Research Bulletin OF THE National Education Association VOLUME IX January to November, 1931 The Research Bulletin is issued by the Research Division, a section of the headquarters staff of the National Education Association. This divi sion was created in February, 1922, for the purpose of conducting scien tific studies of special interest to members of the teaching profession Bulletin One was issued by the Research Division in June, 1922, an Bulletin Two, in November, 1922 The first number of the Researc/ Bulletin is Volume I, No. 1, January, 1923, entitled Facts on State Educational Needs. With Volume I, No. 1, the Research Bulletin became a regular publication, issued five times each year—January, March, May, September, and November. The Research Bulletins composing Volumes I, II, 111, IV, V, VI, VII. VIII, and IX are listed on the inside back cover of the November, 1931, Bulletin RESEARCH DIVISION THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1201 Sixteenth Street Northwest, Washington, D. C. 1931 Ce ee TABLE OF CONTENTS Page eS ie 3 el lias a wali TCR ee ee iment pb zies 7 Causes of Growing Interest in Professional Ethics—Codes of Ethics Among Teachers—The Value of Codes of Ethics—Educational Implications—Purpose Methods of Study PART I * - ) : INSTRUCTION IN PROFESSIONAL ETHICS Chapter I. Current Practices in the Schools of Eight Professions. . 10 General Status of Ethical Instruction—Causes of Wide Differences in Practice— Are Courses in Professional Ethics Elective or Required?—In What Year of Training Is the Course in Professional Ethics Usually Given?—Analysis of Practice in the Schools of Each Profession: Architecture; Dentistry; Nursing; Journalism; Business and Commerce; Law; Medicine—Schools for Teachers Definite Courses in Ethics; Specific Attention to Professional Ethics in Othe: Courses; Requirements of State Departments of Education; Differences of Prac tice and Opinion—Summary Chapter II. What Arrangements for Instruction in Professional Ethics Should Se ee eer ee Steaua Demonstration by Experiment—Opinions of Leaders—Principles of Curriculum Construction PART II STANDARDS OF PROFESSIONAL ConpDUCT AMONG TEACHERS Chapter III. Selection and Organization of Material.......... —s 27 Teachers’ Codes of Ethics—Criteria Employed in Selecting the Standards— Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Certain Practices—Violations of Professional Ethics —General Method of Presentation Chapter IV. General Principles of Conduct.......... EE esug'e acne 44 ‘ 32 General Principles—General Attitudes and Traits—Violations of General Pro- prieties Chapter V. Standards of Conduct in Relations with Pupils, Parents, and Com I SS ee oo eae eae eawal ae The Welfare of the Child—Individual Differences among Pupils—Impartiality Sympathy and Courtesy—Confidential Information—Tutoring Pupils of His Own Classes—Imposing Religious or Political Views upon Pupils—Cooperation with Parents—Participation in Community Life—Politics and Factions—Disparaging the Community Page Chapter VI. Standards of Conduct in Relations with Associates......... 45 General Statements—Assisting in the Formulation and Execution of Policies Support of Associates—Shifting Responsibility—Giving Constructive Advice and Helpful Ideas—Credit Due for Achievements and for Assistance Received— Assisting Associates To Secure Promotions—Interfering in Another’s Affairs— Confidential Information—Criticism of Associates—Transaction of Business through Proper Channels—Organizing Data for Successor Chapter VII. Standards of Conduct in Relation to the Profession... ... were Pride in the Profession—Standards of Entrance—Growth in Service—Affliation with Professional Associations—Improving Economic and Social Conditions Reporting Corrupt and Dishonorable Practices Chapter VIII. Standards of Conduct in Securing and Terminating Employment 61 Applying for a Position—Withdrawing Applications—Merit the Sole Basis for Appointment or Promotion—Nepotism—Self-advertising—Recommendations— Underbidding—Seeking an Offer Elsewhere—Fulfilling Contracts—Notification Regarding ‘Termination of Employment Chapter IX. Standards of Conduct in Connection with ‘Teachers’ Agencies, Publishing and School Supply Houses.......... 2.0.2... ccc cc cece ences 69 Teachers’ Agencies—Publishing and School Supply Houses Chapter X. Conclusions and Recommendations........................... 71 ERS ERY Fee ae 74 See ee) 80 Detailed Supplementary Tables—Forms Used in Collecting Data—Sources of Mailing Lists of Executive Heads of Professional Schools to Whom Questionnaire Was Sent. Code of Ethics of National Education Association..... . Sako eee 88 [4] 1S AS III A Ce alates Atenas Aha tens emit LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Extent of Response to the Questionnaire 10 2. Number and Percent of School Catalogues Examined 10 3. Percent of Schools Offering Definite Courses in Professional Ethics as Indicated by Tw Different Methods of Investigation...... 11 4. Administrative Provisions Reported for Instruction in Professional Ethics 11 5. The Proportion of Definite Courses in Professional Ethics Which Are Required and re 14 6. The Year of Training in Which Definite Courses in Professional Ethics Are Given 15 7. Courses in Professional Schools for Teachers in Which Problems of Professional Ethics Were Reported as Receiving Specific Attention. 20 8. Years in Which State Teachers’ Associations Adopted Their Present Codes of Profes re A gS Liha x Wale am sre eS AG pha Rave we EMia-k aa eaA 27 9. Main Categories of Violations of Professional Ethics Reported in This Study 29 10. Main Categories of Unethical Practices Reported in a Study by the National Education Association’s Committee on Ethics of the Profession 30 11. Codes of Ethics Which Specify Various Standards of Conduct in Relations with Pupils, Parents, and Community 38 12. Reported Violations of Standards of Conduct in Relations with Pupils, Parents, and Community 39 13. Codes of Ethics Which Specify Various Standards of Conduct in Relations with Associates 46 14. Reported Violations of Standards of Conduct in Relations with Associates 47 15. Specific Types of Violations Classified as Criticism of Associates. . $2 16. Codes of Ethics Which Specify Various Standards of Conduct in Relation to the Pro ee ee ties ee re oy eee 56 17. Reported Violations of Standards of Conduct in Relation to the Profession 57 18. Codes of Ethics Which Specify Various Standards of Conduct in Securing and Termi RN OUNCES gg. 8k cd escsececs 62 19. Reported Violations of Standards of Conduct in Securing and Terminating Employment 63 20. Summary of Judgments by Teachers and Administrators on 39 Questionable Practices 80 21. Unethical Practices Reported by Teachers and Administrators in a Study by the National Education Association's Committee on Ethics of the Profession 81 22. Law Schools in the Catalogues of Which Definite Courses in Professional (Legal) Ethics NE ER eer ery Tere 82 23. Medical Schools in the Catalogues of Which Definite Courses in Professional Ethics NE aww. 5. wo 00 Veo: nwo-0 8? Gere 82 24. Professional Schools for Teachers in the Catalogues of Which Definite Courses in Professional Ethics Were Noted..... 83 25. Distribution by Residence and Position of Those Who Reported Violations of Profes- INS 20s bain Sopewtad oWawes 0caiése 83 FOREWORD HIs issue of the Research Bulletin presents the results of an investigation by Theodore Day Martin, Director of Records and Membership of the National Education Association. It deals with a subject of paramount importance to the teaching profession. Contemporary American civilization may be succinctly appraised in four words— improved means, unimproved ends. That we have increased our material and physical resources is undeniable, but who will say that we have likewise improved our spiritual! and cultural background? Swiftly and surely we have progressed in mastery of the forces of nature and in the improvement of the material aspects of living, until our nation has assumed international leadership in this field. Equivalent success in the ethical realm, in the sphere of right action, must still be won. Upon no other group does responsibility for winning this second and far more important victory rest more squarely than upon teachers. Society expects of its teachers an unusually high standard of conduct because of their intimate relations with children. The peculiar opportunity of the teaching profession for guiding and influencing the prospective members of all vocations constitutes an obligation to assume the lead in exemplifying desirable conduct. It is supremely important, therefore, that teachers develop a keen appreciation of what constitutes professional action in its finest sense. In proportion as they continue to progress toward ideal professional attitudes and relationships, teachers will exercise increasing leadership in the advance of the nation toward a higher level of conduct. This study is of particular significance to professional schools for teachers. To the heads of these institutions it offers an opportunity to appraise their provision for in- struction in professional ethics. To faculty committees responsible for determining content in this field it will supply a rich store of concrete teaching material. To future teachers it will provide material for classroom discussion and for supplementary read- ing. To state and local teachers’ associations it may become a source-book for critical study by committees on professional ethics. To all members of the teaching profession the study should be a stimulus and a continuing challenge. J. W. Crastreer, Secretary, National Education Association. [6] ee ator te Tc anna an Introduction A widespread and growing interest in the improvement of human relationships has char- acterized the first thirty years of the twentieth century. This interest has expressed among professional and industrial groups by the adoption of codes of ethics and standards of practice. In 1924 a volume was published containing approximately 200 such codes and statements adopted by national or interstate organizations.’ Few of these appeared before the beginning of the present century. Fifty- two were adopted between 1900 and 1920, and 140 between 1920 and 1924. At a meeting of the Interprofessional Com- mittee of the American Academy of Political and Social Science held in Detroit in 1919 leaders in various fields discussed the value of codes and statements of practice as means for improving both professional service and pro- fessional relationships.2 As a sequel to this conference the May, 1922, issue of the Annals of the Academy was devoted almost wholly to the same subject. The trend of opinion ex- pressed in these articles was that codes of ethics and statements of approved practices are effective steps toward better professional conduct and higher social levels. The frequent treatment which problems of professional eth- ics have received during recent years in text- books prepared for use in professional schools, in trade journals, and at state and national conventions is further evidence of increasing interest in these problems. Activity in the field has grown so greatly that in 1926 Cabot wrote, “Ethics is beginning to be fashionable.” * been Causes of Growing Interest in Profes- sional Ethics Several reasons have been advanced for the recent growth of interest in problems of pro- ' Heermance, Edgar L. Codes of Ethics 2 Whitaker, Charles Harris and Social Science. 101:13; May, 1922 ® Cabot, Richard C. Adventures on the Borderlands of Ethi: Ronald Press, 1926 “Lee, James Melvin. Business Ethics. 5 Kent, Edwin N. The Business Side of Dentistry. C. V * Kohn, Robert. D. “The Significance of the Professional Ideal.” Annals of the Ame Social Science. 101: 1; May, 1922 7 Cabot, Richard C. Op. cit. p. 78-9. Free Press Printing Co., “The Interrelations of the Professions.” fessional ethics. Lee contends that the urge business toward higher ethical standards in resulted from the activities of the “muck- rakers” in the early years of this century.‘ Kent that the stimulated primarily by idealistic reformers believes movement was not but arose naturally from man’s developing sense of mutual responsibility.® that it the the sensitiveness stimulated by the experiences of the World War,® while Cabot maintains that the work of the Federal ‘Trade Commission, Kohn suggests was result of keener moral organized in 1915, was one of the most in fluential factors.’ Doubtless impetus was also given to the movement by the aggressive cam- paign for code adoption conducted by the In Clubs.* Whatever the causes may have been, the gen- ternational Association of Rotary eral conviction has spread that the adoption of definite standards of practice is mutually beneficial to the vocations concerned and to society as a whole. Codes of Ethics Among Teachers Among teachers the development of pro- fessional standards of conduct has paralleled roughly the movement in other vocational groups. During the past thirty years numerous codes of ethics for teachers have been prepared by individuals, by classes in teacher training institutions, and by local, state, and national associations. The first official state code for 1896 by the state Georgia. The Cali- 1904 and the Alabama association in 1908. By 1920, the teachers was adopted in teachers’ association of fornia association followed suit in teachers’ associations of eight states had 1924, 525 p. Annals of the American Academy of Political s. Harper and Bros., 1926. p. vi p. 45 I Mosby, 1929. p. 20. 4 ican A of Political and idemy ’ ® Gundaker, Guy. “Campaign of the International Association of Rotary Clubs for the Writing of Codes of Standards of Practice for Each Business and Profession.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 101: 228-36; May, 1922. adopted official codes* and by 1930, thirty- practice have considerable potential va three states reported the adoption of such docu- those who have studied the problem rece; ments.? The National Education Association emphasize the importance of making adequ t! appointed a committee on ethics in 1924 and _ provision for their dissemination and en{ in 1929 officially approved the code recom- ment. This, as Landis suggests, is princi, mended in the report of that committee.® an educational job.® S a The increased frequency with which prob- te lems of professional ethics have been treated Educational Implications - y during recent years in educational publications es < and conventions indicates a growing aware- The effectiveness of any code of professional ar ness of the need for further development in ethics depends upon three closely related con di this field * and Marsh suggests that the teach- ditions. The code must be stated clearly and si ing force of the nation ought to take advan- specifically; it must be widely disseminated te tage of its opportunity for leadership in the and thoroughly understood ; and it must by nationwide movement for improved practice companied by means of enforcement. J in the business and professional world.® study is primarily concerned with the first t . 