, to $1.66 in Chelsea, Massa- chusetts. Municipal penal institutions, including the cities’ contribution to county jails, totaled $20- 523,410 in 1930. The per capita costs ranged from $.05 in Elizabeth, New Jersey, to $1.16 in Chattanooga, Tennessee. A number of cities reported no cost for this item because they use state penal institutions exclusively. Local probation per capita costs ranged from $ .01 to $.71 in cities in 1930. A number of cities do not provide this social service and consequently reported no costs. ‘The total cost for the three hundred cities investigated amounted to $4,415,883 for the year 1930. The total cost for criminal justice in three hundred representative American cities over 25,000 in population totaled $243,551,915 in 1930. These data are summarized in Table 13. This total averages $5.47 per capita on the basis of the 1930 population. Cities over one million in population pay a per capita charge of $7.46 as compared with $3.08 in the cities between 25,000-50,000 in population. Table 13 shows that the municipal costs for criminal justice amounted to $243,551,915 in 1930 for 44,537,817 persons or about 70 per- cent of the urban population. Multiplying the average per capita cost of $5.50 by the 24 mil- lion other residents of urban areas gives $132,- 000,000. This sum added to the $243,551,915 gives an estimated cost for all urban areas of $375,551,915 in 1930.1 TABLE 13.—COST OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE In 300 CITIES, 1930 Item Cost Criminal police activities | Criminal prosecution , 484,05 | Public defense of accused 126,621 | Criminal courts 20,144,148 20 523, 41¢ 4,415, 88 $243 551,91 $194,119, 5 8 From Table 13, Report on the Cost of Crime, Nation: Commission on Law Observance and Enforceme: p. 323-33. There are still 53,820,223 residents in ) areas for which no costs have been comp! Lacking the necessary evidence we may assu that the per capita cost for criminal justice among the rural population would ave: $3 or about the same as the per capita costs in urban areas of 25,000-50,000 population, Multiplying this assumed per capita cost by the number of the rural residents gives an est mated cost of $161,000,000 for 1930. Adding the estimated cost for the to: urban population to the estimated cost in rura! areas gives a grand total of $536,551,915 fo: 1930 local criminal-protection costs. This fig ure is an estimate and should be used with caution. Private Expenditures for Protection Against Crime Exact data as to private outlay for prote tion against crime are impossible to obtain cording to the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement.” Private expen ditures include the cost of private police and guards, the purchase of various protective de vices, and in some instances the support of de- linquent minors committed to privately sup- ported institutions. Protective agencies—The term protective agencies has been used to include private police forces, private guards, and watchmen. Private police forces are used by the rail- roads and large industrial corporations. In the state of Pennsylvania alone the cost for in- dustrial police has been estimated at $1,260,()') per year. On the basis of the expenditures o! the Pennsylvania Railroad for railroad detec- 1 These estimates and those immediately following are based upon data in the Report on the Cost of Crime, but t! are not given in the report. *See Part 7 “Private Expenditures for Protection against Crime.” Report on the Cost o Some authorities contend that the private expenditures against property Crime, No. 12, p. 349 osses should not included in crime costs because under ideal social conditions individuals would have to protect their property against weather, animals, outlanders. [ 148 ] tives, the total annual cost for all of the major railroads in the United States has been placed at $13,000,000 per year. No figures have been collected as to the cost of private guards, but the expenditure for the salaries of watchmen has been estimated as $159,000,000 per annum. The outlay for watch clocks for these watchmen averages $900,000 per year. Protective devices—Protective devices such as safes, chests, and vaults require an average expenditure of $4,200,000 per year. The aver- ave annual cost of bullet-resisting glass is $300,- 000. Gas protective devices cost $1,000,000 in 1931. Protective services, used chiefly by banks, require about $10,500,000 per year. At least $2,750,000 is invested in armored cars, and the companies furnishing the same charged $3,- 900,000 for their services in 1929. Private detectives—There are extensive pri- vate detective systems in the United States. Many practical difficulties have prevented the collection of data as to the cost of these services. Correctional treatment—Private expendi- tures for correctional treatment includes (a) the cost of correctional institutions, and (b) the cost of privately supported probation activities. The estimated expenditure for the institutions was $850,000 in 1930. The National Commis- sion for Law Observance and Law Enforce- ment published no data as to the cost of private probation activities. Summary—Table 14 summarizes the private expenditures for protection against crime. Ap- parently, these private expenditures amount to about $200,000,000 per annum. ‘This estimate should be kept in mind to supplement the fed- eral, state, and local expenditures cited in pre- vious sections of this bulletin. Private Losses Due to Criminal Acts As in several previous sections it is almost impossible to obtain comprehensive and accu- rate data as to the private losses due to crime. Organized extortion or “racketeering’”’ has been estimated as depriving Americans of millions of dollars every year.’ It is necessary, therefore, to resort to estimates based upon such evidence as is available. In most instances the available ' See articles by Samuel Crowther in the Ladies’ Home f The Problem of Crime by Clayton J. Journal for February, April, and May, 1931. Ettinger and other references at the end of this bulletin. facts are accurate, but they are incomplete and are probably understatements of actual condi- tions. This section will present facts on (1) losses due to crimes against the person, (2) losses due to crimes against property, (3) commercial frauds and extortion, (4) cost of insurance against crime, and (5) incidental losses through the administration of criminal justice. Losses due to crimes against the person— Among the most common offenses against the person are homicide, wounding, and sex of- fenses.” TABLE 14.—PRIVATE EXPENDITURES FOR PROTECTION AGAINST CRIME Estimated Item annual cost Protective agencies Railroad police. . hae $13,000,000 Watchmen salaries on 159,000,000 Watch clocks. ... 900 , 000 Protective devices Safes, chests, and vaults 200 ,000 Gas devices ; ae 000 , 000 Bullet-proof glass...... 300, 000 Protective service for banks 500 000 Invested in armored cars.... 2,750,000 Armored car services , 900 000 Private detectives. . Correctional treatment Private institutions Private probation Total $196 , 400,000 Based upon estimates in Part 7, p. 349-69, Report on the Cost of Crime. As shown in the chapter these figures are underestimates because of omissions in the data. Due to lack of uniformity in record keeping and incomplete data it is not possible to state with certainty the annual number of homicides in the United States. In 1930 the Department of Justice reported that there were 5,913 homi- cides reported for 34.2 percent of the popula- tion of the continental United States. On this basis, the National Commission on Law Ob- servance and Enforcement has estimated that the total number of reportable homicides would be approximately 8,720. Assuming that the earning power of the average victim is $1,384 per year,* and that the average victim is a Also, Chapter II 2 See the Report on the Cost of Crime, National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, p. 374-79 ® Does not include the rural communities. The total number of homicides each year in the United States is about 12,000, according to Homicide in the United States by H. C. Brearley, University of North Carolina Press, 1932, p. 15 ‘The average income of industrial workers in 1925 according to “The National Income and Its Distribution” in Recent Economic Changes in the United States, Vol. 2, p. 777. (President’s 1929 Conference on Unemployment. ) [ 149 | young, active worker, then the resulting loss in earnings would be about $127,000,000 per year. Although an estimate, this figure gives some indication of the magnitude of the economic loss to the country. Crimes of wounding and injury are so varied in type and results that no estimates for the United States have been made. The data on sex offenses are even more incomplete than facts on mayhem. The absence of estimates on these types of crimes increases the conservative nature of estimates of the losses due to crimes against the person. Losses due to crimes against property—Data as to property losses are based largely upon facts supplied by various insurance agencies. Among the major types of property losses are arson, rioting, theft, and embezzlement.’ Arson is the intentional destruction of prop- erty by fire. According to the National Board of Fire Underwriters the average annual fire loss in the United States amounts to $408,- 642,197. Of this amount $2,176,713 is the average annual loss due to known incendiarism. Experts estimate that at least 20 percent or more than eighty-one million dollars of the total fire loss should be charged against in- cendiarism. Malicious mischief includes rioting, bomb- ing, and sabotage. The only figure available is the losses paid by insurance companies for riot- ing. A nine-year average of this loss amounts to $2,747,989 per year. Theft includes all types of stealing from petty pilfering to such major offenses as larceny, burglary, and robbery. The average of bank losses for burglary over a ten-year period totals $205,226 per year. Robberies of banks over a ten-year period resulted in an average loss of $1,371,349 per year. The losses due to theft from jewelers over a nine-year period have averaged $2,068,334 per year. Thefts of freight have cost the railroads $3,855,374 per year over a period of ten years. Losses due to automobile thefts, as measured by insurance paid for cars not recovered, have averaged $15,831,425 over a six-year period. Miscellaneous insured losses due to theft and robbery have averaged $8,432,- 000 per year. Net losses of mail theft have aver- aged $680,344 per year for the period from 1921 through 1930. Insured losses due to embezzlement amounted to $17,201,422 on the averac the years 1925 to 1929, A summary of losses due to crimes a property is shown in Table 15. As stated viously these data are based upon reports surance companies. Undoubtedly, the in loss of $55,000,000 due to known direct « against property is generally accepted as a imum figure. TABLE 15._.SUMMARY OF INSURED LOSSEs DUE TO DIRECT CRIMES AGAINST PROPERTY Type of loss Loss Rioting Theft Bank burglaries Bank robberies ,371 Jewelry , 068 Automobile. ..... 5,831.4 Freight losses ,855 3 Miscellaneous ,432 Mail | 680 344 $54,570,1 Based upon data given on pages 379-97 of Report the Cost of Crime, National Commission on | Observance and Enforcement. Losses of wealth other than direct c against property—Crimes against property) understood to include the direet attacks wealth such as theft, robbery, rioting, and son. Another type of crime is the “indirect tack” upon the wealth of individuals or 0: izations in the form of fraud, extortion, racketeering.” Commercialized frauds include frauds, securities frauds, credit frauds, fra lent bankruptcies, confidence games, fory: counterfeiting, and the use of the mails to fraud. Since many of these crimes are neve: tected the National Commissior. pointed out : difficulty of even estimating the losses. L: due to frauds in the sales of securities have been estimated at $600,000,000 for the United Stite in 1930. Forgery is credited with causing loss: of $40,000,000 annually. The Post Office Department has estimated that losses due to the use of the mails to defraud have averaged $68,634,342 annually. Losse due to extortion and racketeering were not ¢\ estimated by the National Commission on | Observance and Enforcement.’ Summarizing, insu! . See Report on the Cost of Crime, National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, p. 379-98. 2 Tbid., p. 398-413. * Gunther estimates that racketeering costs $45 per capita in Chicago. See “The High Cost of Hoodlums” by Gunther, Harper's Magazine 159: 529-40; October, 1929. [ 150] osses due to indirect attacks upon wealth int to at least $700,000,000 annually. Cost of insurance against crime—Because of possibility of losses from crime many in- juals purchase theft, fidelity, or riot insur- _ The amount of the premiums of such in- nce may be considered a cost of crime.’ The mount paid in premiums for burglary, rob- and theft insurance over an eight-year $22,511,602 per \utomobile theft insurance averaged $36,282,- period has averaged year. 540 annually. Fidelity insurance against defal- cations of employees costs on the average $39,- 489.519 annually. Premiums on riot insurance for a nine-year period have averaged $5,252,- 801 per year. The total cost of all premiums for nsurance against crime averages approximately $100,000,000 annually. These figures are con- sidered a minimum estimate of the cost of in- rance against crime. Losses incident to the administration of crim- | justice—Many private citizens must accept losses to serve on juries and to appear-as wit- nesses in courts.” These losses are direct and real to many persons. Because of the possible loss many citizens avoid jury duty and similarly influence the effectiveness of the administration of criminal justice. The National Commission offered no estimates as to the amount of these private losses. Indirect Losses to the Community Due to the Existence of Crime Previous sections have presented evidence on the more or less direct losses due to crime. There ire many losses due to grief, fear, and worry which no one can begin to estimate. However, the loss to the community of unproductive labor can be estimated. The indirect losses of the community due to the existence of an unproductive criminal ele- ment consists of four types: (1) loss in earning power of criminals, (2) loss in earning power of prisoners, (3) loss in productive labor of law enforcement officers, and (4) labor losses.® miscellaneous Loss in earning power of criminals—As shown in Part II the exact extent of crime in the United States is unknown. It is impossible, therefore, to know the exact number of crimi nals. Lacking this basic figure the National Commission offered no estimate on the loss of earning power of all criminals. J LOSS The number of prisoners in local, state, and federal in earning power of prisoners institutions is known with reasonable accurac) 928 data the estimated average daily population of all prisons is in the neighbor Based upon | heod of 145,000 persons. Assuming an average $1,205 per the amounts to about $174,725,000 per year. Since income of vear,? gross loss prison labor results in useful products the Na tional Commission deducts 50 percent of the loss and proposes a net loss figure of $87,000, OOO per year. This figure gives an idea of the magnitude of the indirect economic injury to the community. labor of o fhe ers If relatively Loss of productive lawlessness existed in insignificant amounts, it would be necessary to maintain only asmall group to fight crime. The diversion of many persons from productive labor to crime detection and prevention results in an indirect loss to the community. The National that 108,000 persons were engaged in criminal police Commission estimates work at public expense in 1930. It is estimated that 14,300 persons are required to staff all types of prisons; institutions for juvenile de- linquents employ about 8,500 persons; about 3,000 persons are engaged in probation work ; and 18,400 full-time workers are required in connection with the prosecution machinery. In 170,000 are employed full-time in law enforcement ac other words, approximately persons tivities.° Assuming an average annual earning power of $1,385 per person, the loss of productive labor of such persons is approximately $235,- 000,000 per year. It is adm‘tted that this is an indication of loss, not an actual loss. Miscellaneous labor losses—Criminal law yers, professional bondsmen, jurors, witnesses, employees of companies providing crime insur- ance, and persons employed in manufacturing and selling protective devices might be em- 1 See the Report on the Cost of Crime, National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, p. 413-16 2 Tbid., p. 416-19. 8 Tbhid., p. 420-37. ‘The report of the Commission uses $1,205 at this point (instead of $1,385 used above in connection with homicides) because it takes in the element of unemployment which is more common among wage workers than among salaried employees in industry. 5 This figure does not include private detectives, industrial police, watchmen, and employees in private correctional institutions, [151] eR etn ett ployed in more socially useful labor. Due to many apparent difficulties the National Com- mission offered no figures as to these indirect labor losses. Summary Statement of the Cost of Crime The National Commission on Law Observ- ance and Enforcement states it is “wholly im- possible to make an accurate estimate of the total economic cost of crime to the United States.”’ In spite of this warning Table 11 pre- sents a summary of the estimates and exact data previously given in Tables | through 15 and the text of this section of the bulletin. According to Table 16 the total cost of crime, represented in dollars, approximates $2,000,- 000,000 per annum. As stated many times pre- viously in this section this figure is probably a minimum estimate of losses due to crime con- ditions. The items in Table 16 “crime against per- sons” and “indirect losses of productive labor” are both estimates of losses in productive labor. Since these do not represent actual outlays of money, it is assumed to be advisable in subse- quent comparisons to subtract these sums from the total. Even though this subtraction is made, an estimate of $1,500,000,000 is still a con- servative statement of the public outlay for the purposes of preventing and controlling crime in the United States." Comparisons of Crime Costs with School Costs In 1928 the total cost for all types of public elementary, secondary, and collegiate schools in the United States was about two and one- half billion dollars. The total cost of elementary and secondary schools alone amounted to about two billion dollars in 1928. For every $2 spent on elementary and sec- ondary school pup‘ls, we spend $1.50 to control the criminal. There are more than 25,000,000 pupils in these schools. How many criminals are there to call forth an expenditure of a bil- lion and one-half dollars? Are there 500,000 or 1,000,000 criminals? No one can say with certainty, but it is clear that the per capita out- lay of society on its criminals far exceeds +) per capita expenditure for its children. Table 17 compares the state expendi: for delinquents in industrial schools, prisone:. in penal institutions, and students in public ¢l- mentary and secondary schools. It is interesting to note that it costs on +! average about $400 a year to maintain 4 linquent in a public institution, $300 fo, adult prisoner, and somewhat less than ${() for each public school pupil. In a sense, : if the $100 spent annually on each public schoo! pupil does not produce “a good citizen,” the TABLE 16.—SUMMARY OF EXPENDITUREs FOR THE ADMINISTRATION OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND ESTIMATES OF THE LOSSES DUE TO CRIME ' Type of loss or expenditure | Approximate cost I. Expenditures for administration of} criminal justice A. Federal Police activities 924 000 Prosecution A: ,997 .000 Courts 331.000 Penal institutions : , 481.000 Probation, pardon, and parole. 54. 00 B. State * Police ,661 .000 Penal institutions (adults)... . 36, 456 000 Correctional institutions (minors) 556 . 00K Parole agencies 709 On C. Municipai , 120.000 Prosecution 8, 484.000 Public defense 127.000 , 144,000 .523 000 , 416,000 , 000 , 000 D. Private Protective agencies.......... , 900 , 000 Protective devices........... 3 , 000 , 000 Correctional treatment 850, 000 |II. Losses due to crime Crimes against persons 7,000 Crimes against property , 000 Indirect property iosses ,000 | Cost of insurance , 000 Indirect losses of productive labor ,000 | | $2,148,733 1The National Commission on Law Observanc: and Enforcement does not nt a total cost of crim« in its Report on the Cost of Crime. However, this table based upon data and estimates taken from the report *Not including higher courts and prosecution agencies supported wholly by states. 3As explained in the text the police and other loca costs included about 70 percent ot the urban populatio: and did not include the rural population. An estimat: for 100 mt of the population gives the additiona! sum of $293,000,000 as explained in detail in the text ‘These two figures are estimates in terms o/ dollars 0! individual and community waste due to the loss productive labor. All other figures represent eithe: public or private expenditures to prevent, to correct or to replace the waste due to crime. 1 For the conclusions of the National Commission as to the significance of the facts on the cost of crime se: Report on the Cost of Crime, p. 438-53. [ 152] re must pay later three to four times that for criminal justice went for police activities; unt for penal or correctional treatment. (2) that the amounts spent for penal insti- [he National Commission on Law Observ- tutions were large as compared with expendi- e came to three conclusions: (1) that the tures for probation; and (3) that the amounts eponderant share of the total funds expended expended for prosecution were relatively small mi alll I TABLE 17..-PER CAPITA EXPENDITURES FOR DELINQUENTS IN INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS, PRISONERS IN PENAL INSTITUTIONS, AND STUDENTS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS Juvenile delinquents in Adult prisoners in state Students in public elementary industrial schools! pena! institutions? and secondary schools’ Per capita ex- Average Average per Average Per pupil cost Average penditure for daily capita cogt for daily for current enrolment current expenses | population operating ex- attendance | expenses 1926-1927 1926-1927 1928 penses 1928 1927-1928 1927-1928 1 3 4 5 6 United States 38,11. 100,410 $319.75 20 , 608 Alabama.... 1,022 262 465 \rizona.... ‘ Ji. 535 272.48 68,! \rkansas em 7 545 184 206 348 California. . ‘a 7° 547 188 847 Cole ..«.ai6:s-<. 4 , 229 373 187 Connecticut....... . 030 ‘ 262, Delaware ee d 35, District of Columbia 577 63, Florida....... 667 274 275 Georgia 400 f 8 535, ee eee 403 95.7 Illinois. . ; . q 684 ‘ 175, Indiana... : . 868 604, lowa ‘ < 2,220 7 7 461, Kansas..... ; 820 357, Kentucky....... : 2, 571 7 427.7 Louisiana : , 855 § 324 See 2 : 374 : 134, Maryland..... x , 180 225, Massachusetts. . . ; 961 655, Michigan J 642 § 770.. Minnesota..... 35: ,150 oa 453, Mississippi... . . : : 312 427,73 37 Missouri ‘ § 3,79! : 583 Montana....... ‘ 113 Nebraska hs ; NOVO. 52 ciancs. ; ; ‘ ; , 87! 133 New Hampshire 7 New Jersey . 3 L New Mexico........ 59, B2 New York...... ‘ ; : ; 137 North Carolina... . : R 7. 8 : 46 North Dakota... .. § - f 102 3, 8, : 103 Oklahoma....... 55 3,410 ‘ J 60 Oregon 23 - 100 Pennsylvania...... , 875 , 835 ,599,; 89 Rhode Island........ S$ Be 97 South Carolina 190 7 . 275 ; 40 South Dakota....... “ea ‘an ' : 35,7! 101 a ‘ : j 76, 39 halted : 32 f ‘ ‘ 52 1 Ae tN os A gaeia se O17 76 Vermont pas. saene +» ‘0 56, 81 Virginia Keeeka 2 . 7. 37, 44 Washington...........| 868 | 35 ; 7 e 102 West Virginia....... 547 : 103 .: 332, 67 Pa Kies 599 , 382 5,625 84 Wyoming ite 81 : 357.5: | 38, 144 1 Figures from Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1928, No. 10, Imdustr ial Schools for Delinquents, 1926-1927, Table 8, columns 7 and 9, page 11 ? Figures from National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, Report on The Cost of Crime, June 24, 1931, Table 3, column 2, page 220 and 221, also Table 4, column 5, page 222 and 223. * Figures from Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1930, No. 16, Biennial Survey of Education, 1926-1928, Table 7, column 8, page 460, also Table 28, column 8, page 487. [153 ] a he Rn ieee cea een —- Se ee ot rte o . as compared with other law enforcement ac- tivities. ‘These conclusions suggested possible redistributions or increases of expenditures, rather than a reduction of the public outlay. Recently State Superintendent Lee of Mis- souri raised the question whether the cost of caring for criminals was decreasing the funds available for public education.’ Is the cycle “more laws, more prisons, more laws, etc.” reaching the point in some of the states where it is becoming a menace to the sources of money for public education ? The demand for more and larger penal in- stitutions could be met in part by the increased use of probation and parole. The National Com- mission on Law Observance and Enforcement reported that supervision costs on the average $40 per year for probationers and $20 per year for paroled prisoners. Assuming that these costs were doubled it would still be cheaper for the states as compared with maintenance in prison at $300 per year. Of What Significance to Educators Are the Costs of Crime? Data presented in this section have shown the enormous magnitude of public expenditures for crime. The amounts for specific crime preven- tion or control activities and for losses due to lawlessness bring the total annual crime bill to well over two billion dollars. Discounting this amount by one-fourth because of contro- versial items, would leave an amount only one billion less than the total cost of all types of public education in the United States. Educa tors may well consider such specific problems as the following: 1. Persons who urge reckless retrenchmen: in public expenditures for education should informed as to the expenditures and losses dy, to crime. Such discussion of facts does pn necessarily mean that the billions paid in crip prevention should be drastically reduced. by: the question may be raised: Can a nation tha: spends one and a half billion dollars anny. for crime afford to pay less than two and o> half billion dollars for education? 2. Citizens should be acquainted with fact that it costs the state $300 annuall) maintain an adult in a state penitentiar against $100 a year to give a child an educat at public expense. A delinquent child in institution costs the state four times as much annually as a pupil in the public school. 3. Are the mounting costs of penal insti: tions menacing the school revenues for publi education? Here is a problem for study by edu cational associations and parent-teache: ganizations. 4. Teachers can help to form an intelligent public opinion on such matters as probation, parole, juvenile courts, visiting teachers, and other devices for keeping delinquents out of prison. Not only does the early adjustment of a problem case increase the probability of sa! vaging the individual, but it may save the state hundreds of dollars annually in correctional and penal treatment. 1 Lee, Charles A. “Maintenance of Penitentiaries as a Burden on Education.” United States Daily, Washington, D. C January 29, 1932, p. 10 HE PEOPLE do not yet seem to see that the intelligence and the morality which education can impart is that beneficent kind of insurance, which, by preventing | losses, obviates the necessity of indemnifying for them; thus saving both premium and risk. What is ingulfed in the vortex of crime in each generation would build a palace of more than Oriental splendor in every school-district in the land, would endow it with a library beyond the ability of a life-time to read, would supply it with apparatus and laboratories for the illustration of every study and the exemplification of every art, and munificently requite the services of a teacher worthy to preside in such a sanctuary of intelligence and virtue—Horace Mann. Life and Works of Horace Mann, Vol. IV . Boston: Lee and Shepard, Publishers, 1891. p. 189. [ 154] Se Ed uca Problem enchmen; should OSS@s d does n, in crin iced, tion th annu: Ind on vith lal], to State ional z&¢ [f those responsible for education are to ma- rerially reduce the extent of crime, they must t the efforts of the schools against the pre- nosing factors of law-breaking. ‘This section vill review such objective evidence and expert nion as exist on the general conditions asso- ciated with crime. Investigations as to the fac- tors involved in juvenile delinquency will be discussed in Part IV. Many of the early sought the single Some have said that criminals are iy’ and that society needed only to eliminate he defective families. Other investig aul attention upon poverty, feeble-minded- ness, disease, and other so-called unit causes. In comparatively recent years penologists, police, social workers, and others have inclined toward the viewpoint that from many factors. Some of these contributing iditions are within the control of the indi- dual delinquent, and other factors are respon- investigators of crime cause of antisocial behavior. “born that ators h: ive criminal tendencies result sibilities of organized society. The data presented in this section have been collected from widely diverse sources. The evi- dence varies somewhat with the care of in- vestigations, the representativeness of the facts, and the judiciousness of the conclusions. This Research Bulletin does not attempt to present a biased case either for or against any so-called “cause” or crime. In many instances, the reader is left to decide whether the evidence justifies any conclusion other than the need for more extensive study. Illiteracy’ Statistics show that there are more illiterates in prison than in the general population, but this may indicate only that the literate are more successful in avoiding imprisonment. Murchison found that there was a larger proportion of low-grade illiterates among a PART III Factors Associated with Crime group of 4,000 criminals than among 50,000 United States This fact, also, may be partly explained by the fact members of the Army. that the illiterate are less successful in avoiding prison. A study of about 18,000 prisoners who were committed to prison in 1923 showed that about 11 percent were illiterate. The census estimate of illiteracy for the general population in 1923 was 7 percent.® that the available data “tend to cast doubt upon the popular assump- Brearley points ou tion that illiteracy and homicide are causally The apparent association of the two from. similar causes rather than from any direct influence of connected. factors may arise background illiteracy upon the rate of homicide.’’ * Wealth The rapid increase of material wealth in the United States has been cited as a fraud, robbery, murder, and lesser crimes. writer has stated that in wealth is in itself one of the underlying causes of the murder tendency. “cause” of One “our enormous increase Temptation to murder, as well as to less violent crimes, in- creases on every hand.” Brearley contends that if this viewpoint is sound, then we should expect to find the highest homicide rates in the centers of wealth and in- Apparently, however, the relationship the homicide rate capita wealth of the various states is negligible.* No dustry. between and per data are available to prove with finality that the existence of great wealth increases the number of crimes against property. Poverty Clarence Darrow has said that ‘most people are sent to jail because they are poor.”’ He contends that a man who lacks food, clothing, 1 See The Elements of Crime by Boris Brasol, Oxford University Press, 1927, p. 162-64; and Curing the Criminal by Jesse O. Stutsman, Macmillan Co., 1926. p. 168. 2 Murchison, Carl. Criminal Intelligence. Worcester, Mass. : Clark University, 1926. p. 97-111. 8U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. The Prisoner's Antecedents, p. 19. 4 Brearley, H. C. Homicide in the United States. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1932. p. 148. ® Bagley cites material prosperity as a handicap to character education in Education, Crime, and Social Progress. New York: Macmillan Co., 1931. p. 30-31. ® Cited by Brearley, H. C., Op. cit., p. 29-30. ™ Darrow, Clarence. “Crime and Criminals,” Elmer Barnes. Boston: D. C. Heath and ©o., 1927. p. 918-2 [155 ] printed in Readings in Sociology, edited by Jerome Davis and Henry eRe ere ee things he needs or the money to satisfy his wants. Lacking skilled attorneys the poverty- stricken are more likely to be convicted and given the maximum penalty than are those who can afford able legal advice. The determination of the relationship be- tween poverty and crime is exceedingly difficult. In the first place, it is not easy to draw the line between the poverty-stricken and those who are not poverty-stricken. Second, poverty is so closely associated with lack of education, mental and physical defects, alcoholism, unemploy- ment, and other factors that the causative ele- ments have not been clearly determined. The National Commission on Law Observ- ance and Enforcement reports that the evidence on the réle of economic conditions in the produc- tion of crime is at present superficial and con- tradictory.' World War Effects It has been contended that teaching men to be aggressive and violent during the Great War has seriously changed attitudes and behavior during times of peace. Brearley writes that the statistics indicate very little increase in homi- cide since the World War, although the War may explain in part the increase of crimes against property.” Frontier Spirit Adams, Dodd, and other historians have em- phasized “‘the tradition of lawlessness” which is associated with the development of a young country.® Brearley writes that the appeal to his- tory has probably been overemphasized, and cer- tainly the theory is not supported by the homi- cide rates in such young countries as Australia, Canada, and South Africa.* Prohibition The belief is held by some that prohibition has had a diminishing influence upon minor shelter for himself and dependents will take the crimes, but has apparently not diminished . major crimes as homicide.® In the year ending June 30, 1930, the p ber of prisoners® sent for short periods to and county jails for violating federal law. as follows: Men W Motor vehicle theft act........... 455 RE NS Sle og bn ge ayia ia wae 0 705 EE MING cola aie ue ew 6s Waa ens 20,118 ee ee a io ko deren in ei: 6,952 28,230 The figures above indicate that there \ over 21,000 persons who were “criminals cause they violated the federal prohibition | Whether, in the absence of federal laws, thes: same persons would have violated loca! state liquor laws is a question which ma debated without hope of solution. Brearley found the evidence on the effect; prohibition so controversial that he could : conclude whether or not prohibition had creased the amount of homicide.’ Alcohol and Drugs According to Warden Lawes of Sing Sing ‘ fewer than 10 percent of the felons are “‘stric! alcoholic,” and fewer than 7 percent have any time been addicted to drugs. On the ba: of particular types of crime, alcoholics exceeded the average expectancy in 1927 of persons prisoned for burglary, assault, and homici: Drug addicts exceeded the average expectan for persons arrested for burglary.* From Table 2 of this bulletin it may be noted that the number of prisoners in federal and stat: prisons for violating drug laws increased from less than .1 per 100,000 general population 1910 to 3.1 per 100,000 in 1927. Prisoners w! violated the liquor laws increased from .6 pe: 100,000 in 1910 to 6.5 per 100,000 in 1927 These apparent increases are due to the passaye of federal drug and prohibition laws since 19 || The conclusion is not warranted that there wer 1 National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Report on the Causes of Crime, Vol. I, No. 13, June 1931. Washington, D. C 2 Brearley, H. C. Homicide in the United States, p. 32 Government Printing Office, 1931. p. 117. See “Our Lawless Heritage” Fy T. Adams, Atlantic Monthly 142: 732-40; December, 1928, and “Our i Ingrowing Habit of Lawlessness” by * Brearley. H. C. Op. cit. p. 50. iam E. Dodd, Century 66: 691-98; October, 1928. 5 Bagley, W. C. Determinism in Education. Baltimore: Warwick and York, 1925. p. 94-95. * These figures do not include prisoners sentenced to federal and state institutions for more than a year. * Brearley, H. ©. Homicide in the United States, p. 47. * Lawes, Lewis E. Life and Death in Sing Sing. dar den City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1928. p. 41-32. [ 156 ] tively more drug addicts or alcoholics in )27 than in 1910. Brearley reports that alcohol is closely asso- | with homicide and other acts of violence because of its psychological effects.’ Immigration It has often been asserted that crime condi- tions in the United States are due almost en- tirely to immigration. This “‘belief” is so wide- spread that the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement devoted one of its volumes to this single topic.* Following an investigation of convictions for offenses in a number of the large cities of the country, the National Commission concluded: [he foreign born in general are found to com- mit less crime, in proportion to their numbers, of like age and sex, than the native born, and that the foreign born approach the crime standard set by the native born most nearly in crimes of personal violence and drop farthest below ‘it in crimes for gain After a study of limited data on the violations of the liquor prohibition laws, the National Commission tentatively concluded : These figures represent too limited an experience in time and in number of cases to serve as a basis for definite conciusions. They may, however, be accepted as indication that further study would probably find the native-white and the foreign-born groups accused and convicted of violations of the federal prohibition laws in proportions very closely approximating their relative shares of the male population twenty-one years and over.‘ After a study of prisoners committed to five correctional institutions for petty offenses, the national report concludes: The combined experience of these institutions brings added support to the conclusion previously advanced. Their commitments for the 5-year period studied would total several hundred thousand, a fairly formidable array of evidence. It indicates that the foreign born fifteen years and over are committed to institutions for the care and treatment of delinquents somewhat less frequently in propor- tion to their numbers than are the native born.’ From data obtained about prisoners in state prisons, the national report concludes : 1 Brearley, H. C. Homicide in the United States. p. 60. ? National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Report on Crime and the Foreign Born. No. 1 These data on commitments to federal and state prisons offer strong support to the conclusion ten- tatively advanced in previous sections. They leave little room for doubt of the fact that foreign-born persons commit fewer major offenses, in proportion to their numbers, of the same sex and age, than do the native born. They indicate that the offenses committed by the foreign born are frequently crimes of violence, of the type ordinarily arising from per- sonal grievance, rather than those committed in cold blood by men desiring to gain more money in shorter time than can be achieved through honest effort. They contain further evidence to the effect that of the foreign-born group those coming from certain countries commit crimes with greater fre- quency, in proportion to their numbers, than do those from other places.° The American-born children of the foreigner are often charged with contributing an unusu- ally large proportion of the juvenile delin- quency. Little objective evidence exists, but police officers, judges, and other authorities agree that the immigrant’s child is the “big crime problem at the present time.” Police and other competent persons believe that the crimi- nal tendencies are not due to the foreign stock, but are : traceable to the effect of the conditions un- der which he and his parents must live, and the influences to which he is subjected in the neighbor- hood where he spends his most impressionable days.’ The study by insisting that “charging our crime rates against the foreign born is merely evading the real difficulties of life instead of trying to solve them.”® Instead, society needs National Commission concludes its high to examine the various economic and social problems, and to help individuals to make the necessary adj ustments. Unemployment A study, made before the present economic depression, of 1,916 prisoners in a Pennsyl- vania prison, reported that unemployment was associated with poverty, bad associates, idle- ness, gambling, and other factors. The investi- gators were unable to determine which part of the “constellation of causes” actually leads to the criminal act.® June 24, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Goverment Printing Office, 1931. 416 p. 3 Tbid., p. 134. ‘ Tbid., p. 138. ® Root, [ 157 ] - RR a A ee ee — In a study of about 16,000 commitments to prison in the first half of 1923, it was reported that 69 percent were employed at the time of the crime. Of the 31 percent unemployed, 14 per- cent had been unemployed a month or less, and 24 percent for less than six months.’ The National Commission on Law Observ- ance and Enforcement reported statistics on the relationships between employment and crime fluctuations in Massachusetts. The conclusion to the Massachusetts data was as follows: Unemployment is revealed as an important causa- tive factor in vagrancy and in crimes against prop- erty. Its influence upon other offenses, however, is comparatively slight and but occasionally seen. Other causes than the ebb and flow of the business tide must therefore be sought for the explanation of these crimes. But the relative importance of of- fenses against property in the total of criminality is such as to establish industrial stabilization as a significant element in any program of crime pre- vention. The conclusion seems inescapable that the assurance of economic security might be expected to bring with it an appreciable reduction in the volume of crime.’ Among its final conclusions, the National Commission wrote: These inquiries began with the question: If a nation or a community wishes to approach more and more closely toward law observance and enforce- ment, what conditions will it seek to establish for the occupational life of the individual and the economic life of the community? The first answer suggested by the data at hand is: Security of employment. This means removing the fluctuations which cause recurrent unemploy- ment, and meanwhile, since that task is a momen- tous one, establishing provisions to prevent the burden of present conditions from falling with crushing weight upon those members of society whose other defenses are already weakened.* Types of Occupations According to Warden Lawes of Sing Sing Prison, that institution has had inmates from every station and walk of life.* Although there have been prisoners from the “better” classes, almost 99 percent of all prisoners have “come from Poor homes and the common occupa- tions.””® a See The Prisoner’ s Antecedents, p. 35-37. The data presented by Lawes indicate occupational factors influence the type of c: For example, occupational demands upon chants, salesmen, bankers, and brokers rently explain why there is relatively) larceny among these groups than amon farmers. Other groups show that the fact: persons associated with the occupation dete; mine the type of crime most likely to be mitted. Newspapers Whether or not newspapers exert a cons! tive or destructive effect in connection crime is a question not seriously embarrasse( objective evidence. Studies cited by Brearley show that . news is printed in greater detail and amounts than before 1900. It is believed some that these reports suggest crimes to ot although enforcement officers do not unanimously. Brearley writes that evidence js so “scanty and inconclusive” that no one say whether the destructive effect of the n papers is great or small.® Holmes examined twelve New York Cit newspapers and concluded (1) that the pape: give a large proportion of the daily space ¢ crime news, and (2) that the amount of sp has tended to increase during the past decades.” He sent questionnaires to police cers, judges, district attorneys, and _ sin types, asking them to state their opinion a t ‘ offi ll the effect of the press. According to the sun mary of the replies, the public officials believe that the newspapers encourage crime. Hol wrote: mes An analysis of the replies quoted in the previ chapter shows that in the opinion of those oth als the newspapers are guilty of inciting to crime; o! aiding criminals in the commission of crime by nishing them more or less exact information how to commit crimes; of showing criminals | profitable crime is; of aiding them in their es from apprehension; of thwarting justice by “: paper trials” and otherwise making a travest tir as ft Ww cape ews V the administration of the law, of the actual court proceedings themselves; * National Commission on Law Observance and Enfé are) ~ port on the Causes of Crime, Vol. I, No. 13, Jur . 32 1931. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 3 [bid., p. 330. « Lawes, Lewis E. Life and Death in Sing Sing. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1928. p. 43-44 5 It has been argued (1) that the better classes can afford the legal assistance necessary to win nolle prosse, pr or parole, and (2) that the prison population does not represent all types of offenders. See Part II of this bulletin * Brearley, H. C. Homicide in the United States, p. 40. * Holmes, Joseph L. “Crime and the Press.” Quoted in Battling the Crime Wave, by Harry Elmer Barnes, p. 222- . [ 158 ] of preventing the se Journal of Crantont Law and Criminology, May and August, | 9. ing of impartial juries; of making of the offender opular hero, one to be emulated; and by omis- sion at least of thwarting whatever deterrent effect re re may be in present penal methods. lhe epidemic of similar cases which followed the newspaper exploitation of Hickman is too recent to require further illustration. That its influence was a cause of similar crimes in various parts of the country is indicated by the news items just quoted. The danger of such publicity was taken cognizance of by school authorities in parts of the country. For example, the superintendent of schools in New York City issued instructions to the teachers which were intended to guard against repetitions of Hickman’s crime.’ a} various Brasol does not believe it is possible to trace a specific crime back to a particular news item, but the constant repetition of crime news does demoralize social psychology.” He wrote: From the standpoint of criminology, however, the principal danger of perverted publicity is its ultimate demoralizing effect upon social psychology. Examined from this angle, indiscriminate journal- ism unquestionably occupies a prominent place among the factors which either cause or encourage the growth of the criminal propensity leading to the crystallization of the “milieu criminel.” Recidivism A recidivist is a person who has been in prison more than once. These persons may be sent back to prisons either because (1) they violate the parole conditions under which they were re- leased; (2) they fall into the environmental difficulties similar to those which led to previous convictions; or (3) the first prison sentence gave them new contacts or confirmed old habits in crime. Crowded conditions and alleged bru- tality in prisons have recently focused attention upon (3) as a problem calling for public at- tention. Point (2) is illustrated by studies of delin- quency areas in Chicago. In a group of more than 8,000 delinquents, studied over a period of seven years, 34 percent of those from high-rate areas became recidivists, while 24 percent from the areas with low delinquency rates became repeaters.® A study of about 100,000 prisoners com- mitted to state prisons, federal prisons, jails, and workhouses during the first half of 1923 showed that approximately 50 percent had been com- mitted previously. Thirty-one percent of those in the state and federal prisons had had one previous commitment.‘ A report of prisoners received during 1927 in state and federal penal institutions showed that 42 percent out of 44,000 were recidivists. Among the male prisoners the percent of recidi- vists is highest for violations of the drug laws and for burglary. The percent of recidivism is lowest for those convicted of non-support, homi- cide, and sex oftenses.° The proportion of male recidivists to women repeaters was 26 to 1. The problem of recidivism brings up the ques- tion of why society has prisons. At one time the theory was that the criminal should be segre- gated from his fellows so that he could meditate upon his evil ways and become penitent (hence the name, penitentiary). Another theory has been that of punishing the criminal for his deed. The name reformatory arises from the plan of “reformation.” Crowded conditions and other factors have operated in such a way that the populations of “prisons, penitentiaries, and re- formatories” do not greatly differ. The newer theory is that the prison should “re-educate” the prisoner in his knowledge, attitude, and skills. Since previous theories of punishment and reform have failed with so many, it should be interesting to see what education can do. Schools and Education® A study of the antecedents of about 18,000 prisoners committed to prisons during the first six months of 1923 showed a smaller propor- tion had gone beyond the elementary school than in the general population.’ Table 18 shows the relative proportions reported in the 1923 study. In commenting upon the data of Table 18, the federal study of 1923 concludes: These figures afford no support to the sensational statements frequently made in recent years, to the effect that education, and especially college educa- tion, tends to promote crime. Insofar as education, or the lack of it, is a factor in the situation, the census statistics indicate that an increase in the 1 Holmes, cited in Barnes, Harry Elmer. Battling the Crime Wave. Boston: Stratford Co., 1931. p. 228-29 2 Brasol, Boris. The Elements of Crime. New York: Oxford University Press, 1927, “The Press,” p. 165-85 * National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Report on the Causes of Crime, Vol. II. No. 1931. Washington, D. C.: G “See Table 27, p. 41, The Prisoner's Antecedents. 5 Brearley concludes that the typical slayer is usually a first offender. 13, June 26, sovernment Printing Office, 1931. p. 49. See Homicide in the United States, p. 86. * Sutherland, Edwin H. Criminology. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1924. “Education,” p. 171-74. 7 U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. The Prisoner's Antecedents. p. 19. [159] educational facilities, and in their use, should tend to reduce the amount of crime. In judging the significance of the figures it must be emphasized that these figures refer only to con- victed prisoners and not to all lawbreakers. It is quite probable that offenders having education (partly by reason of their education) are more successful than the uneducated lawbreakers in avoiding arrest and conviction for their crimes.’ TABLE 18—RATIO OF EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF PRISONERS IN 1923 TO GENERAL POPULATION OVER 21 YEARS OF AGE Percent in | general | population } oan 61.1 25.1 | 6.7 Percent in commitments Last school attended to prisons Elementary school. High school. College School not re eported | | Based on Table 11 in The Prisoner's Antecedents, p. 19 | The same study of federal prisoners shows interesting comparison between the type of of- fenses and the last school attended.* Table 19 summarizes a portion of these data. In commenting upon the data shown in part in Table 19, the federal study for 1923 con- cluded: This comparison, like the figures shown pre- viously, indicates that the best educational stand- ing was among the prisoners convicted of em- 1 See The Fs risoner's Antecedents, p. 19. 2 [bid., ® See The aa Antecedents, p. 22 * Glueck, Sheldon, 5 Tbid., p. 133. and Glueck, Eleanor T. 500 Criminal Careers. New York: bezzlement, forgery, and fraud. The other offe: against property ranked next in their stand while comparatively low standing is shown those convicted of assault, homicide, and vio! liquor laws.* Glueck and Glueck in their study criminal careers report that 90 percent had gone beyond the eighth grade.* Table 20 s| the educational achievement of the 454 fenders for which reliable data existed. ot TABLE 20.—EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVE. MENT OF 454 PRISONERS Reformato group Grade reached | Never attended school 5th grade or less SY” eee 9th grade SES High school (1 or more years) .. Completed high school 100 Based upon Table 10, p. 132, 500 Criminal Career by Glueck and Glueck.— In commenting upon the data of Tabl Glueck and Glueck wrote as follows:° In contrast to the educational achievement of reformatory group is that of Boston school children in the year 1924-5. During that year 1.4 per of boys in the public schools of Boston permanent withdrew from school at the fifth grade or low: 5.3 percent withdrew between the sixth and eighth grades. Of our reformatory group, but 4. Alfred A. Knopf, 1930. p. 132 TABLE 19.—PERCENT DISTRIBUTION BY EDUCATIONAL STATUS, BY SEX, AND OFFENSE OF PERSONS COMMITTED TO PRISON IN 1923 Sex and offense Illiterate Percent of total Last school attended | School College |__ not | verified 7th or . High 8th grade school Both sexes Male Homicide Assault Larceny ‘ ‘ Violating Squer laws Female Larceny. j Violating ‘drug and liquor laws. Nee SOUwRK Ores — — Aww eoooo —UDaUMaAAUNS — Ce cenence 28.1 27.9 19.9 18.1 30.5 17.8 31.9 31.2 30.3 —— Dw w — COND -_ a or aUnnnwe -cooe-corre N N wOUNK ee ww ROAD wWO me Ww de tt Ww Ww — S J Based on Table 12, p. 21, in The Prisoner's Antecedents. [ 160] er and wn Ol ND nt continued in school throughout the ninth ie. while 92 percent of the children in the eighth le in the year 1922 in Boston public schools en- | the ninth grade. In the year 1910, however, h is much nearer the time when our reform- group attended school, 53 percent of Boston e school children entered the ninth grade. It is, therefore, clear that the schooling of the rmatory group is far less than that of the gen- population as represented by Boston public- school children. As the causes for withdrawals from school could not be ascertained in the reformatory group, we were unable to compare the nature of these causes with those among the general popula- tion Further data on retardation in school and withdrawals! of the group investigated led Glueck and Glueck to conclude: 1. One may deduce with sufficient reliability that a considerable number of our group were educa- tionally retarded one or more years. 2. These figures indicate a greater degree of retardation in our group than among the com- parable general population. 3. In the matter of age of withdrawal, as well as in educational achievement and in school retarda- tion, our reformatory group does not compare favor- ably with the general population. ~ Truancy from the school is now recognized by investigators as one of the first overt acts of the juvenile delinquent. Frequently a “prob- lem’’ child is retarded, his status produces dis- satisfaction, then impudence, punishment, and finally rebellion in the form of truancy. During truancy various contacts, habits, and attitudes lare formed which lead him to violate the law. Delinquency, then, is only an extreme form of ‘the problems faced daily by every teacher in the classroom.’ Brearley compares the Ayres index ratings for 1918 with the homicide rates. The southern states have the worst records in both homicide and educational efficiency. However, homicide exists in relatively greater amounts in the West than in the East, although the Ayres index rates the western state school systems as superior to those in the East. Brearley concludes that the Ayres rating is of “little aid in determining 1 Glueck and Glueck, Op. cit., p. 133-34. whether or not the public school system is doing its full duty in crime prevention.” Motion Pictures According to one well-known authority among the producers of movies, 100,000,000 is the total weekly attendance at moving picture theaters.‘ Of this number at least 8 percent are children’s admissions. A conference on the community and the mo tion picture was held in New York City in 1929 under the auspices of the producers’ and distributors’ national association.’ Various edu- cators, recreation workers, and religious leaders participated, as well as representatives of the commercial agencies. According to the report of the conference, moving pictures were charged with suggesting crimes to children and to adults. Representatives of the producers denied the charge and went on to point out that the newsreel, unlike the newspaper, never refers to current crimes. Little objective evidence was submitted by either side. Brearley finds that the exact influence of the movie upon anti-social opinion cannot be de termined by the existing scanty and inconclu sive evidence.® Barnes thinks that the movies depicting prison conditions are creating a public opinion which will demand reform. He writes that “full and relentless publicity turned on our present prison methods is the only cure for barbarism in treating criminals.” * Chronological Age It is doubtful, of course, that the age of the criminal actually stimulates the individual to violate the law. But tabulations of offenses by ages show that certain crimes have appeal at a given age or else that the violation is adapted to persons of a given age and amount of physi- cal energy. Gehlke and Moley, after a study of criminal cases in New York State in 1925, concluded as follows: The median age for robberies, perhaps the most serious of the so-called professional crimes, is not over twenty-three, while burglary is fractionally ® New York State Crime Commission. Report, 1930. Albany, N. Y.: J. B. Lyon Co., 1930. Chapter 9, ‘“‘The School Role in Crime a, P 375-433. * Brearley, H. C. Homicide in the United States, p. 45. “Hays, Will H. “A Word of Greeting.”’ Report of the National Conference on Motion Pictures. New York City. National Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America, 1929. p. 16, ‘ 5 Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America. The Community and the Motion Picture. Report of Conference on Motion Pictures, September, 24-7, 1929. New York: the Corporaticn. * Brearley, H. C. Homicide in the United States, p. 40. * Barnes, Harry Elmer. Battling the Crime Wave. Boston: Stratford Co., [ 161 ] 1931. p. 234-37, . —— a ae | lower. The median for forgery and frauds is about thirty, while grand larceny falls somewhere be- tween twenty-five and thirty.’ The U.S. Bureau of the Census made a de- tailed study of the antecedents of about 20,000 persons committed to 102 state and federal in- stitutions in the first six months of 1923. Thirty percent of the group had been separated from their parents before the age of sixteen years. Of the men separated from their parents be- fore the age of sixteen years, the highest pro- portion were convicted for the following of- fenses: burglary, 35.1 percent; robbery, 33 percent; having stolen property, 31.9 percent; and larceny, 31.2 percent. Of the women sepa- rated from home before sixteen years of age, the largest proportion were arrested for the following offenses: violation of drug and liquor laws, 37.9 percent; sex offenses, 35.2 percent; and larceny, 32.9 percent.* In a report of slightly over 30,000 violators of federal laws who were committed to city and county jails, we find the following median ages for each type of offense: Median ages of Law violated Men Women 0 Re ee ree 34.9 30.0 Motor vehicle theft act............. 22.1 ae CO ee ree 35.2 39.3 NE ES ea ae cc aa wis gs onc aina a on 29.3 ON ARE Pees ere 30.9 22.8 ES ee Oe 24.6 25.2 Interstate commerce act............ 28.2 aie Se I, kits wacedés +icadounen 31.1 32.3 Serre reer err eT 32.1 32.1 The above tabulation shows that median ages are highest for those prisoners who had violated the drug and liquor laws. The male offenders against the motor vehicle theft act are the youngest group, with a median age of 22.1 years. Among the women, the groups with the youngest median age are those who violated the postal laws.* Intelligence Criminal law is based partly upon the theory that all citizens have intelligence enough to know the difference between right and wrong. In comparatively recent years the advan intelligence testing have revealed that the: in reality wide differences in the mental n up of people. Many investigators believe persons below a certain level of intelli, should be segregated and given special m: educational, and social care rather than pu: ment. Further treatment of the topic of de! tive intelligence is given below under the ! ing “Mental Defects.” Recent studies indicate that good or sup: intelligence, as well as mental defectivenes a factor in crime. A study* of the intellig of white offenders in a Pennsylvania prison showed the following median intelligence quo- tients: - Type of offense inteline nee es oe ies knee es 103.7 ee eh. cee Rabanb ke eensie 88.2 BE ee ee er ee 86.4 i. individ wnecihinedbgiaton cm asain. 84.8 EE ee eee oe ee $3.3 ES ee pe $2.7 RE Ne Se ee 73.3 PR ark nde cea bide Weierds eae eone 77.4 Murchison gave the Army Alpha Test to about 4,000 male prisoners and found certain definite variations in intelligence for different types of offenders. Offenders for fraud, black- mail, counterfeiting, robbery, and stealing in- clude a large proportion of those of above-ave: age intelligence. Offenses against drug laws, the carrying of concealed weapons, murder, and arson seem to be committed by persons of «i! levels of intelligence. Crimes such as vagrancy abduction, and sex assaults include a larger proportion of those with inferior intelligence ratings.° Care must be taken not to confuse “causa!” and “contributing” factors. The level of inte!- ligence has been shown to be only a factor closely associated with other influences, but not the cause of a specific type of crime. Mental and Emotional Defects Up to a few years ago some investigators felt that they had found in mental defects the “major cause’ of crime. Studies of prisoners 1 Gehlke, re. CE. E., and Moley, PTT A Statistical Analysis of the Criminal Cases in the Courts of the State of New York for the Year 1925. Albany, N. Y. 2 See | Prisoner's Antecedents. p. 30- 1. yon Co., 1927. p. 8U. Department of Justice, Bureau of Prisons. Federal Prisoners in Jails, 1929-30. Washington, D. C.: Government Peas Sane ae te 31-32. Root, William tentiary of Pennsylvania ® Murchison, Carl. Criminal Intelligence. Worcester, Mass.: I 162) € ., and others. A Psychological and Educational Survey of 1,916 Prisoners in the Western Pen Clark University, 1926. p. 58-62. ‘dicated a proportion of feeble-mindedness ranging between | and 60 percent, and it was ieved that these proportions were higher n in the general population. ce does not exist, however, as to the extent ‘ mental defects among the general popula- Hence, recent investigators tend to agree Objective evi- ) Sutherland, as follows: We find feeble-minded persons well behaved in situations, delinquent in others; even in one jiective situation some feeble-minded persons do become delinquent. The significance of feeble- indedness apparently can be determined only when tudied in relation to a great many other personal and situational factors. Recently investigators have turned toward tudies of the emotional aspects of mental dis These reports tell of the “anti-social tendencies,” “psychopathic personality,” and similar defects found in persons of normal in- telligence. There have been reports of the fact that mental disease or deterioration is found ymong as many as 12 percent of prison popu- lations. So far little has been done to prove direct causal relationships between crimes and pathological conditions. Glueck whether a pathological condition “predestines”’ one to crime since so many pathological persons questions outside of the prison do not become criminals because they have the “benefits of suitable en- vironment and the protection which goes with these benefits ** Brearley advances the theory that persons with a low sociological age are most likely to commit homicide when provocation arises. He defines sociological maturity as the ability. to adjust one’s egocentric wishes to the require- ments of the social milieu.* The study of the psychological and psychi- atric phases of crime has only begun. Technics for examinations are still imperfect. Types and kinds of mental disorders have not been clearly distinguished. Some enthusiastic investigators concentrate to such an extent upon the crimi- nal’s defective or pathological condition that they tend to exclude many environmental fac- tors.* 1 Sutherland, I E. H. Mental Deficiency and Crime, p. 373. 2 Gluéck, Sheldon. First Annual Report of the Psychiatric Clinic, 3 Brearley, H. C. Homicide in the United States, p. 93-96. * National agree on Law Observance and Enforcement. New York: Macmillan Co., P ° Bagley, W. C. Education, Crime, and Social Progress. ® Brearley, H. C. Homicide in the United States. p. 68-7 * Ibid., p. 51-56, 73-74. 8 Ibid., p. 131- 39. ® See the Report on Lawlessness in Law E sfereoment, ment, June 25, 1931, 347 p., and Our Lawless Police, by E. No J. Miscellaneous Factors There are numerous other so-called ‘‘causes”’ of crime which should be brought to the atten- tion of the socially-minded educator of today. It will be necessary, however, merely to touch upon these briefly at this point: (1) Mobility of population—Bagley suggests that the mobility social controls that go with a settled abode.® of families tends to weaken the (2) Diversity of social standards—In the United states we not only have racial groups with their different customs, but the law varies greatly from state to state. These differences make it difficult to create “a respect for law,” in the minds of youth.’ Availability of firearms—Nowhere in the world are pistols so common as in the United States. We shall probably continue our high homicide rate until legislation and public opinion effectively con- trol the sale and carrying of firearms.° (3) the United which (4) Cultural patterns—Sections of States have their “codes of conduct” stronger than the law. Gangs have their peculiar codes. Undoubtedly, these customs supported by group pressure lead to so-called “honor” slayings are and assaults.” (5) Sawiftness of justice—It has been said that in countries where criminals are apprehended, tried, and sentenced with speed, crime loses much of its attractiveness. In other punishment to be effective as a deterrent of crime must be sure and and not necessarily physically painful.” words, swift, (6) Lawlessness in law enforcement—Many au- thorities contend that police brutality e., third degree, etc.) breaks down respect for law and de- velops hatreds which lead to criminal acts. The evi- dence indicates that “strong arm methods” are often substituted for skill and intelligence in police work.” (i. Other so-called conditioning factors of crime will be recalled by the reader. Most of these so- have been touched upon in the discussion Conditions predisposing to crime are many in number and present such varying aspects as the economic, the social, the political, the mental, and the physical. Error arises in examining a particular offense if we over-simplify conditions and center upon any one predisposing factor as the cause of a crim- inal act. called “causes” abc ve. Sing Sing. p. 12. Causes of Crime, Vol. I, 1 1931. p. 25-26. Report cn the 11, National Commission on Law Observance and Enforce- Hopkins, Viking Press, 1931, 379 p. [ 163 ] The Factors Associated with Crime and Their Significance to Education One fact stands out clearly in most investiga- tions of the factors associated with crime: tha environmental factors precipitate the criminal into his misbehavior. There are thousands of feeble-minded persons, who, in spite of the handicaps of heredity, never offend against the law because they live sheltered lives. Many per- sons of normal intelligence and physique lead law-abiding lives as long as they avoid such environmental factors as unemployment, evil -ompanions, and poverty. “Among some of the conclusions of interest to educators are the following: 1. Teachers can do much both with children and with adults to sublimate the “gospel of greed” into something more socially construc- tive. Our stress upon “getting ahead” or “win- ning the game” is often at the sacrifice of any consideration of the other fellow. Does “suc- cess’ mean material wealth regardless of how it is obtained ? 2. Schools and educators should be molders of public opinion. If current practices in news- papers, movies, and cheap literature in a par- ticular community are factors which predispose to crime, then the schools should cooperate with civic groups in bringing about the necessary im- provements. Schools can do much to encourage public support and proper recognition of an effi- cient police department. By well-directed class- room discussion, teachers can develop attitudes in youth which in adulthood will not tolerate the corruption found today in public office. 3. Local culture patterns and customs which encourage or sanction violence are evidence of the need for new group standards. Among the children of such communities the schools must develop a respect for the basic principles , cial living. The parent-teacher groups, study classes, law enforcement associations similar organizations can aid the school i; promotion of better social standards. 4. Public education owes something + criminal who returns to the community. | { lic opinion does not give a new chance, i! school does not offer further education, if t: ers and others do not rehabilitate leisure | habits, then there is great probability tha: individual will become a second offender. > a program would require safeguards to p: impressionable boys and girls from thy fluence of hardened criminals. 5. The amount of illiteracy, even as n ured by the relatively superficial method the federal census, continues to be a blot the national record. More important “mere ability to read and write” is the use ' adults make of their fundamental skills. |) they read constructive books? Do they writ letters which bring happiness, or do they writ kidnaping notes? Do schools teach pupil; discriminate between tested evidence and cheap gossip in the daily newspapers? Edu tion must make intensive efforts to carry learn ing to the point where skills are utilized in so cially worthwhile ways. 6. Educators should have a place in planning. There is evidence that communi can eliminate slums, disease, and other environ mental conditions of crime. In their places « be developed model apartments, clinics, parks social centers, playgrounds, and other devices for making life more wholesome. Visiting teac! ers and other social workers, who go direct! into the homes, can point the way from poverty) disease, ignorance, and economic instability. RECREATIONAL program for children has an educational function and may be considered within the scope of the school. This is true of physical education not only | asa subject, but as meeting the interests of young people in sports and group games dur- | ing the time in which they are not engaged in home occupations. This conception of recreation is enforced by a survey recently made of 10,052 children in a great city, which demonstrated that more than 60 percent preferred a recreation program of games or hikes to the motion pictures which 99.94 percent of them attended for want of something better to do—The White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. Home and School Cooperation. Report of the Subcommittee on Cooperation of Home and School, Section I1] C. New York: The Century Co., 1932. . 7. [ 164] PART IV The Problem of the Delinquent Child In the past, parents, teachers, and public have tended to label the maladjusted school child as a dunce, a truant, or an incorrigible, depend- upon his particular form of misbehavior. Recent developments of psychological, psychi- ic, health, and home-visitation work in the schools have centered attention upon the prob- lem child as the product of problem parents or unwholesome community conditions. lhe purpose of this section is to review briefly a number of the investigations that have been Data will be presented on the potential delinquent as well as made of the maladjusted child. upon those who have been before the courts. For the modern viewpoint and further details on delinquency one should consult The Delin- quent Child, a report of the White House Con- ference on Child Health and Protection.' Extent of Juvenile Delinquency The tendency to write or to speak at length upon the degeneracy of the present generation is not a recent phenomenon. An article in the December, 1926, Atlantic Monthly shows that sensational statements concerning delinquency have appeared periodically since 1840.2 Others have reported lamentations on the degeneracy of youth dating back to the twelfth century. Existing facts, however, permit no one to say with certainty that juvenile delinquency is in- creasing or decreasing. No national statistics have ever been compiled as to the juvenile ar- rests. Records of juvenile courts, covering less than one-fifth of the population, have been com- piled for 1927, 1928, 1929, and 1930.* Reports issued at various times from sever: al of the large cities, such as Chicago and New York, do not indicate that delinquency has in- creased out of proportion to the increase of population.‘ 1 White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. Atlantic 3 Consult the Report of the Chief of the Children’s Bureau for 1927 The Delinquent Child, * See The Delinquent Child, White House Conference on Child Health ond Protection. Report of Comr * Hulbert, A. B. “The Habit of Going to the Devil.” Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor. Also, Handicapped-Delinquency. New York: Century Co., 1932. p A recent study by Maller of New York City from 1902 to 1911 there were approximately 85,000 boys brought shows that in the decade before the Children’s Court as compared with 64,000 cases in the decade just closed. The num ber of delinquent boys per thousand population has decreased by one-half during the past twenty years. The number of girls brought before the courts never exceeded 200 up to 1924, but since that date it increased about four times that number.° The total brought before courts each year in the States has been estimated as approximately 200,000.® number of juvenile delinquents United General Characteristics of Delinquents “What Is Juvenile De- Part I has emphasized the techni- of the This section will present numerous studies of Under the heading, linquency,” word “delinquent.” cal connotation (1) the personal, and (2) the social factors involved in juvenile delinquency. The data are varied, incomplete, and often conflicting. Read- ers are directed to the summaries on page 167 and page 170 which emphasize the important findings. Personal Factors (1) Race—The Joint Committee on Negro Child Study ip New York City made a study of cases before the Children’s Court in that city.’ Out of*the 11,512 cases before this court in 1925, 890, or 8 percent, were negroes. Sixty-one percent of the cases of negro children were de- linquents. On the basis of population, the pro- portion of juvenile delinquency among negroes seemed to the Committee greater than among the whites. The most common charge against The Delinquent Child. New York: Century Co., Monthly 138: 804-806; 1926 (page 17) and other publications of the Chil p. 235-42 1932. 499 Pp. December, dren’s nittee on Socially 35 5 See summary of investigation in Section 10 of the New York “Times, June 12, 1932, p. 8. * See Part I of this bulletin. _..' Murray, Virginia M., chairman. / Children’s Court, 1925. p. 6. 4 Study of Delinquent and Neglected Negro Children before the New York City [ 165 ] the white boys was stealing ; that against negro boys, disorderly conduct. The charge second in importance was, for white boys, burglary; for negro boys, desertion of home. In approximately 85 percent of the negro girl delinquency cases, the charge was given as “ungovernable and way- ward,” or “desertion of home.” The study pointed out that while there is considerable pro- vision for mild delinquents among the white children, there is less for colored children than for white, and that even this limited provision is decreasing. Data assembled in 1930 by the Children’s Bureau from eighty-eight juvenile courts showed that in 50,000 cases there were 40,000 whites and 10,000 colored. According to the 1930 census the ratio of whites to colored in the general population is 11 to 1. (2) Nativity — The Sub-Commission on Causes and Effects of Crime, New York State, made a study of 251 boys committed to the Truant School in the Borough of Manhattan.’ An average of 85 percent of the parents were foreign born; 82 percent of the offenders were native born. Of the 40,000 juvenile court cases of white children reported in 1930 to the Children’s Bu- reau, 47 percent were from homes where one or both parents were foreign born.’ Studies reported by the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement indicate that juvenile courts in Chicago have a dispro- portionate number of delinquents from homes of the foreign born. This is attributed to the residence of these families in areas where delin- quency rates are high and where neighborhood controls are weak. Nationality is credited with having little or no effect.* (3) Sex—Data from eighty-eight juvenile courts in 1930 showed that the ratio of the num- ber of boys to girls was approximately five to one.® A statistical analysis of juvenile delin- quency in Salt Lake City, 1923 to 1928, showed seven times as many delinquent boys as d quent girls.* Maller’s recent study of Ne York City showed about 6,500 boys and 9 girls appearing before the Children’s Cour; the decade after 1902 the ratio of boys to was 60 to 1, and in the past decade the rat been 8 to 1. The change has been due to ¢! crease in the number of girls brought before +} court.’ (4) Age—The survey of delinquency in Lake City showed that at least 70 percen: oj the delinquent boys and girls ranged in from twelve to sixteen years.® In St. P where 460 delinquents were under investic tion in 1925, fifteen to sixteen and sixteen ¢ seventeen were the peak years for girls and respectively.* The largest number of delinguen negro children were found to be between of thirteen and sixteen. Fifteen-year-old boy; comprised the largest truant group in ever grade above the fifth, according to a 1924 rep of the Philadelphia Bureau of Compulsory fd cation.'® Glueck and Glueck, after an intensive study of five hundred criminal careers, con cluded that 27 percent of the group came in conflict with school or police authorities at the age of fourteen years. Seventy-seven percent maladjusted before the age of sixteen years. All of these studies are in substantial agreement with the Juvenile Court Statistics: 1930 of the Childrens’ Bureau wherein 60 percent of the cases in 1930 were of children between the aes of twelve and sixteen. (5) Intelligence—The number of mental|; deficient children among the delinquents in S: Paul was nearly five times as great as among the normal schooi population.'* Deficiency the delinquent boy, according to Slawson, is mostly manifested in verbal abstract inte!l|i- gence, rather than in non-verbal concrete in- telligence or mechanical aptitude.'® A study ot problem boys and their brothers showed that 1U. S. Department of Labor, Children’s Bureau, Juvenile Court Statistics, 1930: Publication No. 212, 1932. p. 6-7 2 Shulman, Harry M. From Truancy to Crime—A Study of 251 Adolescents. p. 21. 3 See Juvenile Court Statistics, 1930. p. 6-7. 4 National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Report on the Causes of Crime, Vol. IT, p. 82-105. 5 See Juvenile Court Statistics, 1930. p. 6-7. * Beeley, Arthur L., director. Boys and Girls in Salt Lake City. p. 32. T See summary of Maller’s study in Section 10 of the New York Times, June 12, 1932, p. 8. ® Elmer, M. C. The Juvenile Delinquent in St. Paul, Minnesota. p. 3. ® Murray, Virginia M., chairman. Op. cit., p. 6. 1 As quoted in Reed, Anna Yeomans, Human Waste in Education. p. 217. 1 Glueck, Sheldon, and Glueck, Eleanor T. 500 Criminal Careers. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1930. p. 148. 12 Elmer, M. C. Op. cit., p. 3. 18 Slawson, John. The Delinquent Boy. p. 442. [ 166] a ee) eee me in at the -rcent italls in St mong Cy of the problem boys were, on the average, duller than their normal brothers.* The report, The Delinquent Child, cites an investigation of 4,000 juvenile court cases of which number 14 percent were feeble-minded. Such data must be accepted critically as there are no comparable data as to the proportion of feeble-mindedness in the general population.* (6) Mental defect—Mental examination of 2.647 children in children’s courts and deten- tion homes in nine states, by the National Com- mittee on Mental Hygiene, showed about 13 percent to be psychopathic.* A clinical and fol- lowup study of 246 delinquent girls referred to the University of California Medical School brought out the fact that the defective delin- quent seemed to offer a more serious problem than the average delinquent girl.‘ A committee of the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection concluded that mental disease was relatively rare both among children in general and among delinquents. Mental ab- normality is apparently a complication rather than a “cause” or characteristic of delinquency.°® (7) Physical status—Of 620 consecutive ad- missions, during 1924-25, to the New Jersey State Home for Boys, 5.2 percent showed physi- cal abnormalities.° A survey of 316 delinquents in St. Louis showed only a few to be free of physical defects and disease.’ Among the de- linquents in St. Paul, 34 percent showed de- fect. Slawson has shown that the delinquent boy, particularly the younger delinquent, was on a par in physical maturity with the non-delin- quent.® Summary—The data presented up to this point on the characteristics of juvenile delin- quents are incomplete and conflicting. It ap- pears that there is a larger proportion of colored conclusions do not indicate “‘causes’’ so much as obscure social, economic, and other environ- mental conditions. Boys have outnumbered girls in appearing before the courts. Whereas the studies previously cited attribute lower intelli- gence, mental or physical defect, to delinquents as a group, the data are hardly conclusive. As with the data on adults given in Part III, we must conclude tentatively that many juvenile delinquents have physical and mental defects which in association with numerous environ- mental factors may predispose to crime. Yet hundreds of young people with similar handi- caps never develop criminal tendencies due to protection from predisposing environmental factors. Social Factors (1) Home environment—In the family and home surroundings we have a merging of the conflict between “heredity and environment.” Does a defective family strain lead to an un- wholesome home environment? Does an un- wholesome home lead to a degeneracy of the physical and mental aspects of family life ? Ap- parently a number of factors are at work and investigators are forced to admit the “associa- tion” of many influences. Congestion of population does not affect the juvenile delinquency rate, according to a study in New York City, but bad housing conditions do exert a distinctly harmful influence.’® A study in Chicago shows, in areas of the city where the culture and the spirit of the citizens are low, that the juvenile delinquency rates are higher than in the so-called “better” districts. Types of juvenile offenses are often character- istic of certain areas of a city." Of a study of about 20,000 adults com- tel li- children appearing before the courts than should mitted to one hundred state and federal prjsons > in. be expected. Homes in which one or both pa-_ in 1923, 61.7 percent were living with their ae of rents are foreign born seem to supply more than’ families or relatives at the time of the crime. Teiitisthddessdil cide: sided sides dccemenaita Aiea their share of juvenile court cases. Both of these The compiler of the data estimates that the per- 1 Shulman, Harry M: A Study of Problem Boys and Their Brothers. p. 11. 2 See The Delinquent Child. p. 64-69. * Wade, Frank E., chairman. The Psychopathic Delinquent. p. 13. * Walker, Jean. Factors Contributing to the Delinquency of Defective Girls. p. 202. 5 See The Delinquent Child, p. 66-67. * Willson, G. M. “Adaptation of Treatment to Cause in Male Juvenile Delinquents.”” Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminality 18: 207-17; August, 1927. 7 Report quoted in Reed, Anna Yeomans. Op. cit., p. 300-08. ® Elmer, M. C. Op. cit., p. 3. * Slawson, John. Op. cit., p. 345, 450. % Shulman, Harry M. A Study of Environmental Factors in Juvenile Delinquency. Albany, N. Y.: J. B. pany, 1928. p. 8. 1 Lashly, Arthur V., director. Illinois Crime Survey, p. 662-76. See also, Report on the Causes of Crime, Vol. II, 1931. p. 21-188. National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. [ 167 ] Se ce Ly on Com. cent without normal home life is higher than in the general population. Other data in this study indicate a large number of childless marriages, divorces, and separations for both the men and women prisoners.' Case studies show that delinquent and crim- inal patterns are often transmitted with the family group. Older brothers particularly set examples for the younger members of the fam- ily to follow.” The problem of the broken home in relation to delinquency was given intensive study by the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. After a study of a group of 1,675 juvenile court delinquent boys and a control group, the report concludes that “ the differ- ence between the rates in the delinquent and the control group furnish a very inadequate basis for the conclusion that the broken home is an important factor in delinquency. This should not be interpreted to mean that the family is not an important factor in behavior problems; but that the broken home, as such, is not a significant measure of the importance of family life in the case of the delinquent boys appearing in the Cook County juvenile court.’’* Glueck and Glueck found in their study of 500 criminal careers that in 60 percent of the cases abnormal home conditions existed by vir- tue of the long or complete absence of one or both parents. Death disrupted the family in 60 home.’ From his study, Slawson concluded +}, a boy coming from a disintegrated home seein.) more apt to become delinquent than one a home with normal parental relations. examining studies of this type, Lenroot cluded that “many factors in family life greater importance in studying the caus of delinquent behavior than the mere fac: , physical completeness or incompleteness 0} | family circle.’’® Almost one-third of the parents in the of the delinquents in St. Paul had a pre bad record.’® Seventy-eight percent of parents showed no interest—took a nega! attitude or lacked control over the Eighty-two percent of the delinquents antagonistic or had unusually strained tions with their homes. The proportion of families, one or more 0 whose members had criminal records, larger in the case of boys committed to th Truant School for the more serious crimes than in the case of boys committed for ancy.'? Thus, 43 percent of families of truants 50 percent of families of juvenile delinquents, 66 percent of families of misdemeanants, « 83 percent of families of felons had crimina| records. (2) Employment—Whether unemploymen: leads to delinquency or whether the deli: \ S nd quent is not capable of keeping a_ position may be argued indefinitely. Records of the Jew ish Board of Guardians in New York in 1°27 and 1928 indicate that the delinquent is very unstable in his employment. After comparing delinquent and non-delinquent groups, the con- clusion reached was as follows: percent of these cases, and separation, divorce, or desertion accounted for 25 percent more. The families to which the criminals belonged were appreciably larger than the average Massachu- setts family.* Forty-six percent of the delinquents studied in St. Paul came from broken homes.° The study of the 251 boys committed to the Truant School in Manhattan showed the home status to have been impaired in 52 percent of the families by the death or absence of one parent.° Analysis of 620 consecutive admission cases to the New Jersey State Home for Boys showed a large amount of poor supervision in the The miscellaneous cases are apparent) twice as stable industrially as the problem cases That the employment turn-over among the pro! lem group is a characteristic and not a transient problem, may be gathered from the fact that in previous year of effort, in 1927, the proportion ot cases remaining at a job longer than six months was but 6 percent.” rtment of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, The Prisoner's Antecedents. p. 25-28. commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Report on the Causes of Crime, Vol. II, No. 13, Jui 135-37. 1931. a Bee the Report on the Causes of Crime, Vol. IT, p. 284. # Glueck, ee and Glueck, Eleanor T. 500 Criminal Careers. p. 122. 5 Elmer, M. C. Op. cit * Shulman, Se M. fee’ Truancy to Crime—A Study of 251 Adolescents. p. 13. tT Willson, M. OP. cit., . 216. ® Slawson, doh Op. cit., p. 446. * Lenroot, Katharine. “Distussion of ‘Are Broken Homes a Causative Factor in Juvenile Delinquency?’ ” Social Fo 4: 529; May, i” 2. 10 Elmer, M. C. Op. cit. ™ Shulman, Harry M. Hypen 3 Truancy to Crime—A Study of 251 Adolescents. p- 14, wt 3 12 Jewish Board of Guardians. Annual Reports of Vocational Department, 1927-28. Quoted in New York State Cri Commission, Report 1930, p. 448. LU. S. De 2 National [ 168 ] ment lelin ition Jew 1927 nths The superintendent of the Idaho Industrial School considered idleness as a decided factor in waywardness and delinquency. “A very large percentage of our small boys come in sum- mer and early fall when they are out of school, hence for the most part idle. On the other hand, correspondingly large percentage of our large bovs come during the late fall and winter, when work is scarce and idleness results.’’! Chere is considerable doubt that actual labor or work in itself actually “causes” crime or de- linquency. However, the continuous contact of children with certain employment conditions, together with other important factors, seems to be associated with an unusual rate of delin- quency. The Children’s Bureau found that 12 per- cent of 273 young newsboys in Columbus in 1922 and 1923 had juvenile court records, al- though only 2 percent of the boys of the same ages of the city came before the courts in 1927.° A study by the Children’s Bureau of children in Milwaukee between the ages of fourteen and sixteen showed that more of the working chil- dren, than children attending school regularly, have been delinquent at some time in their lin es,® Healy and Bronner’s study of 2,000 cases of delinquency in Boston showed vocational dis- satisfaction as a contributing factor in delin- quency. In England, Burt found that 4 per- cent of the delinquents were vocationally mal- adjusted.® A commission in California found that the children of seasonal workers who were moved about the state and required to work formed a growing problem.® Several authorities point out that the ex- ploitation of children by employers often comes at the crucial period when children are ac- 1 Vincent, W. D., compiler. Ninth Biennial Report of the quiring important ideals and habits. Missing the opportunity to make normal social ad- justments leads to irregular employment later and finally to predatory acts." (3) Truancy—While available _ statistics may not bring out striking differences between delinquents and non-delinquents with regard to length of time in school, they do emphasize the prevailing amount of truancy among de- linquents. A study of the period prior to de- linquency of 1,744 cases in the Cleveland pub- lic schools credited truancy as the cause’ in 74 percent of the cases.* Among the “direct 251 adolescents studied by Shulman, the juve- nile delinquents had been serious truancy prob- lems in grade 2-A, the misdemeanor and felony groups in 3-B, and the non-delinquent groups in 3-A.° Truancy was reported as a major form of delinquency in Salt Lake City.'® studies by the New York State Crime Commis- sion show that truancy is the first overt step in the development of a delinquent or criminal career.'! (4) Motion pictures—Mitchell into the movie interests, tastes, and experiences of 10,000 children in Chicago.'* She included in this group typical children of the public schools, Several inquired juvenile delinquents, and several special groups as the Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts. Most of the data were obtained through questionnaires which the children were not required to sign. Among the conclusions of the study'® were the following: 1. The present study found that the delinquent children have a wider movie experience than do children in the other two groups (typical school children and Scouts). 2. The movie offers these children (delinquents) an immediate escape from drab realities and cruel certainties of their surroundings and gives them for a brief time another life. e Idaho Industrial Training School, 1919-20. Quoted by Leeper, Robert D., in “A Study of Juvenile Delinquency in Thirty Counties of Idaho.” p. 427. 2In a similar study the New York Crime Commission raises the question whether the boys in street trades become delinquents or whether the street trades are unusually attractive to delinquents. 8 The question may be raised whether or not environmental factors which force children to work at an early age are closely associated with the causes of delinquency. 4 Healy, William, and Bronner, Augusta F. Delinquents and Criminals; Their Making and Unmaking. New York: 82. The Macmillan Company, 1926. p. 1 5 Burt, Cyril. The Young Delinquent. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1925. p. 171. : ® Rieger, Paul, chairman. Report of the California ( State Printing Office, 1929. p. 27. ommission for the Study of Problem Children. Sacramento: 7 Root, William T., and others. A Psychological and Educational Survey of 1,916 Prisoners in the Western Penitentiary of Pennsylvania. Pittsburgh, Pa.: Western Penitentiary. p. 241. (no date). Also Criminology by Fred E. Haynes, published by McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1930. p. 156-61. ® Quoted in Reed, Anna Yeomans. Human Waste in Education. p. 308-15. ® Shulman, Harry M. From Truancy to Crime—A Study of 251 Adolescents. p. 56. 1 Beeley, Arthur L., director. Op. cit., p. 32. 11 See the Report of the Crime Commission, 1930, p. 375-433, and the reports for other years. Albany: New York State Crime Commission. 2 Mitchell, Alice Miller. Children and Movies. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1929. 181 p 8 Ibid., Chapter 13, “Delinquents and Movies,” p. 133-43. [ 169 ] —— — nr te yo een a a API URE 9 Oi 3. A few (delinquents) felt that their conflict with the law had been because of some contact with the movie. 4. The delinquent girls spoke more freely about how restless the movie made them than did the delinquent boys. The boys were more interested in the movie as entertainment and apparently did not look upon it as personally as did the girls. 5. Some (of the delinquents) looked upon them (the movie theaters) as havens from temptation. 6. Not many of the delinquent boys felt that movies generally or any movie in particular were to blame for their delinquency. In fact, quite a few of them said that had they been “in a movie at the time it happened it would not have hap- pened.” 7. The delinquent child’s extensive contact with the movie may or may not be due to the fact that he is a delinquent and because of the things back of his delinquency. Whether or not the movie enters into his delinquency is a subject for further research and is out of the realm of this study. The present data only show that the delinquent does have a wider movie experience than do the other children studied. Summary—There is rather definite agree- ment that juvenile delinquency results from a number of factors. No agreement exists as to origin or relative weight of the various factors. There is evidence that the economic uncer- tainty and lack of control in the broken home are likely to combine with other factors in pro- ducing delinquency. Older brothers who are delinquents often lead younger children into crime. Neighborhoods in which mobility of population weakens the usual social controls tend to have high delinquency rates. Areas with high delinquency rates tend to persist in this con- dition. Idleness and vacations are associated with increases in delinquency. Street trades and other employments of juveniles either tend to attract or to develop delinquent children. Tru- ancy and conflict at school are usually the first overt acts of the child who later becomes seri- ously out of adjustment. Evidence of Maladjustment among School Children As pointed out in preceding sections of this bulletin, delinquency may be only an extreme phase of child behavior. If children are “de- linquent” only in the sense of court sentence, there are many others exhibiting simila: havior who have not yet come to the atten of the courts. From another standpoint, ¢| are many children classed as delinquents represent victims of misguided effort and directed energy, who with forethought an. dividual attention from others might have avoided probation officer and courtroom. Number of maladjusted children—In ever public school, children can be found who seem unable to adapt themselves to the usual + quirements of group life in the classroom on the playground. Are they present in such numbers as to present a serious problem? ‘| he Committee on Special Classes of the White House Conference on Child Health and Pr. tection estimates that 675,000, or at least 3 pe: cent of the elementary school enrolment, pr sent behavior problems, less than 10,000 ot whom are now enrolled in special classes 0: schools.? In 1929-30, fifty-five cities of 10,000 popula- tion or more reported for twenty-five states a total of 9,040 pupils enrolled in classes for the delinquent and unstable.? A study of provisions made for atypical children shows that at least ten states have made provision for mandatory or permissive public school classes for “«dis ciplinary cases.” Twenty-eight or 41 percent ot cities over 100,000 reported atypical classes during 1928-29. In forty-two cities of this population group, there was an enrolment in these classes during 1927-28 of 4,646, or 5.3 percent of the estimated total number of such cases.® Under the heading ‘“‘temperamentally atypi cal,”’ Hilleboe groups the neurotic, the truant, the delinquent, and the incorrigible. This au- thor estimates that 4.80 percent of the schoo! population requires special treatment adapted to this group. An average of .26 percent of the total elementary and junior high-school enro!- ment in eighteen school systems was found in classes for delinquents.* A study of eight hundred Minneapolis pub- lic school pupils showed 51 percent with un- desirable behavior patterns.*® 1 White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, Committee on Special Classes (Charles Scott Berry, Chair man). Special Education: The Handicapped and the Gifted. p. 6 2 Martens, Elise H. Biennial eaves, of Education in the * Kunzig, Robert W. Public School 0 * Hilleboe, Guy L. Finding and Teaching Atypical ducation of Atypical Children. hildren. p. 26, 3 United States. p. 21. . 61-3, 75-7. 33. 5 Haggerty, M. E. “The Incidence of Undesirable Behavior in Public School Children.” Journal of Educational Research 12: 102-22; September, 1925. [ 170] “ORR eRR AYRE ZR Types of behavior problems—The Commit- tee on Special Classes of the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection ’ divides cases of behavior difficulty in three groups: 1. The nervous—Children suffering from chorea, speech disorders, encephalitis lethargica, and gen- eral nervous disability. 2. The emotionally wunstable—Cases varying from mild emotional unbalance through cases of definite psychoneurotic and prepsychotic behavior to confirmed cases of advanced mental disorder. 3, The delinquent—Cases in the public mind looked upon as resulting from a poor home, bad gang, poverty, sometimes complicated by emotional instability.” A Committee of the National Education Association and the National Conference of Social Work, reporting in 1926, states that: Behavior problem children are those who stand out or who differ from others of their group be- cause of certain undesirable habits, personality traits, or behavior in the home, school, or com- munity; whose conduct interferes, or is likely to interfere, with the individual’s (or the group’s) fullest development and usefulness socially, educa- tionally, or hygienically; and whose behavior may result in more serious handicaps of one sort or another in later life.* The Committee offers a grouping sugges- tive of behavior problem children: 1. Underlying difficulties indicated by symptoms ordinarily regarded as undesirable habits: such as, thumbsucking, nailbiting, enuresis, masturba- tion, mannerisms, peculiar food fads, disturbances in sleep. 2. Underlying difficulties characteristics and personality traits: such as, sen- sitiveness, seclusiveness, secretiveness, inattention, apathy, daydreaming: fanciful lying, “nervousmess,” tendency to cry easily, moodiness, obstinacy, quar- relsomeness, selfishness, laziness, lack of ambition or interest, timidity, cowardliness, general fear- fulness, unpopularity or inability to get along with other children, general restlessness and hyperactiv- ity, wanderlust. 3. Underlying difficulties indicated chiefly by such behavior as: disobedience, teasing, bullying, temper tantrums, bragging or showing off, defiance of or rebellion against authority, keeping late hours, seeking bad companions, lying, stealing, truancy, destructiveness, cruelty to persons or animals, unusual sex activities. indicated chiefly by 1 White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. p. 500-02. The preceding sections have pointed out the extent of, and They have shown that a child brought exhibits factors accompanying delin- quency. before the court characteristics or habits present to a greater or less degree in children who have never been apprehended by Since children are essentially individ- there the law. ualistic and the school basically social, will always exist stress, maladjustment, and Fortunately, most of the conflicts “will disappear as the teacher interests herself less and less in what the child did, and more in why he did it.’’* delinquency. and more Educational Facilities for Delinquents +, The problem of educating the delinquent of First, delinquency by providing special provisions for the problem child, or potential delinquent; second, to rehabilitate the individual who has come in contact with the court. Special facilities for the care of the nervous, the emotionally unstable, and the delinquent, appear to be meager.’ The types of school or- ganization developed for these children have school age has two aspects: to prevent been classified as follows: parental schools or homes, special schools, and special classes. Parental schools—The parental schools for truants or delinquents are usually twenty-four- They assume the entire re- sponsibility for the children’s school and non- school activities. The parental school is located hour-a-day schools. sometimes on a farm, houses the children in cot- tages, provides regular schooling, emphasizes home life, attempts to build up new social atti- tudes, and gives the children industrial or home- keeping training. State laws provide for establishment of twenty-four-hour parental schools in IIlinois, Pennsylvania, and California. A few cities have schools maintained in detention homes, and there are other private or semi-private institu- tions which deal with behavior problems.* The average enrolment of these various parental schools is about eighty, with approximately one teacher for every thirty pupils. The school fol- Special Education: The Handicapped and the Gifted. 2 For details on this phase see The ws uent Child, White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. e Report of Committee on Socially Handicapped linquency,. Published by the Century Company, New York, 1932. 499 p. * National Education Association and National Conference of Social Work, Cooperating Comuimittees on Behavior Problems of Children. Report As Adopted in Joint Session at Cleveland, Ohio, May 27, 1926. p. 4. ‘ Principals and teachers, in particular, should consult The Delinquent Child, p. 41. 5In many schools the unstable child is given special work and treatment w ile he is still a member of a typical class. Where such a plan proves successful, there . reasonable doubt that a potential delinquent should be taken from his normal social group and sent away to a special school. * For names of cities and statistical items see Special Schools and Classes in Cities of 10,000 Population and More in the United States by Arch O. Heck, Bulletin, 1930, No. 7, U. S. Office of Education. [171] — lows the regular courses and provides for more handwork' Special schools—Special day schools for truants, incorrigibles, and treatment of special behavior problems have been established in a few of the larger cities. Good examples of such schools are the Thomas A, Edison School for Boys, in Cleveland, and the Montefiore Special School of Chicago.? The work of the special schools is usually di- vided between regular academic work and shop or other similar activities, such as woodwork, weaving, basketry, mechanics, metal work, mechanical and freehand drawing, elementary sciences, and, where possible, gardening and animal husbandry. The Montefiore School also offers clinical services for treatment of the pupils.® The Thomas A. Edison School for Boys was made a unit of the Cleveland School System in September, 1921.4 The enrolment on June 20, 1930, amounted to 1,549. The median age represented is 1514 years; the median I. Q. is 87. Boys are transferred to the school, in gen- eral, because of educational maladjustment elsewhere. This school was established to provide for the needs of the boy differing from the normal pupil. It aims to guide and direct, rather than to punish. The boys are classed as nearly homogeneously as possible, according to inter- ests, grade, and I. Q., in about forty groups of approximately equal numbers. In more ad- vanced classes the pupils are divided into a vo- cational and an academic group. For the latter group the same material is offered as in other academic schools of the city. In the case of the vocational group, however, the conventional curriculum has been abandoned, in favor of ma- terial of practical or interesting nature. Work is carefully graded to the ability of the child. Special classes—There are more special classes for behavior problems than special schools. The classes are usually housed in regu- lar schools and receive a part of the regular principal’s time, and the direction of a special p. 493-94, 507-08, supervisor. The special classes attempt to some special work, but cannot offer as pn features as the special schools.° According to a survey of public schoo! cation of atypical children, eight states permissive and two states mandatory le, tion concerning classes for “disciplinary « corrigible” children.® Of sixty-eight cities 100,000 population, 41 percent reported ciplinary classes”; 12 percent reported p: tion classes. Enrolment in “disciplinary cla of forty-two cities of over 100,000 population in 1927-28, amounted to 4,646. In twenty . having special classes for problem child there was an average daily enrolment of 3,{\s boys and 286 girls. The minimum class en; ment ranged from 15 to 20. Chronoloy ages varied from 7 to 24; mental ages from § to 16. With exception of classes in three citic. high-school instruction was not given. Fi, the ten cities, represented in reports submitted to the Office of Education, established ment: standards for admission. The average net schoo! time reported for “disciplinary” classes was 5.4 hours. Behavior clinics—In addition to parental schools, special schools and classes, a few of t! larger cities maintain clinical or adjustment services to help care for behavior cases. In 1°28 there were nearly 500 such clinics, distributed among approximately 350 cities in 36 different states.’ In 1928 the school system of Berkeley, C: fornia began work to meet the needs of chi dren who are considered serious behavior pro} lems.* According to a description published «1 this work: Responsibility for meeting these children, {1 studying their difficulties and diagnosing thei: needs, for making recommendations for adjus' ment, and for following up their development has been placed upon a group of specialists comprising psychiatrist, physician, and psychologist, who hay: at their disposal all the service that can be given by a staff of social workers and psychological a: sistants. The social workers are a group of fiv: chosen school counselors who give half time to the work of this behavior clinic. The psycholog 1 White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. Special Education: The Handicapped and the Gift * Stullken, Edward H. “School-Juvenile Court Cooperation.” Eleventh Yearbook. Department of Elementary Sch } vince 1932. p. 508-16. hite House Conference on Child Health and Protection. Special Education: The Handicapped and the Gif: p. 494-95, 508. * Cleveland City School District, Thomas A, Edison School, cited in bibliography at end of this bulletin. y ® White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. Special Education: The Handicapped and the Gif p. 495, 508-09. * Kunzig, Robert W. Of. cit., p. 13, 63, 77, 118-22. See “Child Guidance Clinics.” School and Society 30: 704-05; November 23, 1929. ® Martens, Elise H. “Berkeley's Coordinated Program of Child Adjustment.” School Life 16: 23-24, 56-58; Octob November, 1930. te “9 [172] Sate ms assistance is given by the assistant director of Ca +he bureau of research and guidance, as well as by sen teachers in the schools who have been carefully trained in the technic of giving mental nd educational tests. [his group of specialists at first worked directly the schools as a type of “traveling clinic,” but more recently it has established headquarters at the administration building of the board of educa- tion, to which the children are brought by social workers or parents. It is deemed desirable to have father or mother accompany the child, and the behavior clinic undertakes to work only with those children whose parents indicate their willingness to cooperate in the treatment to be given. Such treatment may involve physical attention, medical surgical aid, readjustment of home conditions, suggestions to principal and teacher looking to- ward a better understanding of the child’s nature and difficulties. Often several of these factors are involved. All too frequently it is found that the problem child is only the result of problem parents, who themselves need treatment and re-education. Medical aid is provided at a nominal cost by the health center for those in financial need; the worker follows up the contacts with the home and reports developments as they occur; the case is discussed with the teacher, counselor, and principal of the school which the child attends, with a resulting increased ability on their part to handle it tactfully. The child may return to the clinic periodically, or he may visit it only occa- sionally, as the case demands. d social Training schools for delinquents—Pub- lished material on the education of delinquents deals largely with training of delinquent girls. Reeves has discussed the educational program adopted in fifty-seven training schools for de- linquent girls! In the majority of cases, the academic departments in these institutions were about on the same plane as the schools in out- side communities. Forty-four institutions had a graded academic school. In twenty-three schools, some high-school work was given. In thirty-eight schools, the academic department follows the course of study in an outside system. In most of the institutions little instruction was offered in art. A number of the academic depart- ments gave a regular public school music course. There appeared a need for right kind of moral instruction. Two of the schools had full-time resident religious workers; one, a part-time resident worker, In none of the schools was there a director of religious education who seemed to be doing the type of work outlined by present leaders in religious education. The 1 Reeves, Margaret. Training Schools for Delinquent Girls. p, 282-310. 2 Van Waters, Miriam. Youth in Conflict. p. 200. *Van Waters, Miriam. Ibid., p. 221-22. [ 173 ] field of vocational guidance for delinquent girls seemed almost entirely undeveloped. On page 292 Reeves presents a statement of certain goals to be sought by the educational system as a whole in a training school : 1. Education in these training schools should be made dynamic and objective, a vital part of the prograin of rehabilitation of the girl with conduct problems. It should be planned to meet the needs of the individual, both while she is in the institution and later when she returns to the community. 2. Each should have plan which should include the various phases of education. With part of the educational program will become more vital and worthwhile. 3. These institutions have large opportunity for service as laboratories of research in the educational field. They should be utilized for this purpose as far as is practicable. 4. If any worthwhile educational program is to be successfully carried on, there must be well- trained teachers. In many cases this will neces- sitate higher salaries. school a comprehensive proper correlation each According to a discussion of correctional edu- cation by Van Waters, the major problems of correctional school life are physical education, academic and vocational education, personality adjustment, and sharing group life in the spirit of social solidarity.? In conclusion, Van Waters writes that the true value of correctional edu- cation consists in the following: 1. Vigorous and joyous health, a sense of phys- ical well-being. 2. Emotional adjustment, a correct understanding of the individual by himself. 3. The restoration of confidence and the respect of the individual for his own personality. This is best accomplished by the discovery of tasks within the strength and capacity of the young person, tasks the performance of which wins merited approval from the group 4. The individual must develop loyalty and the feeling of friendship or social solidarity, by means of participation in the actual conduct of affairs within the student-group; activity related to a social purpose. 5. New outlets must be formed for the creative energy of youth. 6. The social status of the individual must be restored, that is to say, he must be absorbed into the community, which in its turn must be educated to recognition that the young person has been returned to full citizenship in our humanity.