4 a) : Se of these conditions; namely, the clear stat ' a The Value of Codes of Ethics ment and wide dissemination of standards of si professional conduct. The importance of edu j Early writers in this field were inclined tows tn thi ion i &E- arly writers in this held were inclined to cation in this connection is well expressed . = put great faith in the mere formulation of the teaching profession in the following stat So codes of ethics. King introduces his foreword ment: : to the May, 1922, issue of The Annals of the : | = A ‘ Acad Political and Social Sci Of course, the mere formulation of codes of an merican 2 cagemy of olitical an nr €t- ethics will not accomplish much unless there is pl ence with the categorical statement, “Codes of some way implanted in every new teacher a sens / ethics are important agencies for social con- of individual responsibility for maintaining good 7. * trol.’”® Jones expresses a similar conviction in professional standards. This is the task of stat les : departments of education, of superintendents the following statement ; schools, and especially of the faculties of teac! . . Swat »10 “The ideals of men best. project themselves ‘taining schools.’ asm veaiy when eryctelined in written doe The foregoing discussion immediately raises | ments. . . . In every line of human activity a a united written expression of that which is best for ‘WO large problems: (1) what administrati ve | the common good becomes a strong force for prog- arrangements should be made for traini: ” 7 teachers regarding the principles and standa: of professional conduct? and (2) what stan ards of conduct should be observed by tea 7 ers? This investigation does not attempt t ress. The mere expression clarifies the sentiment. Landis, after studying the problem inten- sively, is much less positive of the value result- ing merely from the development of written codes and Cabot reports that he is not sanguine @"swer these questions completely. It ai “about any reform in business ethics to be pro- rather to throw some light on them, duced merely by the formulation and publica- thereby to stimulate still further the increas . tion of a code.” * While writers agree that ing interest of recent years in the whole pr: i codes of ethics and statements of approved lem of professional ethics among teachers. Gs RO i hi 2 National Education Association, Committee on Ethics of the Profession. Report: The Ethics of the Teaching /r fession. (Sarah T. Muir, Chairman.) July, 1926. p. 14-16. 2 See Table 8, Chapter III. 8 Muir, Sarah T., chairman. “Final Report of the Committee on Ethics of the Profession—Abstract.”’ Procé 1929. Vol. 67. National Education Association, 1929. p. 179-82. 4 Koos, Leonard V. The American Secondary pF Ginn and Company, 1927. p. 673. 5 Marsh, J. Frank. The Teacher Outside the School. World Book Company, 1928. p. 79. * King, Clyde L. “Foreword.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 101: vii; 7 Heermance, Edgar L. Op. cit. p. 1-2. 8 Cabot, Richard C. Op. cit. p. 79. ® Landis, Benson Young. Professional Codes. Contributions to Education, No. 267. Bureau of Publications, College, Columbia University, 1927. p. 11. 2% Chambers, George Gailey. “(Codes of Ethics for the Teaching Profession.” Annals of the American Academ: ; Political and Social Science. 101: 126; May, 1922. [8] May, lea it = sere tet? ee Purpose The purpose of this study, therefore, is threefold: (1) to discover current adminis- trative practices regarding instruction in pro- fessional ethics; (2) to suggest administrative arrangements which professional schools for teachers may use to acquaint their students with the accepted standards of professional conduct; and (3) to prepare a selected and annotated list of standards of professional con- duct which may be used as a basis for discus- sion in teacher training classes and among teachers in service. Methods of Study To discover what arrangements professional schools now provide for instruction in ethical conduct, three procedures were employed: (1) a questionnaire was sent to the heads of schools of education, law, medicine, architecture, com- merce and business, dentistry, journalism, and nursing; (2) the catalogues of a representa- tive number of schools for teachers, lawyers, and physicians were examined; and (3) sup- plementary information was obtained by cor- respondence and with leaders in the eight fields. personal conference 1 The official code of the National Education Association is The administrative arrangements suggested for the teaching of ethics in schools for teach- ers are based primarily upon general principles of curriculum construction in the field of teacher raining. The propose 1 arrangements do not represent common practice ure they derived from a concensus of expert opin- ion. They conform to principles of curriculum construction which have received wide accept- ance, but are frankly intended to be merely suggestive. To obtain the list of standards of profes- sional conduct among teachers, the codes of ethics adopted by the National Education As teachers’ itions and by state Illustrative sociation! associ were analyzed. and explanatory material was drawn partly from the codes and partly from the following sources: (1) re- ports of the National Education Association’s Committee on Ethics of the Profession; (2) reported by ; (3) with violations of ethical stan teachers, supervisors, and administrators books and magazine articles concerned problems of teacher personnel; (4) the official standards of the medical and legal professions. eproduced in its entirety on page HE SKEPTIC will say that these are the counsels of perfection which fallible mortals cannot hope to observe. But no skeptic can say that they are wrong counsels or that men should not strive to observe them. The nation’s ideals themselves are counsels of perfection and may never be achieved, but no patriotic American could wish to abate them. Every influence and impulse that carries men toward their ideals is wholesome and valuable.—Editorial, Washington Post, May 31, 1930. [9] PART I th ; ar INSTRUCTION IN PROFESSIONAL ETHICS i i fi CHAPTER I Current Practices in the Schools of Eight Professions Bsc | T This chapter presents a survey of provisions case of schools of architecture, business. : for instruction in professional ethics offered by medicine. The percent from all schools ; the schools of eight professions: architecture, bined was 64. There is no apparent reaso commerce and business, dentistry, journalism, doubt the representativeness of the law, medicine, nursing, and education. which replied. = Three procedures were employed to obtain Table 2 shows the number of catalogu: the data. First, the questionnaire method was amined in the fields of teaching, law, used in all of the eight fields because it per- medicine. In two of these groups, teachin mitted direct contact with each of them at a_ medicine, the sampling was even large: minimum expenditure of time and money.’ Sec- _ tively than in the case of the questionnai: ond, school catalogues were examined in three turns. Only in the case of the city no fields, law, medicine, and teaching, to secure a__ schools, a comparatively small group, wa check on the accuracy of the questionnaire re- number of catalogues examined too smal sults and to obtain descriptions of courses yield meaningful results. offered. Third, personal conferences and cor- respondence with leaders in the eight fields TABLE 2—NUMBER AND PERCENT OF ; helped to interpret the data obtained by the SCHOOL CATALOGUES EXAMINED ~— first two procedures, 0 — ; Table 1 shows the number of questionnaires | Number Catalogues ( sent and the number of replies received. The i se ies | See — percent of schools responding ranged from 44 | ae Tn! mecca ; in the case of schools of nursing to 88 in the ee. ~— - P 1 = PER ~ ! : a , : pr | City Norm 1 Sch Is 28 5 18 | TABLE 1.—EXTENT OF RESPONSE TO || LityNormalschools... 28 | 5s THE QUESTIONNAIRE Teachers Colleges... .. 99 93 94 sp a Teaching (All Schools) . 236 201 85 of Sam... ++: 144 75 52 Number | Replies Receive Medicine. . __ 71 93 T “School Seu Grand Total 456 347 76 Sent Number} Percent " S ee | 1 Ts 4 Read table as follows: Of the total of 236 sch : os for teachers listed in the Directory, the catalogues of City Normal Schools. 28 | 23 82 201 or 85 percent were examined. Similarly reac State Normal Schools... . 109 | 61 56 figures for other types of institutions. Teachers Colleges. ..... . 9 | 65 66 -~ . Departme U.S. Department of the Int , Bureau of Educa- — on, Sl AE BE tion.” Educational Directory, 1928, Bulletin, 1928. Teaching (All schools). . 445 286 64 No. 1. Government Printing Office, Washington, Architecture............ 25 22 88 D.C. i Business............... 40 35 88 \ Dentistry.............. 46 | 38 83 ————— { i —... ua | won| so | Medicine............... 7% | «67 88 Table 3 shows that the two methods ot | Nursing................ 300 | «(131 44 it oo ; ie? — - ras vestigation yielded similar results with resp: | cna ao pee a. | to the percent of schools offering defini! | . . . Bs | Read table as follows: Of the 28 city normal schools courses in professional ethics. In each of ge ge ht Se three types of schools the percent indicated by ~ ‘rans the questionnaire returns was only slight 1 Departments of education in colleges and univer- “nds , » e} : dation Gulch arent Dantaesin educations larger than the percent indicated by the « | amination of catalogues. It therefore appea': | 1 For sources of the lists of schools included, one, pose 8? 87 in the fgnentia. & 2 The questionnaire used is reproduced on page 8 Appendix [10] ’ OF ED cent -— Ve wiv WI n, that both procedures are reasonably reliable and that, with certain reservations, the ques- tionnaire returns may be relied upon in the further analysis of the status of ethical in- struction in the eight groups of professional schools. TABLE 3—PERCENT OF SCHOOLS OFFERING DEFINITE COURSES IN PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AS _ INDI- CATED BY TWO DIFFERENT METH- ODS OF INVESTIGATION Percent ery Offering Definite yond ~— Courses as Indi- Schools for | 2 Ques- | o 4 cated by C tionnaires | logues Returned | Examined 7 - ccna Questica- | | Cata- |} maires | logues | oer ae eae 3 4 5 Teachers'..| 149 | 201 | 13 | 8 Lawyers... 102 75 67 | 63 Physicians. 67 71 | 43 | 39 | 1 Includes state and city normal schools and teachers | colleges. Departments of education in colleges and universities are not included here. ms i Sci General Status of Ethical Instruction From the replies to the questionnaire it was possible to differentiate three general types of provision for instruction in professional ethics: (1) definite courses in professional ethics; (2) specific consideration of the subject in units of other courses; and (3) incidental considera- Table 4 shows the situation among the schools of eight professions as indicated by the questionnaire returns. Of the 697 replies received from all types of schools, 42 percent reported definite courses in professional ethics; 41 percent re- tion of the subject in all courses. ported specific consideration of professional ethics in other courses; 4 percent reported consideration of the all courses; incidental subject in and 13 percent reported no in- struction in the subject. In studying Table 4 one should bear in mind the extreme difficulty of drawing hard and fast lines of distinction between the three types of provisions just mentioned. Doubtless there is some overlapping between these categories be- cause of differences in interpretation by the officials reporting. The type of provision which was classified by most of those reporting as consideration of ethics in another was doubtless classified by a few as a definite course in itself. Similarly, it is probable that incidental consideration of the subject was frequently reported as specific consideration in other courses. On the whole, however, the important fea- tures of the situation from the viewpoint of this discussion stand out clearly enough. First, most professional schools give some attention to instruction in professional ethics. Second, these schools as a group are rather evenly di- vided in practice with reference to offering defi- nite courses in professional ethics, with the bal- specific course, TABLE 4.—ADMINISTRATIVE PROVISIONS REPORTED FOR INSTRUCTION IN PROFESSIONAL ETHICS of institutions. Number of Schools Reporting | Specific Treatment | in Other Courses | Number |_ nae T. of of Ques- | Professional | tionnaires | Definite Courses in School Returned | Professional Ethics | | o ue , a a | Number | Percent | _Number 1 2 | 3 4 5 | Teaching...... 286 23 | 8 | 200 | Architecture... 22 9 | 41 12 Business. ..... 35 6 17 16 Dentistry..... 38 32 84 6 Journalism. ... 16 9 56 6 | eae 102 68 67 | 18 Medicine. 67 29 43 | 19 ursing....... 131 120 91 8 oi 697 | 296 } 42 | 28s Read table as follows: Of the 286 professional schools for teachers which responded to the questionnaire, percent reported that they offer definite courses in professional ethics; specific consideration in other courses; 8 or 3 percent reported that the subject receives incidental consideration in all courses; and 55 or 19 percent reported no instruction in professional ethics, | Incidental Treatment in All Courses No Instruction | Percent Percent | Number | Percent Number 6 7 8 y 10 | 70 | 8 } 3 55 19 } 55 0 | 0 i | 4 } 46 7 | 20 6 17 16 0 0 0 0 38 | 1 6 0 0 17 7 7 9 9 28 | 6 9 13 20 . 4 es 1 2 2 41 30 4 86 13 23 or 8 200 or 70 percent reported that this subject receives Similarly read figures for the other types (11) ance somewhat in favor of those not offering such courses. Third, different professions vary widely in respect to the proportion of their schools which provide definite courses in this subject. Causes of Wide Differences in Practice Column 4 of Table 4 shows wide differences among the various professions with reference to the provision of definite courses in profes- sional ethics. The percents of schools offering such courses range from eight among teacher training institutions to ninety-one among schools for nurses, while approximately half of the schools of architecture, journalism, law, and medicine offer distinct courses in this field. Among schools of commerce and business a very small proportion offer distinct courses, and among schools of dentistry the proportion offering such courses is almost as large as in the case of schools of nursing. A number of factors must be considered in any attempt to account for these differences. Among schools for teachers the tactors of greatest influence against the establishment of definite courses in professional ethics are prob- ably the following: the brevity of most train- ing courses for teachers; the demand of a wide range of subjects for a place in the professional curriculum for teachers; the assumption that the relationships of the teacher do not differ significantly from the ordinary relationships of life; the fact that the rank and file of teachers have until recently been slow to realize the truly professional nature of-their calling; and the marked difference of opinion among edu- cators as to the relative values of direct and in- direct methods of character education. In the field of nursing the situation is some- what different. Although nursing, like teach- ing, has only recently begun to realize its pro- fessional possibilities and responsibilities, it is subject to certain influences which affect edu- cation only indirectly or not at all. Nurses, in the practice of their profession, are in close and constant contact with physicians. The medical profession has for years stressed the impor- tance of conduct which conforms to high pro- fessional standards. The nurse’s work involves the most intimate relationships with both physicians and patients, and thus necessitates a high degree of discretion, a keen sense of propriety, and a clear definition of preroga- tives and responsibilities. These factors, c bined with the ambition of leaders to velop nursing to the level where it wil] universally recognized as a full-fledged profes sion, have resulted in a widespread demand {o; and establishment of definite courses in | fessional ethics in the curricula of schools fo; nurses. In the field of dentistry, which also is char- acterized by the very large percent of schools which provide definite courses in this subject, the dominant factors probably have been similar to those affecting the training of nurses. Dentistry is a much younger pro fession than medicine, but like nursing js closely identified with the older calling. It, therefore, has a heritage of professional ideals of which it is keenly conscious. This, together with the aspiration of leaders to improve the service and enhance the prestige of this rela tively young profession, has led naturally to strong emphasis upon the teaching of ethics in dental schools. Thus far this discussion of differences in practice has dealt with professions in which the training schools are almost unanimous either in providing definite courses in profes- sional ethics or in failing to do so. As pointed out, however, some of the professions are char- acterized by a much more even division of practice on this point. What interplay of in- fluences is responsible for such a situation in well-established professions like medicine ? Both law and medicine have been recognized as professional callings for a great many years. They have not needed to broadcast their codes of ethics or to espouse instruction in profes- sional conduct in order to gain prestige. Until comparatively recent years the professional training which preceded active practice in these fields was largely of the apprentice type. A young man aspiring to become a lawyer se- cured a position as clerk in the office of an active practitioner. During his spare moments he read law. Through his work as clerk he ac- quired technical training which prepared him for independent practice later, and his con- stant and intimate contact with his superior gave him an acquaintance with the traditions, the ideals, and the approved procedures of the profession. law and [12] tide to de- will be protes- and fo; in pro- 01s tor is char- of its in this y have raining -r pro ing is ideals gether ve the $s rela- ly to hics in ces in which imous rofes- yinted char- on of of in- on in and nized years. codes -ofes- Until ional these e. A r se- f an 1ents e ac- him con- rior ions, the Within the past generation, however, this ituation has been radically changed. Law schools have developed rapidly. Prospective lawyers are prepared in quantity lots. Instruc- tion has been almost wholly impersonalized by large classes,’ and there is little opportunity for intimate contact between students and practitioners who exemplify in their lives the best ideals of the profession. Furthermore, the growing complexity of legal problems and the closer relationships between lawyers and pow- erful business and industrial interests make it increasingly difficult to recognize ethical issues and to act according to the dictates of pro- fessional conscience. With these factors in mind many leaders have considered it advisable for law schools to provide definite courses of instruction in the ethics of the profession. This viewpoint is clearly reflected in the following statements: In that period (before the Civil War) law was relatively simple and static . . . the lawyer was not subject to such powerful and insidious in- fluences—at any rate, the fratricidal competition of later days, with correspondence courses and pro- prietary law schools turning out graduates far in excess of community needs, had not yet appeared.’ A determined effort has been made by committees of ethics in different states to see to it that either by persuasion or by the compulsion of rules of court, law schools expecting their certificate of graduation to be accepted by bar examiners as the equivalent of a clerkship or prescribed years of study, should prescribe and faithfully carry out a certain number of hours of lectures upon the sub- ject of legal ethics.° On the other hand, many equally influential leaders assert that changing conditions have not increased the need for systematic instruc- tion in ethics. Their arguments are that a law- yer in order to be professional needs primarily to be a gentleman; that the extended training and moot court experiences provided by many law schools furnish adequate knowledge of professional etiquette ; and that definite courses in this subject are usually formal, uninterest- ing, perfunctory, and ineffective. One corre- spondent explains this negative attitude as follows: This lack of interest (in instructionin professional ethics) is occasioned by two views, both of which are erroneous. One view prevalent among the 1 Law School Faculty of Columbia University. Summary _ , 2 Harley, Herbert. “Group Organizations Among Lawye Science 101: 33; May, 1922 3 Jessup, Henry W. “The Ethics of the Legal Profession. better schools is that ethics simply refers to gen tlemanly deportment and good manners, and that if a young man is at all receptive he cannot go through the university of today without uncon- sciously becoming imbued with what is neces- sary in that respect. . . . The other reason is that a good many law instructors seem to regard ethics as merely ideals which cannot be put into practice if one is to become engaged in the profes- sional competition that exists today.‘ A similar situation exists in the field of medical education. Many leaders believe that the mass production of physicians has so com- pletely eliminated the stimulating contact of the initiate with the practitioner that the prob- lems of professional relationships must be strongly emphasized in definite courses. On the contrary, many feel just as strongly that such formal emphasis is neither necessary nor de- sirable. They have great faith in the inspira- tional influence of the physician’s traditional devotion to his professional ideals. ‘They be- lieve that if a student does not absorb these ideals without special instruction during the long and rigorous medical course, he is not likely to acquire them by any amount of formal study. Doubtless other factors have had a bearing apon the present status of ethical instruction in schools of law and medicine. ‘The preceding paragraphs, however, indicate two conflicting trends of influence to which the relatively even division of practice in these schools may be largely attributed. Are Courses in Professional Ethics Elective or Required? The number and percent of definite courses in professional ethics which are required and Table 5. Of the 296 schools of all types reporting definite courses, elective are shown in 92 percent prescribe them for all students, whereas only 8 percent offer them as electives. Such courses are required of all students by a substantial majority of schools in each profes- sion, except in the case of business schools. Among schools for teachers, however, 35 per- cent make these courses elective, which is a considerably larger proportion than is found in most other types of professional schools. This fact doubtless reflects the more liberal of Studies in Legal Education, 1926-28. Mimeographed. p. 11 .” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social ” Ibid, p. 16-17. ‘Letter from Thomas H. Howe of Chicago, Chairman, Committee on Professional Ethics and Grievances of the American Bar Association. [13] TABLE 5.—THE PROPORTION OF DEF- INITE COURSES IN PROFESSIONAL ETHICS WHICH ARE REQUIRED AND ELECTIVE Schools in Which Definite Courses Are nye ot | Sante ° e Professional Definite Required Elective School Courses Num-| Per- | Num-/| Per- ber | cent | ber | cent 1 2 3 4 5 6 Teaching...... 23 15 65 8 35 Architecture. . 9 9 100 0 0 Business. ..... 6 3 50 3 50 Dentistry. .... 32 32 100 0 0 Journalism 9 8 89 1 11 LAW... cc ee eee 68 61 90 7 10 Medicine...... 29 27 93 2 7 Nursing....... 120 118 98 2 2 Total....... 296 273 92 23 8 Read table as follows: Of the 23 schools for teachers which reported definite courses in professional ethics, 15 or 65 percent require these courses of all students, — 8 or 35 percent offer them as electives. Similarly read figures for other types of professional schools. elective policy prevailing in schools for teach- ers, in contrast to the more rigidly prescribed curricula in schools of architecture, dentistry, law, medicine, and nursing. In What Year of Training Is the Course in Professional Ethics Usually Given? Facts concerning the year of the training period in which definite courses in professional ethics are offered appear in Table 6. The terms used in answering this item on the question- naire varied so much that the replies could not be interpreted as simply as desired. However, Table 6 depicts the essential features of the situation. Although there is considerable diversity of practice even among schools within a single profession, certain tendencies are evident. Schools of dentistry, law, medicine, and teach- ing tend to. place the distinct course in ethics near the end of the training period. On the other hand, most of the schools of nursing place it in the first year, although many offer such instruction in both the first and third years. The latter arrangement is doubtless due to the recommendation of the Nationa! League of Nursing Education.’ The tendency among most professional schools, except those for nurses, is to put the course in professional ethics near the end of the training period. The advantages of this plan are that the students by this time have developed a background of technical prepara tion which enables them to appreciate the spe cial standards of conduct of their profession, and, as they stand on the threshold of active practice, they are eager to learn these stand- ards, so that, by conforming to them, they may win the respect and esteem of their clients and professional associates. On the other hand, there is an advantage in providing ethical in- struction in the first year of the course. In this way the habit of thinking in terms of accepted standards may be initiated at the beginning and strengthened through discussion and prac tice during the entire course of training. Prob. ably the best plan would include both of these arrangements. Analysis of Practice in the Schools of Each Profession Schools of Architecture—The Standard Minima adopted by the Association of Colle giate Schools of Architecture in 1924 stipulates that “Every course should treat of professional practice with special emphasis upon ethics.’ Of the 22 schools of architecture which an swered the questionnaire, 41 percent reported definite courses in professional ethics; 55 per- cent reported that this subject is given specific attention in other courses; and 4 percent re ported no such instruction.” Eleven different courses were mentioned in which problems ot professional ethics are specifically included, but only one of these was listed three times 01 more. This course, entitled Business Relations and Professional Practice, was listed by fou: institutions. Schools of Dentistry—Professional ethics is one of the subjects required of Class A dental schools by the Dental Educational Council of America. The course in which this instruction is given is usually 16 hours in length and is of the Standard Curriculum (Continued): History and aren. 8 Lill ian, Oe commie Chairman. “Revision Ethics of Nursing.” American J ournal of Nursing 26: 305-09; April, 1926. 2See Table 4. [14] all Sethi 2 = eee ak Se ee CO Tits rebates —_ OM lee et OC ww National fessional put the end of this ne have brepara- the spe- )fession, f active ' Stand- ley may Nts and hand, ical in- In this ccepted inning d prac. Prob. f these ols of indard Colle- ulates sional hics.” h an- orted 5 per- ecific it re- ‘erent Ms of 1, but es OF tions four ics is ental il of >tion id y and placed in either the junior or the senior year. Of the 38 dental schools responding to the questionnaire, 84 percent reported definice courses in this subject, and the remaining 16 percent reported specific consideration of it in other courses.? Of those reporting definite courses, however, many indicated that the in- struction is a part of a more general course in- cluding one or more of the following fields: Dental History, Jurisprudence, and Eco- nomics. Schools of Nursing—The National League of Nursing Education has prepared and recom- mended, with the endorsement of the American Nurses Association, a thirty-hour course in History and Ethics of Nursing * and a thirty- hour course entitled Survey of the Nursing Field and Professional Problems.* One or both of these courses have been adopted by practi- cally all schools for nurses throughout the coun- try. Of the 131 such schools from which replies were received, 91 percent reported definite courses in professional ethics; 6 percent indi- cated specific attention to these problems in other courses; and 3 percent reported either in- cidental consideration in all courses or no in- struction at all.® In addition to the two courses mentioned above, six others were listed as in- cluding ethical problems, but of these none was mentioned by three or more institutions. Schools of Journalism—The Principles and Standards of Education for Journalism adopted inl1924 by the American Association of Teach- ers of Journalism includes this statement: ““The professional courses offered in journalism shall afford instruction in the history of jour- nalism, the principles or ethics of journalism (with particular reference to the duties and re- sponsibilities of the journalist to society) and the law of the press.” This statement has also been incorporated in the Constitution of the American Association of Schools and Depart- ments of Journalism as one of the requirements for membership in the Association.® Of the 16 schools of journalism reporting, 56 percent indicated that they provide distinct courses in professional ethics; 38 percent give these problems specific attention in other courses ; and 6 percent give them incidental con- sideration in all courses.’ Nine different courses TABLE 6.