* What Does the Problem of the Delin- quent Child Mean to Education? More than one writer on the problem of maladjusted youth has pointed to the school as a great social laboratory, wherein problem chil- dren could be discovered and possible delin- quency guarded against. Aside from the gen- eral function of the school in providing needed social integration, the preceding studies of juve- nile delinquency or irregular behavior bring out the following aspects of special import to educators: J 1. A more enlightened public opinion is needed with regard to the unadjusted child, whether delinquent or not. Through newspaper accounts, magazine articles, parent-teacher meetings, and home visits, teachers can explain to adults the significance of various maladjust- ments of children. Particularly important is this community work at the present time when citizens are likely to label these special welfare activities as “fads and frills.” 2. Educators can do much to encourage the establishment of behavior and child guidance clinics where experts may help the child who does not respond to the teachers’ efforts. Care- ful records need to be kept for these clinics. Often the school’s regular program must be adjusted to a plan laid down by the psycholo- gist, the psychiatrist, and the medical expert. 3. Truancy has been isolated as one of the first overt acts of a criminal career. Why are children truant ? Sometimes they are truant be- cause of factors which have no connection with the school, The chances are, however, that “lock-step teaching,’’ unusually severe dis- cipline, ridicule of playmates, or some other school factor is associated with the truancy. It is up to teachers, principals, and superintend- ents to discover these points of irritation and to make the necessary adjustments in school procedures. 4. When teachers lack the ability to recog- nize potential problem cases then they should remedy this deficiency in professional prepara- tion. It is possible to organize study groups under the principal who can call to his assist- ance the visiting teacher, the school nurse, the doctor, and others. College summer courses are available in psychology and psychiatry. Books and extension classes may be obtained by those who cannot participate in group study. %s School systems should have the personnel [174] )and the facilities to test the intellectual. / tional, and physical condition of every « Whenever possible, the home should be a) vised of the defects and urged to correct +) inadequacies which may respond to the p: \treatment. 6. The fact that a large proportion of de. linquents show their maladjustments be{ore the age of fourteen years, places particu! heavy responsibilities on the teachers and | cipals of elementary schools. Since other | lems arise between the ages of fourteen and sixteen, the importance of articulating the ele. mentary school with the junior and senior }yivh schools cannot be overemphasized. Schoo! ma- chinery should be flexible enough to account continuously for every child. 7. Unemployment has been found to be associated frequently with delinquency. Some unemployment is due to the failure of students to make the most of their school opportunities for academic and trade training. Teachers and administrative officers, as well as specialists, can guide individuals with their personal, so- cial, and vocational problems. +~ 8. The leisure time hours are often those which lead to questionable companions and un- /lawful activities. More social centers and play areas in the schools at nights would help to keep children off the streets. Teachers may fre- \quently organize or urge other adults to or- anize various youth clubs in connection with he schools, the churches, and other centers. 9. Principals of schools can be helpful in Jovganizing community welfare committees to | unite schools, churches, homes, business, and social work agencies behind a neighborhood program. There is considerable evidence to support the contention that neighborhood con- trols are exceptionally useful in preventing «ll \ types of delinquency. A neighborhood commit- tee can be the means of eliminating cheap literature, questionable movies, and destruc- tive amusement centers. 10. Teachers today, more than ever before, are called upon to utilize their daily classroom contacts with children in shaping character. A hundred opportunities arise in every day’s work to set standards, to vitalize high ideals, and to glorify wholesome contacts. Research clearly indicates that the influence of the classroom teacher is a particularly significant factor in character development. TS RIN ee Hie ae Some dents nities ; and ilists, I, So- those d un- play Ip to with ‘Ss. ul in es to and ‘hood *e to con- gz all nmit- sheap truc- fore, room er. A work nd to early room or in eee ee ee PART V The Social Agencies of Crime Prevention Crime concerns all individuals and groups of organized society, It is not a problem to be left with the police, the courts, and the prison officials. These public officers need the support of public opinion and the active assistance of all (1) to prevent crime, (2) to reform the criminal, and (3) to re-establish the offender as a good citizen. This section of the bulletin will review briely some of the agencies and procedures associated with the three lines mentioned im- mediately above. The treatment will show how the efforts of educators may be integrated with the forces now at work. None of the sugges- tions in this section are offered as panaceas, but rather as some of the next steps forward. For detailed treatment of some of the major prob- lems touched upon in this section the reader should turn to the standard works in the fields of sociology, government, economics, penology, and education. The Promotion of Economic Welfare The type of life lived by the individual citi- zen and his family is determined by numerous economic factors. A person cannot live in a beautiful home in an exclusive neighborhood, read the best literature, enjoy leisure, and send his children to fine schools—unless he is eco- nomically independent. Economic independ- ence has been defined as: “that condition of ma- terial wealth which enables a person to support himself and his dependents at an appropriate standard of living without the necessity of accepting charity.” * A recent publication of the Department of Classroom Teachers summarizes the basic prin- ciples underlying the economic welfare of teachers.? These basic principles, applying to all occupational groups, are summarized as follows: (1) The worker should receive an adequate salary in accotdance with a definite plan based on the increasing usefulness and enlarged responsi- bilities of the worker which follow additional years of service. The salary schedule should be based on the actual cost of living at the desired standard in the particular local community. Under no circumstances should a worker be paid less than it actually costs him to live decently and in comfort. It is highly that the minimum beginning wage be sufficient to permit the saving of a small amount and the expenditure of a small amount regularly for wholesome recreation and cultural ment. The amount available for savings should be at least sufhcient to provide protection any ordinary emergencies which may arise. reasonable desirable, also, regularly, improve- against (2) The worker should have continuous em- ployment during efficiency. Few people can main- tain their economic independence if they are the victims of long or frequent unemployment. An oversupply of workers, the replacement of by machines, the seasonal nature of pations, petty prejudice or favoritism, economic depression, and the urge toward reduction in the costs of operation are some of the important fac responsible for unemployment among petent workers. Such factors are often very difh- cult to control, but efforts should be made to eliminate or to counteract them so far as is humanly possible. men some occu- tors com- (3) The worker should follow a definite plan of expenditure based on genuine needs and modi- fied in accordance with his income. The person who spends his income without regard for such a plan runs a dangerous risk. Unless he enjoys an unusually large income he is likely to exceed it at any time and to contract unnecessary debt. More- over, he and his dependents are likely to suffer from a poorly balanced program of living, with too much emphasis upon the superficial, less essen- tial aspects, and too little emphasis upon self-im- provement and cultural development. (4) The worker should save a portion of his income systematically and invest it soundly. In any program of personal finance it is tremendously important that adequate provision be made for increased needs and unforeseen emergencies in the future. No matter how excellent a health may be at present, there is no assurance that illness or accident will not overtake him at any time and destroy his earning power, perhaps per- manently. If he lives to old age, he will be un- ble to maintain his former level of efficiency, and will often be unable to compete successfully with and more competent persons. (5) The worker should secure specific protec- tion against loss of his capacity to render efficient vocation service. Such protection should cover any loss of capacity due to each of the following spe- cific causes: (1) temporary disability because of illness or accident, (2) early permanent disabili- ty, whether from physical or mental causes, (3) superannuation, or the attainment of an age be- person's younger 1 National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. ““The Economic Welfare of Teachers.” Sixth Yearbook, 1931. p. 13. 2 Ibid, p. 14-18. [175] Se I ~ am ek. ee yond which efficient work cannot normally be ex- pected, and (4) early death. (6) The worker should have protection against the loss of his property. Fires, thefts, storms, and various kinds of accidents take a huge toll of property each year. These factors are a constant menace to the economic security of property owners, particularly those with relatively small incomes who have invested most of their savings in homes, furniture, automobiles, and similar neces- sities. Every person, therefore, who acquires destructible property of any considerable financial value should have it insured if this is possible at reasonable rates. (7) The worker should have access to credit facilities at reasonable cost. In spite of all pos- sible efforts to protect the worker against future emergencies by savings, investment, and_ insur- ance, occasions will arise in which the need to borrow money is urgent. Especially among _per- sons at the lower salary levels, relatively small amounts are frequently needed over short periods of time. There is, of course, seldom much difh- culty in obtaining such loans from one source or another. But it is seldom possible for persons without collateral security to obtain short-time loans at rates of interest in proportion to their means. Even a superficial observer will note that the seven principles of economic security as noted above are not widely practiced in American life today. Where industry is under socially- minded leadership, the workers may be short- sighted in saving for emergencies. Where the state is progressive in its legislation, the citizens generally may be unable to keep pace. Ob- viously, the need is for social planning on a large scale." What can education do with the economic problems? First, as various leaders propose, the schoe! curriculum can give increased attention to the study of the social and economic prob- lems of American life. Second, classes and schools should be extended to give attention to the whole range of intellectual and physical abilities, Third, provision needs to be made for vocational education, guidance, and placement. Fourth, continuation schools are necessary to keep up the schooling of the individual who is forced into industry at an early age. Fifth, pro- vision must be made to re-educate those forced into unemployment by technological changes. Sixth, habits of thrift and socially acceptable ideals should be developed systematically from the beginning of the school experience. Seventh, 1 Consult Whither Mankind. Charles A. Beard (editor); schools must set up the necessary machine capitalize upon the work of the visiting tea the psychiatrist, the police, the prison wa the public health nurse, and similar experts. Extension of Public Health and Recreational Activities Bad housing, disease, and unsanitary con ditions are often found in association wit! high crime rates of communities. Physica! mental disorders cannot be permitted t. without public attention. By enforcing | ing laws, prescribing health regulations, and fostering recreation, organized society prey ents conditions in which crime thrives. Anyone not familiar with the role of izno rance in the health of the typical American community should read Middletown by Lynd and Lynd.* They report quackery as attempt- ing to cure sickness, immorality and cheapnes stalking the leisure hours, shortsightedness characterizing welfare work, and mental dif culties arising from conflicting social standards Physical welfare—The physical examina- tions of the World War revealed numerou physical disabilities among the drafted men. For the first time many citizens began to ques tion whether children should be allowed grow up without strenuous public efforts to pre- vent and to remedy the physical handicaps. Recently, the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection® has set fort! the fundamental rights of every American child the following: For every child health protection from through adolescence, including periodical hea't! examinations and, where needed, care of specialists and hospital treatment; regular dental examina tions and care of the teeth; protective and pr ventive measures against communicable diseases the insuring of pure food, pure milk, and pur water. For every child from birth through adolescence promotion of health, including health instruction and a health program, wholesome physical an‘ mental recreation, with teachers and leaders a: quately trained. For every child a dwelling-place safe, sanitar and wholesome, with reasonable provisions ‘0: privacy; free from conditions which tend t thwart his development; and a home environment harmonious and enriching. Men and Machines, Stuart Chase; “‘Swope’s Cure for 1! Times,” Litera pigs 111: 8-9; October 3, 1931; and similar current treatments of economic difficulties. sLynd, R Coa 1930. complete York: Century Co., 1930. p. 46-47. [ 176 ] and Lynd, Helen M. Middletown. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1929. 550 p ete Children’s Charter published in the Addresses and Abstracts of Committee | Bot ‘White H apness edness | diff- dards, imina- 1 rous men, ques- he 1th ialists mina cence uction and ade- iment For every child education for safety and pro- ection against accidents to which modern condi- ions subject him—those to which he is directly sed and those which, through loss or maiming his parents, affect him indirectly. x} [ue care should be taken to note that the Children’s Charter emphasizes the community's responsibility for the physical welfare of chil- dren. First, there is the home with its obliga- tions to the child. Second, the school with its medical inspections, teaching of health prin- ciples, provision for relaxation period, program of games, special physical exercises, and similar devices. Finally, there are the public health services including disease control, prevention programs, clinics, health surveys, building regu- lations, sanitary laws, and hospitals. A report of the White House Conference, The School Health Program, presents a com- prehensive and forward-looking program for education.' A joint committee of the National Education Association and the American Med- ical Association compiled Health Education, a program for public schools.* An earlier Research Bulletin has listed numerous references in the field of physical health.® Mental hygiene—The Children’s Charter sets forth one of the basic rights of children as follows: For every child who is in conflict with society the right to be dealt with intelligently as society's charge, not society’s outcast; with the home, the school, the church, the court, and the institution when needed, shaped to return him whenever pos- sible to the normal stream of life. The above statement summarizes the new approach to personality and emotional diffi- culties of problem children. Note the words “the right to be dealt with intelligently as so- ciety’s charge” which places the responsibility largely upon society for child’s maladjustment. Certainly, the responsibility is upon society to provide a remedial program. Here, as in the case of physical health, the 1932. 40 __ ,* National Education Association and American Medical National Education Associaton, 1930. 251 p. * National Edmation Association, Division of Research. , D. C.: the Association. “The Classroom Teacher and Character Education,” Seventh Research Bulletin 7: 51-58, 95-96; March, 1929. Washington * An excellent summary of these specialists is found in home must assume the first responsibility. Next the school through its trained classroom teach- ers, psychologists, psychiatrists, visiting teach- ers, and medical workers must administer its constructive program, Finally, public and pri- vate agencies must supplement, extend, and assist the efforts of the home and school.* The possibilities of the school’s program in cooperation with the home and various public agencies have been set forth in the publications of the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. For example: Organi- zation for the Care of Handicapped Children, and The Delinquent Child.’ Various books, useful in connection with a school program of mental hygiene, have been listed in a Research Bulletin in 1929.° The special problem of the defective—What necessary health measures should society take in the case of those persons who are feeble- minded ? Persons working with such handicap- ped individuals point out the difficulty of ever adjusting the mentally defective to normal so- cial existence.’ It has been recommended that the courts should increase their facilities for detecting and treating the offender who is feeble-minded or mentally-diseased.* In light of the menace to society of the pres- ence of mentally irresponsible individuals, so- cial workers have suggested a number of pre- ventive measures that could be employed by society : (1) Segregation of the insane or feeble-minded in special institutions; and (2) Sterilization of the mentally or physically diseased, to prevent their reproduction, with- out at the same time, removing them from normal association.® Up to this time, extensive application of the above measures await advance of public opinion and development of clinical facilities. Recreation—The Children’s Charter de- mands the following: Jt yan House Conference on Child Health and Protection. The School Health Program. New York: Century Co., p. Association. Health Education (Revised). Washington, D. C “The Principal and Progressive Movements in Education.” £ Yearbook, Department of Classroom Teachers, National Education Association, 1932, p. 169-80. 5 Published by Century Co., New York, 1932. _ © National Education Association, Division of Research. Research Bulletin 7: 59-66, 96; March, 1929. Washington, D. C.: “The Principal and Progfessive Movements in Education.” the Association. _ 7 Walker, Jean. “Factors Contributing to the Delinquency of Defective Girls,” University of California Publications in Psychology; and Davies, Stanley P. Social Control of the Mentally Deficient. ® Glueck, S. Sheldon. Mental Disorder and the Criminal Law. p. 472-74. _ *® Davies, Stanley Powell. Social Control of the Mentally Deficient, p. 105-8. See also: Thayer, Walter N., Jr. “Institu- tions for Defective Delinquents”; Whipple, Helen Davis. Making Citizens of the Mentally Limited, listed at end of bulletin. {177 ] For every child a community which recognizes and plans for his needs, protects him against physical dangers, moral hazards, and disease; pro- vides him with safe and wholesome places for play and recreation; and makes provision for his cultural and social needs. As in previously cited declarations of the Children’s Charter the emphasis is upon the community’s responsibility to safeguard the child’s recreation.’ Studies of delinquent groups show that a large proportion of the individuals had no contact with organized recreational facilities, Delinquency areas were shown to con- tain less than the minimum amount of play space considered adequate according to social standards. In addition, available amusements and sources of entertainment have been found to be hardly effective means of character training. The desires of children for novelty or their other interests are often exploited by operators of amusement houses ; activities of clubs are un- supervised ; and available reading matter lends interest to vice.” Only development of community interest in the child’s recreational life and responsibility for the kind of entertainment offered can bring about any material change. Salt Lake City has united various civic and welfare groups in a city-wide program for youth.? Elementary school principals in Chicago, Minneapolis, Mil- waukee, Newark, and other cities have de- scribed their procedures in providing neighbor- hood recreational and welfare activities.* “The National Recreation Association and other or- ganizations listed in Part VI of this bulletin have suggestions to offer to those interested in the recreational aspects of child health and protection.° Improving the Agencies of Justice Upon the police, the judges, the lawyers, and the prison officials falls the major respon- sibility for meeting the challenge of crime. In recent years these officials have turned to “‘pre- vention” as the way to better conditions. There are certain serious weaknesses and strengths of Hammer, American City 40: 119-20; January these “wheels of justice” which should | cussed at this point. Revision and simplification of the la: is the law that brands the individual as linquent or criminal. The whole prob. crime and delinquency cannot be treated quately without considering the structur, criminal law and the present organization 0; criminal justice. While any detailed conside; tion of these legal aspects is outside the of this bulletin, a few general points m» brought out. According to Edgar A. Doll: Many authorities believe that the contin of obsolete laws or of indefinite laws or | popular laws creates situations which eng disrespect for laws in general with consey social disorder. There is also much antiq legislation which obstructs police and court cedures, such as rules of evidence, technicalit systems of appeal, unequal or unreasonable alties which aggravate rather than ameliorar the control of crime. Other laws may be ineffect nonexistent, or subject to abuse, such as providing for adequate systems of probation, don and parole, indeterminate sentence, resti tion following criminal offenses, control of criminal “fence,” control of habitual control of deadly weapons and similar items must reckon with existing abuses in the tion and control of juries, and in the whole chinery of our judicial system, such as rules ¢ erning expert testimony, loopholes in prosecut judicial discretion in sentence, probation, plac: of commitment, fines vs. imprisonment, and s through a long chapter.® crimir What can the schools do about obsolete laws? If the schools send out young citizens who de- mand the revision of laws and insist upon wise legislative enactments, much progress wil! made. After all, public officials are moved }\ public opinion and that “opinion” should be as socially constructive as possible. Improvement of court procedures—VV ith respect to future development of court proce dure, these improvements, among others, ha\¢ been suggested: (1) extension to adult crim inals of methods and treatment given children of juvenile court age; (2) recognition of the assistance rendered by psychiatry; (3) more centralization of responsibility; (4) establis)- ment of investigating bodies to study procedural 1 Numerous articles deal with this problem, such as “The Relation of Public Recreation to Delinquency,” by Lee ! 1929. 2 See Middletown by Robert S. Lynd and Helen M. Lynd, published by Harcourt, Brace and Co., New York, 19 p. 93-502. ® Beeley, Arthur L., director. Boys and Girls in Salt Lake City. p. 182-83. ae : * National Education Association, Department of Elementary School Principals. “The Principal and His Community Eleventh Yearbook. Chapters VI and IX in particular. 5 U. S. Department of Labor, Children’s Office, 1929. PB 36-50. ‘0 ment Printin * Doll, Edgar A. “The ureau. Public Dance Hall. Publication No. 189. Washington, D. C.: Gove: ntrol of Crime,” Scientific Monthly 26: 553-54; June, 1928. [178] problems.’ Cooperation with the juvenile courts and the development of fine attitudes toward the courts are important contributions of the school in making the public tribunals highly effective. Ethics of the legal profession—In recent years some of the practices of lawyers have brought sharply to public attention the pro- fessional ethics of the bar. The devices resorted to in court te influence juries, the attempts to excite public opinion through the newspapers, the stampede of high legal talent to support the cases of criminals, the ‘ambulance chasers,”’ and similar petty tactics have lost much pres- tige for the legal profession.” Fortunately, there are strong local, state, and national professional associations at work to establish high levels of social conduct and service. Lawlessness in law enforcement—The Na- tional Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement has discussed police brutality as exemplified by the third degree.* Much can be said on both sides of this problem. Public opin- ion is so indifferent when the police are in- jured or even killed that enforcement officers claim that they must be brutal in self-defense. At the same time one is impressed by the in- frequent use of firearms and the lack of brutal- ity reported as common among the police of the British Isles. The police of Berkeley, Cali- fornia, and in other cities exemplify in this country the development of the scientific, highly-trained police officer. Schools working with the crime prevention bureaus of police departments can establish many right attitudes toward the police and law enforcement. Upon state colleges and uni- versities should fall responsibility for training skilled and intelligent enforcement officials. Probation and parole—Prison officials have long been urging the advantages of probation and parole. First, it costs about $40 a year for each person on probation and $20 to supervise each one on parole while maintenance in an in- stitution ranges from $300 to $550 per year.‘ Second, penologists and wardens agree that many persons are now sent to prisons when it is wholly unnecessary. These persons are sufh- ciently punished by the sentence, and under proper guidance can be kept in society in the role of good citizens. Third, a system of parole permits society to release prisoners under su- pervision which is better than unconditional freedom. Parole is also a device advocated by prison officials as a means of making the treatment of prisoners more flexible, Wardens and other ex- perts at the prison are usually qualified to de- termine when a prisoner should be returned to society. Because of the obsolete practice of met- ing out so many years of punishment for cer- tain types of crimes, the warden is unable to treat his prisoners in accordance with the many physical, mental, and social differences. Schools have opportunities and obligations with children who are on probation. How can these youngsters be interested in constructive work? How can the original predisposing en- vironment be modified? How can school ofh- cials cooperate with probation and court ofh- cials ? With offenders on parole public education should have something to offer in the way of opportunities for vocational and social rehabili- tation. Educational programs of prisons formatories—Reports of educational the prisons are far from encouraging. In fact, MacCormick has stated that, “Of all the fields in which the American penal institution gives evidence of futility, education very nearly heads the list.”® During 1927-28 MacCormick visited the prisons and reformatories for men and women in this country. Not a single com- plete and well-rounded educational program, adequately financed and staffed, was found in and re- work in the prisons. A discussion of present provisions by Best reports that the proportion of prisoners attend- ing school varies for adults in different institu- tions from one-fifth to two-fifths. In most in- stitutions there are one civilian teacher and one or more convict teachers. The maximum time in one day devoted to instruction is three or . 1 For discussions of needed improvements in the courts, see: Haynes, Fred E., Criminology, p. 111-16; Pound, Roscoe, Criminal Justice in America, p. 177-78, 188-91; Callender, Clarence N., American Courts, p, 224-30. These sources are listed at the end of this bulletin. 2See A Lawyer Tells the Truth by Morris Gisnet; Published by J. P. Kahn Co., New York, 1931. 160 p. 3 National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Report on Lawlessness in Law Enforcement, No. 11, June 25, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 347 p. * National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Report on Penal Institutions, Probation, and Parole, No. 9, June 23, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 344 p. 5 MacCormick, Austin H. The Education of Adult Prisoners, p. 38. [179] four hours. Instruction is generally of an ele- mentary order, ranging, as a rule, from the fourth to the eighth grades. The subjects taught are mostly reading and writing, with possibly some civics, commercial subjects, and music.' Libraries and reading materials constitute an element in educating prisoners. However, lack of funds and trained supervision have pre- vented library work among prisons from prov- ing its value. Correspondence instruction has proved its validity in several institutions.” In the prisons vocational training is given only incidentally in industries, on the prison farm, or in connection with maintenance de- tails. A few prisoners are taking vocational courses by correspondence, “but almost without exception they choose their courses without guidance, pay for them from their own funds, and study them without assistance from the prison authorities.” Reformatories for men have usually set up fairly elaborate programs of vo- cational education. Reformatories for women have a better opportunity than institutions for men to set up successful programs of vocational education, because the work of the institution provides training in so many occupations which women can enter after leaving the institution. Stutsman in his Curing the Criminal pre- sents on pages 185-86 a model educational plan, representing a composite of present institutional work: A. Literary and scholastic studies should be adopted according to the individual needs of the population, as follows: (1) Reading, writing, spelling, grammar, rhetoric, English composition, English literature, debating, and language study. (2) Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigo- nometry, surveying, and astronomy. (3) Physics, chemistry, physiology, raphy, natural history. (4) Geography, history, civics, etc. (5) Other studies as demanded. . Trade apprenticeship in blacksmithing, car- pentry bricklaying, plastering, stone masonry, cement finishing, painting, decorating, struc- tural iron work, automobile repairing, me- chanics, ete. . Agricultural training, using the various farm departments as a laboratory. These studies would embrace: stock raising, judging stock, dairying, poultry raising, agronomy, horticul- ture, floriculture, entomology, etc. geog- D. Engineering and kindred courses in me: cal engineering, electrical engineering engineering, mechanical drafting, archit: drafting, efficiency engineering, accountin; . Cultural training in music, music-ap, tion, art, drama, ete., using the recrea; activities for exhibition purposes. . Ethical and religious instruction. The lar religious services under the directi, the chaplain should be augmented by ¢; instruction for the entire population. evening each week at which educationa! ing pictures are shown, and followed ethical talks on character, habits, ho: truthfulness, our relation to society. presented by various successful business teachers, and professional men, in an esting manner. . Exhibitions, such as debates, dramatic entations, musicals, ete. A prison pap: which all may contribute under the c ship of the educational director. Religion a Vital Force The keynote of many current discussion: religious organizations and teaching is 1 tive. Some writers believe that present reliv cults are declining in influence and that church retains neither adults nor children However, it cannot be denied that a power! motive for “good citizenship” is to be found religious ideals and teachings. Practically all of the states have consti: tional or statutory provisions expressly | hibiting sectarian instruction or teaching religious doctrines in public schools. The rea: ing of the Bible in public schools is required statute in eleven states. While creed and co: troversial doctrines must be left to the chu: and to the home, there are fundamental! ligious experiences in which the school can pa ticipate. In this respect, the Commission Character Education has stated : It is commonly thought that the public schools must refrain from taking part in the teaching 0! religion. It is true that the schools cannot attempt to settle the controversial matters of doctrine 0: creed, but surely the schools can deal with thos experiences which are fundamental to the impulses and attitudes essential to religion. A study of the age-long yearnings and strivings of humanity must tend to make the individual religious in a funda- mental sense. Where appreciation of the needs 0! the world is developed and a desire to share i: meeting those needs is created, surely a religious 1 Best, Harry. Crime and the Criminal Law in the United States. p. 468-70. 2 MacCormick, Austin H. Op. cit. See Chapter 10. “The Library as an Agency of Education,” p. 150-79. Al Chapter 14, “Correspondence Instruction and University Extension Service,” p. 216-31. ® MacCormick, Austin H. Op. cit. See Chapter 9, ‘Vocational Education,” p. 99-149. Also, Best, Harry. Of. p. 470-72. [ 180 ] ilse has been gained. The world today needs religion as much as it ever did, perhaps more. This need can be met only by means of religious interpretation and leadership in terms of life as it is today. The schools can do much to prepare the way for such interpretation and such leader- imf| shit The Need for an Intelligent Public Opinion As one of six reasons for increase of crimes of violence during the last fifty years, is sug- vested: “The apathy and indifference of our best citizens toward their duty as citizens.”’” Previous sections of this bulletin have stressed the desirability of altering certain undesirable attitudes toward the juvenile delinquent and the adult criminal. Reform in police methods, prison practices, court procedures, and aspects of the problem must be supported by an enlight- ened public opinion. The individual citizen should help to alleviate the causes of crime by demanding wise legislation and impartial en- forcement. In brief, every prophylactic of crime depends ultimately upon active public support for its success.® The School’s Opportunity in Cooperation with Other Agencies of Society The place of education in the prevention of crime has received much attention from crim- inologists as well as from educators. Emphasis has been given largely to the strategic position in society occupied by the schools. Part IV has described in brief the special classes and schools already available for children who are tempera- mentally atypical, There are other ways, how- ever, in which the schools make a more positive approach to crime and delinquency. (1) The home—Even though present-day sociologists deplore the status of the family as a unit of control, for many years of the indi- vidual’s life the home is the chief influence. The home has the last word in what the child eats, wears, thinks, and does. It determines his ideals 1 National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. “Character Education,” Tenth 190, 2 Strawn, Silas H. Fifty Years’ Progress in Law. p. 189. and associates. Education is given both con- sciously and unconsciously. Imitation and sug- gestion mold the child’s character. The home consciously instructs the child in forms of cour- tesy, domestic life, literature, religion, sex and morality, play, and in some cases, industry. Home and school cooperation is necessary to insure the happiness and development of chil- dren.* Such cooperation requires that the school take account of the extent and quality of the home training. It should encourage better home conditions in such matters as food, venti- lation, clothing, sanitation. Agencies assisting in securing this cooperation are parent-teacher associations, school exhibits, visiting days for parents, visiting teachers and nurses, and sys- tems of full and frequent reports.° In a number of cities a complete study of a problem child requires that the visiting teacher call upon the parents. In these visits the teacher often discovers back of the “problem child” such home conditions as the following: (1) in- dulgence of the child, (2) great severity by parents, (3) uncooperative attitude toward the school, and (4) no adult supervision of the child. Often the visiting teacher discovers out- standing assets in the home which the school can use in its program.® As the home may contribute in a helpful or destructive way to the school program, the school makes a distinct contribution to the sta- bility and cultural level of the home. Depart- ments and officers within the school system specially promoting home and school coopera- tion are these: the visiting teacher, health serv- ice. department, department of census and attendance, the research department, and coun seling program. The subject of home and school cooperation is given extensive treatment in Chapter 14 of the Tenth Yearbook of the De- partment of Superintendence, National Edu- cation Association.” (2) The community—There has been ap- parent a consistent growth in use of schools as social, civic, recreational, or neighborhood cen- Yearbook, 1932. * Consult the bibliography at the end of this bulletin for further discussion of the importance of public understanding nd support. ‘ Reeve, Mrs. A. H., Chairman. Home and School Cooperation. Report of the White House Confererice on Child Health and Protection. New York: Century Co., 1932. 