—THE YEAR OF TRAINING IN WHICH DEFINITE COURSES IN PROFESSIONAL ETHICS ARE GIVEN Year of Training } aa | | Teach- | Archi- | Busi- | ing tecture | ness 1 e i @ 4 MR ik cies > 5 46 00's.0.4: 3 | 1 First and one later. 1 | kata 1 ee ieee al 2 1 | Second and one later.............| 1 eee 1 , 0 ere > sata 3 Third and fourth........... 5 ft 1 Fourth : SR ae 3 7 3 1 Senior and last?... . i 63 2 No definite information a eee OS ere 23 | 9 6 Type of Professional Schoo! | j Jour- | Medi- Nurs- | Den- tistry nalism Law cine ing Total 5 6 7 8 : | Sa 1 10 66 | 81 1 2 1 4% | #47 | 4 1 10 3 5 4 19 5 5 36 1 4 2 1 1 16 7 | 7 13 1 32 18 5 | 18 7 3 60 } 3 2 9 | 32 9 | 68 29 120 296 } | nite information. Read table as follows: Of the 23 schools for teachers which reported definite courses in professional ethics, these courses in the first year; 1 in the first and a later year; 2 in the second year; the third year; 5 in the third and fourth years; 3 in the fourth year only; 1 in the senior or last year; Similarly read figures for other types of professional schools. 1 Twenty-eight of these 41 schools reported their courses as giv en in, the first and third years. ? The number of schools reporting their courses as given in the terms are ambiguous and may refer to years other than the fourth. 3 One of these six schools reported its course as given in the fifth year. 1 in the second and a later year; 3 in and 4 gave no defi- year is listed separately because these 3 offer “senior” or “‘last”’ | | _ 1 Letter from W. H. G. ciation of Dental Schools. 2 See Table 4. * Clayton, S. Lillian. Op. cit. Logan, Dean, Chicago College of Dental Surgery and President of the American Asso- * Letter from Elizabeth C. Burgess, President of the National League of Nursing Education ® See Table 4 * American Association of Schools and Departments of Journalism ™See Table 4. Constitution, 1927, p. 3 [15] in which problems of professional ethics are given attention were mentioned, but Editorial Writing was the only one listed three times. Correspondence with leaders in the field in- dicates that here, as in other professions, there is considerable diversity of opinion, with strong convictions on both sides of the question as to the advisability of providing definite courses in professional ethics. The following statement reflects this situation : The subject (teaching of professional ethics) has been a very important problem before the teachers of journalism for a number of years, and has been thoroughly discussed from time to time at the annual conventions of the teachers of journalism. All teachers in the larger schools, without excep- tion, believe that the teaching of ethics is an import- ant function of the school of journalism, but they do not all agree as to ways and means. Some believe that it should be presented in a separate course; others believe that the topic should be included in every course. So far as I know all the larger schools offer a course, usually for seniors, devoted to the discussion of ethics of journalism. It is not always called ethics. For example, in this school we call it Principles of Journalism. ... My own feeling is that it is most effective when taken up in connec- tion with the concrete cases as it arises in various courses. However, a general survey of all the prob- lems gathered together during the senior year sends the student out into the profession with definite ideas.” Schools of Business and Commerce—Of the 35 schools of business which answered the in- quiry, 17 percent reported definite courses ia standards of professional conduct; 46 percent reported specific attention ‘to the subject in other courses; 20 percent indicated that it re- ceives incidental consideration in all courses; and 17 percent reported no attention given to it.2 Seventeen different courses were listed in which ethical problems are given specific study. Those mentioned by three or more schools were: Accounting, Salesmanship, Cooperation and Business Finance, Marketing, Business ( rene Management and Procedure, and Ethics. Correspondence with leaders in this { corroborated the evidence just given as to thy diversity of opinion concerning methods training students in the principles of busines: ethics. A few quotations are pertinent: There is no course in professional ethics offered in the Graduate School of Business. . . . If in any of our courses we fail to stir the minds of our st dents on the ethical implications of the subject they are studying, we are failing to stimulate all-round development. This is an omission we are trying t avoid. I have been favorably disposed toward such i: struction, but the great majority of business teachers seem to think it can be imparted in connection wit! the various courses. The result is that it is sadly neglected.‘ I believe that these courses (business ethics) ar: worthwhile and nearly everyone of our students who are candidates for the Bachelor of Commercia Science Degree takes a one semester course in Busi ness Ethics.° At the School of Commerce of Northwestern University a foundation has been established for an annual series of lectures on professional ethics. Plans are now under way for increasing the fund with a view to establishing a professor- ship in business ethics.° Schools of Law—Of the 102 law schools re- porting, 67 percent offer definite courses in legal ethics; 17 percent give specific attention to these problems in other courses; and 7 per- cent give them incidental consideration in all courses.” Ninety percent of the definite courses were reported to be required rather than elec- tive. They range in length from occasional lec- tures to a thirty-hour course.’ The tendency is for these courses to be given in the last year of training, although occasionally they are given in the first year.’° 1 Letter from Grant M. Hyde, University of Wisconsin, President of the American Association of Teachers of Journalism. 2 See Table 4. 3 Comment on questionnaire returned by W. E. Hotchkiss, Dean, Graduate School of Business, Leland Stanford University. 4 Letter from George W. Dowrie of Leland Stanford University, President of the American Association of Collegiate Schools of Business. 5 Letter from J. T. Madden, Dean of the School of Commerce, Accounts, and Finance, New York University * Letter from Ralph E. Heilman, Dean of the School of Commerce, Northwestern University. 7 See Table 4. § See Table 5. ® See Kansas City School of Law. Catalogue, 1928-29. p. 25. 1° See Table 6. [16] abit > APS SAS RM At: LAMB RAO 8 AERC? ie Gen lis t S to the hods of business : Offere i f in any Our stu ect they ll-round rying t such in eachers on with S sadly cs) are tudents nercia! n Busi- estern lished sional -asing essor- ls re- es in ntion ’ per- in all urses elec- l lec- cy is ar of riven tase ~ ee a scsddietiae ag, ppl ms Pa = home Sec bredeaietane’ ‘eM Although two-thirds of the law schools re ported definite courses of ethical instruction, accompanying comments indicated a marked cleavage of opinion as to the necessity and wis dom of such courses, and a very live interest in the question. One group of leaders in the Amer- ican Bar Association is firmly convinced that definite courses in this subject are essential to the success of those just entering the profession, to the advancement of the profession itself, and to the welfare of society at large. ‘The following the viewpoint of this statements represent group: In the long schedule of disbarred lawyers will be found many individual where went wrong out of pure ignorance commercial standards to the practice of a sion simply because they knew no better. Why were they not taught differently? Why wait to disbar, to teach men the elements of their calling? ’ cases men They applied profes- All this serves to illuminate the idea that before entering upon the duties of this great profession, the law student should be indoctrinated or inoculated with these principles of ethics; yet for many years, and up to a few years ago, although appeals were sent to the deans of all the law schools asking them to make compulsory in their schools a course of study in legal ethics, they ignored or balked.” Thomas H. Hubbard, a member of the com- mittee which prepared the canons of ethics adopted by the American Bar Association in 1908, belonged to this school of thought. He supported his convictions by placing at the dis- posal of the trustees of the Albany Law School the sum of $10,000, the income from which was to be applied to lectures on legal ethics.° As early as 1895 the Committee on Legal Ethics of the American Bar Association recom- mended that all schools of law should give specific attention to this subject.* In 1905 the recommendation was reiterated and expanded. This time the Bar Association urged that the law schoo!s teach ethics as a required subject ; 1 Cohen, Julius Henry. The Law, Business or Profession 2 Jessup, Henry Wynans. Prof: mal Ideals of the Lau 8 Albany Law School. Catalogue, 1927-28. p. 18 4 American Bar Association. Annual Report, 1805. Vol 5 Archer, Gleason Leonard. Ethical Obli ®*H. W. Arant, Dean of the College of Law, Ohi report of the committee covering current practice regarding in November, 1930, presents findings which are almost ident * Holmgren, E. S., compiler. Rules for Admission to the § Jessup, Henry W. “The Ethics of the Legal Professior Scieuce 101: 24-5; May, 1922. ® Letter from Roscoe Pound, Dean yations of the Lawve of the Law School, Harva not as it had previously been presented, in one or two lectures by some busy lawyer, but by systematic and definite instruction.® Since then the ethics committee of the Bar Association has waged a continuous and vigorous campaign to persuade schools to provide such instruction, and a committee of the Association of American Law Schools is now studying the problem.' Twenty-eight states require by statute an examination in professional ethics for admission to the Bar, and four other states stipulate that the applicant shall have pursued a course in this subject prior to his application for the Bar ex- amination.’ These statutory requirements are largely the result of the aggressive campaigns conducted by committees on ethics in the Amer- ican Bar Association and the various state bar associations.® On the other side of the question stand other members of the Bar, thoroughly convinced that definite courses in professional ethics usually fail to accomplish the desired results. “‘Uheir at- titude is represented in the following statement: We have given much consideration to the proper way of dealing with the subject. Our experience with a formal course in professional ethics has been that students get it up as so much formal material, residuum in the form of a im- On the whole, we permanent found that the pression is not large. and what seem to be the best results are brought about by exciting the student to think and read on the sub- ject from the beginning of his law school course, and then at the end of his course we provide a series of lectures on the practice of law in which the ethics but pi ictice of the of the profession are given a prominent place, are put in the setting of the whole profession.” Schools of Medicine—In medical schools the diversity of opinion and practice regarding in- struction in professional ethics is similar to that in the field of law. Of the 67 schools answer- ing the questionnaire, 43 percent reported defi- nite courses in this subject ; 28 percent reported specific attention to it in other courses; 9 per- Banks Law Publishing Compar 1916. 5 ] er. ( \. Jennings Company, I: | | 4. 18 ' 14 r, Little. Brown and Company, 191 [ University, is chairman of thi mit \ el ary nstruction in profes 1 etl j A ools itted 1 with those of this st Bar. West Publishing Co. 1928 * Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social iT versity [17] cent indicated that it receives incidental con- sideration in all courses; and 20 percent re- ported no instruction in the subject.’ Ninety- three percent of the definite courses are required of all students.* They are usually given during the last year of training, but are offered occa- sionally as early as the first year.* The distinct courses differ considerably in length and character. They vary from a few occasional lectures given at the convenience of the students and visiting lecturers, to standard courses given at regular hours by regular mem- bers of the faculty. Frequently the instruction in professional ethics is combined with such subjects as History of Medicine or Medical Economics and Jurisprudence. Following are some typical descriptions of courses: A course of lectures is delivered by the President of the Medical Society of the County of Kings ex- plaining the etiquette and ethics of the medical profession.‘ A series of talks by various members of the facul- ty. Six hours, Spring Quarter of the fourth year.® The subject of ethics as given in the order of in- struction will comprise didactic lectures on general and personal ethics in the first year and on medical ethics in the fourth year. Instruction will be given covering personal hygiene, care of laboratory equip- ment, general conduct and adaptability for the pro- fession.° This course consists of lectures on the following subjects: History of Medical Jurisprudence; Princi- ples of Medical Ethics; Legal Status of the Physi- cian; Physicians in Court; . . . Some Health Laws of Kentucky." ; A study of medical practices from the earliest time to the present day with the factors that have a bearing on the development of modern medicine. The different periods of medical education. A dis- cussion of medical ethics. Four hours a week during first half of the first semester (32 hours) .* The following statements reveal the marked diversity of opinion regarding the teaching of ethics which exists among leaders in this pro- fession : 1 See Table 4. 2 See Table 5. * See Table 6. A course in professional ethics per se is not given as a separate entity. Such a course would be jp. congruous. The principles of medical ethics are taught from the day the student begins his medica course until he lays down the cares of life. Ever, case studied during the undergraduate studen years involves questions of professional ethics After graduation the teaching is continued in the physician’s contacts with his colleagues and his medical societies.” Yet silent example is not enough for the student of medicine. He wants precept also, explanation after demonstration. And because universities stil! omit to put any teaching of medical ethics into the curriculum, the students plan ethical instruction on their own accord and call in speakers from the out- side. This has happened at Harvard every year in the last dozen or so, and I have no doubt it is the same at many other medical schools, for the students really need it.” This course on professional ethics and pastoral medicine is without doubt one of the most valuable adjuncts of the medical curriculum and should be obligatory in every medical school.” As in the field of law, those members of the medical profession who believe in the value of systematic ethical instruction support their con- victions by aggressive propaganda and some- times by the endowment of lectureships in the subject. In 1925 Dr. George Washington Gay gave Tufts College $1,000 to establish such a lectureship.'? The Council on Medical Educa- tion and Hospitals of the American Medical Association has recently made a determined effort to persuade medical schools to include a definite course in professional ethics in their curricula. At a meeting of the Board of Trus- tees of the Association in November, 1926, a recommendation was adopted expressing the hope that the Council would “undertake to have lectures on medical ethics made a part of the curriculum in every approved medical school.” At a business meeting of the Council on February 13, 1927, a report was unani- mously adopted, and was subsequently quoted * Long Island Medical College, Brooklyn, N. Y. Catalogue. 1928-29. p. 59. 5 University of Colorado, School of Medicine. Catalogue. April, 1928. p. 31. ® George Washington University. Catalogue. June, 1927. =. $2. T University of Louisville, Medical School. Catalogue, 1928-29. p. 96. ® University of Oklahoma. Catalogue, 1928-29. p. 30-31. * Comment on questionnaire returned by Irving S. Cutter, Dean of the Medical School, Northwestern Universit) Cabot, Richard C. Op. cit. p. 33. 11 Letter from Frank C. Hammond, Dean of the School of Medicine, Temple University. 42 Tufts College, Medical School. Catalogue, 1927-28. p. 38. [18] " er a K Shella RT Pe - no ip. in a hot given ld be In- thics a re } medica] ‘e. Every Student hics . , d in the and his student lanation ties stil] into the ction on the out. year in it is the students Pastoral raluable ould be of the alue of ‘ir con- some- in the n Gay such a Educa- [edical ‘mined lude a | their Trus- 926, a g the ike to art of edical ouncil inani- uoted ersity ‘na letter sent by the Council to all deans of medical schools. This report reads as follows: The Council on Medical Education and Hospitals of the American Medical Association recommends to the Association of American Medical Colleges that adequate instruction in the traditions and prin- ciples of medical ethics be included in the required curriculum of all medical students. While realizing that the subject is now touched upon in all schools and that its principles can be inculcated by example, yet the Council believes that detailed and sympa- thetic explanation of the Principles of Medical Ethics as formulated by the American Medical As- sociation should be the minimum of the formal in- struction given in medical schools. The Council suggests that the subjects of medical economics, medical jurisprudence, medical history and perhaps also, in some instances, pastoral medi- cine might be conveniently grouped with that of medical ethics under the general title of the “Social Relations of the Physician” — Schools for Teachers Of the 286 teacher training institutions re- sponding, only 8 percent reported definite courses in professional ethics ; 70 percent stated that the subject is given specific attention in other courses; 3 percent reported incidental consideration of it in all courses; and 19 per- cent reported no instruction in the subject.” Definite Courses in Ethics—An examination of the catalogue descriptions of the definite courses in professional ethics revealed consider- able variation in their content and scope. ‘They vary all the way from courses which are lim- ited to problems of professional relationships to courses including also problems of personal ethics and principles of character education. Of the 23 reported, 15 are required and 8 are elec- tive.? They are usually given during the latter part of the training period.* The following catalogue descriptions illus- trate the general character of these definite courses : . Professional Ethics: Two qualifications of a teacher which have always been important are in- creasingly receiving attention. His owm manners, conduct, and ethical standards must be on a high plane, and he should have a strong sense of profes- 1 American Medical May 16, 1927. p. 9 2See Table 4. ® See Table 5. *See Table 6. Association, Council on Medical 5 State Normal School, Danbury, Conn. Catalogue, 1927-28 * State Normal School, New Haven, Conn. Catalogue Pd tributes are crystallized in this course. Given in the senior year, class instruction and discussion are supplemented by assigned and suggested readings and reports of individual students. The give each student a lofty professional spirit and such standards of action as may well be adopted by children. Required—one period per week for 28 weeks.® aim is to Professional Ethics: The purpose of the work in this field is threefold: First, to help in the creation of ideals of personality and procedure, and to make the student sensitive to acts inconsistent with these ideals so that the future teacher may clearly dis- tinguish between right and wrong; second, to teach the principles of social usage and personal conduct; third, to prepare students for developing in chil- dren right ideals and habits of action. The accom- plishment of the aims indicated above requires a division of the work into distinct courses as follows: (1) a course dealing with personal ethics is planned for the junior year (20 periods); (2) a course in professional ethics for the senior year (20 peri- any. « = Ethical Standards of Teaching: This course is a contribution to the growing profession of teaching. Its purpose is a detailed study of desirable ethical standards in the relations of the teacher to the teaching pos'tion, the superintendent and the board of education, the administrators and colleagues, the school, the community and the state; together with a study of the codes of ethics as factors in develop- ing ethical standards. Elective—four term hours." Public School Relationships: This course is de- signed to give the students practical advice on the adjustments which they will be called upon to make in the different school situations in which they will find themselves. It has to do with the teacher in relation to her personal equipment, her task, the community, her fellow teachers, the superintendent and other supervisory officials, the pupils, the course of study, the recitation, the teacher’s general con- tacts, and other related topics. Elective—three hours per week, three credits." Specific Attention to Professional Ethics in Other Courses—Three hundred eighty differ- ent courses in which professional ethics are given specific attention were listed by the 200 institutions reporting such courses. Of these 380 courses, 16 were mentioned by three or more schools. Table 7 shows the frequency with which each of the 16 was mentioned. Incidental comments accompanying many of the questionnaire returns indicate wide differ- Education and Hospitals. Report to the House of Delegates. 19 1927-28. p. 26-27 7 Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti. Mich. Catalogue, 1926-27. p. 111. * East Carolina Teachers College, Greenville, N. C Catilogue 1928-29. p. 46 [19] ences in the adequacy of treatment given to problems of professional conduct in these various courses. In some cases the treatment is evidently very superficial. In others a consider- able amount of study and discussion is devoted to the more crucial problems in the field. It is difficult to see how prospective teachers can obtain a thorough acquaintance with pro- fessional standards under the arrangements in- dicated by the following comments: given to the group going out as teachers each vea ee oth At least two days are devoted to a stud professional ethics in connection wita a cours School Management. n It is our practice to give every student en: with the appointment bureau of this universit copy of the state code of ethics. We are also plannin; pre to have at least one general meeting of all cand} = Or dates for teaching positions at which certain items ; of the code will be discussed. On the other hand, other institutions ar ’ ; making a serious effort to provide adequate i Occasional lectures at our chapel exercises con- ‘ : ial 6 hi : : stitute the only efforts in this connection. eI in rk iaihe et ucs aS units of pol Special lectures are given the prospective teach- © o> Suucess. © sohowing comments ar eth ers, one each year. typical : we The fact that we offer no definite course does Professional ethics is an implicit part of al) oi not mean that no attention is paid to this important topics treated in our course entitled Professional! f matter. Assembly talks are given to seniors immedi- Problems of Teachers. It is made a separate unit of = ately before graduation. the course as well. rat A series of 2-5 lectures on professional ethics is We do not give a definite course in professional sid ot TABLE 7.—COURSES IN PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS FOR TEACHERS IN WHICH = PROBLEMS OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS WERE REPORTED AS RECEIVING fi SPECIAL ATTENTION ! tio | — th Number of Times Mentioned by du Title of Course ae ie » ti City State State | Departments . Normal Normal | Teachers of Total Pr Schools Schools Colleges | Education? aa GS (2 SE eo: 2 ee 5 6 i | Introduction to Teaching? . 7 20 10 17 54 co | Administration’. ..... | 3 2 6 39 50 ne | Principles of Education®.... 4 4 7 23 38 B je ss Practice Teaching Conferences. . . 3 7 11 16 37 B ci | Methods and Technic of Teaching 3 7 ? 18 30 | Organization and Management.... 5 5 4 13 27 th SS ae 5 6 10 1 sc Problems of the Teaching Profession’ 2 2 3 10 17 "= | t Special Lectures........ 1 4 5 4 14 - to EE es 6 3 4 13 a OE ee ee, (ey ee ee H 8 9 aj Supervision............. 1 5 6 1 Ns aces tnowubie s | 2 1 , 5 a Philosophy of Education...................... 1 Ee eee 4 = 5 el History of Education. ..... a ore 1 ed Oe eee eee | 3 Dy | | } . School Economy........... ye | itiniate Riedie 1 2 3 E aE pee os rea v Read table as follows: Of the 54 professional schools for teachers which reported that problems in sabentanal ethics are given specific attention in the course entitled Introduction to Teaching, 7 were city normal schools, 10 were teachers Ce colleges, and 17 were departments of education. 20 were state normal schools. Similarly interpret figures for other ; courses. 1 Includes only those courses mentioned by three or more institutions. S, ? Departments of education in colleges and universities which grant degrees in education. | 3 Includes courses in Introduction to Teaching and Introduction to Education. | 4 Includes courses in Educational Administration, High School Administration and Elementary School Administration. 5 Includes courses in Principles of Education and Principles of Teaching. * Includes courses in Generai Ethics, Personality and Character Education, and Education for Citizenship. 7 Includes courses in Problems of the Teaching Profession and Professional Relationships. [20] a eS ach yea; Study of Cours: enroling versity aq planning Il cand} 1in items Ons are uate in- nits of nts are of fessional > unit of all essional 1ICH TING ics ers ler mn. ethics for teachers. The materials for such a course tre dealt with in at five different Social Ethics, Student Teaching, Technic of Teach Philosophy of Education, and State Law. It is in the course in Student Teaching that professional ethics receives most attention. The im- student least courses: Schoo] ng, pressions obtained in teaching are rein- forced through the course in Technic of which parallels the student teaching. We prefer to have our students get professional ethics in a real situation of teaching rather than for malized, meaningless course. Teaching, through a It is probable that many of the courses re- ported as including specific units in professional ethics really give the subject little more than incidental consideration. It would be difficult to avoid the discussion of ethical problems in most of the courses listed in Table 7, even if no sepa- rate time allotment were provided for their con- sideration. The catalogue descriptions of some of these courses did not refer to problems of professional ethics, but most of them men- tioned such problems specifically, especially those courses listed under the titles of Intro- duction to Teaching, Introduction to Educa- tion, School and Class Management, Social Problems, and Social Ethics. The description of a course in school law reported by six state teachers colleges in Oklahoma indicates definite consideration of professional ethics. Six state normal schools in New York include this sub- ject in the descriptions of their courses in so- ciology. In 1925 a committee was appointed to study the problem of curricula for the state normal schools of Pennsylvania. The report of this committee provided for the specific considera- tion of professional ethics at three places in the four-year curriculum: (1) in the first year as a part of an introductory course in general problems of education; (2) during the practice teaching period when frequent opportunities occur for practical application of the principles of professional conduct; and (3) in the last year as a part of a course entitled History of Education in Pennsylvania, which includes the work of the state teachers’ association and its code of ethics." 1 Report of the General Curricular Revision Committee See also: State Teachers College, Millersville. Pa. Catalogue 2 Comment on questionnaire returned by L. C. Lord. Pr 3 Comment on questionnaire returned by Frank E. Bake ‘ Letter from A. R. Brubacher, President. Albany State > The form used is reproduced in the Appendix. ®* Letter from Walter E. Ranger, [2 * Letter from W. D. Vincent. State Commissioner of Edu Letter from E. W. Butterfield, State Commissioner of I State Commissioner of Lhe diversity tice int the of prac preceding paragraphs reflects the diversity of opinion regarding instruction in professional ethics held by those who formulate tl . ] CCUTTICULAa tor prospective teachers. This diversity of opin ion was frequently expressed in conterence and correspondence. ‘he following statements are typical illustrations : In my opinion there should be no course in profes sional ethics. What an immense amount of time could be wasted in mere twaddle over the matte: In the courses that are indicated (elsewhere on the questionnaire) there is opportunity to state all that needs to be stated.” It seems to me that professional ethics should be an outgrowth of the whole situation. I cannot con- ceive a course in professional ethics having any intellectual respectability.” that a course in ethics is indispensable in teacher I am convinced professional training : I have tried various schemes. One year I gave the work myself devoting thirty class periods to the subject. Another year we compressed the specific Wherever it is that the hfteen treatment to fifteen class periods an open question, I should recommend subject be treated separately, with class periods devoted to it. It cannot be done by treating the matter incidentally in other courses.