122 p. 5 See “Home Contacts Sought by the School” and other chapters in the 1932 Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association. ®* Culbert, Jane F. The Visiting Teacher at Work. p. 47. _” National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. ‘Character Education,” Tenth Yearbook, 1932. 315-32 [ 181 ] ters. Wider use of the school plant has been 1. Children showing definite signs of aby stimulated by university extension divisions, — | ene = are reported ? = , , ureau Specia rvi nN speci n state departments of public instruction, private a ae reves e epee fore Sie he? F pared for such reports. Accompanying this organizations, and day school groups. School- js a complete statement of the school histor: houses are now very generally used for com- permanent record card of the school syst: munity purposes, though only 5% percent are well as the analytical statement of pers r 8 : i sts I used regularly and as often as once a week. ‘Tits recreational habits and interests, a Tan edlteal mal b a special indications of maladjustment. re school would appear to be a natural com- 2. These cases are then referred to the munity center, especially in the case of the con- teachers for complete investigation of bot! solidated rural school.? and school conditions. This record beco: The schoolhouse has been used for lecture CU™U!ative one by means of weekly fo cenenak. enti inn seniin t exhibitions. “iti*® by the visiting teachers. s, P y purposes, art exhibitions, 3. All children are scheduled for < concerts, and pageants. The 1932 yearbook of clinical examination in the light of the info; the Department of Elementary School Princi- gained from school and home. Special atten: pals describes how the school may be used as an Sem to sensory defects due to the alarmin; employment center, a health and recreation cen- ped er obese -rocgaagaa to escape detect ter, or a civic center.* The many values of such 4. Weekly conferences are held for the dis use of the schoolhouse have been emphasized. sion of these cases in an attempt to formula: For instance, by provision of healthful leisure- well-rounded judgment of the proper wa time activities, the school center is helping to #dling each individual. : , 5. Recommendations are made to the su break down the barriers between people of dif- jendent of schools senandinn the necessi ferent creeds, nationalities, social and economic transferring children to the various special class strata, thus creating a basis for friendly contact and schools. Further than this, recommend: among them. In making available a construc- 4' also made for the establishment of addi: tive means of self-expression, the school center is increasing the happiness and worth of the >. individual. Delinquent children located by the poli: (3) Juvenile courts—There is a growing handled as follows: classes of a given type or additional types classes. tendency for school authorities, trained in the newer technics and viewpoints of child psy- 1. Whenever a child is detected commit chology, to handle maladjusted cases formerly s°™e juvenile offense of sufficient importan f i hn Reel =~ % four cltien demand police attention, he is escorted reterred to the juvenile courts. in a lew CHIeS 4 by the officer who secures the nam: the court and school authorities have developed address, and school attended. The following « coordinating child welfare units.‘ These units a complete report is made to the captain of are guided by the theory “that maladjustment Police detail assigned to this Bureau giving th: ‘ : a _ above information together with the offense « has definite causal factors of a physical, men mitted by the child. tal, or environmental nature which should be 2. Parents are notified to present themselves recognized and carefully considered before the _ the office of the Bureau of Special Service ac: child himself is held responsible.” panied by the child for a conference concerning The Jersey City organization established in the reported offense. , 3. Complete statements are taken from parents February, 1931, under the superintendent of and children regarding the family conditions, home schools, includes twenty-five attendance officers, Jife, and recreational habits of the child. They are six visiting teachers, five plain clothes police given to understand that continuance of such officers, a medical inspector, a dental inspector, offenses will lead to serious difficulty and are a\ . re vised in regard to the regulation of the children’s ist.° In . Sans a nurse, a psychologist, and a psychiatrist Acie abut eoammealinek Cate. handling school cases the procedure is as fol- 4. All of these cases are given the same clinical lows: examinations as that described for those reported 1 For information on community use of schools in the United States, see Glueck, Eleanor Touroff. The Communit) of Schools, listed in bibliography at end of bulletin. ; “ 2 Mueller, A. D. Progressive Trends in Rural Education. See Chapter 16, The Rural Community Center.” p. ® See “Community Center Activities,” Chapter VI, Eleventh Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Prin 2 “ = a Boerne Institute for Juvenile Research and the School System,” Eleventh Yearbook, Department of Element | Principals, 1932. p. 534-40. ; = wee yy sell of Special Service of the Jersey City school system were supplied to the Research Divisior Superintendent James A. Nugent. Space limitations prevent the publication of statistics showing the success of Superin': dent Nugent’s program. [ 182 ] ire nts home y are such iren’s inical 10 rted hy the school authorities, and the parents are ad- vised in regard to necessary treatment. vi 5. Follow-up visits are made to the home and the school by plain clothes officers who secure mation regarding the child’s activities until such time as there is sufhcient evidence that there is no further need for this follow-up work. In those cases where parents show the proper cooperation, and still the children continue to be delinquent, the child is taken before the juvenile irt with a complete statement of the case and the desirability of a correctional insitution is decided by the judge. This procedure has been necesssary in less than 10 percent of the cases which were formerly automatically referred to such a court. Even in school systems where no such com- plete organization can be established, there are at least three ways in which the school systems may help: (1) through the establishment of research bureaus to study child behavior; (2) by the improvement of each classroom situation so as to reduce pupil maladjustment to the minimum ;' and (3) by full cooperation with juvenile court authorities.” Adult education—Ot significance for educa- tional organization are the studies of adult learning published within the last five years.® While it was popularly believed that learning capacity declined with age, actual experiments seemed to indicate that the older student is as capable of acquiring knowledge and skills as the younger student, and perhaps more so. Approximately 900,000 men and women are enrolled in public evening schools annually.‘ It is estimated that 1,500,000 new students are enrolled each year by private correspondence schools. The total enrolment of university ex- tension students in the United States, exclusive of agricultural extension, was estimated at 250,000 in 1929. Associations originally organ- ized for religious and social purposes maintain auxiliary educational activities. The significance of adult education as a means of curbing crime perhaps lies to a large extent in the possibility of reaching parents.° Since many evidences of maladjustment appear in early childhood, the parents, as well as teach- ers, should know how to handle behavior piob- lems. Parent education has been called “a new force in education.” * Large numbers of parents have realized the value of systematic group study of their common problems. Material of assistance to T I them has been made available through the Child Study Association of Amer- ica, American Association of University Women, National Congress of Parents and Teachers, as well as child welfare research stations. Vocational maladjustment has been suggested as a factor in crime. This suggestion emphasizes the desirability of retaining children in school as long as possible, establishing educational facilities for workers,’ and providing some op portunity for re-educating those forced into idleness by technological changes in industry The Workers’ Education Bureau enrols fifty national and inter-national unions, eleven state federations, thirty-six central city labor bodies, sixty local unions, twenty trade union colleges and study groups, and six co-operative and stu- dent associations. The residential labor college at Brookwood established in 1921 at Katonah, New York. The International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union, a pioneer in work- was ers’ education, has the most highly developed educational among Other labor colleges are the Boston Trade Union College, Philadelphia Labor College, Cincinnati Labor College, and Portland (Ore. ) Labor College. program national unions. Character education — Criminologists and penologists have pointed out the school’s oppor tunity for crime prevention. Warden Lawes of Sing Sing Prison insists that schools must ex- tend themselves beyond any mere “illiteracy campaign’”’ if they are to develop in pupils a re- sponsive social outlook.* Other statements em- phasizing the character developing responsibili- ties of education are as follows: Upon the matter of possible juvenile delinquency, and perhaps also upon the matter of future adult 1 Wickman’s study of teachers’ attitudes in behavior cases shows that ‘many teachers are unfamiliar with the recent research and viewpoint of child psychology. See Children’s Behavior and Teachers’ Attitudes, Commonwealth Fund, New York, 1928. 247 p. *The problem of school-juvenile court relationship has been discussed by LeRoy F. Jackson in “Public Schools and Probation,” Probation 10: 1-2; Children’s Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor. 3 February, 1932, Consult various publications of the National Probation Association and the ? See Thorndike, Edward L., and others. Adult Learning, Macmillan, 1928, 335 p. ‘ Cartwright, Morse A. and Ely, Mary. Adult Education in the United States of America. p. 5, 8, 10. 5 For example, Intelligent Parenthood, Proceedings of the Mid-west Conference on Parent Education, University of Cie Press, 1926, 326 p. © For discussions of the potentialities of parent-teacher cooperation, see: National Congress of Parents and Teachers. A New Force in Education, listed in bibliography at end of this bulletin. * For discussion of workers’ education, see Peffer, Nathaniel. New Schools for Older Students. p. 203-43. ® Lawes, Lewis E. ““A Warden Looks at Education.” New York Times Magazine, July 31, 1932, p. 1-2, 13. [ 183 } DH paren criminality, the school can never have other than a great bearing. A large part of the child’s waking hours are in its hands, and under its influences— and at a time when the child’s character and in- terests are subject to almost measureless shaping and molding. Upon its schools society plates a heavy responsibility. It expects them to give the child committed to their care an equipment that will make of him a good citizen and not a potential law-breaker'’ The nation’s budget for crime has been shown to be about three times its expenditure for educa- tion. The reversal of these figures would bring salutary results without costing us an additional penny. It is probably safe to assert that the trebling of our budget for scientific education should reduce the cost of crime by two-thirds. This does not take into consideration the social and spiritual results which would accompany this transition.” It has remained the task of the educator to develop methods and objectives of direct and indirect moral instruction.* The Tenth Year- book of the Department of Superintendence, and the Seventh Yearbook of the Department of Classroom Teachers are devoted to the subject of character education.* These yearbooks do not set forth curriculums for character education as such, but present points-of-view looking toward development of more comprehensive and more constructive school life. They take up the theory, agencies, and objectives of character education, the part played by classroom pro- cedure, individual counseling, school organiza- tion and administration. With respect to the curriculum, the attitude taken is that “any curriculum that makes a sincere, intelligent, and courageous approach to the real problem of liv- ing is a character education curriculum.” The final pages of Chapter 9 of one of the yearbooks present the “Cardinal Principles of Education,” restated in the language of char- acter education. The potentialities of the schools are suggested in the outline. The princi- pal divisions of the outline are to this effect.” A. Is our school program meeting the intellectual needs of our boys and girls? B. Are our boys and girls getting some under- standing of the major fields of occupations and pro- fessions together with an appreciation of their opportunities and requirements? 1 Best, Harry. Crime and the Criminal Law in the United States. p. 578. 2 Parsons, Philip Archibald. Crime and the Criminal. p. 370. . ® For tests of personality and character see the Review of Educational Research, American Educational Res Association, June, 1932. 88 p. ‘ ional tion Association, Department of Superintendence. “Character Education.” Tenth Yearbook, 535 ye mer of Classroom Sesdbere, “The Classroom Teacher and Character Education.”’ Seventh Year 1932. 272 p. 5 National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. ‘Character Education,” Tenth Yearbook p. 239-42. ® See “A Warden Looks at Education.” New York Times Magazine, July 31, 1932. p. 1-2, 13. [ 184] C. Are our boys and girls intelligent a: sponsive to the requirements of health? D. Are our pupils growing in understand the principles upon which our nation is foun freedom, equality, implications of demo meaning of patriotism? Are these principles in the life of the school? E. Is the school preparing its pupils ¢ leisure time worthily? F. Are our boys and girls forming satisfactory ' standards of social relationships: (1) toward thei; contemporaries both of their own and of opposite sex, (2) toward the “elders” of their ¢ vironment—parents, teachers, civic leaders toward the handicapped of society? G. Are our pupils acquiring ethical habits conduct—playing fair, owning up, being honest work, learning to respect the rights and pro of others? Are they learning to regulate cond in terms of consequences to themselves ani ; others? Are the more thoughtful and mature | ing to regulate their conduct in terms of acc: principles? H. Are our boys and girls acquiring a sens personal debt to others for their part in building up a civilization for us; a debt to the institutions family, school, church, community, government and past civilizations? I. Are our children becoming sensitive and j sponsive to the needs of others; to the need friendly companionship on the part of new pupils to the need for friendliness and toleration on th: part of those who are “different” in dress speech, in nationality, and in temperament; to the need for helpfulness on the part of those who ar strange or have fallen behind in their work? School efficiency—Research and competent opinion both assign to the public schools other agencies of education a major role in ¢! prevention of crime. As Warden Lawes of Sin: Sing Prison has pointed out, the proper | charge of this obligation will require (| higher standard for teachers, (2) small classes to permit attention to individual ditte: ences, and (3) a new conception of the soci and scholastic goals of education. While tho improvements would require more expenditu for public education, ultimately the pul: budget would be balanced because of the re\: tively smaller expenditures for courts, po! work, and custodial care.® it ar ? tandi founded— democra iples Is t atisfactor ward their id of the F thei en- ders, habits ot honest 1 Property te conduct -S and t ure lear f accepted aA sense 1 building itutions of verninent e and re- need for W pupils on on the dress, nt; to the > who are ork? ompetent ools and le in the s of Sing oper dis e (1) smalle al ditter he socia ile those enditures e publi the rela: s, police ook, Yea ook, s SOAS Sle Uy ih re eas? Sea ipgid dy es eis: ee But the problem is more than one of improv- ing the existing school machinery. There is a need (1) to carry the advantages of modern education to every rural child,’ and (2) to ex- tend the period of exposure to modern education by increasing the holding power of the schools.* However excellent the educational facilities provided by the state, they are effective to the extent that they reach those for whom the schools are intended. Conclusion This bulletin has summarized the social and individual aspects of crime. Studies have been presented to show the association of crime con- ditions with intelligence, race, age, sex, mental disease, and other individual criminal charac- teristics. Other studies have indicated the con- nection between crime and such social condi- tions as unemployment, crowded living condi- tions, inadequate recreational facilities, and the broken home. While these investigations show that the normal individual must be re- sponsible for many of his acts—the modern viewpoint emphasizes society's responsibility to prevent and to remove the underlying environ- mental causes of crime. ——— — — 1 National Eaucation Association, Division of Research. 9: 230-302; September, 1931. * National Education Association, Division of Research 10: 76-132; May, 1932. Horace Mann sounded the “social concept of crime prevention” as early as 1845 when he wrote: If it is proved, with a reasonable degree of cer- tainty, that ninety-nine, ninety-five, ninety, e ghty, or any other given percentage of all children can be rescued from vice and crime, and can be so educated and trained as to become valuable citi- zens, but the State refuses or declines to do this work, then the State itself becomes a culprit; and, before the great moral Judge who is seated on the throne of the universe, it must stand a spectacle of shame and guilt, like one of its own inferior culprits before its own judicial tribunals.® The school is the social agency strategically placed to develop good citizens. Society ex- pects the school to accept every child regard- less of ‘“‘race, or color, or situation’’—and to “develop in each individual the knowledge, interests, ideals, habits, and powers whereby he will find his place and use that place to shape both himself and the society toward ever nobler ends.” * Obviously, such a stupendous educa- tional task cannot be accomplished without con- tinuous cooperation between the school, the home, the government, the church, and the other important agencies of society. “The Outlook for Rural Education.” Research Bulletin “Estimating State School Efficiency.” :Research Bulletin 3 See Life and Works of Horace Mann, Vol. IV. Boston: Lee and Shepard Publishers, 1891. p. 159 4 National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education of Education. Bulletin, 1918, No. 35, Office of Education. Washington, D. C.: Cardinal Principles Government Printing Office, p. 9. OVERNMENTS DO NOT see the future criminal or pauper in the neglected child, and therefore they sit calmly by, until roused from their stupor by the cry of hunger or the spectacle of crime. They erect the almshouse, the prison, and the gibbet, to arrest or mitigate the evils which timely caution might have prevented. The courts and the ministers of justice sit by until the petty delinquencies of youth glare out in the enormities of adult crime; and then they doom to the prison or the gallows those enemies to society, who, under wise and well-applied influences, might have been supports and ornaments of the social fabric—Horace Mann. Life and Works of Horace Mann, Vol. IV. Boston: Lee and Shepard Publishers, 1891. p. 6. [185 ] PART VI Organizations Interested in Crime Prevention low the names and addresses of a num! the most active organizations are given fo; erence. For lists of other agencies one ma) sult the Handbook of Social Resources United States of the American Red Cross A Handbook of Educational Organizat the federal Office of Education, In the preceding sections of this bulletin, reference has been made to the activities and publications of different organizations in the fields of education, law, and social work. The studies, bulletins, and reports of these organi- zations are of special interest to students of the whole problem of crime and delinquency. Be- Name of organization American Academy of Political id Social Science. American Association for Education. American Association of Psychia- tric Social Workers. American Bar Association Adult American Bankers Association... . American Family Welfare Associa- tion. American Foundation for Mental Hygiene. American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology. American Medical Association American Prison Association. .. . American Public Welfare Associa- tion. American Social Hygiene Associa- tion. Big Brother and Big Sister Federa- tion. Catholic Charities of the Archdio- cese of New York. Chicago Crime Commission Child Study Association of America. Child Welfare League of America Commonwealth Fund. ... Commonwealth Fund, Joint Com- mittee on Methods of Prevent- ing Delinquency .— General Federation of Women's Clubs, Department of Public Welfare. Illinois Association for Criminal Justice. Institute of Social and Religious Research. : Judge Baker Foundation Missouri Association for Criminal Justice. Address 3457 Walnut St. Philadelphia, Pa. 60 East 42d St. New York City, N. Y. 41 East 57th St. New York City, N. Y. 1140 North Dearborn St. Chicago, Ill. 22 East 40th St. New York City, N. Y. 130 East 22nd St. New York City, N. Y. 450 Seventh Ave. New York City, N. Y. 1028 Land Title Bldg. Philadelphia, Pa. 535 North Dearborn St. Chicago, III. 135 East 15th St. New York City, N. Y. 850 East 58th St. New York City, N. Y. 450 Seventh Ave. New York City, N. Y. 425 Fourth Ave. at 29th St. New York City, N. Y. 477 Madison Avenue New York City, N. Y. 300 West Adams St. Chicago, Ill. 54 West 74th St. New York City, N. 130 East 22nd St. New York City, N. 41 East 57th St. New York City, N. 50 E. 42nd St. New York City, N. 1734 N St., N. W. Washington, D. C. Springfield, Ill. 230 Park Ave. New York City, N. 40 Court St. Scollay Square, Boston, Mass. St. Louis. Mo. | National Committee Name of organization Motion Picture Producers and Dis- tributors of America, Inc. National Association of Visiting Teachers. National Bureau of Casualty and Surety Underwriters. National Board of Review of Mo- | | New York City, > tion Pictures. National Child Labor Committee National Child Welfare Associa- tion. National Commission on Law Ob- servance and Enforcement. National Committee for Mental Hygiene, Inc. National Committee and Prison Labor. on Prisons on Visiting Teachers. National Conference Agencies. National Conference of ork. National Congress of Parents and Teachers. National Education Association. . of Juvenile Social National Probation Association... National Recreation Association. . . New York State Crime Commis- sion. Russell Sage Foundation... Social Science Research Council. . U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. U. S. Department of the Interior, | Office of Education. S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Prisons. U. S. Department of Labor, Chil- dren's Bureau. U. White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. Address 28 W. 44th St New York City, ? 1421 Race St Philadelphia, | 1 Park Avenue New York City, > 70 Fifth Ave. 331 Fourth Ave New York City, N 70 Fifth Ave. New York City, > Tower Building 14th and K St., N | Washington, D. ‘ 450 Seventh Ave New York City, 250 West 57th St New York City, ) 8 West 40th St. | New York City, N House of Refuge Welfare Island, N 82 North High Si Columbus, Ohio 1201 Sixteenth St Washington, D. ( 1201 Sixteenth S: Washington, D. ( 450 Seventh Ave New York City, » 315 Fourth Aven: New York City, N Albany, N. Y. 130 East 22nd St New York City, N 230 Park Ave. New York City, N 14th St., between N. W. Washington, D. ( 18th and F Sts., N Washington, D. Tower Building 14th and K Sts., N. ' Washington, D. C 20th and Constitu' Ave., N. W. Washington, D. ( Interior Building, Washington, D. C I and Constitution V PART VII Selected Bibliography This bibliography shouid enable the reader liscover recent and readable material on many aspects of this problem. In an attempt to se only objective data, emphasis is given state nd federal reports, studies of actual prison oulations, and reports of various crime com- nissions. Part I. Statistics on Crime A. Classes and Definitions 1. CLARK, WILLIAM L., and MARSHALL, WILLIAM L. A Treatise on the Law of Crimes. Chicago: Callaghan and Co., 1927. p. 1. Includes a definition of crime based on legal decisions. 2. Dow, Grove SAMUEL. Crime and Its Preven- tion. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Edwards Brothers, 1927. Mimeo. p. 4-6, 84-94. Quotes classifications of crimes and criminals given by other writers. 3. Lawes, Lewis E. Life and Death in Sing Sing. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1928. Chapter 1, “Crime—What Is It” p. 1-17; Chapter 2, “The Criminal—Who and Why?” p. 18-28. Points out that crime cannot be considered apart from the letter of the law. It is now known that the “born criminal” type does not exist. The University Behevior- ot 4. Owens, ALBerT ALEXANDER. Problem Boy. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania, 1929. p. 14-17. Quotes definitions illustrating confusion of terminology in discussion of delinquents and behavior problem-cases. 5. Parsons, Puitie ARCHIBALD. Crime and the Criminal. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1926. Chapter 4, “Familiar Classifications of Crimi- nals,” p. 48-66. Lists classifications Lombroso, Garofalo, others. made by among of criminals and Parmelee, B. Statistics 1. Adult 6. BAumEs, CALeB H., chairman. Report of the Crime Commission, 1930. Legislative Document (1930) No. 98. Albany, New York: J. B. Lyon Co., 1930. 454 p. The recommendations cover prisons, pris- oners, police, psychiatric practices, procedures, and statistics. Criminals 7. JoHNston, JAMeEs A., chairman. Report of the California Crime Commission, 1931. Sacra- mento, California: California State Printing Office, 1931. 142 p. [ 187} 14. ot California Crime Commission relating to crime that state, with legislative Presents findings and recommendations situation in pro- posals. Meap, BENNeET. Federal in Jails, 1929-30. U.S. Dept. of Justice, Bureau of Pris ons. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 57 p. Covers federal offenders in 1,118 jails and Prisoners workhouses. Deals with prisoners under sen of held jail before trial. Gives information on offense, tence one year or less, and those in geographic distribution, nativity, and The charged race, also dis the covers and age. report prisoners during year maintenance costs. Meap, Bennet. “Police Statistics.” The An- nals 146: 74-95; November, 1929. Philadelphia American Academy of Political and Social Science. Presents statistics on crime rates, from data compiled by police departments. Mo rey, RAyMonpb. The Administration of Crim in Missouri. St. Louis, Missouri: for Criminal inal Justicé Missouri Association 1926. 56 p. Summary of Missouri Crime Survey in 1925. Tustic 2, Potter, Etten C. “Spectacular Aspects of Crime in Relation to the Crime Wave.” The Annals. 125: 1-19; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. Investigates statistics underlying prevailing conception of a crime wave. During 1875-1926 a decrease of 37.7 crime throughout the United States, in propor- tion to population. Article includes data on crime in Pennsylvania. there appeared percent in U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, BUREAU OF THE Census. Prisoners, 1923. Washington, D. C. Government Printing Office, 1926. 363 p. A census of persons on sentence in penal or reformatory,institutions January 1, 1923, and those committed to such institutions from Janu- ary 1 to June 30, 1923. Statistics on prisoners under age eighteen are not included. The re- port covers 2,341 institutions, 109,075 prisoners serving sentence, and 166,356 commitments. U. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, BUREAU OF THE Census, The Prisoner’s Antecedents. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Of- fice, 1929. p. Gives statistics on previous life of offenders committed in 1923 to state and federal prisons and reformatories. S. 79 4é U. S. DEPARTMENT oF COMMERCE, BUREAU OF THE CENSUS. Prisoners in State and Federal Prisons and Reformatories, 1928. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 48 p. Presents statistics on 55,746 prisoners re- ceived by ninety-seven prisons and reforma- tories in 1928. . U. S. DeparTMENT oF Justice, BuREAU OF INVESTIGATION. “Uniform Crime Reports.” Monthly Bulletin 2: 1-34; May, 1931. Wash- ington, D. C.: Government Printing Office. Includes data on offenses known May, 1931, to police in 1,197 cities, a number of counties, and possessions of the United States. . U. S. Deparrment or Justice, BurREAU oF Prisons. Federal Penal and Correctional In- stitutions, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: U. S. Penitentiary Annex Press, 1930. 90 p. Annual report for fiscal year ending June 30, 1930. . WicKEeRSHAM, Georce W., chairman. Report on Criminal Statistics. Report No. 3. National Commission on Law Observance and Enforce- ment, April 1, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1931. 205 p. Presents principles underlying criminal sta- tistics, a survey of such statistics in the United States by Sam B. Warner, and a critique of federal criminal statistics by Morris Ploscowe. 2. Juvenile delinquents . DearporrF, Neva R. “Some Aspects of Juve- nile Delinquency.” The Annals 125: 68-78; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. Information on extent, nature, and treatment of juvenile delinquency. . U. S. Department oF Lapor, CHILDREN’s Bu- REAU. Juvenile-Court Statistics, 1930. Bureau Publication No. 212. Washington, D. C.; Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1932. 69 p. Based on information supplied by ninety-two courts cooperating with Children’s Bureau in plan for obtaining uniform statistics on delin- quency, dependency and neglect cases dealt with by juvenile courts. Statistics published previously for 1927, 1928, and 1929. . WickersHAM, Georce W., chairman. Report on the Child Offender in the Federal System of Justice. Report No. 6, National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, May 28, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Government Print- ing Office, 1931. 175 p. Contains report by Miriam Van Waters on “Problems Presented to the Federal System of Justice by the Child Offender,” p. 7-175. Raises the following questions as a guide for its study: What is the volume of cases eighteen years and under appearing in federal district courts annually; what is the geographical dis- tribution? How far distant from home were these children when tried? What offenses are most common? What procedure has been used? Part II. Crime Costs and Schoo! Expenditures 21. Appleton, Ropert, chairman. Crimin, ceivers in the United States. Associati Grand Jurors of New York County, | Committee. New York: G. P. Putnam’. 1928. 143 p. Report of a survey covering the ec loss and conditions surrounding failure ¢, cover stolen goods. Takes up also related Jey practices and suggested revisions. . Lez, CuHartes A. “Maintenance of P, tiaries as Burden on Education.” United §; np Daily. Washington, D. C., January 29, 1932 p. 10. Claims that mounting costs of crime s sion decrease funds available for schools . Meap, Bennet. “Police Statistics.” Thy 4p. nals 146:74-95; November, 1929. Philadel»! American Academy of Political and Socia| Science. Presents statistics on police costs, parti: larly in connection with city police depart ments. Data given represent those off compiled by police departments. . WICKERSHAM, GeorGe W., chairman. Repo; on the Cost of Crime. Report No. 12, Nationa Commission on Law Observance and Enforce ment, June 24, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Goy- ernment Printing Office, 1931. 657 p. Following analysis of the cost of crime, con- siders the cost of administering criminal! tice, private expenditures for protection vate losses from criminal acts, losses to state and community, and the total cost of « Part III. Factors Associated with Crime A. General Discussion’ 25. Barnes, Harry Exmer. Battling the Crime Wave. Boston: Stratford Co., 1931. 245 p A brief, popular summary of essential! prin- ciples of the new scientific criminology and penology. . Best, Harry. Crime and the Criminal Law in the United States. New York: Macmillan Co 1930. 615 p. A consideration of crime and criminal! |aw in their present-day social aspects. Chapter 32, p. 262-70, deals with education in its relation to crime. . Brearvey, H. C. Homicide in the United State: Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1932. 249 p. A monograph presenting facts on the extent of homicide in the United States. Suggests ex- planations of the high rate of homicide in this country. Aims to bring out its social significance 1 General discussions of the nature and causes of crime may be found in the following references, cited more fully it other sections of this bibliography: Brasol, Boris. The Elements of Crime; Gillin, John Lewis. Criminology and Peno! and Kavanagh, Marcus A. The Criminal and His Allies. ' [188] olina xtent 5 eXx- this ance 9g, Errincer, CLAYTON J. The Problem of Crime. New York: Ray Long and Richard R. Smith, 1932. 538 p. A textbook on criminology covering (1) the criminal, (2) machinery of justice, and (3) so- ciety’s reaction to crime. GeiserT, Henry A. The Criminal. St. Louis, Missouri: B. Herder Book Co., 1930. 466 p. General study of the characteristics, early development, and reformation of the criminal. 30, HAYNES, Frep E. Criminology. New York: Mc- Graw-Hill Book Co., 1930. 417 p. Includes chapters relating to the criminal, social control, and prevention of crime and penal institutions. KUHLMAN, Aucustus FReperIcK. 4 Guide to Material on Crime and Criminal Justice. Pre- pared for Social Science Research Council, Com- mittee on Survey of Research on Crime and Criminal Justice, Justin Miller, chairman. New York: H. W. Wilson Co., 1929. 633 p. A descriptive, classified union catalog of books, monographs, and pamphlets in thirteen selected libraries; and of articles listed in lead- ing periodical indices relating to all phases of crime and criminal justice in the United States. . STEARNS, ALBERT WARREN. The Personality of Criminals. Boston: Beacon Press, 1931. 146 p. Treats crime as the general problem of the handicapped. Neglected childhood, mental and physical disease, and the primitive culture of immigrants seemed fundamental causes of crime. Recommends more attention to recrea- tion, health, use of leisure, and home surround- ings of problem children. . SUTHERLAND, Epwin H. Criminology. Philadel- phia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1924. 643 p. A textbook dealing with the whole subject of criminology from the nature and causes of crime, to courts, penal institutions, and preven- tive aspects. . WICKERSHAM, Georce W., chairman. Report on the Causes of Crime, Volume I. Report No. 13. National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, June 26, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 390 p. Among the factors in criminality discussed, includes the morphological, physiological, men- tal, social, economic, and political. B. Studies of Individual or Groups of Criminals' 35. GeHLKE, C. E. and Morey, RAyMonp. 4 Statis- tical Analysis of the Criminal Cases in the Courts of the State of New York for the Year 1925. Prepared for Sub-Commission on Statis- tics, John Knight, chairman. Albany, New York: J. B. Lyon Co., 1927. 80 p. Analysis of 25,018 arrests on felony charges in New York State, during 1925. GLUECK, SHELDON, and GLUECK, ELeANOR T. 500 Criminal Careers. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1930. 365 p. A study of the life histories of 510 men re- leased from the Massachusetts Reformatory, whose sentences expired in 1921 and 1922. The histories were studied from the following angles: (1) the history of the youths prior to their sentence; (2) their history while in the in- stitution; (3) their parole history; (4) their post-parole history, covering not only their criminal conduct, but their industrial activities, family life, economic history, use of leisure, habits, and other significant items, over the five- year period following expiration of parole. * Lawes, Lewis E. Twenty Thousand Years in Sing Sing. New York: Ray Long and Richard R. Smith, 1932. 412 p. A description of activities at Sing Sing, with accounts of some individual prisoners. The final chapter deals with the problem of the prison as an institution devised by society for punishment and reform. C. Influence of Specific Factors 1. Educational status Braso., Boris. The Elements of Crime. New York: Oxford University Press, 1927. p. 162-64. From the standpoint of criminology, illiteracy seemed of little significance. However, an il- literate might represent a mentally undeveloped person easily affected by bad environmental in- fluences. Illiteracy might also indicate moral neglect in childhood. However, “the mere fact that a person is unable to read and write does not induce him to become a criminal.”’ Dow, Grove SAMUEL. Crime and Its Prevention. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Edwards Brothers, 1927. Mimeo., p. 47-9. States that the ratio of illiteracy is higher in prison populations than in the general popula- tion. GILLIn, JoHN Lewis. Criminology and Penology. New York: Century Co., 1926. “Education and Crime,” p. 219-27. States that ignorance and general lack of cul- ture bear directly on the making of criminals. Lawes, Lewis E. Life and Death in Sing Sing. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1928. p. 40-1. Gives data on relation between education and types of crime as shown by statistics of Sing Sing prisoners. On intelligence tests the prison- ers as a group showed a slightly higher rating than the draft army of the United States in the late war. Murcuison, Cart. Criminal Intelligence. Worcester, Massachusetts: Clark University, 1926. Chapter 7, “Literacy,” p. 97-111. - See also the following references, cited more fully in other sections of this bibliography: Lawes, Lewis E. Life and Death in Sing Sing; Murchison, Carl. Criminal Intelligence; and Shaw, Clifford R., and others. Delinquency Areas. [ 189 ] A comparison of data for 3,932 white native- ers in the Western Penitentiary of P born men criminals and 51,620 members of the vania. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Weste: United States Army. The criminal was found tentiary, Board of Trustees, (No date much less literate. Presents information on mental ages . Parsons, Puitip Arcuipatp. Crime and the telligence quotients of the prisoners by Criminal. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1926. race, and nationality. p. 175-76. , 4. Mental defect Lack of opportunity to complete an adequate . Davies, STANLEY POWELL. Social Cont) education could not be isolated from other fac- Mentally Deficient. New York: Tho: tors in seeking a cause of crime. Crowell. 1930 389 p . ie . STUTSMAN, Jesse O. Curing the Criminal. New An account of the present status of ¢ York: Macmillan Co., 1926. p. 168. and investigation in the field of ment No very definite relation could be shown be- ciency. tween crime and illiteracy, nor could it be . Giueck, $. SHELDON. Mental Disorde) proved that education in letters is in itself suff- Crisknal Raw, Been: Linke. Brown cient to deter individuals from lawlessness. 1925. 693 p. 2. Environment Deals with the problem of the crimi . Evuiert, Jonn L., and McCroskey, Mark A. sane, their identification and legal stat “Environmental Conditions and Crime.’ The . Hearty, WitiiaAM. Mental Conflicts an Annals 125: 157-61; May, 1926. Philadelphia: conduct. Boston: Little, Brown and Co American Academy of Political and Social 330 p. Science. Concludes that study of mental confi: Includes the statement that “Better schools resents a scientific method of approachi where attention is given to the specific needs of tain problems of misconduct. Includes de: children, better trained teachers able to cope histories of specific cases. with simple mental and nervous problems, cur- ricula providing preparation for family life and avocational pursuits, vocational guidance, be- havior clinics, decent housing, comprehensive recreational programs to include all ages, play- grounds with able play leaders, mothers prop- erly trained for their function as home-makers— all will contribute to a better community life which would decrease environmental causes of delinquency.” 5. Nationality . Porrer, Etten C. “Responsibility of Society for . Harvey, Beatrice and SULLENGER, J. |: Prevalence of Crime.” United States Daily. “A Survey of the Cause and Extent of ( Washington, D. C. October 20, 1931. p. 10. among Foreigners in Omaha.” Univers/; Present conditions are ascribed to failure of Omaha Bulletin 1: 4-12; January, 1924 social units, such as the family, to function Based on a study of records for 1922 of the properly. The modern environment seems to Police Court, Criminal Court, Federal Crim- render it impossible for the family to retain inal Court, and Adult Parole Officer in Omaha its old social values. . LAsHiy, ArTHuR V., operating directo Missouri Crime Survey. New York: Macmi Co., 1926. Part 10, “Mental Disorder, ( and the Law,” by M. A. Bliss, p. 397-43 Based on results of three surveys cor in Missouri, with relation to insane, in of certain correctional institutions, and population in nine representative counti: . Ketsey, Cart. “Immigration and Crime.” / . Suaw, Cuirrorp R., and others. Delinguency Annals 125: 165-74; May, 1926. Philadelphia: Areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, American Academy of Political and S 1929. 214 p. Science. Includes data on geographic distribution of The article summarizes results of v: 7,541 adult offenders, (age seventeen to seventy- studies of crime among immigrants. Conc! five) placed in Cook County jail during 1920. there is no reason to believe that immig 3. Intelligence themselves are contributing unduly to the volume of crime. The crux of the problem seemed to lie in activities of the children immigrants. . Murcuison, Cart. Criminal Intelligence. Worcester, Massachusetts: Clark University, 1926. 291 p. A study of the backgrounds of criminals in . WickersHAM, Georce W., chairman. Repor! a number of state correctional institutions. Deals Crime and the Foreign Born. Report No. | with white native-born men criminals, white National Commission on Law Observance and foreign-born men criminals, negro men crimi- Enforcement, June 24, 1931. Washington, D.C nals, and women criminals. Does not find basis Government Printing Office, 1931. 416 p. for prevailing opinion that criminality and Opens with general discussion of crime and feeble-mindedness are closely related. the foreign born, presenting some recent statis- . Roor, WirttAM T., Jr., and others. 4 Psycho- tics and community studies. Points out that logical and Educational Survey of 1,916 Prison- statistics have never justified the popularly [190] supposed relation between immigration and rime. 6. The Press’ BrasoL, Bors. The Elements of Crime. New York: Oxford University Press, 1927. “The Press,” p- 165-85. States that general considerations of the 1uses and generation of criminality would minimize the influence of the press. The prin- pal danger of perverted publicity seemed to e its ultimate demoralizing effect upon social sychology. Morey, RAYMOND. A Study of the Relation of the Daily Press to Crime and the Administra- tion of Justice. Sub-Commission on the Causes and Effects of Crime, William Lewis Butcher, chairman. Albany, N. Y.: J. B. Lyon Co., 1927. 25 p. Considers charges made against newspapers concerning their relation to crime. Ii!ustrates from selected issues. The findings, when taken quantitatively, were inconclusive. 7. Prohibition laws An Ex-Criminat. “After Repeal—More Crime, or Less?” Scribner’s 89: 258-66; March, 1931. The writer believes that repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment would precipitate an unparalleled orgy of crime. SULLIVAN, Epwarp Dean. “Racketeers and Crime—After Repeal!” Redbook 55: 53-7, 120- 22; August, 1930. Repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment, ac- cording to Sullivan, would direct energies of hootleggers into other channels. . WICKERSHAM, GeorGE W., chairman. Report on the Enforcement of the Prohibition Laws of the United States. National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. January 7, 1931, House Document No. 722. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 162 p. Report on benefits and abuses occurring under prohibition laws before and after adop- tion of the Eighteenth Amendment to the Con- stitution. Part IV. The Problem of the Delinquent Child A. General Discussion?” Burt, Cyrit. The Young Delinquent. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1925. 619 p. A study of causes of youthful delinquency and methods of treatment. Limited to children who are subnormal in morality and character. 3. Canor, Freverick P., chairman. The Delinquent Child. White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, Committee on Socially Handicapped—Delinquency. New York: Cen- tury Company, 1932. 499 p. A discussion of the delinquent child in his relationships to social and political agencies. Van Waters, MiriaM. Youth in Conflict. New York: Republic Publishing Co., 1925. 293 p Describes situations of conflict between young people and established social standards Written from point of view of the social worker, and largely to arouse interest in the problem of delinquent youth. WICKERSHAM, GeorGE W., chairman. Report on the Causes of Crime, Volume II. Report No. 13. National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, June 26, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 401 p. Presents results of social research studies in the field of delinquency. Limited to data con cerning community, play group, gang, and family. B. Studies of Individual or Groups of Delinquents * BeeELey, ArTHUR L., director. Boys and Girls in Salt Lake City. Salt Lake City, Utah: Uni versity Press, July, 1929. 220 p. Aims to determine nature, extent, and de- sirability of recreational and leisure-time ac- tivities of boys and girls age eight to eighteen in Salt Lake City. Data secured by question- naire sent to 7,500 pupils, some recreational case studies, and observation of recreational activi ties with which boys and girls come in contact. Burke, Dororny WILLIAMS. Youth and Crime. U. S. Department of Labor, Children’s Bureau Publication No. 196. Washington, D. C.: Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1930. 205 p. Study of prevalence and treatment of de- linquency among boys over juvenile-court age in Chicago. Based on records of the police court, jail, and municipal court, from 1915 to 1925. An analysis of a selected group of cases dealt with by the boys’ court branch of the municipal court, and detailed studies of eighty- two of the cases form the body of this report. Evmer, M. C. The Juvenile Delinquent in St Paul, Minnesota. St. Paul: Community Chest, 1926. 48 p. A study of 460 juvenile delinquents in St. Paul, in 1925. Murray, VirGcinta M., chairman. A Study of Delinquent and Neglected Negro Children be- fore the New York City Children’s Court, 1925. New York: Joint Committee on Negro Child Study in New York City, 1927. 48 p. _, See also: Cole, Virginia Lee. The Newspaper and Crime; Holmes, Joseph L. “Crime and the Press.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, May and August, 1929. aa? See also the following references, cited more fully in the section of this bibliography under Part I: Deardorff, Neva R. Some Aspects of Juvenile Delinquency;” and Lenroot, Katharine F. Juvenile Delinquency. : See also the two following studies prepared by Harry Shulman, and cited in the section on environment, below: 4 Study of Delinquency in a District of Kings County, and A Study of Environmental Factors in Juvenile Delinquency. [ 191 ] Deals with four aspects of the problem, as follows: (1) Extent of negro delinquency and neglect; (2) character of offenses for which negro children are brought into court; (3) dis- position of negro delinquency and neglect cases; and (4) present facilities for care of delinquent and neglected negro children. 70. SHaw, Ciirrorp R. The Jack-Roller. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930. 205 p. One of a series of studies of repeated male offenders under age seventeen on parole from correctional institutions. Published to illustrate the use of “own story” material in the study and treatment of the delinquent child. . SHAw, CLirForp R., and Moore, Maurice E. The Natural History of a Delinquent Career. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930. 280 p. The second volume in a series of case studies, following publication of The Jack-Roller. Rep- resents the history of a young male recidivist sentenced to a state penal institution a few months prior to his seventeenth birthday, after being implicated in a series of crimes of vio- lence. . SHULMAN, Harry M. From Truancy to Crime —A Study of 251 Adolescents. Sub-Commission on Causes and Effects of Crime, William Lewis Butcher, chairman. Albany, New York: J. B. Lyon Company, 1928. 139 p. See p. 437-575, Re- port of New York State Crime Commission for 1928. A study of 251 boys in the Borough of Man- hattan who were released from the Truant School. Covers history following release, and aspects of their remote childhood. . SHULMAN, Harry M. 4 Study of Delinquency in Two Rural Counties. Sub-Commission on Causes and Effects of Crime, William Lewis Butcher, chairman. Albany, New York: J. B. Lyon Co., 1927. 48 p. A study of state and county penal admissions in two counties of western New York. . SHULMAN, Harry M. A Study of Problem Boys and Their Brothers. Sub-Commission on Causes and Effects of Crime, William Lewis Butcher, chairman. Albany, New York: J. B. Lyon Co., 1929. 408 p. See p. 195-602, Report of New York State Crime Commission for 1929. From cases coming to children’s court of New York County in 1927, forty pairs of brothers were selected for study, in each case one of the brothers representing a non-delin- quent. The data were considered from the following standpoints: chronological data, gen- eral conduct, intelligence, temperainent, physi- cal condition, character, associates, interests, school and vocational history, home and family. . Stawson, Joun. The Delinquent Boy. Boston: Richard G. Badger, 1926. 477 p. Presents data on approximately half the inmates of four institutions for delinquent boys in New York State. 76. SULLENGER, THOMAS Ear. Social Determ in Juvenile Delinquency. Omaha, Nebr.: |) las Printing Co., 1930. 87 p. An analysis of 1,145 juvenile delinque: pearing before Juvenile and Domestic tions Division of the Omaha District Cou; ing 1922-27. Comparisons made with stu same length of time of seventy-five ca: Columbia, Missouri. C. Influence of Specific Factors 1. Child labor’ . Lewis, Ciare L. “Child Workers in an | ployment Period.” American Child 13 January, 1931. New York: National Child bor Committee, 331 Fourth Avenue. Points out that current unemploymen: ditions among adults have forcibly cd strated that the younger and more untra the applicant, the fewer his opportunities | securing worthwhile employment. “They Belong in School.” American C/ 1, 4; September, 1931. New York: Nat Child Labor Committee, 331 Fourth Ave: Presents results of study during 193! National Child Labor Committee on ret unemployed children to school. Forty-six . in twenty-one states reported unemployed « dren brought back into school system on basis approximating full-time attendance. 2. Environment . Boorne, Viva B. “Criminality and the Home The Annals 125: 192-200; May, 1926. Philadel phia: American Academy of Political and So- cial Science. States there is some evidence to indicate | present organization in many homes is not conducive to development of satisfactory stand- ards of conduct and that lack of supervision in the home is partly responsible for a large share of juvenile delinquency and even misconduct i! adult life. . SHAw, CuirForp R., and others. Delinguenc) Areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1929. 214 p. Found that rates of truancy, delinquency and crime reflected differences in community backgrounds. High rates occurred in areas characterized by physical deterioration and declining population. Rates also varied versely in proportion to distance from cente: of the city. . SHULMAN, Harry M. 4 Study of Delinguenc) in a District of Kings County. Sub-Commis- sion on Causes and Effects of Crime, William Lewis Butcher, chairman. Albany, New York J. B. Lyon Co., 1927. 57 p. An analysis of certain environmental! {ac- tors in juvenile delinquency, initiated by cit) life. Selection of precinct based on police de- partment records of arrests of juvenile de!in- 1 See also: Van Waters, Miriam. Youth in Conflict, cited in other sections of this bibliography. Chapter 4, p. 111-23 deals with MCintlice in Industry.” ; } 192 tand- on in share Ict 1n quents in all precincts in Brooklyn during 1925. Special reference made to factors of housing, spare-time activities, commercial rec- reation, and gang life. SHULMAN, Harry M. A Study of Environ- mental Factors in Juvenile Delinquency. Sub- Commission on Causes and Effects of Crime, William Lewis Butcher, chairman. Albany, New York: J. B. Lyon Co., 1928. 93 p. See p. 577-699, Report of New York State Crime Commission for 1928. Survey of types and extent of juvenile de- linquency in a portion of District No. 1 of Manhattan Children’s Court, New York City. The study, made in 1926, dealt with 819 boys and 107 girls who came to attention of public and private agencies. 3. Intelligence 3. LASHLY, ARTHUR V., operating director. The Missouri Crime Survey. New York: Macmil- lan Co., 1926. Part 10, “Mental Disorder, Crime and the Law,” by M. A. Bliss, p. 397- 430. A study of 381 out of 417 juvenile delin- quents in St. Louis, giving information on mental age. The middle 50 percent had intel- ligence quotients between 65 and 89; 90 per- cent had intelligence quotients below 100. 4. Mental defects 3+. GRIMBERG, L. Emotion and Delinquency. New York: Brentano’s, 1928. 147 p. A clinical study of five-hundred delinquents, to determine whether mental defectiveness is a cause of delinquency. 5. LasHty, ArtHurR V., director. The Illinois Crime Survey. Chicago: Illinois Association for Criminal Justice, 1929. 1108 p. Chapter 15, by H. Douglas Singer, p. 737- 810, deals with “The Deranged and Defective Delinquent.” . Watuin, J. E. Watrace. “Feeble-mindedness and Delinquency.” Mental Hygiene 1: 585-90; October, 1917. New York: National Commit- tee for Mental Hygiene, 450 Seventh Avenue. Survey of conservative literature on relation of feeble-mindedness to delinquency revealed estimates of proportion of feeble-minded per- sons among delinquent groups falling below 25 or 30 percent. 5. Motion pictures - AppaMs, Jane. The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets. New York: Macmillan Co., 1909. Chapter 4, “The House of Dreams,” p. 75-103. Discusses attraction of and at times unde- sirable influence of movies on young people. Mircnect, Atice Mitter. Children and Movies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929. 181 p. Based on a study of the movie experience of 10,052 Chicago children, representing three groups: average public-school children, juve- [ 193 ] nile delinquents, boy and girl scouts. Delin- quent children’s contact with movies exceeded that of the other children. 89. Perry, CLARENCE ARTHUR. The Attitude of High-School Students toward Motion Pictures. New York: National Board of Review of Mo- tion Pictures, 70 Fifth Avenue, 1923. 55 p. Presents data from 1922 questionnaire study involving 37,505 high-school students. Prefer- ences as to screen performers and photoplays seemed intelligent and wholesome, in general. The educational film did not realize its pos- sibilities. 90. Tuomas, Aucustus O., chairman. The Neigh- borhood and Its Motion Pictures. Committee on Children’s Pictures. New York: Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America, 28 W. 44th St., 1930. 109 p. Manual for community worker interested in best motion pictures for the family. D. Early Indications of Delinquency . Morcan, Joun J. B. The Psychology of the Unadjusted School Child. New York: Mac- millan Co., 1926. 300 p. To develop character in a pupil requires, in addition to the proper attitude on teacher's part, a knowledge of mechanism concerned in trait development, deviations liable to occur, signs of such deviations, their causes, and proper remedial measures. 92. NorTON, PARKER LAVELLA. Early Indications of Delinquency in Problem Boys. Master's thesis, Seattle, Wash.: University of Washington, 1926. 153 p. ms. Analyzes problem boy situation in Seattle public schools, by tracing, through interviews with 228 teachers, school histories of fifty boys in local Boys’ Parental School. Also presents data from teachers in twelve Seattle grade schools on questionnaire concerning problem traits. . RAUBENHEIMER, ALBERT SYDNEY. An Experi- mental Study of Some Behavior Traits of the Potentially Delinquent Boy. Psychological Monograph: Vol. 34, No. 6. Princeton, New Jersey: Psychological Review Co., 1925. 107 p. Attempts to devise method of analysis whereby certain delinquent tendencies in boys may be determined prior to their crystalliza- tion in permanent habits of thought and action. E, Extent of Behavior Difficulties among School Children 94. Berry, CHARLES Scott, chairman. Special Edu- cation: the Handicapped and the Gifted. White House Conference on Child. Health and Pro- tection, Committee on Special Classes. New York: Century Co., 1931. p. 6. States that in the United States a total of 675,000 children, or at least 3 percent of the elementary school enrolment, present behavior problems. . Paynter, RicHarp H., and BLANCHARD, PuyL- Lis. A Study of Educational Achievement of Problem Children. New York: Commonwealth Fund, Division of Publications, 1929. 72 p. A group of 167 children were examined in Los Angeles, 87.4 percent showing behavior difficulties; 163 examined in Philadelphia showed behavior problems in 84 percent of the cases. F. Types of Behavior Difficulties . Ackerson, Luton. Children’s Behavior Prob- lems. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931. 268 p. A statistical study of 5,000 children examined consecutively at Illinois Institute for Juvenile Research. Takes up relation of children’s be- havior problems to age and intelligence, as shown in group of 4,952 white children. In- dividual study was made of 154 frequently ap- pearing personality and conduct problems. . BRUECKNER, Leo J., and Mersy, Ernest O. Diagnostic and Remedial Teaching. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1931. Chapter 1, “Evi- dences and Causes of Maladjustment in our Schools,” p. 1-16. Statistics on age-grade progress and non- promotion seemed to indicate serious malad- justments in schools. Factors contributing to maladjustments classified as mental, physical, pedagogical, emotional, volitional, social, and moral. . Martens, Evise H. dn Annotated Bibliography on the Education and Psychology of Excep- tional Children. U. S. Department of the In- terior, Office of Education. Pamphlet No. 23. July, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. p. 7-18. A list of references on behavior problems and juvenile delinquents. Covers general prin- ciples, clinical procedures, case studies, re- lated surveys, and research. . NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR MENTAL HycIENE. Behavior Problems of School Children. New York: the Committee, 450 Seventh Avenue, 1931. 20 p. The four sections of the pamphlet deal re- spectively with the nervous child, the truant, the bad boy, and the retarded child. . NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION AND Na- TIONAL CONFERENCE OF SoctaAL Work, Cooper- ATING COMMITTEES ON BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS OF CHILDREN. Report as Adopted in Joint Ses- sion at Cleveland, Ohio, May 27, 1926. Wash- ington, D. C.: National Education Association, July, 1926. 15 p. Deals with three topics: (1 children who present behavior problems; (2) objectives of cooperating committees on behavior problems of children; (3) means of attaining these ob- jectives. 101. Owens, ALBerT ALEXANDER. The Behavior- Problem Boy. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania, 1929. 188 p. University of Study of behavior-problem boy, with to factors surrounding his developmen: school career, and effectiveness of disci school in treating him. Saytes, Mary Bueti. The Problem ( Home. New York: Commonwealth Fund sion of Publications, 1928. 342 p. Discusses most typical and frequentl) ring problems of parent-child relatio: Based on records from clinics conducted five-year period under Commonwealth P for the Prevention of Delinquency. . SayLes, Mary B. The Problem Child in § New York: Joint Committee on Meth Preventing Delinquency, 1925. 288 p Illustrates common types of problems school children which might lead to serio. manent maladjustment. Indicates method: by visiting teachers in helping such child . TrMME, ARTHUR R. “The Role of Physical ( ditions in Behavior Problems.” Menta! IH 15: 468-79; July, 1931. New York: Nations Committee for Mental Hygiene, 450 Se Avenue. According to the writer, rational treat of behavior problems must recognize influenc: of physical conditions and their social in tions. However, influence of physical cond is apparent when individual studied as from physical, intellectual, emotional, and s« standpoints. G. Educational Facilities for Delinquents 1. Special schools 105. CLEVELAND City ScHOOL District, SUPERIN ENT. Thomas A. Edison School. Report to 8 of Education, 1929-30. Cleveland: P Schools, 1930. 16 p. The Thomas A. Edison School for 8 teaches the boys who are educationally ma justed elsewhere. . Heck, Arcu O. Special Schools and Classes in Cities of 10,000 Population and More in | United States. Bulletin, 1930, No. 7. U.S. D partment of’ the Interior, Office of Educat Washington, D. C.: Government Printing © fice, 1930. p. 3-6. Presents data on cities having parental schools, disciplinary schools, and classes {01 truants and delinquents. 2. Special classes . Kuwnzic, Rosert W. Public School Education Atypical Children. Bulletin, 1931, No. 10. | Department of the Interior, Office of Educat Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Ot! 1931. 160 p. An analysis of educational opportunities | vided atypical (including disciplinary) child in large cities, and unit costs of this educati Part I covers thirty states having cities of 0\ 100,000 population; Part II, sixty-eight cit of over 100,000 population. [ 194] MarTENS Exise H. Biennial Survey of Educa- »n in the United States, 1928-1930. (Advance iges, Vol. 1) U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1931, No. 20. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Of- ce, 1931. Chapter 11, “Education of Exceptional Children,” 38 p. Considers state, city, and county provisions for education of exceptional children, prepara- tion of teachers, and mental hygiene facilities. 3. Behavior c'inics’ Brown, SANGER, and Porrer, Howarp W. The Psychiatric Study of Problem Children. Utica, New York: New York State Department of Mental Hygiene, 1930. 152 p. Prepared for use of child guidance clinics and institutions handling problem children. An at- tempt to present a general outline of methods of examination approved by qualified workers in the field. HitpreTH, Gertruve H. Psychological Service for School Problems. Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York: World Book Co., 1930. 317 p. Describes implications of psychological serv- ice for educational institutions, progressive movements in education creating need for this service, and actual work of administering psy- chological service in schools. STEVENSON, GEorGE S., and Bassett, CLARA. Di- rectory of Psychiatric Clinics for Children i in the United States. New York: Commonwealth Fund, Division of Publications, 1928. 181 p. Includes only clinics providing regular serv- ice to public for study and treatment of chil- dren’s behavior problems, and having psychia- trists regularly on the staff. Truitt, RALPH P., and others. The Child Guid- ance Clinic and the Community. New York: Commonwealth Fund, Division of Publications, 1928. 106 p. A group of papers covering function and re- lationships of clinic as part of the organized social effort of the community. On p. 64-82 Wil- liam L. Connor discusses “The Child Guidance Clinic and the Public Schools.” . U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, CHILDREN’s Bu- REAU. List of Psychiatric Clinics for Children in the United States. Publication No. 191. Wash- ington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1929. 28 p. List of clinics established up to April 1, 192 4. Visiting teacher . CuLBert, JANE F. The Visiting Teacher at Work. New York: Commonwealth Fund, Divi- sion of Publications, 1929. 235 p. A discussion of professional standards, pro- cedure, and administrative relationships of the visiting teacher. Based on experience of visiting teachers in thirty communities. Evuis, MAspeL Brown. The Visiting Teacher in Rochester. New York: Joint Committee on Methods of Preventing Delinquency, 1925. 205 p Study of visiting teacher from viewpoint of social worker. Describes organization and de- velopment of visiting teacher work in Rochester, New York. On p. 128-31 gives results of study of seven cases of truancy treated by court repre- resentative in Rochester, 1923-24 5. Teacher training Benson, CHARLES E., and ALTENEDER, Louise E. “Mental Hygiene in Teacher-Training Institu- tions in the United States: A Survey.” Mental Hygiene 15: 225-41; April, 1931. New York: National Committee for Mental Hygiene, 450 Seventh Avenue. Reports results of questionnaire circulated in January, 1930, to determine the training now provided teachers in principles and practice of mental hygiene. Marked progress appeared since 1919-20 when similar survey was made. NATIONAL EpucaATION AssoctATION, COMMITTEE ON BeHAvior ProspLemMs. The Preparation of Teachers for Dealing with Behavior-Problem Children. Report presented at Minneapolis, July, 1928. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1928. 11 p. \ discussion of present training facilities and minimum essentials in preparation for teachers of behavior-problem children. 6. Treatment and care of delinquents AppaMs, JANE, and others. The Child, the Clinic, and the Court. New York: New Republic, 1925. 344 p. A group of twenty-seven papers covering, in Part I, “The Personality of the Child”; in Part II, “The Clinic and a Symposium on Funda- mental Behavior”; in Part III, “The Court.” Appition, Henrietta. City Planning for Girls. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1928. 150 p. A study of social machinery available for case work with girls in Philadelphia. Comments on present methods, brief histories of past experi- ments and recommendations for future activities in this line. Bonn, Eart D., and Appet, Kennetu E. The Treatment of Behavior Disorders Following Encephalitis. New York: Commonwealth Fund, Division of Publications, 1931. 163 p. Describes hospital treatment given forty- eight children whose behavior had been ef- fected by encephalitis. Brings out occurrence and treatment ef behavior disorders following mild injuries to the brain. 1 For further material on child guidance clinics see the following reference, cited more fully in other sections of this bibliography: Thomas, William I., and Thomas, Dorothy Swaine. The Child in America. A more recent directory of psychiatric clinics than that cited above is being prepared by the Commonwealth Fund. [195] . Brown, L. Guy. “The Problems in Juvenile Delinquency and Dependency.” Proceedings, 1930. Louisville, Kentucky: National Confer- ence of Juvenile Agencies, 1930. p. 53-77. Among other problems takes up that of evaluating present methods of handling cases, training and qualifications of workers, and pre- ventive measures. . Dosss, Harrison A. “Institutional Care for De- linquent Children: A New Appraisal” The Annals 151: 173-79; September, 1930. Philadel- phia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. Points out increasing attention given delin- quent children, with accompanying specializa- tion of institutions for their care. . Evuiorr, Maser Acnes. Correctional Education and the Delinquent Girl. Harrisburg, Pennsyl- vania: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Depart- ment of Welfare, No date. 112 p. An attempt to test objectively program and methods of modern reformatory training. Based on follow-up study of 110 girls committed to Sleighton Farm, at Darlington, Pennsylvania, during 1913, 1914, and 1915. . Hearty, WiLuiAM, and Bronner, Avucusta F. Delinquents and Criminals. New York: Macmil- lan Co., 1926. 317 p. An attempt to estimate effectiveness of treat- ment upon certain offenders. Based on case studies and follow-up work of repeated juvenile offenders in Chicago and Boston. . Heary, WituiAM, and Bronner, Aucusta F. “Juvenile Detention Homes.” The Annals 151: 180-83; September, 1930. Philadelphia: Amer- ican Academy of Political and Social Science. Deals with administrative-advantages of de- tention and the disadvantages accruing to in- dividuals therefrom. Concludes detention of juveniles very frequently inimical to interests of society and fundamental intentions of good juvenile court procedure. . Hearty, Witi1aM, Bronner, Aucusta F., Bay- Lor, EpirH M. H., and Murpny, J. Prentice. Reconstructing Behavior in Youth. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1929. 325 p. Study of 501 problem children placed in fos- ter homes and studied over an eight-year period. . Jounson, Kate Burr, chairman. Organization for the Care of Handicapped Children. White House Conference on Child Health and Pro- tection, Committee on National, State, and Local Organization for the Handicapped. New York: Century Co., 1932. 365 p. A study of public and private provisions made for the handicapped, including the delin- quent child. Services developed for the delin- quent children include the juvenile court, visit- ing teacher service, and child study clinic. . Kinc, ANNA Exizapetu. Changing the Delin- quent Attitude. Cleveland, Ohio: Western [196 ] Reserve University, School of Applied So, Sciences and Catholic Collegiate Ass 1927. 80 p. Describes methods and agencies oper sting |; successful adjustment of delinquent girls. Ba... on records of forty-four girls, an intensi being made in fifteen cases. . Reeves, MarGcareT. Training Schools for Deli quent Girls. New York: Russell Sage | tion, 1929. 455 p. A study of fifty-seven training sch girls, undertaken for Department of Child Hel, ing of Russell Sage Foundation. Aims in part; ascertain tendencies and develop standards. [p formation obtained through personal visits ¢, institutions. Part V. The Social Agencies of Crime Prevention A. General Discussion . Dott, Epcar W. “The Control of Crim Scientific Monthly 26: 551-56; June, 1928 Discusses seven methods of approach to study of crime prevention: (1) statistics; (2) predis- posing conditions; (3) opportunity for crime (4) criminal law; (5) law enforcement punishment and correction; and (7) rehabilita- tion of offenders. . Kinc, Crype L., editor. “Modern Crime: Its Prevention and Punishment.” The Annals 125 1-286; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. The four parts of this issue cover (1) modern tendencies in crime; (2) judicial procedure and modern crime; (3) prevention of modern crime; and (4) punishment of modern crime as a means of crime prevention. . SmiTH, Barry C., chairman. Commonwealth Program for the Prevention of Delinquency Progress Report. Publication No. 8. New York: Joint Committee on Methods of Preventing De- linquency, 1925. 47 p. Describes activities in promoting communit) services for understanding and guidance of behavior-problem children. The program aimed to demonstrate methods of psychiatric clinics and visiting teachers, and to enlarge training facilities for workers in these fields. . Van Waters, MiriaM. Youth in Conflict. New York: Republic Publishing Co., 1925. Chapter 12. “A Community Program,” p. 257-80. Outlines a community program for adjust- ment of delinquents. . Vottmer, Aucust. “The Prevention and [Detec- tion of Crime as Viewed by a Police Officer.” The Annals 125: 148-53; May, 1926. Philadel- phia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. Urges further cooperation of public, press, and pulpit with police representatives. ( rime to study predis- crime 125 nerican modern cedure modern 1 crime wealth uency: + York: ng De- munity nce of aimed clinics ‘aining , New hapter idjust- Detec- ficer i iladel- B. Economic Welfare BonGER, WILLIAM AbDRIAN. Criminality and Economic Conditions. (Translated by Henry P. Horton.) Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1916. 706 p. Reviews literature available on relation be- tween economic conditions and criminality, and discusses the possible consequences of the pres- ent economic system. . Ketso, Ropert W. “Character Last.” Survey 66: 303-04; June 15, 1931. According to the writer, social consequences of current economic conditions fall most heavily on children. 37. LEWISOHN, ADOLPH. “Some Factors in Crime ’ Prevention.” The Annals 125: 135-37; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. As factors indirectly contributing to the de- crease of crime, suggests the extension of educa- tion among children and general public; better housing conditions, reasonable hours of work, facilities for rest, recreation, and wholesome amusement for the masses; elimination of un- employment; and improvement of conditions among persons finding it difficult to secure an adequate income. C. Public Health Activities 1. Housing 38. Foro, JAMEs. “Improved Housing as a Means of Crime Prevention.” The Annals 125: 177- 80; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Acad- emy of Political and Social Science. There seemed to be a relation between hous- ing and conduct, despite difficulty of separating effect of bad housing from other factors. Bad housing may reduce physical health, and re- sistance to temptation; it inay be direetly con- ducive to moral contamination, and may lead members of the family to spend their leisure away from home. 2. Recreational facilities . Murray, Vircinta M., chairman. 4 Study of Delinquent and Neglected Negro Children be- fore the New York City Children’s Court, 1925. New York: Joint Committee on Negro Child Study in New York City, 1927. p. 7-8. Among other items, the committee recom- mended development of an all-year-round recreational program and further social case work. TruxaAL, Anprew G. Outdoor Recreation Leg- islation and Its Effectiveness. New York: Co- lumbia University Press, 1929. 218 p. A summary of American legislation for pub- lic outdoor recreation, 1915-1927, together with a study of the association between recreation areas and juvenile delinquency in Manhattan during 1920. Wynne, SAMUEL O. “Recreation Centers as a Means of Crime Prevention.”” The Annals 125: 175-76; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. Recommends turning schools into recreation centers and directing efforts toward moral im- provement of boys. 3. Control of defectives? . Gopwin, Georce. Cain or the Future of Crime. New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1929. 108 p. As bad heredity and bad environment ap- peared to be causes of crime, the remedy would seem to require elimination of degenerate hu- man stock, sterilization of waste human mate- rial, and improvement of environment. PoPpENOE, PAUL. “Sterilization and Criminality.” Report of the Fifty-first Annual Meeting of Imerican Bar Association. Baltimore: Lord Baltimore Press, 1928. p. 575-81. With reference to legal provisions in Cali- fornia for sterilization of certain criminal groups, brings out need for adequate evidence concerning ultimate results of this practice. Would have it made clear whether steriliza- tion of criminals was for punitive, therapeutic, or eugenic reasons. D. The Agencies of Justice 1. Criminal law . CLARK, WituiAM L., and MarsHALL, WILLIAM L. A Treatise on the Law of Crimes. Chicago: Callaghan and Co., 1927. 794 p. Aims to present general principles of com- mon law in relation to crimes, and to show ex- tent to which they have been modified by stat- ute. Covers principal statutory crimes at length, citing from selected cases. . Strawn, Sitas H. “Fifty Years’ Progress in Law.” Report of the Fifty-First Annual Meet- ing of American Bar Association. Baltimore: Lord Baltimore Press, 1928. p. 171-91. Shows changes in substantive law in respect to crime, legal education, and other topics. 2. Court procedure* . CALLENDER, CLARENCE N. American Courts. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1927. 