* Requirements of State Departments of Edu cation—The catalogue descriptions of courses in the schools of certain states were so similar as to suggest the probability that the State De- partment of Education had prescribed instruc- tion in professional ethics. Accordingly, a letter of inquiry was sent to the chief state school official in each of the forty-eight states.° Forty- six replies were received. Five states, Idaho, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Massachusetts, re- ported that instruction in professional ethics is a prescribed part of the regular curricula of In Idaho course their teacher training institutions. this instruction has been included in a entitled Teacher Psychology.® In New Hamp- shire* and Rhode Island ® the state codes of ethics have been made officially a part of the program of studies in the state normal schools, and in New Hampshire the subject is included to the Board of Normal School President 192 p. 2 Febru 1929. p. 34, 3¢ esident. Eastern State Teachers Coll Charleston, | ois. r, Preside State Teachers College, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Teachers llege, Albany, New Y¢ ication. Idah edu . New Hampshirs Education, Rhode Island 1] in the examination of teachers for certification. Connecticut and Massachusetts have prescribed definite courses in professional ethics. In Con- necticut a minimum of nineteen hours in the second year of the two-year curriculum is assigned to the subject.* In 1923 the State Department of Education in Massachusetts published a 32-page Manual for Teachers covering the prescribed work in this field. This manual combines problems of professional conduct with those of personality and character development and emphasizes the importance of their consideration in all courses as well as in the definite course required of all graduates. The time allotment suggested is flexible, but twenty 45-minute periods are recommended as the minimum which should be devoted to problems of professional ethics.? The following paragraphs represent the spirit of the plan outlined in this manual: Essential elements in the establishment of profes- sional ideals may be gained. in the normal school from the general life of the school, from assembly exercises, from incidental instruction, and from planned instruction in various courses. Through such means the spirit of professional ethics for teachers may be caught. But the spirit alone is not enough; definite knowledge must be taught. This instruction, moreover, must not be left entirely to chance. In order that standards may become defi- nitely and clearly established, there must be some point or points at which the subject is brought to a focus, as in a distinct course. A course in professional ethics cannot of itself establish right habits, but it can focus attention upon important problems of great interest to the students. If wisely conducted, it ought to contribute to the development of important elements of per- sonality, improve attitudes, raise ideals, and develop appreciation of the dignity and worth of teaching.* Twelve of the State Departments of Educa- tion, including four in which ethical instruc- tion is prescribed, reported that the present ar- rangement regarding such instruction is reason- ably satisfactory. Seven stated that it is not satisfactory and urged that definite rather than incidental attention be given to the subject. The following are typical examples of the com ments received : I believe intending teachers should be thorough], instructed in the ethics of the profession. I do not believe that there is enough subject matter in this field to justify a course. I think from three to six periods will cover it. It might. be included in a course in school management, or it could be related to the practice-teaching work. In fact it might be worked into any course in education for seniors.‘ In Michigan each of the State Teachers Colleges has its own course in teachers’ ethics and the only improvement I could suggest would be that these Teachers Colleges get together and have a uniform course. They have that plan in mind and are work- ing it out at the present time.® Definite rather than incidental attention should be given to the subject.® The matter of professional ethics itself is not satisfactory. We wish something could be done to have definite instruction in this subject.” There ought to be fundamental and universal principles with which every teacher should be fa- miliar. Some definite provision ought to be made for making certain that the teachers know those prin- ciples.’ There is an occasional complaint from superin- tendents of schools that teachers college graduates are not up on professional ethics and so I believe the present situation is not entirely satisfactory. I believe our teacher-training committees should make some recommendation.” The foregoing paragraphs indicate that a wide diversity of opinion also characterizes the State Departments of Education regarding the arrangements which should be made for ac- quainting prospective teachers with the stand- ards of the profession. Differences of Practice and Opinion—Two facts stand out prominently in this survey of provisions for ethical instruction in professional schools for teachers. One is that practically all institutions and leaders in the field agree that prospective teachers should receive training in the basic principles and accepted standards of professional conduct. The second fact is that these institutions and leaders are far from agree- 1 Letter from A. B. Meredith, State Commissioner of Education, Connecticut. 2 Massachusetts State 5 Letter from Webster H t of Education. Professional Ethics in Normal Schools. Bulletin No. 2. 1923. p. 10 bid, p. 5. ‘Letter from B. L. Parkinson, Director of Teacher Traini . Pearce, State Superintendent of ng. Alabama. | a ‘ublic Instruction, Michigan. * Letter from May Trumper, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Montana. 7 Letter from Charles W. T. . Taylor, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Nebraska. * Letter from James E. Hillman, Director of Teacher Training, North Carolina. ® Letter from . Howard Winters, Assistant Director of Education, Ohio. [22] ) ment a A few subjec length offerec are rec either other dental there | of diff fessior tentiot or mo more this ca that t ably n ates W fessior consid the wl the p1 of the tory. Sumr Th made sions 4 condu Ne study in this chara report Most dents perioc portec condu other tirely all co Th instru | ment as to how such training may best be given. \ few schools provide definite courses in the subject, but these vary widely in content, in length, and in the year in which they are offered. Some of them are elective, while others are required of all students. Most of the schools either give specific attention to ethics in certain other courses, or else attempt to give it inci- dental consideration in all courses. Here also there is a wide diversity of practice. Hundreds of different courses are reported in which pro- fessional conduct is said to be given specific at- tention, but only 16 of these are listed by three or more schools, and none of them is listed by more than 54 of the 200 schoels reporting in this category. In many of the courses it appears that the treatment of ethical problems is prob- ably not sufficient to meet the needs of gradu- ates who are about to enter the teaching pro- fession. In other courses these problems receive considerable time and careful attention. On the whole, the available evidence indicates that the present status of instruction in the ethics of the teaching profession is far from satisfac- tory. Summary of Practice in the Schools of Eight Professions This chapter has surveyed the provisions made by the training schools of eight profes- sions for instruction in standards of professional conduct. Nearly all of the schools included in the study reported some provision for instruction in this field, but these provisions vary widely in character. Forty-two percent of all the schools reported definite courses in professional ethics. Most of these courses are required of all stu- dents and are given near the end of the training period. Forty-one percent of the schools re- ported that they give problems of professional conduct specific attention in other courses. The other 17 percent either ignore the subject en- tirely or depend upon incidental instruction in all courses. The diversity of plans for providing ethical instruction reflects the differences of opinion on the question among leaders in the several pro fessions. Differences of opinion are particularly conspicuous within the fields of law, medicine, journalism, business, and teaching. Although all agree that professional students should be trained to conform to accepted standards, some assert that such training should be wholly in direct and incidental. Others, believing that whatever is taught incidentally is usually taught accidentally, advocate ethical instruction in spe- cific units of certain courses, while many insist that the problems of professional conduct are sufficiently numerous, important, and difficult to warrant separate treatment in a definite, full-fledged course. Advocates of systematic instruction in ethics have not only provided such instruction in their own institutions, but they have persuaded ofh- cial organizations in their respective fields to recommend, and sometimes to prescribe, specific attention to ethical problems in all schools of the profession. In at least three instances courses in professional ethics have been under- written by endowments. The schools of nursing and dentistry usually provide definite courses in this subject. Schools of architecture, journalism, law, and medicine are more or less evenly divided for and against such courses, while relatively few schools for teachers or schools of business offer separate courses in ethics. The state departments of education in five states now prescribe instruc tion in standards of professional conduct in their teacher training institutions. Neverthe less, only eight percent of all the schools for teachers replying reported definite courses, whereas seventy percent reported specific pro vision in other courses. From a superficial con sideration of these figures one might conclude that, on the whole, the professional schools for teachers are giving fairly adequate attention to ethical instruction. A more critical study indi cates, however, that many of the provisions for such instruction are inadequate, and that in most schools a new and more systematic em phasis upon the subject is needed. [23] { —— CHAPTER II What Arrangements for Instruction in Professional Ethics Should Schools for Teachers Provide? Three procedures may be employed for de- termining what instruction professional schools should offer in any given field: (1) an experi- ment may be conducted whereby the relative merits of various plans may be demonstrated ; (2) the opinions of a representative number of recognized leaders in the field under considera- tion may be studied; and (3) the proposed plans may be evaluated in the light of such ac- cepted principles of curriculum construction as are available. Demonstration by Experiment No course in the curricula of professional schools for teachers holds its place at the pres- ent time because of its scientifically demon- strated value. In 1920 a comprehensive investi- gation was proposed by which the relative merits of different types and materials of in- struction might be shown,’ but to date the cost in time and money has been prohibitive. The fact that such an experiment probably would require no less than ten years? places it quite beyond the scope of this study. Opinions of Leaders As shown in the preceding chapter, recog- nized leaders differ widely on the question of desirable provisions for instruction in profes- sional ethics. Some maintain that incidental in- struction is adequate; others insist that ethical problems require a specific time allotment as units of certain courses; and still others assert that prospective members of a profession can- not be trained adequately in the ideals and standard practices of that profession unless separate and distinct courses in the subject are provided. Those who advocate the incidental proced- ure use the same arguments no matter which profession they represent: that every course in a professional school should train the student in regard to proper professional conduct; that the curriculum is already overcrowded; that the problems of professional relationships ar: neither sufficiently numerous nor sufficient|\ vital to warrant separate treatment; that the inauguration of definite courses in this subject establishes an artificial divorcement of ethica| principles from the practical problems of the profession; and that the courses thus created are almost invariably formal, perfunctory, un interesting, and ineffective. Likewise, those who advocate definite courses in professional ethics use similar arguments whether they represent business, journalism, law, medicine, or teaching. They maintain that problems of professional conduct are alread) numerous and vital, and that with the increas ing complexity of modern life, they are becom- ing more important and difficult; that new members of the profession frequently meet wit!) embarrassing, and sometimes tragic experi- ences simply because they have not been taught the proprieties of the group; that ethics can be taught directly; and that systematic instruc- tion is essential because incidental teaching usually means accidental teaching. The last two of these arguments involve an important question of educational psycholog) and educational method. Cabot expresses his conviction on this question very positively : If ethics cannot be taught, no art can be taught, no literature can be taught, no history can be taught except by rote, no science worthy the name can be taught.* Charters suggests a similar point of view in the following statement: The fundamental and somewhat dangerous weak- ness of the indirect training of character as a by- product of school exercises is its lack of system. Incidental instruction is accidental instruction; and the accidental inclusion of materials in a program of instruction is always inefficient.* Those who advocate the specific treatment of professional ethics as definite units of other courses avoid somewhat the difficulties of the two extreme positions. Their policy eliminates the accidental aspect of ethical instruction, and 1 Learned, William S., and others. The Professional Preparation of eapetave for American Public Schools. Bulletin No. 14. Carnegie Foundation for the A 2 Evenden, E Education yo Rl 1926. p. ® Cabot, Richard C. Op. cit., p. * Charters, W. W. The dvancement of Teaching, 1920. p. “Criteria 4 the Construction of Teachers College Rte: ” Proceedings, 1926, Vol. 64. National Teaching of ‘Ideals. Macmillan, 1928. p. 164. [ 24] provid anothe lum, a sion of practic The indicat trainin arate | them ¢ of the courses pective divisio! tion ar ture, a whelm schools possibl as to t There decisio opinior Mo: upon ments, admini be deve what j this we sional | of othe it belo be ans’ practic Princ Unt tions h shall n rangen Since t! experin since t] so wid swering plans n availab A se constru 1 Lez 2 Lo 3 Eve 4 [bi arene provides systematic training without adding nother course to the already crowded curricu- lum, and with less likelihood that the discus- sion of ethical problems will be divorced from practical life situations. The data presented in the preceding chapter indicate that leaders in the field of teacher training are not generally inclined to favor sep- arate courses in professional ethics. Most of them evidently believe that specific treatment of these problems in definite units of other courses is sufficient to meet the needs of pros- pective teachers. However, the relatively even division of practice and opinion on this ques- tion among schools of law, medicine, architec- ture, and journalism, together with the over- whelming trend toward definite courses in schools of dentistry and nursing, make it im- possible to draw definite and final conclusions as to the relative merits of these procedures. There is not sufficient agreement to warrant a decision merely on the basis ef authoritative opinion. Moreover, even among those who are agreed upon one or another of these general arrange- ments, there is a wide range of opinion as to administrative details. How much time should be devoted to the study of ethical problems? In what year or years of the curriculum should this work be placed? If instruction in profes- sional ethics is to be organized as specific units of other courses, in what course or courses does it belong? These and similar questions cannot be answered finally from a survey of present practice and opinion. Principles of Curriculum Construction Until an experiment of extensive propor- tions has been set up and carried through we shall not know definitely what is the best ar- rangement for instruction in professional ethics. Since the necessary time and money for such an experiment seem prohibitive at present, and since the opinions of leaders in the field differ so widely, the only practical recourse for an- swering the question is to evaluate proposed plans more or less subjectively in the light of available principles of curriculum construction. A series of principles for guidance in the construction of curricula in professional schools 1 Learned, William S., 2 Louisiana State Department of Education * Evenden, E. S. Op. cit., p. 290. 4 Ibid. and others. Op cit., p. 152. Report of the Survey a survev of the Mis souri normal schools.' Later for teachers was used in 1 revision of thes principles was employed in a survey of the state Oince then they have been discussed and revised by teacher training colleges of Louisiana. three groups of graduate students in the field ot teacher training.*® ‘They represent, therefor the composite judgment of a considerable num ber of specialists in this field. An abridged statement of these principles follows: * 1. ‘The internal character of each curriculum and the constituent forces thereof should be determined by the nature and requirements of the future posi tion which the student intends to fill. 2. The curricula should be differentiated and specialized. 3. Each curriculum should require of each pro spective teacher a background in all of the bette: known fields of human knowledge 4. The riculum should be continuous in courses of study comprising each cur organization and inherently sequential. Courses should not only ex tend forward, but should also be correlated laterally with other related subjects 5. Relatively little after the position for which he wishes to prepare should selected the type of “free election” re allowed student has 6. The constituent courses of a curriculum should be professionalized in character 7. The curriculum should be extensive enough to give the prospective teacher all of the skills, atti tudes, and ideals necessary for the work he is to do 8. The curriculum should provide materials and activities for developing and strengthening the per sonal and social equipment of the teacher. 9. All actual work of teaching. courses should be integrated around the All of these principles apply to the problem under consideration and in keeping with them the following tentative proposals are made: 1. That definite provision for instruction in pro fessional ethics should be made in each curriculum offered. 2. That this part of every graduate’s professional preparation. 3. That incidental treatment of the problems of professional conduct should be given whenever pos instruction should be a prescribed sible in all courses. 4. That the definite units devoted to instruction in professional ethics should be located systematic in at least three places in each curriculum: a. In the first year of training, so that the pros pective teacher may develop early the habit of Commission. 1924. p. 120-22 [ 25 ] thinking and acting in accordance with approved professional standards. b. During the practice teaching period when frequent opportunities occur for practical applica- tion as well as theoretical discussion of problems of professional relationships. c. During the last months of the training period, when the prospective teacher needs to know the proper procedure for securing a position, and when, on the threshold of active service, he is most eager to know the standards of the profes- sion that he may win the respect and confidence of his employers and fellow workers. The plan outlined above is expressed in gen- eral terms, and is frankly intended to be merely suggestive. Conditions vary so greatly among professional schools for teachers that no single plan for ethical instruction will be suitable for all. The difficulty of finding a time and a place for the program proposed will be greater in a two-year curriculum than in a three or a four- year curriculum. On the other hand, students enroled in the shorter curricula generally hay: greater need for direct instruction in profes sional conduct since the shorter period of train ing affords less opportunity for the develop ment of a broad general philosophy of life. The important thing, of course, is not that the details of any particular plan should be uni versally adopted, but rather that all profes sional schools for teachers should provide for each student the most effective program of sys- tematic instruction possible. Whenever neces- sary and feasible the training period should be lengthened so that fundamentally important subjects like professional ethics may receive more adequate treatment. Wherever possible, definite units of instruction in professional ethics should be provided in at least three places in the curriculum: (1) at the beginning of the training period; (2) in connection with the work of practice teaching; and (3) during the last months of professional study. HE WORK of the profession on the matter of ethics will not be complete until adequate means are taken for actually training all initiates in the principles of professional ethics. Such matters ought to be required of candidates as definitely as other matters now included in teachers’ examinations, many of which are of much less importance. Training schools, normal schools, and teachers’ colleges cer- tainly should make it a part of their business to educate in these matters as well as in other phases of the principles, history, and philosophy of education.—Editorial, Journal of the National Education Association, February, 1924, p. 66. [ 26 ] v One pare a of prof a basis and am The the mo the N; state te explana the co sources tion A: Profess ethics r ministr: concerr and (4 the can Thir teacher tional adoptec codes | pointed by the ments ¢ which | them a when t are ind: The length of Mai 1 The standards revision o from the F )ffici ing to Se originally the 1926 reported, functionec Kor PART II STANDARDS OF PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT AMONG TEACHERS CHAPTER III Y One of the purposes of this study was to pre- pare a selected and annotated list of standards of professional conduct which may be used as a basis for discussion in teacher training classes and among teachers in service. The standards themselves were selected, for the most part, from codes of ethics adopted by the National Education Association and by state teachers’ associations. The illustrative and explanatory material was drawn partly from the codes partly the following sources: (1) reports of the National Educa- and from tion Association’s Committee on Ethics of the (2) of ethics reported by teachers, supervisors, and ad- (3) books and magazine articles Profession ; violations professional ministrators ; concerned with problems of teacher personnel Selection and Organization of Material the case of New York. Some consist almost entirely of broad generalities. Others contain number of specific admonitions and Most of them include both gen eral principles and specific rules of conduct. a large proscriptions. Few of these codes are, strictly speaking, real codes since only four of them provide for enforcement.® They are at best, as Koos points out, merely the composite opinion of organiza tions of teachers on what is professional or un They ever, to be disparaged on this account, for even professional behavior.‘ are not, how though violations are seldom followed by pen TABLE 8—YEARS IN WHICH STATE TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATIONS ADOP- TED THEIR PRESENT CODES OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS and (4) the principles of medical ethics and the canons of legal ethics. Year Cumen- f | Num-| lative ‘ : Pe am State Associations “wg — Teachers’ Codes of Ethics tion ber rm: . P . . ¢ F 1915 New Hane shire, Rhode Island Thirty-three codes of professional ethics for ae ‘ T 916 O cs) ; teachers were analyzed—the code of the Na- Srila er cewaiaiibeadl . tional Education Association and 32 codes 20 | Hemera ;, . . adopted by state teachers’ associations.’ These 1922 | Idaho, Iowa, New York, | . - : asnhington « codes have been prepared by committees ap- —————— : ; 1923 Louisiana, Maine, New Jersey, pointed for that purpose and have been adopted Missouri Oklahoma, South : ° ee ° Dakota, Utah / 15 by the respective associations as official ‘state- me - c : 925 Co tic Michigan, Soutt ments of the standards of professional conduct = onnecticut, maa be meg which their members approve. At least six of wee nite ’ - them are revisions of earlier codes.” ‘The dates 1926 | Alabama, Florida, Georgia . p Kentucky, Massachusetts when they were adopted in their present form North Carolina, Ohio 28 are indicated in ‘Table 8. 1927 | Colorado, Kansas 2 30 The nature of these codes varies greatly. In 1929 Mississippi, Ne ‘braska 32 length they range from 73 words in the case ‘ote tides. ; 33 of Maine to slightly less than 2000 words in 1The code of the Nebraska Association was adopted in December, 1929, too late for inclusion in the analysis of standards presented in this study. Statements included from the Mississippi code were taken from the 1917 edition. A revision of this code was made in 1929, too late for inclusion in this study. Statements from the Delaware code were taken from the 1928 edition. A revision of this code was made in 1930, too late for inclusion in this study Officials of the associations in the remaining fifteen states reporte | that their associations had no official codes. Accord ing to Secretary Roy W. Cloud, the California Association as at present organized has never officially re ogni zed the code originally adopted in 1904. Likewise the code prepared by the Committee of the Wisconsin Associati n and included in the 1926 Report of the National Education Association’s Committee has never been officially adopted by the association 2 Alabama, Georgia, New Jersey, Ohio, Virginia, and West Virginia. ®The codes of Mississippi, Missouri, Oklahoma, and Pennsyl: ania provide for Commissions to handle violations reported, but according to the secretaries of these associations the Pennsylvania Commission is the only one which has functioned. * Koos, L. V. Op. cit. p. 678-9. nN ——— alties, comparable to disbarment, these official statements do have behind them the compulsion of the good or bad opinions of the group. All of these codes have the common pur- pose of raising professional ideals and of pro- moting the best possible relationships between teachers and those who are affected by the con- duct of teachers. Many of them express this purpose effectively, as the following examples show : In order that the aims of education may be real- ized more fully, that the welfare of the teaching profession may be promoted, that teachers may know what is considered proper procedure, and may bring to their professional relations high stand- ards of conduct, the National Education Association of the United States has developed this code of ethics.—National Education Association. To fortify those teachers who already have a professional code of ethics and who live by it; to furnish a touchstone for those not yet sure of their standard; to inform society what teachers them- selves consider to be suitable rules of conduct for those who teach; to be able to serve our fellows to the utmost of our ability—we assemble from various sources the items of this ethical code for the teachers of Alabama.—Alabama. The purposes of this code are: To clarify our attitude toward professional problems; to inspire those new to the profession; to establish a general norm of conduct.—Ohio. In all of the codes it is either stated or im- plied that the term “teacher” refers to all persons engaged in educational work. The codes of Connecticut and New Jersey state this explicitly. The former document reads: “Throughout the word ‘teacher’ refers equally to teachers, principals, supervisors, and super- intendents.” The New Jersey code states: “The term ‘teacher’ . . . . is intended to include all persons engaged in educational work, whether in executive, supervisory, or teaching capacities.” The Colorado code in- cludes separate paragraphs covering the special duties of principals, supervisors, superintend- ents, and board members. The Michigan code also carries a special paragraph concerning board members. Criteria Employed in Selecting the Standards Many of the codes analyzed contain items which reflect merely local, temporary, or purely personal questions of conduct. For the purposes of this study, only those standards were selected which seemed to have broad and lasting significance for teachers in their p: fessional relationships. The following criteria were used in making this selection: 1. The prescribed conduct should improve the service of teachers. 2. The prescribed conduct should have specia| significance because the persons involved are teachers. 3. The prescribed conduct should have relatively permanent and universal value among teachers. 