284 p. Describes court organization in state and federal jurisdictions, and explains procedure for various types of litigation. Chapter 15, p. 216-36, deals with “The Problem of Improv- ing Legal Procedure.” . JOHNSTONE, ALAN Jr., “Suggestions for Reform in Criminal Procedure.” The Annals 125: 94- 6; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Acad- emy of Political and Social Science. Social 1 See also the following reference cited under “Mental defect,” in Part III of this bibliography: Davies, Stanley Powell. Social Control of the Mentally Deficient. . . 2See also the following reference, cited fully in other sections of this bibliography: Kavanagh, Marcus A. The press, Criminal and His Allies. [ 197 ] Suggests certain changes in criminal proce- dure. Recommends restatement of law and procedure of arrest; establishment of the right of state to formally interrogate the accused; abolition of inferior criminal court; and es- tablishment of consolidated criminal court, as opposed to multiple hearing of cases. . Lewis, Epwin O. “The Prevention and Punish- ment of Modern Crime.” The Annals 125: 119- 25; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Acad- emy of Political and Social Science. Among reasons suggested for failure in the administration of criminal justice are: techni- cal rules of law and procedure; too much con- trol by lawyers of these rules and the courts; poor jury material; delay in bringing accused to trial; influence of politics upon police and judicial administration. . Morey, RAyMonb. Our Criminal Courts. New York: Minton, Balch and Co., 1930. 271 p. Deals with administration of criminal courts, discussing “Preliminaries to Trial,” “The Long Day in Court,” and “The Public’s Interests vs. the Public Interest.” In Chapter 8, “The Riddle of Insanity,” points out that to ascribe practically all crime to mental defectiveness and substitute mental therapy for legal proc- esses would put undue burden on psychiatrist. Mo tey, RAyMon»D. Politics and Criminal Prose- cution. New York: Minton, Balch and Co., 1929. 241 p. Presents evidence of political factors en- tering into criminal law administration in the United States, particularly as they affect the prosecutor. . Pounp, Roscoe. Criminal Justice in America. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1930. 226 p. Discusses role and background of present criminal justice as organized in the United States. Improvement is considered from stand- point of aims and agencies. . WicKerRSHAM, Georce W., chairman. Report on Criminal Procedure. Report No. 8, National Commission on Law Observance and Enforce- ment, June 9, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1931. 51 p. A review of criminal procedure in the United States, on the basis that satisfactory procedure is important to maintain public faith in crim- inal justice. Deals with petty offenses, proce- dural protection of the accused, criminal plead- ing, criminal evidence, conduct of trials and conviction. . WickersHAM, Georce W., chairman. Report on Prosecution. Report No. 4, National Com- mission on Law Observance and Enforcement, April 22, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1931. 337 p. Presents a study of public prosecutor, public defender, and grand jury. Emphasizes impor- tance of individualization in treatment of of- fenders, and interrelation of all parts of ad- ministration of justice. The volume contains 158. [198 ] analysis of criminal justice surveys to prosecution and courts, and bibliog prosecution. 3. Law enforcement . WICKERSHAM, GeorGeE W., chairman on Lawlessness in Law Enforcement No. 11. National Commission on Law ance and Enforcement, June 25, 1931. \\ ington, D. C.: Government Printing (i,;, 1931. 347 p. Presents report dealing with abuses o{ in administration of criminal justice third degree and unfair procedures i; cution. on Police. Report No. 14, National ( sion on Law Observance and Enforce June 26, 1931. Washington, D. C.: <¢ ment Printing Office, 1931. 140 p. This report aims to present the causes fects in police administration. Includes a styd\ of “Police Conditions in the United p. 11-40. 4. Improved prison conditions . AMERICAN Prison AssociaTION. Tie D tion of Principles of the 1870 Congress Res and Reafirmed. New York: the Asso 135 E. 15th St., 1930. 11 p. . WIcKERSHAM, Georce W., chairman. R¢),,; A revision of thirty-seven principles on treat ment of criminals. . Cass, E. R. “American Prisons Today: A vey.” The Annals 157: 6-12; Septembe: Philadelphia: American Academy of I and Social Science. Outlines types of penal institutions and ¢ a description of typical prison life. Claims « public indifference and neglect is largel) sponsible for lack of worthwhile progres development and improvement of our and correctional system. Rector, Frank L. Health and Medical § in American Prisons and Reformatorie: York: National Society of Penal Inforn Inc., 1929. 282 p. Survey of organization and functioni: health and hospital service in American ons. Found few prisons with hospital fa adequate for needed corrective medica surgical work. . SELLIN, THORSTEN and Younc, DonaALp tors. “Prisons of Tomorrow.” The Anna! 1-262; September, 1931. Philadelphia: A: can Academy of Political and Social S Presents articles on the American priso! and prisons abroad. . WIcKERSHAM, Georce W., chairman. KR on Penal Institutions, Probation, and Pa Report No. 9, National Commission on | Observance and Enforcement, June 23, Washington, D. C.: Government Printing | fice, 1931. 344 p. 161. OCHRAN, An inquiry into methods of penal treatment, vering imprisonment, probation, and parole. Concludes that incarceration is a formless, au- ymatic procedure, without indi- duals. Neither probation nor parole appeared ) be properly or adequately developed in this regard to untry. 5. Probation and parole Hersert G. “Probation, Its Uses and Potentialities.” Yearbook, 1929. New York: National Probation Association, 1929. p. 12-17. Considers probation greatest forward step n criminal justice occuring for a century. States that while it costs $15 to $18 a year per person to supervise a person on probation, it costs $350 to $500 a year to maintain a per- son in prison, not counting economic loss to family and community. CooLey, Epwin J. New Goals in Probation. \lbany, New York: State Probation Commis- sion, 1926. 71 p. Describes experiment in ‘standard” probation work, as conducted by Catholic Charities Probation Bureau in Court of General Sessions, New York City. This “model” court over period of twenty months investigated the cases of 2,976 offenders, plac- ing 19 percent of these on probation, well-organized, JoHNSON, Frep R. Probation for Juveniles and Idults.s New York: Century Co., 1928. 242 p. Concerns history, present status, principles and methods of probation. Voip, Georce B. Prediction Methods and Pa- role. Hanover, N. H.: Sociological Press, 1931. 138 p. A study of factors involved in violation or non-violation of parole. Based on records of 1,192 men paroled during five-year period from two adult male penal institutions in Minnesota. 6. Juvenile court Lou, Herpert H. Juvenile Courts in the United States. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1927. 277 p. Presents a critical account of more important aspects of juvenile court, including philosophi- cal, legal, historical, diagnostic, procedural, ad- ministrative, and sociological. Explains its prin ciples, development, present status, forms of organization, actual operation, and significant tendencies. NATIONAL PROBATION AsSOCIATION, COMMITTEE ON STANDARD JUVENILE Court Laws. 4 Standard Juvenile Court Law. (Revised edition.) New York: the Association, 450 Seventh Avenue, 1928. 32 p. The committee aimed to prepare an act that could be recommended for adoption in all states, with modifications to fit local needs. Conforms, 167 168. MacCorMick, 169. MacCormick, 170. in general, to “Juvenile Court Standards,” for mulated in 1923 by Children’s Bureau. committee appointed by 7. Educational programs of prisons and reforma tories CANTOR, NATHANIEL F. “The Prisoner and the Law.” The Annals 157: 23-32; September, 1931. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. On p. 28-9 educational provided by American prisons. States that less than 20 percent of the prison population in the United States is enrolled in any school. Pro- vision is rarely made for sound program of discusses facilities education, for trained personnel, or for equip- ment. Austin H. “Education in the Prisons of Tomorrow.” The Annals 157: 72-7: September, 1931. Philadelphia: American Acad emy of Political and Social Science. States that in future, prisoners will be looked upon not only as criminals in need of reform but as adults in need of education. education offered will include fundamental aca- demic, vocational, health, cultural, and social instruction. Intelligence tests indicate that pris oners do not differ greatly from the adult pop- ulation. Conservative estimates show that adult prisoners as a group lack education of all types. ['ypes of Austin H. The Education of Adult Prisoners. New York: National Society of Penal Information, 114 East 30th Street, 1931. 456 p. A study of educational and library facilities in American and reformatories for adults, with emphasis on prisons. Based on visits to the institutions, involving about 110 institutions of major importance. Attempts to formulate a workable educational program. prisons E. Religion Dunn, C. V. “The Church and Crime in the United States.” The Annals 125: 200-28; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Academy of Po- litical and Social Science. A consideration of relation of church to prob- lem of crime, based on examination of prison and with judges, prison ofhcials, and others. Discusses church as a curb on crime, a factor in elimina tion of causes of crime, and its relation to the records correspondence ministers criminal. F. Public Opinion’ LipPpMAN, WatTER. Public Opinion. New York: Macmillan Co., 1927. 427 p. A discussion of forces entering into formation of public opinion, and need for knowledge of underlying facts in deciding issues. b. For other discussion of the influence of public opinion, see p. 382-85, “Campaigns of Education,” in Criminology by =. Haynes; also s bibliography. [ 199 } p. 40-3, “The Part the Public Plays,”” in The Administration of Criminal Justice in Missouri iry of the Missouri Crime Survey, prepared by Raymond Moley. These two books are cited fully in other sections of sum- G. The School’s Opportunity 1. General considerations * . Baciey, Witwiam C. Education, Crime, and Social Progress. New York: Macmillan Co., 1931. 150 p. A consideration of what education can do to fit society for new era of industrial progress and excessive individualism. . NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION, RESEARCH Division. “The Principal and Progressive Movements in Education.” Research Bulletin 7: 45-104; March, 1929. Washington, D. C.: the Association. A practical handbook for principals and organizations, covering certain problems, a knowledge of which seems essential to construc- tive supervision. Deals with mental life and physical health of children, individual differ- ences, character, pre-school and parent educa- tion. Lists sources of information and organiza- tions supplying useful material. 2. Home and school cooperation . Reeve, Mrs. A. H., chairman. Home and School Cooperation. White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, Subcommittee on Co- operation of Home and School. New York: Century Co., 1932. 122 p. Presents results of several surveys concern- ing actual and recommended relationships be- tween school and home. Based on information supplied by contributing organizations and agencies, educators, and parents. . THomas, WiLu1AM I., and THoMAs, Dororuy Swaine. The Child in America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1928. Chapter 7, “Parent Edu- cation,” p. 295-329. The parent education movement developed from growing consciousness among parents of need for guidance. . Van Waters, Miriam. Parents on Probation. New York: New Republic, 1927. 333 p. A consideration of problems encountered by parents in their relation to child and his en- vironment. 3. Commurity relationships . Giueck, ELeANor Tourorr. The Community Use of Schools. Baltimore: Williams and Wil- kins Co., 1927. 222 p. An examination of the schoolhouse as an in- strumentality for organization of neighborhood life, in its civic, social, and recreational as- pects. Based on returns from a questionnaire sent 6,353 school superintendents on community use of schoolhouses. 4. Cooperation with the courts 178. Hoyt, Guy M. “The Relation of the the Juvenile Court.” Yearbook, 1929. New \ National Probation Association, 450 Avenue, 1929. p. 109-13. Recommends cooperation between sc! venile court, and probation departme: scribes program developed in Los schools. . Jackson, Leroy F. “Public Schools and | tion.” Probation 10: 1-2; February, 1932. Ney York: National Probation Association 4s Seventh Avenue. Recommends development of plan of c tion between courts and educational States that, “The probation system of the c is founded on a conviction that educatio: only means of controlling human behavior and is an attempt to re-educate persons whom the normal agencies of education have failed ; reach.” . Vann, Harotp K. “The School and the Juvyeni): Court.” Yearbook, 1929. New York: Nationa! Probation Association, 450 Seventh Avenue 1929. p. 114-18. Calls attention to closer understanding de- sirable between court and school. Makes refer- ence to practices in Seattle, Washington. 5. Adult education . CARTWRIGHT, Morse A., and Ery, Mary. / du! Education in the United States of America. New York: American Association for Adult Educa- tion, 60 East 42nd Street, 1929. 16 p. A survey of forms of adult education in the United States. . PerFer, NATHANIEL. New Schools for Older Students. New York: Macmillan Co., 192: 250 p. One of a series of studies on adult education made for Casnegie Corporation of New York Discusses institute, individual schools, national associations, and other agencies. Chapter 8, | 203-43, covers “Workers’ Education.” 6. Character education® . Bowyer, VERNON L., WinTeR, OLice, and Wi.- KINSON, GILBERT H., editors. “Character Educa- tion” Sixth Yearbook, Chicago Principals’ Club Chicago: the Club, June, 1931. 292 p. Contains chapters on progress in character education, and character education plans and ideas found in Chicago public schools. . GeRMANEF, CHARLES E., and GerMAne, FoiTH Gayton. Character Education, New York: Si/- ver, Burdette and Company, 1929. 224 p. 1 For other general discussions of the relation of education to the problem of crime and delinquency, see the fol! references, cited fully in other sections of this eiticqenee: Beeley, Arthur L., director. Boys and Girls in Salt Lak. 52; Best, Harry. Crime and the Criminal Law in the evention, p. 47-9, 317-26; Gillin, John Lewis. Crimiactogs and and the Criminal, p. 174-76, 369-70; Shulman, Harry M. A Study nited States, p. 262-70, 578-80; Dow, Samuel Grove. Crime and /is Venclogy, p. 223-27; Parsons, Philip Archibald. Crime of Pro em Boys and their Brothers, p. 13-14. 2 See also the following reference, cited fully in other sections of this bibliography: Thomas, William I., and Th Dorothy Swaine. The Child in America, “Character Education in the Schools,” p. By 04. [ 200 ] A book planned for teachers and parents which presents theory and practice of character building through a program designed to fur- ther cooperation between school and home. De- fines character education as “a process through which the child learns to make wholesome so- cial adjustments to his many perplexing life situations.” NATIONAL EpucaTION AssOcIATION, DEPARTMENT ye CxLassroom TEACHERS. “The Classroom Teacher and Character Education.” Seventh Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Department, June, 1932, 272 p. A handbook for use of teachers desiring to develop desirable character in pupils. Empha- sizes fundamental principles in the field of character and personality, and also gives spe- cific illustrations of actual classroom activities and school procedure. 36. NATIONAL EpuCATION AssOcIATION, DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. “Character Education.” Tenth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Asso- ciation, February, 1932. 536 p. Presents points of view to stimulate thought and discussion in direction of a more construc- tive school life. Does not attempt to present a character education program. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH (American Educa tional Research Association). “Tests of Person- ality and Character.” Review of Educational Research 2: 183-270: June, 1932 A summary of research in the field of char- acter testing. Includes a comprehensive bibliog raphy. 7. Health education Woop, THomas D., chairman. The School Health Program. White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, Committee on the School Child. New York: Century Co., 1932. A study of health services and health train- ing in the schools. Represents a condensation of several subcommittee reports on the school child. Ws THE child can find near at home, with companions of his own choice, oppor tunity for all that his ever widening sphere of craving and interests demands ; when his community, including all groups, private, municipal, commercial, holds as its greatest tad asset the security and development of all of its children ; when the spirit of the neighbor- ae hood reflects our most ideal teaching, then will the community help to minimize those rae behavior problems that handicap the lives of so many children.— The White House Con- ference on Child Health and Protection. The Delinquent Child. Report of the Com | in the mittee on Socially Handicapped—Delinquency, Section IV. New York: The Century Co., 1932. p. 224. Older 192¢ ’ ication y York jational VERY CHILD, regardless of race, creed, social position, residence, or physical condition, should have the opportunity for the fullest development of his individual powers through education. d Wi: Character is the major outcome of education. All activities of the school should Educa- contribute to the habits and attitudes which manifest themselves through integrity in s’ Club private life, law observance, and intelligent participation in civic affairs. ae The school program for physical and mental health should supplement the efforts ns and of the home to establish habits of clean and wholesome living. Children should be taught how to think more than what to think. Education should EpitH prepare the rising generation to meet the social and economic problems of an ever-changing rk: Sil- world. No child should engage in premature or excessive employment that deprives him of the benefits of comradeship, of play, and of education.—Adopted by the Representative Assembly of the National Education Association at Atlantic City, N. J., July 1, 1932. { 201 J PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO PENOLOGISTS AND SOCIAL WORKERS RESEARCH BULLETINS Can the Nation Afford to Educate Its Children? Vol. VI, No. 5, November, 1928. 48 p. 25 cents. Can the States Afford to Educate Their Children? Vol. VII, No. 1, January, 1929. 44 p. 25 cents. The Principal and Progressive Movements in Education. Vol. VII, No. 2, March, 1929. 60 p. 25 cents. Investing in Public Education. Vol. VIII, No. 4, September, 1930. 56 p. 25 cents. The Principal at Work on His Problems. Vol. IX, No. 2, March, 1931. 64p. 25 cents. The Outlook for Rural Education. Vol. IX, No. 4, September, 1931. 72 p. 25 cents. Estimating State School Efficiency. 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Make checks or money orders payable to National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Wash- ington, D. C. A complete list of publications will be sent free upon request. CONTENTS Foreword The Need for Facts on Public School Finance. National Income and Public School Expenditures. . The Facts for the Nation National Wealth and the Value of Public School Property The Facts for the Nation The Facts for the States National Income and Governmental Costs The United States and Other Countries Compared Tax Collections by States School Costs and Other Governmental Costs The Major Tax Bills in the United States... Tax Collections and School Costs by States.... School Costs and Certain Other Expenditures. . Life Insurance Building Construction Passenger Automobiles Luxuries Recent Trends in School Costs Depreciation of the Dollar Longer Terms and Increased Attendance Improvements in Educational Service Summary of the Bulletin Index to Volume X, Research Bulletin... LIST OF TABLES lable . National Income and Public School Costs, 1930 . Income and Public School Costs by States, 1930.... . National Wealth and Value of Public School Property, 1930 . National Wealth and Value of Public School Property by States, 1930 . Income and Tax Collections by States, 1930... . Purposes of Governmental Expenditures, 1929... . Tax Collections and Public School Costs by States, 1930 . Annual Expenditures for Life Insurance, Building Construction, Passenger Automobiles and Public Schools by States, 1930 . Estimated Causes of Increase in School Costs, 1914-1930 Increases in Public School Attendance, 1914-1930 oN DAM S&S Wh = LIST OF CHARTS Chart I. National Income and Public School Costs, 1930 Chart II. National Wealth and Value of Public School Property, 1930 Chart III. Percent Tax Revenues Are of National Income in Selected Countries, 1928 Chart IV. The Governmental Dollar Chart V. Percent Public School Costs Are of Total Collections by States, 1930 Chart VI. School Costs and Certain Other Expenditures, 1930 Chart VII. Estimated Causes of Increase in School Costs, 1914-1930 [ 203 J FOREWORD EN YEARS ago in the first of these Research Bulletins the following Fore word appeared : In this time of confusion and unrest there is need for clear thinking in the shaping of educational legislation. It is the state legislature that shapes the policies and work of the public schools. But, although education is a state-controlled function, the welfare of the nation as a whole is affected by the efficiency of its forty-eight school systems. Where state school systems are adequate they must be kept so; where they are in adequate they must be strengthened if the national welfare is not to suffer. The failure of any one state to meet its educational responsibilities lowers the whole nation’s tone Freedom of movement, made easier with each advance in transportation, is guaranteed to all. No state can confine its educational shortcomings to its own borders. The illiter- acy, ignorance, and economic inefficiency that is the problem of one state today becomes, through the railroad and the automobile, the problem of other states tomorrow. Once again the schools of the nation face a severe crisis, There is much talk of tax reduction, often without adequate consideration of results. The hard- won educational progress of the last ten years is in jeopardy. Only a well-in- formed public and a united teaching profession can stem the tide which threatens the very existence of public schools in some communities and the continued efficiency of the schools throughout the nation. This Bulletin should reach every state legislator in America. It should be placed in the hands of every civic leader. Such distribution will be most effective if handled by local and state school officials. During American Education Week, particularly, the facts contained in this Bulletin should be placed before news- paper and magazine editors, service clubs, women’s clubs, and school boards. The case for good public schools cannot be better sustained than by an appeal to well-organized and authentic facts. J. W. Craprresr, Secretary, National Education Association. The Need for Facts on (he problem generally faced by the public ools at the present moment may be concisely SL nmarized in four words: increased responsi bilities; decreased resources. ‘Vhe responsibili- ties are shown by the unusually rapid increase in school enrolment due to the depression, ‘Thus, in practically every community hundreds or thousands of young men and women, unable to find work, are continuing their training in the public schools and preparing themselves for the opportunities which will open before them when more prosperous times return. It is well that they do so. If the ratio of school enrolment to school population which prevailed in 1920 were unchanged today, nearly two million ad- ditional young people would be added to the competition for jobs. While the schools are thus being given a task larger, more difficult and in many ways more important, than ever before, the financial re- sources which should enable them to do this work are being threatened or actually curtailed. About three out of every four cities throughout the United States are attempting to operate on asmaller school budget this year than last year. Present estimates are that 1932 school budgets were about 4 percent below 1931, and that 1933 will show additional cuts averaging about 8 percent.t Education has evidently carried a significant share of the general retrenchment in public expenditures. Such retrenchment cannot continue indefinitely if the schools are to per- form their important functions with reasonable success. The of which has marked the past two years stands in sharp contrast to the policy followed in previous periods of economic recession.” During the de- pression of 1837-43 public school support, both legislative and financial, states outside the slave-holding region. Under the leadership of Horace Mann, school revenues in Massachusetts increased 35 percent in the seven-year period, and similar gains were regis- tered in other states. During and following the depression seventies (1873-78) school expendi- tures rose about 53 percent. Except at the very end of the period, expenditures per pupil rose vear by year. School terms were lengthened, curtailment educational support increased in most Finance, 1932-33. Educational Research Service, Circu’ar No 5 Public School Finance high schools established, and compulsory edu cation laws enacted, The panic of ‘93 and the business recession which followed it until 1898 aid not bring about material reductions in ex penditures for public education. Teachers’ sal aries rose slightly, school opportunities were extended, and the increase in expenditures for schools outran the increases in property valua- tions. With a few exceptions, public schools in the several states received strong and growing financial support. Similar statements might be made for the depressions of 1907 and 1921. It is interesting to speculate on the reasons for the apparent difference between the fo tunes of public education in this and previous depressions. Probably the difference arises from causes that are many and complicated. ‘The fact remains that the present depression is the first one in which school support has been generally reduced. This fact constitutes a challenge to educational leadership which cannot be ignored. The educator knows the importance of his work and senses the dangers in its neglect. He is called on to bring the public to the same point of view. A wisely operated school system is the indis- pensable basis for such an appeal. But there is need, in addition, for a body of facts about the cost of public education as compared with na- tional income, tax collections, and other public and private expenditures. The unsupported as- sertion that education is costing too much is best answered by referring to such facts as these: that schools have never absorbed as much as 4+ of the that the proportion of the national income devoted to public education remained practically con- stant for a decade prior to 1929; that the pro- portion of municipal expenditures devoted to percent national income ; education is lower now than at any time since 1922: 22; that America spends about five times as much for passenger automobiles as it does for that effective public schools are essential to the welfare of our country: and public schools ; that funds for public education have been, on the whole, wisely and intelligently expended. To make some of this data available is the purpose of this Bulletin. A summary is provided on page 226. 1 National Education Association, Department of Superintendence and Research Division. Some Trends in City School 1932. Washington, D. C.: the Association, May, 1932. 34 p. _ # Pitkin, Royce S. Public School Support in the United States during Periods of Economic Depression. Unpublished doctoral dissertation submitted to Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1932. [ 205 ] National Income and Public School Expenditures The Facts for the Nation and by itself, a matter of primary signi! No state should be commended merely by it spends a small percent or a large perc: its income for schools. A more fundamental approach to this lem must begin with the realization th penditures for schools are an investment other good investments, wisely expended money constitutes no diminution of the na: income. Expenditures for schools do not | the total amount of income available for - ing. Quite apart from the wholesale eco and social effects of education itself, is th: deniable fact that two and a quarter dollars spent for education is also two and quarter billion dollars in national income spent again, and usually immediately, fo: and services by those to whom it is paid. Table 2 estimates the yearly income of each Furthermore, the desirable economic, s state in 1930 and compares it with the amount and political effects of education are univers.’ spent for public schools. For example, the total acknowledged by men of wide vision and pub) expenditure for all public schools in Alabama lic spirit. Ignorance never made a good w: in 1930 was $28,420,601 and its income for the man, a good neighbor, a good citizen, or a same year is estimated at $826,020,000. Ala- parent. Human assets are of far more vita bama’s school bill in 1930 was, therefore, 3.44 portance than natural resources and dese: percent of the total income of its inhabitants. correspondingly more care and thought in : In studying Table 2, it is essential to have in conservation. The special human aptitudes mind that whether a state spends a large or a__ technical knowledge, and the social intelligen small percent of its income for schools is not, in’ which must constitute the final basis fo: For practical purposes, we may think of the national income as the total amount received by the people from wages, salaries, profits, in- terest, and the like.' For the year 1930, this sum may be conservatively estimated at $78,000,000,000.? In the same year, according to the United States Office of Education, $2,615,068,177 ® was expended for all tax-sup- ported public schools of elementary, secondary, and collegiate grade. An income of $78,- 000,000,000 and public school expenditures of 2,615,068,177 give a figure of 3.35 percent of the national income devoted to public schools.* The Facts for the States 1 For more complete discussion and definition of income see: Mitchell, Wesley C. and Others. /ncome in the United 1900-1919. Vol. I. New York: Harcourt Brace and Co., 1921. p. 1-11; Leven, Maurice. /ncome in the Various States 1920, and 1921. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1925. p. 19-20; and King, Willford I. The National /n and Its Purchasing Power. New York: National Burees of Economic Research, 1950. p. 41-3. 2 The most reliable estimates of national income as defined above are made by the National Bureau of Economic Res: The estimates of this agency have been used by the~Research Division since 1923 and it seems desirable to continux practice. However, estimates for 1930 by the Bureau will not be available for several months. Such preliminary figures a now available from the National Bureau of Economic Research suggest that the sum used in this Bulletin, $78,000,000 probably too low rather than too high. A detailed statement of the method used in estimating national income tox: with the latest reported data on this topic may be obtained by addressing the Research Division. * While this Bulletin was in press, the U. S. Office of Education published figures which make it possible to eli: certain duplications from the total United States figure for public school expenditures. These duplications are not, however eliminated from the individual state figures. The total used in this Bulletin is the sum of the state figures. These dupli: constitute less than three tenths of one percent of the total cost of public education. The corresponding percent in 1928 was 2.74. The increase from 1928 to 1930 has been due very largely to the de in national income rather than to the increase in school costs. TABLE 1.—NATIONAL INCOME AND PUBLIC SCHOOL COSTS, 1930 Amount Percent of : national income National income. . eal ; $78 ,000 ,000 ,000 100.00 Cost of public schools: Elementary and secondary........ ‘ $2 ,320.776.036 Colleges and universities............... ee J 231,199 679 Teacher-training institutions........... 63 ,092 , 462 Total jas ‘ eee ee $2,615 068,177 Sources: School costs calculated from various reports of the U. S. Department of Interior, Office of Education; in come figure is an estimate based on figures of the National Bureau of Economic Research. [ 206 ] ‘| economic welfare are highly perishable assets. A single generation of neglect may im- pair national progress for many generations in he future. Education is the barrier of defense ted between ‘eaken the fence and civilization falters; de- civilization and savagery. ,y the barrier and savagery reclaims human- itv once more. To be sure, savagery is not the only alternative to our present highly organ- ized civilization. We could return to the level of living and economic efficiency obtaining be- fore 1900. But most of us would prefer not to do this. We would prefer to maintain recent gains, to restore temporary recent losses, and to advance still further. To do this we must maintain and improve our human assets. This can be done only by keeping our educational facilities in first-class condition. It is in the light of these considerations that Table 2 and the other tables of this Bulletin should be examined. Does analysis of the fig- ures presented indicate that your state looks upon the uninterrupted maintenance of first- rate schools as a matter of major significance ? Or does the proportion of your state’s income devoted to educational support indicate that this function is considered a minor project ? Has every reasonable effort been made to place the financing of your schools on a sound basis? Or are some features of your state school system less effective than they should be due to inade- quate plans for financial support ? The tables are so arranged that the position of the states may be compared with that of others. This arrangement does not imply that uniformity among states is necessarily desirable in the items with which the tables deal. Some states should, under existing conditions, invest a higher percent of their total income in educa- tion than others. Some states have from five to six times as much income and wealth behind each child to be educated as others. Hence variation in the percent of income devoted to school support is to be expected. CHART I Expenditures for all public schools —— $ 2,615,068, 177 NATIONAL INCOME AND PUBLIC SCHOOL COSTS -1930 Estimated. National Income #78,000,000,000 esearch Ouwision, Aatianal Education Asst Sources of data : = Income estimated from of Economic Research, and, National Industrial Conference Board. School costs ftom, various reports of the US. Department of Interior, Office of Education. figures of National Bureat { 207 ] TABLE 2.—INCOME AND PUBLIC SCHOOL COSTS BY STATES. 1930 1 United States Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana lowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio... Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Expended for public elementary and secondary schools 2 $2 320,776,036 21,657 ,857 10,878,167 14,148,155 148 816,078 24,555,281 35.741 255 5,108 186 12 666 O81 18 533.721 18,676,829 10,326,210 154,740,774 63 329 806 50,757 ,133 38 843 407 22 973,665 21,835 ,855 11,185,706 24,672,143 86 891,313 119,457,501 3T789 .778 7,395 052 56,470,043 3,678 881 , 142,345 . 755,034 .935 522 ,633 537 , 799,409 ,512,754 37,301,084 16,453,171 145 910,353 30 , 867 , 706! 19,616,351 184,238,972 Receipts for tax-sup- ported universities, col- leges; and expenditures for tax-supported teacher- training institutions $204 6 ? 2 x 4 3 292 762 372.7 .592, O14, , 843, 049, 315, 208 , 793 000 , 769, 951 069, 8937 956, 919. ,246 756.5 461, ,491, , 280 , 893, 767 ,: ‘Zi, ‘019. 343, 72? Zé, 057. 224 | Total cost of pub lic schools, ele- mentary, secondary, and collegiate | (col, 2 plus col, 3) 4 $2,615, 28, 13, 16, 068 ,177 420,601 250,925 740,349 830 , 338 , 398 832 .791 163 .423 829 .874,397 , 327 ,462 ,677 O10 2,095 415 ,692 ,471 73,398 934 ,650 ,851 , 799,743 , 893 ,056 5 081 ,991 .942 ,258 ,133,310 , 382 ,569 . 738 ,439 ,682 ,845 2,162 ,443 ,197, 241 5698704 ,485 544 .477 ,999 , 993,193 .514,973 ,905 ,612 ,023 ,880 .083 , 161 , 186,688 .504,219 , 388 , 399 .548 945 , 950,196 Estimated income 5 ,000, 826 000 .020 , 500 ,620 .480, 765 ,180 . 400, ,060 , 700 5, 800 , 100 600, 4060, 5,540 ,660 ,980 760, .560 .500 , 680 , 880 ,580 .920 , 500 3,000 5,320 ,520 .120 040 , 160 ,440 ,240 , 900 .500 580 , 480 000 000 ,000 000 000 ,000 000 000 000 000 ,000 000 000 ,000 000 ,000 000 ,000 ,000 ,000 000 ,000 .000 ,000 000 , 000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,080, , 880, .520, , 580, ,200, ,O51,211 .157,555 , 767,131 ,637 , 386 3,538,770 3,568 978 986,021 . 556,836 331 231 ,068 Rhode Island 13,259,880 South Carolina 15,332,324 South Dakota 15, 304,063 260, , 680, ,020, , 100, ,320, 57.015 5,215,722 .925 917 , 322,792 ,920,650 Tennessee 22,880,371 Texas Utah Vermont Virginia ,663 , 229 ,636, 186 ,087 .171,560, 3 841 620, 3 , 786,980, 3 196,560, 3 .054 , 466 ,923,270 .062 ,047 977,762 Washington 33,612,352 West Virginia 28 242,563 Wisconsin 54,092,429 Wyoming 6,491,415 666 818 .165,833 | , 154,476 469,177 Read table thus: In 1930 the income of California is estimated to have been $3,834,480,000. Expenditures for public elementary and secondary schools in California in 1930 were $148,816,078; for public colleges, etc., California expends $18,014,260; making a total of $166,830,338 expended for all public schools in California, or 4.35 percent of the tota! —e of that state. In the nation as a whole, the corresponding percent was 3.35 percent. Similarly read figures tor other states. Sources of data: Figures of columns 2, 3, and 4 from U. S. Department of the Interior, Cffice of Education, Bulletin 1931, No. 20, Vol. Il, Chapter II, IV, and V. The total cost of public education as given in column 4 omits, because o! lack of data, expenditures of certain institutions, for example, institutions for the deaf, blind, and feeble-minded, et« Also note that figures representing the collegiate costs are receipts rather than expenditures. In this Bulletin these figures have been treated as expenditures. The figure as to total national income is an estimate based on figures of the Nationa! Bureau of Economic Research and the National Industrial Conference Board. This total was distributed among the states of the Union on the bases of the average of the total national income found in each state in the years 1919, 1920, and 1921 as estimated by the National Bureau of Economic Research. Income estimated for each state will tend to be somewhat low in the case of those states where income during the past few years has increased more rapidly than in the United States as a whole. In states where income has increased less rapidly than in the nation as a whole during the last few years the estimates given in this table may be somewhat high. 1 Preliminary figure. Revised figare should read $32,817,157. { 208 ] National Wealth and the Value of Public School Property The Facts for the Nation (he: national wealth of the United States mav be thought of as consisting of all those material things which possess value. The sum f all these values equals the total amount of national wealth.' A portion of the wealth of the nation exists in the form of school prop- sites, buildings, and equipment. What part of our national wealth is invested n school property ? According to the National Industrial Conference Board the total wealth {the United States in 1930 was approximately $322,735,000,000. In the same year, according to the U. S. Office of Education, the value of public school property of all classes was $7/,- 143,803,297. there- fore, of the national wealth exists in the form Less than 214 percent, of school property. Table 3 gives figures as to the nation’s total wealth and the value of the property of public The value of securities is not included in this total erely represent rights of ownership of wealth already included since securities do not in and of themselves schools and colleges. This table shows that for every $100 of wealth possessed by the nation, $1.92 is invested in the buildings, grounds, and equipment of public elementary and secondary schools and an additional $.29 is invested in the plants of public colleges and universities. ‘The property of public schools thus accounts for $2.21 of each $100 of the nation’s wealth. ‘The facts are shown graphically in Chart II. The Facts for the States Table 4 compares the percent cf the wealth of each state which exists in the form of school property. Only a nation is represented by its investment in pub- minor part of the wealth of the lic school property. In no state does the value of public school property amount to as much as + percent of the total value of tangible prop- erty. constitute wealth n the estimated total in other forms CHART II Value of all property usec for pe school purposes # 7,143,803, 297 NATIONAL WEALTH AND VALUE OF PUBLIC SCHOOL PROPERTY 1930 Value of all tangible property % 322, 735, 000,000 Research Division, Aational Education Assh. Sources of data: Wealth figure is an estimate of the National Industrial Conference Board ; value of public school ev lated. from fisyires of the LL.S. Department of’ Interior, O of Education. CALCLL - [ 209 ] TABLE 3.—NATIONAL WEALTH AND VALUE OF PUBLIC SCHOOL PROPERTY 1930 Percent of national wea\th 100.00 Total amount $322,735 000,000 National wealth Value of public school property: Elementary and secondary College and university Teacher-training institutions... . 1.92 .23 .06 6,211,327 ,040 748 376,441 184,099 816 7,143,803,297 21 Sources: The figure on national wealth is the estimate for 1930 of the National Industrial Conference Board. Fig on value of property of elementary and secondary schools, colleges and universities, and teacher-training institutior from the U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Biennial Survey of Education, 1928-1930. TABLE 4.—NATIONAL WEALTH AND VALUE OF PUBLIC SCHOOL PROPERTY By STATES, 1930 Value of public school | Wealth (value | Percent schoo | property, elementary, sec- | j | property is ondary, and collegiate of wealth 2 $7 , 143 , 803 ,297 | California Colorado Kentucky Louisiana Maine Michigan Minnesota 70,394,223 23,309,391 44,052,511 489 877,152 78,768,048 116, 15, 32, 87, 478,054 ‘937,616 , 472,059 .595 625 ,055 ,669 , 592,471 ,972, 453 , 436,219 98,198,497 8,179,870 24,101,172 300 , 331,350 17,578,663 931,461,525 136 , 358 ,043 53 458. 273981 108, 705/277 65 678,294 545 ,359 657 37,021,212 56,598,068 49,445,753 67 ,857 ,601 107 , 367 , 337 91,726,464 199,790, 398 21,457 ,060 — 4 eanee § renal x BERS S35 Ne S23 nN wSenNwwe AOCcnwe Nexus oe aun * EAS Nnn o E 252 3 _ = Beuse $5 - NONGe - w eye Cano ~ oo ~ be — cnen a - - S 283 - - Ronn mw a Se une Su o w eoaw EFSES S582 PEt nN ‘4 = a ~ ow awn S558 S888 S882 SESE B2288 FEE8E FEE8E 82822 88822 32852 § e252 S288 £2222 £2282 82222 82292 22222 22222 22222 2222 - “**--* - — we Nh NWre eh NNNNh whee ee “eK NN Ww in ed Re NN Ne ee ee NNR bh NNN table 3. ead table 930 the value of all tangible property in Alabama is estimat The value of public school property, elementary, secondary, and collegiate, in Alabama all tangible property. Similarly interpret data for other states. a $ [—) rH =. 3 S w ai ~~ ,065 000,000. 94,223, or 2.30 = we { 210 ] National Income and Governmental Costs \|though school support requires but a minor fraction of the nation’s wealth and income, school costs are responsible for a considerable part of the total tax bill. Some consideration, therefore, must be given to the general problem of governmental costs as a whole. Total tax collections in the United States in 1930 were $10,266,000,000. Of this sum the federal government collected $3,468,000,000 or 4.45 percent ; the state governments, $1,780,- 339,561, or 2.28 percent; and the municipal, county, and various other local governments, $5,017,789,000, or 6.43 percent of the national income. A summation of these percents indi- cates that total tax collections in the United States in 1930 amounted to 13.17 percent of our national income. The United States and Other Countries Compared None of the major European countries for which figures are available spends a smaller percentage of its income for taxes than does the United States. Great Britain, the nation which ranks next to the United States, both in national wealth and national income, 25 percent of its income to gov- While the United States in 1928 spent 10.4 percent of its income for taxes, Germany spent nearly 14 percent; Italy more than 14 percent ; and France over 16 percent. A dev otes approximately ernmental costs. graphic presentation of these relationships is given in Chart III. The above percentages are based on estimates of national income for the year 1928, the latest year for which estimates of income in all of these countries could be obtained. It is prob- able, therefore, that they represent the situation as it existed before the economic depression rather than at the present time. If figures on both income and tax revenues in each of these countries were available for some since the beginning of the depression, the differ- ence between the percent of income devoted to taxes in the United States and in European countries would probably be found to be even greater than Chart III indicates. later vear, CHART III United States 10.4 % Great Britain 25.2% France 16.1% Italy 14.2 % Germany 13.6% Japan 7.6% PERCENT TAX REVENUES ARE OF NATIONAL INCOME IN SELECTED COUNTRIES - 1928” a SKesearch Division, National Lducatian Assn, are for 1928 in every case; tax revenue figures are those for year Moulton, Harold G. and. Ko, Junicki, Gicltenad Gusenn of Econemic Seccarch, Natio Sources Appraisal Industrial Department of Commerce, Statesmen’ Heachook , 1930,and, Comstock, Alzada, Jaration in the Modern State. [{ 211 ] Furthermore, the disparity between the effort required in the United States and in other coun- tries to support public activities cannot be ade- quately represented upon a mere percentage basis. A man with a yearly income of $5,000 is able to pay 5 percent of his income for taxes with less effort than a man with an income of $1,000. In the first case the payment probably requires little personal sacrifice in the form of reduction in the consumption of necessities such as food, clothing, and shelter. The payment of such a tax by the man of small income may in- volve such sacrifice, since his income is close to the level of subsistence. The United States, in comparison with other countries, is in the position of a rich man. Its yearly income per person in 1928 was $752 as compared with $383 in Great Britain which ranks second. ‘The income per capita in the United States was more than twice that of either France or Germany in 1928. The per capita wealth also, that is, the value of tangible property per person, is appreciably larger in the United States than in Great Britain—$2,629 as compared with $2,027 in the latter country. According to the latest figures ' available, per capita wealth in France is $1,473 ; in Germany, $633; and in Italy, $607. These facts combine to show that the effort involved in the support of public enterprises in the United States is considerably less than in other countries. Tax Collections by States Table 5 gives estimates for the United States as a whole and for the several states of the amount of income and taxes collected. An important explanation must be kept in mind when studying Table 5, especially Col- 1 World’s Almanac, 1932. p. 335, 593. ® Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1930. p. 212. umns 3, 6, and 7 which relate to fede: It is frankly admitted that it is impo trace accurately the state in which fede are ultimately paid. For example, mar corporations, doing business in practica! state in the Union, pay their federal tax: state, in many instances, New York. Al: these taxes are collected in New York t! resent only in part a burden upon the of that state. Another example: In 19 federal government collected 57 percent of js tobacco taxes, or $256,729,938,? in the Star of North Carolina. This amount does no: resent a tax burden upon the people of \ Carolina alone. Every time a person package of cigarettes, a box of cigars, o1 tobacco products in any one of the fort states, he pays a part of this tax throug stamp which is attached. In short, the fact «| the federal government collects taxes wit certain state does not mean that the real burden of these taxes rests within that state. For these reasons Column 7 of Table 5 has been left except for the national figure. The figures in Column 8 give a better pictu of the ratio of income to state and local taxes collected. It should be held in mind, howeve: that the percentages of Column 8 represent an understatement of the tax burden in each stat by the amount of the federal taxes which m be properly apportioned to each state. ‘There is at present, however, no reliable method for de termining just what this apportionment shou! be. Column 7 of Table 5 shows that fo: nation as a whole federal tax collections r sent 4.45 percent of income. It is certain, how- ever, that this average does not apply to eac! of the states. predecessors. Editor, Good Housekeeping. ILLIONS of children and young people follow the old, worn way to the school house. There they must find at least the opportunities offered so freely to thei: If there must be a choice, build a schoolhouse, and leave a road unbuilt, some streets unpaved. We must have education; it is America’s boast. While othe: things are crumbling, our schools must be maintained—William Frederick Bigelow, TABLE 5.—INCOME AND TAX COLLECTIONS BY STATES, 1930 Percent Percent Taxes collected by taxes col- taxes col- Estimated lected by lected by States income federal local and . Federal State Local ae a govern- state govt government government government bene seas t ment is is of soveramen of income! income 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ited States $78,000 000,000 $3. 468 000 000 $1 80,339, 561/$5_.017.789.000 $10 166,128,561 4.45 g Alabama 826,020,000 19,074,000 22.025 , 283 32.937.000 74,036,283 6.65 Arizona 261,300,000 4.855.200 9.679.319 17,356,000 31,890,519 10.35 Arkansas 646,620,000 11.444, 400 0.782.497 2? 633 000 54.8590 R07? 6.71 California 3, 834,480,000 169 238, 400 90 261.126 342, 828.000 602 327.526 11.29 Colorado : 765,180,000 16,646, 400 15,204,161 45 996.000 77,846,561 8 00 Connecticut 1,214, 460,000 53,754,000 31.967 .196 73,945 .000 159 666,196 8.72 Delaware 177,060,000 39 535,200 12,662,158 5.327.000 57.524.358 10.16 Dist. of Col 557,700,000 17 340.000 29 578.000 46.918 000 5 30 Florida 475,800,000 22.888 . 800 »? 098 146 69 084,000 114,070,946 19.16 Georgia 1,127,100,000 25,316,400 8.414.191 40,708 .000 94,438,591 6.13 Idaho.. 288 , 600 000 2,774,400 5. 580.04)? 9, 383,000 28.737 .442 9.00 Illinois 6.011, 460,000 271,544,400 82.032.751 320.194.000 673,771.151 6.69 Indiana 1.905 ,540 000 39 88? 000 41.265 .027 134,507 ,000 215 ,.654.027 9.22 lowa 1,518,660.000 »3.929 200 34.294. 993 105 .041 000 163, 265.193 9 1 Kansas 1, 162,980,000 4.969 600 25,123,426 85,994,000 136,087 026 9 55 Kentucky 1,085 , 760,000 43,003,200 9 320,688 47.289 000 119.612. 888 06 Louisiana 859,560,000 1,154,809 7 546.043 49. 812.000 98 512.843 9 00 Maine 526,500,000 11,791,200 17,640,549 24.213.000 53.644.749 os Marvland 1,174,680 ,000 44,390,490 22 807 838 55.017 000 122,.215.238 6 63 Massachusetts 3,896, 880, 000 130, 396, 800 53,524,782 260 929.000 444,850.58)? 8.0 Michigan 2.933 ,580,000 153.632.409 98 108.314 250,440,000 502,180,714 11 gs Minnesota 1,531 ,920,000 49 .922.400 45.258.149 114,673,000 200 853.540 10.44 Mississippi 565,500,000 11,097 .609 13,666,588 48,772,000 73,536,188 11.04 Missouri 2,223,000 ,000 75.949. 200 38.714, 306 111,130,000 225.793. 506 6.74 Montana 385,320,000 4.855.200 7.223.235 26, 888 .000 38 966,435 RRs Nebraska 806,520,000 11,791,200 16,530,200 53,394,000 81.715.400 R 67 Nevada 81,120,000 2,080,800 2.579.723 4.981.000 9 641.523 9 32 New Hampshire 326,040,000 5,895 600 8,672,294 18,764,000 33,331,804 8.4? New Jersey 2, 864,160,000 137,332,800 88 072,482 254,767,000 480,172.28)? 11.97 New Mexico 193,440,000 2,774,400 6,103,401 8,575,000 17,452,801 59 New York 11,901, 240,000 946,764,000 261,086,683 852,888,000) 2.060.738 6x3 9 36 N. Carolina 1,017,900,000 277,093,200 35 973.065 64,128,000 377,194, 265 9 83 N. Dakota 331,500,000 3.814.800 7,143,584 27,769,000 38,727,384 10.53 Ohio 4.532,580,000 169.932 ,000 61,650,086 314, 206.000 545.788 O86 8 29 Oklahoma 1,143,480,000 28,437,600 25,761,000 65 .967 ,000 120,165,600 8.02 Oregon 652,080,000 10,057,200 23,784,858 45 .403 ,000 79.245 .058 10 61 Pennsylvania 7,250,880 ,000 264, 608 , 400 139,293,381 361.135 000 765 036,781 6.90 Rhode Island 572,520,000 17,686,800 15,446,526 26,421,000 59 554,326 31 So. Carolina 632,580,000 10,750,800 18.427, 317 29,778,000 58 .956,117 7.62 So. Dakota 382 , 200 , 000 4,161,600 12,123,166 32,461,000 48,745,766 11.6 Tennessee 949, 260.000 27,744,000 26 954.276 47,517,000 102,215,276 7.85 Texas 2, 812,680,000 64,158,000 79.068 .453 130,764,000 273,990 453 7.46 Utah 280,020,000 5.548, 800 9,628,797 16,297 000 31.474.507 9.%6 Vermont 230,100,000 3,814,800 8 603.612 10.788 ,.000 23.206 ,412 8.43 Virginia 1,087 , 320,000 103 ,693 , 200 33,626.57 46,582,000 183,901,777 7.38 Washington 1,171,560,000 20, 808 ,000 31,425,963 71,152,000 123,385 963 8.76 West Virginia 841,620,000 19,420, 800 20,789,603 50.936 000 91,137,403 8 52 Wisconsin 1,786.980,000 7,511,600 42.416, 384 137.937 000 133, 864.984 10.43 Wyoming 196. 560,000 1,734,000 3.986.336 9.505 .000 15.225. 336 6.86 Read table thus: In 1930 the income of Colorado is estimated to have been $765,180,000. In this state ¢ ta | lected by the federal government during the same year were $16,646,400; by the state government, $15,204,161: by the local governments, $45,996,000; making a total of $77,846,561 taxes collected. State and local taxes in this state con stitute a sum equal to 8.00 percent of the income of all the people in Colorado. Similarly interpret data for other states Sources of data: The figure as to total national Income is an estimate based on figures of the National Bureau of Economic Research and the National Industrial Conference Board. n XeSs « This total was distributed among the states of the Jnion on the bases of the average of the total national income found in each state in the years 1919, 1920, and 1921 as estimated by the National Bureau of Economic Research. Income estimated for each state will tend to be in the case of those states where income during the past few vears has increased more rapidly than in the somewhat low United States as a whole. In states where income has increased less rapidly than in the nation as a whole during the last few years the estimates given in this table may be somewhat high. The total figures for the United States as to amount of taxes col lected by the federal, state, and local governments, are those of the National Industrial Conference Boa Table 24, p. 77 of Cost of Government in the United States, 1929-30. Total federal taxes were distributed among the states on the basis of the percent of federal taxes collected in each state as given in Table 34, p. 103-4 of Cost of Governmént in the United States, 1929-30. Figures as to taxes collected by state governments in the various states are from the U taxes collected by local governments in the ment of Commerce, Bureau of Census. Figures as to amount of are from Table 40, Pp. 114-5 of Cost of Government in the United States, 1929-30 rd as given in S. Depart- various states 'The percent which federal taxes is of income in the several states is not reported here because of the im ossibility of I I tracing the state in which federal taxes are ultimately paid. The fact that the federal government collects taxes within a certain state has no definite connection with the total tax burden borne by the income of the people of that state School Costs and Other Governmental Costs Confusion often arises as to the portion of tax money expended for public education or for other purposes. This is due primarily to the fact that three types of governmental units—fed- eral, state, and local—collect taxes. The mis- take is sometimes made of comparing all school costs with the taxes collected by one or at most two of these three governmental units, with resulting exaggeration of the proportion of tax money going to the schools, In a given local community, the cost of local governmental en- terprise, such as roads, may be divided between the local government, the state, and the fed- eral government, while schools may be almost wholly supported by a local tax. Approximately 83 percent of public elementary and secondary school revenue comes from taxes levied in local jurisdictions. On the other hand, less than 50 percent of all taxes is collected by governmental units smaller than the state. The annual investment in public education in the United States amounts to approximately 25 percent of the taxes collected for all public purposes. For every dollar expended for public schools we expend three dollars for other pub- lic purposes. The Major Tax Bills in the United States Since education is one of the most im; functions of government, one is not surp: find that it is one of the chief objects to public expenditures are directed. The ma bills in the United States together wii amounts devoted to them in 1929 ' are in Table 6 and Chart IV. As will be seen Table 6, education ranks first among al! poses of local expenditures, but it receive, than | percent of federal expenditures ani js only second to highways among the pu for which state government moneys a: pended. A glance at Chart IV will show smaller amount of money is devoted ann to public education by federal, state, and governments combined than is paid out in year by the federal government alone tow the cost of past and future wars. Chart IV also shows the sources of p revenue. The local governments were res) sible for more than half (57.5 percent of net and 54.6 percent of gross expenditures) of th total cost of government in the United S: ! The latest year for which data on local expenditures for all purposes are available is 1929. TABLE 6.—PURPOSES OF GOVERNMENTAL EXPENDITURES, 1929 Federal (millions) Education’. . Highways Protection aud ‘ Public utilities ‘ Economic development ‘ . General government . Miscellaneous... . Unclassified local. . PPMP PPerr | State | (millions) | | | Percent of gross expenditures $2581 + 4.7 1353.4 © | UN re com noe $10 455.0 100.0 2606.9 $3934.8 30.1 $13 061.9 100.0 total gross the total gross expenditures of all governments for all ———. itures of local governments of 1 Net expenditures for education, exclusive of debt service which is included in Item 10. It is estimated on the basis of U. S. Office of Education figures that expenditures for retirement of, and interest on educational debt were about $260,000,000 in 1929. On this basis gross Pye eg for education amounted to about $2,750,000,000 or 21 percent o! itures for all purposes of federal, state, and local * It is estimated by the Research Division that approximately of past and future Se. If to this amount is added federal expenditures for debt redemption and interest of $1,353 ,400,000, iture of the federal government due to war amounted to about $2,853,400,000 in 1929 or 22 percent o! vernments. 1,500,000,000 of this expenditure is due to the cost than 30,000 population are excluded here. Combined expenditures 0! tad governments of less than 30,000 population amounted to $1,335, ‘ Gross expenditures are net expenditures plus expenditures for debt redemption and interest. Source: National Industrial Conference Board. Cost of Government in the United States, 1929-30, p. 20-21. , shown in this table as Item 9. [ 214] in that year. The federal government paid 30.1 nercent of the total, and the state governments, | 5.3 percent. The tax sources from which the money to meet these payments was drawn were as follows: Property taxes: $459,084,000 Local 4,446,940,000 Total $4,906,024,000—(49 percent Income taxes: $2,33 1,274,000 74,595,000" Federal Total U. S. $2,405,869,000— (24 $610,900,000—( 6 538,664,000—( 5 282,579,000—( 3 272,871,000—( 3 963,880,000—(10 percent percent Federal excises State gasoline taxes.. percent) percent ) State business taxes. . percent ) All other taxes...... percent) Tax Collections and School Costs by States Table 7 presents facts concerning the ratio of school costs to tax collections by the various governmental units. For example, in Connecti- cut the total tax collections in 1930 by federal, state, and local governments were $159,666,- 196. In the same year this state expended $37,791,163 for public elementary, secondary, and college education. The amount expended for schools was, therefore, 23.7 percent of all tax collections in this state, or, if federal tax collections are excluded, 35.7 percent of the taxes collected by the state and by the local gov- ernmental units. For every dollar expended for public schools in this state approximately three dollars are collected for the support of other governmental enterprises. Similar figures are given for the United States and for each of the states in Chart V. 1 Corporation excise and franchise taxes measured by net income are omitted here and included with state business taxes, CHART IV THE GOVERNMENTAL DOLLAR ¢ unl 7 4.> ustoms -G cents Federa| txcises -B cents ~ State Gasolme Taxes - 5 cents State Business ves - 5 certs General Gover - ment . 7 conts Seciol Welfare cents — WHERE _ Research Division Aatonal Educatuan Assh. 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[ School Costs and Certain Other Expenditures Up to this point this Bulletin has been con- cerned with comparisons involving govern- mental income and expenditures. But, after all, only a small proportion of the nation’s income is devoted to governmental operations. It is nat- ural to inquire how the cost of schools com- pares with other large items of expenditure of the American people. To make such compari- sons is the purpose of this section. Table 8 shows the estimated annual expenditures in the several states for public education, building con- struction, life insurance, and passenger automo- biles. The same facts are shown graphically for the nation as a whole in Chart VI. Life Insurance The nation’s payments for life insurance premiums in 1930 were $3,524,326,635. This figure may be compared with $2,615,068,177 expended for public schools of all types—ele- mentary, secondary, and collegiate. The na- tion’s annual bill for life insurance is, therefore, considerably larger than that paid for public education. Out of every $100 which we have to spend, we pay $3.35 for public schools and $4.52 for life insurance premiums. In making this thought of depreciating the importance of life insurance. comparison there is no Life insurance constitutes one of the important forms of protection, saving, and in- vestment. The fact that there were 32,776,335 ordinary life and 89,436,438 industrial life in- surance policies in force in 1930, and that these policies protected the lives of the people of the nation to the amount of $107,948,277,730, is a reason for optimism. These figures indicate thrift and foresight on the part of the nation’s citizens. However highly we may rate she service ren- dered to the nation by the life insurance busi- ness, the question may be raised whether it is any more important than the service rendered by public education. The fact is that at present CHART VI # 3,524,326, 635 LIFE INSURANCE #2 2,615, O68, 177 PUBLIC SCHOOLS - ELEMENTARY , SECONDARY, AND COLLEGIATE SCHOOL COSTS AND CERTAIN OTHER EXPENDITURES IN 1930 #5,806,374,417 #11,817, 700,000 BUILDING PASSENGER. CON STRUCTION AUTOMOBILES Rescarch Division, Mational Fducatioty Assi school costs ; the Spectator Co. for Life insurance ; mobiles Calculations based on the following sources : U.S. ——_ of wry Office of Education. for for buslding construction ; and, National ee A ty Chamber of Comensean for passenger auto- ent of Commerce, Burcain of Consus we are spending $1.35 for life insurance for each $1.00 spent for public schools. Building Construction According to the U. S. Census of Construc- tion, the nation’s expenditures for construction of all types in 1929 was $5,806,374,417.' This figure is somewhat higher than $5,046,829,000, the value of building construction in 1930, as estimated by the F. W. Dodge Corporation on the basis of reports from thirty-seven states.” Either of these figures is approximately twice $2,615,068,000, the amount expended for pub- lic education in 1929-30. Again, in making this comparison the desire is not to depreciate the importance of substan- tial investments in building construction. A well-constructed home, factory, or office build- ing is serviceable for years. Expenditures for such structures when wisely made, constitute an important permanent investment. It would be folly to allow this portion of the nation’s wealth to deteriorate. Such deterioration can be pre- vented only by making substantial expenditures to replace worn-out or out-of-date structures with modern ones. In accepting these important and easily understood facts, let us not overlook the even more fundamental truth that the value of our human resources far exceeds the value of the wealth invested in buildings. The total value of all buildings in the United States is, at the present time, probably something less than $120,000,000,000. A recent estimate places the value of human resources of the United States roughly at $1,500,000,000,000.* To protect and enhance the value of that portion of this asset represented by our intellectual resources we spend $2,615,068,000 for public education. An investment of less than three billion dollars a year to protect our intellectual assets seems reasonable when compared with an investment of five billion dollars a year for the protection of material assets in the form of buildings and other construction. At any rate, for every $1.00 of our national income that we invest in public education we invest $2.22 in building construc- tion. Passenger Automobiles Some look upon the automobile as a ne: of life; others call it a luxury. Both view; are justified in some instances. Much o} money which we spend for passenger mobiles deserves to be considered as a investment. Some of it, no doubt, very: extravagance. But whatever allocation we may automobile expenditures under the head . cessities or of luxuries, who would say that more important to make full provision fo: possible passenger automobile needs than our educational needs? Yet we are spen several times more each year for automo than for all public schools. In 1930 there w: 23,042,840 passenger automobiles in operat in the United States. We own 74.4 percen: all the automobiles in use in the world. Exc! ing motor trucks from consideration, we ex- pended in 1930 approximately $1 1,817,700,00 for the purchase, upkeep, and operation of pas senger automobiles. The public school bill represents an invest ment of $3.35 out of each $100 of income ; the passenger automobile bill claims $15.15 out each $100 of income. mak Luxuries Since 1924 there have been no accurate | ports covering the value of luxuries consum: by the people of the United States. Previous issues of the Research Bulletin have given t! best estimates available concerning annual e\ penditures for such items as tobacco, chewing gum, soft drinks, etc.t Such estimates are not presented in this Bulletin because of the difh culty of determining the effect of current eco nomic conditions on spending for luxurious pur- poses in the several states. The United States Census Bureau is now tabulating returns on its census of distribution which may yield reason ably accurate estimates of the amount of ex penditures for various luxuries in the yea: 1929. The reports of collections of the new 1 The Census of Construction was taken as a part of the U. S. Department of Commerce Census of Distribution. It the first official census of the construction industry that has been taken in the United States and, therefore, there are no figu for earlier years that are ay oma. 2 Estimate quoted the U * Dublin, Louis I. 166-219, September, 1930. Washington, D. C.: S. Department of Commerce in the Commerce Yearbook, 1931. Vol. 1, p. 325. ealth and Wealth. New York: Harper & Bros *Refer to: National Education Association, Research Division. the Association, p. 181 , 1928. 361 ” “Investing in Public Education.” Research Bulletin § [ 220) TABLE 8—ANNUAL EXPENDITURES FOR LIFE INSURANCE, BUILDING CON.- STRUCTION, PASSENGER AUTOMOBILES, AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS, BY STATES, 1930. —_— Percent school costs were of Cost of public Expenditures Expenditures Expenditures education, for life for for States elementary, insurance building passenger secondary, premiums construction automobiles and collegiate Expendi- Expendi- Expendi- tures tures tures for life for for insurance | building passenger premiums construc- auto- tion mobiles 2 3 : x $2.615,068,177 $3524 326,635/$5. 806.3 7§ 700 000 74.2 22.13 abama 28,420,601 29 604,344 49 364,722 310,000 \rizona 13,250,925 286 , 490 18,852,655 790 000 \rkansas 16,740,349 17,621,633 26.615 .32 710.000 ilifornia 166 , 830,338 929 , 842 444,586 3 920,000 lorado 29 , 398 , 832 , 489,748 33,162 680,000 Connecticut 37,791,163 962,206 148 380,327 860 , 000 Delaware 423,829 925,412 19, 745,7 330,000 Dist. of Columbia 874,397 23,612,988 51,234,575 260 , 000 Florida ,327 ,462 24,317,854 42,085,242 620,000 Georgia ,677 ,010 2,644,352 ,979 , 103 860 , 000 Idaho 2,095,415 696,221 298 616 490.000 Illinois ,692 471 23,885,618 672,914 741,100,000 Indiana , 398 934 231.406 24' 421.346 2.670.000 wa ,650, 851 741,659 79,318,030 570.000 Kansas 5,799,743 5,595,699 51,632,124 050,000 Kentucky 28 , 893 056 824,891 , 192,660 .790 ,000 Louisiana 25,081,991 , 309 , 209 O89 , 167 21,060,000 Maine 2,942,258 .793 ,527 24,477,419 78,740,000 Maryland ,133,310 864 , 899 145,700 ,310,000 Massachusetts 382,569 462,813 008 , 006 800 , 000 Michigan 37,738,439 523,326 627,185 300 , 000 Minnesota ,682 , 845 , 847 ,610 455 813 930,000 Mississippi 22,162 ,443 7 974,066 , 845,706 420,000 Missouri 3,197,241 787 ,097 2,997 ,000 332,920,000 Montana 5,698,704 , 515,682 7,439,729 , 150,000 Nebraska 5.544 014,074 086 , 454 81,800,000 Nevada ,999 1,409,731 , 997 ,032 2,550,000 New Hampshire ,993 193 ,392,441 492 892 560 , 000 New Jersey ,514,973 ,660 641 , 168,695 , 480 000 New Mexico 8,905 ,612 ,524,327 , 422,060 37,220,000 New York 373 ,023 , 880 816,674 ‘ , 313 ,689 P , 280,000 North Carolina 5,083,161 3,349,218 , 964,271 . 180,000 North Dakota , 186,688 , 458,384 ,635,212 7,870,000 ORG. oes ,504,219 5 909 337 : 582,370 , 120,000 Oklahoma 8,388,399 33,128,670 57,579,322 ,810,000 Oregon. . 25,548,945 908 , 123 4,014,382 , 520,000 Pennsylvania 196 ,950, 196 ‘ , 106,165 , 966 463 , 660 ,000 58 Rhode Island 14,051,211 , 194,613 , 967 , 800 , 960, 000 49 South Carolina 19,157,555 , 793,527 , 852,650 , 310,000 92 South Dakota 17,767,131 , 515,682 3,300,478 840,000) 186.7 Tennessee 27 ,637 , 386 3,349,218 , 286,316 , 850,000 63 \ 93,538,770 , 535,186 ,179, 848 588,210,000) 120 Utah 13,568,978 , 872,321 ,199 420 48,250,000| 137.5 Vermont.... 6,986 ,021 , 863 909) 5,191, 390 39,950,000 70 Virginia. ... 32,556,836 ,054, 083 460, 760 4,260,000 73 Washington. . , 40 ,666 ,818 , 996,785 573,940 , 370,000 94.5 West Virginia 33,165,833 , 547 ,046 193,400 , 890,000 116 Wisconsin... 65,154,476 72,953,561 , 983 542 337 , 580,000 89. Wyoming. . ; 7,469,177 3,524,327 , 333,624 .540,000 211 Read table thus: In 1930 there was $29,604,344 paid as life insurance premiums in the state of Alabama. Expendi tures for public elementary, secondary, and collegiate schools in Alabama in 1930 were $28,420,601, or 96.00 percent as much as was paid for life insurance in that state. Similarly read figures for other states and for other columns Sources of data: The figures of Column 2 are from the U. S. Department of Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1931, No. 20, Vol. Il, Chapters 11, IV, and V. The figures representing collegiate costs are receipts rather than expendi- tures. Expenditures for these institutions are not available. Figures as to life insurance are from Insurance Yearbook, 1931, the Spectator Co. Figures of Column 4 are based on those of the U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census, and are for the year 1929. The figures given as to cost of building construction in the United States include cost of school buildings, which is approximately $400,000,000 a year for public elementary and secondary schools. The percent which the cost of public education is of the cost of building construction will be slightly increased if the cost of school buildings * deducted from construction cost of all building construction. Figures as to expenditures for passenger automobiles are estimates based principally on figures from the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, and include the cost of operation, maintenance, and depreciation for all passenger automobiles. *Preliminary figure. Revised figure should read $40,337,850. federal excise taxes on these luxuries will also furnish a basis for such estimates. If reasonably accurate figures on expenditures for various types of luxuries become available, such figures will be reported in future issues of the Research Bulletin. However, although no estimate of the ex- penditures by the people of the United States for luxuries is made at this time, it is a well- recognized fact that the cost of public educa- tion is only a fraction of the annual expendi- tures for articles commonly classed as luxuries. In 1928, the people of the United States spent about $2.61 for candy, chewing gum, theatres, and similar luxuries for every dollar spent for schools. The bill for tobacco, alone, was very little less than the bill for schools. Caution must be exercised in comparing ex- penditures for public education with those for other purposes. It must be remembered that there is no economic magic whereby factories built for the production of certain types of commodities and services can be converted overnight into schoolhouses. The presentation of figures concerning school costs, and the costs of other goods and services, does not rej: sound economic principle. Nevertheless hardly be denied that there is a large ¢ of choice in the distribution of the a, national income. There is scarcely a c nity in the country which, if it wished to the purchase of other goods and comm could not increase its expenditures for , tion. Similarly, most communities could red \yc¢ their expenditures for public schools and VOL. X, NO. 5 soniamniataa’ ; Research Bulletin OF THE National Education Association SSSSSSGGSSSGGGSSSSSSSSSGGSOOGRR8 WOV 5. Facts on School Costs 9966996885999 S5959955095908S8858 ae BBBaSGSaaGoascaaoaaaaoaaasaaascasooesoSaaaasaaae 1956595558558 PUBLISHED BY THE RESEARCH DIVISION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201 SIXTEENTH STREET NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C, | ©) 6656050505 555555555555550555505559 Research Bulletin of the National Education Association Published five times each year in January, March, May, September, and November by the Research Division of the National Education Association of the United States. President, Joserui Rosier Secretary, J. W. Craptret The payment of the $5 membership fee of the National Education Association entitles one to receive the Research Bulletin, the Journal, the Annual Volume of Ad- dresses and Proceedings, and certain other publications of the National Education Asso- ciation for one year. One dollar of each $5 membership fee is for a year’s subscription to the Research Bulletin. The Research Bulletin may be subscribed for separately at a subscription price of $1 per year. Copies may be purchased for 25 cents, and in quantities at a reduced rate. Those entitled to receive the Research Bulletin regularly are asked to report at once any change of address, giving old as well as new address. Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., unde Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. 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NE BODY of our citizenry remains immune () from all blame and responsibility in the diffi- culties with which we are faced and must be held in special guardianship during the period of readjust- ment. I refer to the children. . . . Public ma- chinery directed to the protection of childhood, such as public health, welfare agencies, educational sys- tems, should be the last to be affected by measures of economy .. . . Let us everywhere be on guard against any retrenchment which pinches the young.—Walter S. Gifford, Director, The President’s Organization on Unemployment Relief, November, 1931.