4. The prescribed conduct should involve pri marily a problem of professional relationships, rather than a problem which is limited strictly to the field of personal morality, educational philoso phy, or educational method. Many of the standards selected have not yet received the unanimous approval of the profes sion. Whether they ever will receive it is prob lematical. It is hoped that their inclusion here will stimulate discussion, and thus lead to a clearer understanding of the issues involved and perhaps to more general agreement as to their validity. Frequency of occurrence in the codes has not been used as a criterion for determining the relative importance of the various standards. While the following chapters present figures in- dicating as accurately as possible the number of codes containing each standard, these figures should not be considered too seriously. The gen- eral statements used in many codes make it impossible to determine whether or not the) apply to certain specific conduct mentioned in other codes. Furthermore, to use the words of the National Education Association’s Commit- ee, “When a State (code) does not condemn a certain practice which is generally considered to be unethical, and which the codes of many states do condemn as unethical, the lack of con- demnation does not necessarily mean that the State in question condones such practice. The lack of a statement on the point might mean that this particular State thought the practice in question was so universally condemned by common consent that a formal and written pronouncement on it would be commonplace ; again the lack of statement on a certain prac- tice might be the result of oversight ; or again. it might mean that the State considers othe: matters of greater moment.” * 1 National Education Association, Committee on _— of the Profession. Report: The Ethics of the Teaching Pre fession. (Sarah T. Muir, Chairman) July, 1926. p. [28] eT nih aaa 1 nti aka, the The s been gre classifica ilar to codes, b exactly. Teache In cot duct, it attitude and file. obtained tional the Ethi This of perso ing 39 ¢ mon am to give is ethica uals to were re 444 fro pals, as universi tives (s1 of colle; results « in the J This the per practice it is une ommen another to lose | whethe: for can cent re 30. perc cent fai On 3 ever, m swering while o more aj In tl the vai 1Mu 1929. Vo 2 Th 5 See re date fbi tone A ade The standards selected from the codes have been grouped according to a purely arbitrary classification. “This grouping is somewhat sim- ilar to arrangements used in several of the codes, but it does not follow any one of them exactly. Attitudes Toward Certain Practices Teachers’ In considering professional standards of con- duct, it is desirable to know something of the attitude toward such standards among the rank and file of the profession. Data of this sort were obtained from a survey conducted by the Na- tional Education Association’s Committee on the Ethics of the Profession.’ This committee distributed to a selected list of persons in each state a questionnaire concern- ing 39 questionable practices more or less com- mon among teachers. The recipient was asked to give his opinion as to whether each practice is ethical or unethical. From the 3145 individ- uals to whom the form was sent, 1606 replies were received: 646 from classroom teachers; 444 from administrative subordinates (princi- pals, assistant superintendents, and college or university deans) ; and 516 from chief execu- tives (superintendents of schools and presidents of colleges and universities). A summary of the results of this survey will be found in Table 20 in the Appendix. This survey revealed a considerable range in the percent of persons agreeing on the various practices. For example, 96 percent agreed that it is unethical for a school official to fail to rec- ommend one of his teachers for a promotion in another community because he does not want to lose her services ; whereas on the question of whether it is ethical to do more than to vote for candidates in a political campaign, 38 per- cent replied “Yes,” 30 percent replied “No,” 30 percent qualified their replies, and 2 cent failed to answer. On 30 of the 39 questionable practices, how- ever, more than 50 percent of the persons an- swering agreed that the practice is unethical, while on only 1 practice were 50 percent or more agreed that the practice is ethical. In the following chapters the discussion of the various standards includes pertinent fig- per- 1 Muir, Sarah T., chairman. “Final Report of 1929. Vol. 67. National Education Association, 1929. p. 2 This form is reproduced in the Appendix, 86 ® See Appendix, Table 25. the Committee on 182-90 } ures from this cross section of teacher opinion in every instance for which such figures are available. Violations of Professional Ethics ‘To approach from another angle the problem of discovering what teachers regard as accepted standards of professional conduct, a collection was made of statements reporting violations of professional ethics. These statements serve three purposes. First, they provide specific illus trations of failure to conform to principles found in the codes; second, they give some indi- cation of the relative importance of various standards in the minds of educational work ers; and third, they suggest the situations in which violations frequently occur. To this forms distributed to obtain material, mimeographed were students in six classes of the 1928 Summer Session at ‘Teachers College, Columbia University. The form asked for the salient facts concerning five cases ob served by the persons reporting in which pro fessional ethics had been violated. Four hundred nineteen returns were re ceived, yielding a total of 1627 cases. One hun- dred thirty-five of these returns were from classroom teachers, 149 from principals or vice- principals, 35 from special supervisors, 62 from superintendents or assistant superintendents, and 38 from persons holding other positions. These persons represented 43 different states.* These cases of violation were classified in general according to the categories used in analyzing the official codes of ethics. Table 9 shows the number of reported violations in TABLE 9.—MAIN CATEGORIES OF VIO- LATIONS OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS REPORTED IN THIS STUDY Frequency Nature of Violations of Mention 1. In relations with pupils 108 2. In relations with parents 4 3. In relations with community 70 4. In relations with associates 1185 5. In relation to the profession 23 6. In connection with applications, recom mendations, contracts, and termina- tion of employment... 205 7. In relations with teachers’ agencies and publishing and supply houses 13 8. Miscellaneous—vague and indefinite 21 Total Number 1627 Ethics of the Profession—Abstract Proceedings, [ 29 ] ae. Nid each main category. Further analyses of the items within the main groups are presented in the following chapters. It is probably significant that more than two- thirds of the 1627 violations reported were concerned with relationships between teachers and their own professional associates. Caution should be observed, however, in the interpreta- tion of these frequencies of mention. Although they are reported, they cannot be considered accurate indices of either the actual frequency of occurrence or the seriousness of the viola- tions. A high frequency of mention may mean that teachers are inclined to resent or disap- prove that particular act more than others, or it may mean merely that they are more accus- tomed to think of that particular act as a viola- tion of professional ethics. Nevertheless, it is probable that a frequently mentioned violation either occurs relatively frequently or is recog- nized as particularly reprehensible. For ex- ample, the fact that 504 of the 1627 violations reported were “criticisms of associates’ sug- gests the probability that this practice is either more prevalent or more strongly detested among teachers than any other item reported. Practices of this kind surely deserve special at- tention in courses of teacher preparation. In connection with this collection of specific violations of standards, a somewhat similar study of violations reported by the National Education Association’s Committee on Ethics of the Profession should be mentioned. On the questionnaire used in obtaining teache: judgments concerning 39 questionable pra tices, the teachers were also asked to list the six violations of professional ethics which they con sidered the most frequent and the most serious among members of the teaching profession. ‘The 1606 persons replying listed 327 different un ethical practices, these having a total frequen: of 4670. Table 10 shows how these were di: tributed among the seven major categories use\! in the study. A list of the 53 specific types of violations which were mentioned 10 times o; more will be found, together with their fre quencies of mention, in the Appendix, Table 21. It is impossible to make a completely satis factory comparison of the results in these two studies because of certain differences in the classification of violations. A general compari- son of Tables 9 and 10, however, reveals that the two studies are in substantial agreement re garding the relative frequency of mention in the broad categories of violations. First in rank by an overwhelming majority are those un- ethical practices which occur in the relations of teachers to one another and to the profession at large. Second in rank are those occurring in connection with the seeking and filling of posi- tions, including applications, recommendations, contracts, and termination of employment. ‘The third most frequently mentioned group involves the relations of teachers with pupils, parents, and community. TABLE 10.—MAIN CATEGORIES OF UNETHICAL PRACTICES REPORTED IN A STUDY BY THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION’S COMMITTEE ON ETHICS OF THE PROFESSION* Frequency of Mention By Number of ae Practices in Connection With: Different Practices Classroom | Administrative Chief Teachers Subordinates Executives Total 1. Training essional growth. ........... 6 92 52 61 205 2 king and a ck send % sede v0 2 38 226 220 405 851 3. Salaries and promotions................665. 22 78 74 84 236 4. Contracts and tenure.................0000-. 18 130 108 145 383 Relations of teachers to each other and to the ession at Rp on Se 124 1019 623 653 2295 6. tions with the public and pupils......... 94 281 183 207 671 Fe SIO, 6.0 6 cans sen ncesdetecetscnves 25 16 5 8 29 A ice 60 +a e peRnkne heen es Mbees' ana. < 327 1842 1265 1563 4670 Read table as follows: Under the heading of ‘Traini listed. These 6 different 61 times by chief executives, and types of unethical practices. 1 Adapted from Table 5 in 1929 report of Committee on Ethics of the Profession of the National Education Association. See Muir, Sarah T., chairman, O?. cit. p. 188. and Professional Growth,”’ 6 different unethical practices were practices were reported 92 times by classroom teachers, 52 times by administrative subordinates, 205 times by all three groups combined. Similarly read figures for the other major 4 Muir, Sarah T., chairman. Op. cit. p. 184-90. [ 30] In th cerning reter t¢ gation. is made obtaine tion’s ¢ classific W idely Second mittee of spec mediat the pre effort \ violatic concre'! G It is follow aera le Ti ACen In the following chapters all statements con- rning specific violations of ethical standards fer to those collected in the present investi- vation. For two reasons no further reference is made in the text to the corresponding data tained by the National Education Associa- tion’s Committee on Ethics. First, the detailed lassifications used in the two studies varied so widely as to preclude significant comparisons. Second, the violations collected by the Com- mittee on Ethics were not actual descriptions of specific practices occurring within the im- mediate experience of the persons reporting. In the present study, on the other hand, a special effort was made to obtain bona fide examples of violations which might be used to illustrate concretely the standards of conduct presented. General Method of Presentation It is not the purpose of the chapters which follow to propose a new code of ethics but rather to present in convenient form material from which those preparing to enter the pro- fession and others interested in the problem may develop their own codes of professional conduct. A modified form of the in many textbooks and schools of law, has been “case method,” used employed in the presentation of this material. Excerpts from the codes furnish official state- ments of certain accepted standards. Data from the National Education tion’s Committee on the Ethics of the Profes- the study by \ssocia- sion throw light on the extent to which these standards are approved by representatives of the profession at large. The reported violations furnish concrete illustrations of conduct con- sidered improper for teachers. Finally, a num- ber of quotations from the professional stand- ards of law and medicine permit certain com- parisons between teaching and two of the old- est and best established professions. URING the period of preparation a prospective teacher should be familiarized with the content of codes and the particular conditions surrounding the pro- fession through critical discussions and practical experiences in the normal schools and teachers colleges.—Frank P. Graves, New York Herald-Tribune, January 26, 1930. [31] nt ae None of the codes of ethics analyzed in this study attempt to prescribe proper conduct for all of the specific situations which confront teachers in their professional relationships. Some codes contain a relatively large number of specific admonitions or proscriptions. Others include very few. It would be impracticable, if not impossible, to mention in any one code all of the various situations in which the con- duct of the teacher affects his own success and the welfare of the profession in general. All of the codes, therefore, contain certain broad generalizations which are intended to cover a multitude of unspecified situations. These principles indicate the general traits of character which teachers should manifest in all of their professional relationships. This chapter reviews briefly these personal qualities and general principles of action. Each of the thirty-three codes implies, and thirty of them specifically state, that the teacher should be a person of high moral char- acter. The following statements are typical: 1, Teachers should regard themselves as exam- ples for pupils and so conduct themselves that no just reproach may be brought against them. Where liberty of conscience is not concerned, a teacher should stand ready to make personal sacrifice be- cause of the attitude of the community. Every teacher should be, first, a good citizen, upholding the highest standards and ideals of the community in which he lives. In the school he should be, in his attitude toward his work and his superiors, a model of cooperation, justice, honesty, and those other character-building qualities which youth so surely discerns and as eagerly, though unconsciously, ab- sorbs.—Connecticut. 2. Teachers should present not only in conduct and in faithful service but also in well-retained health and in social attitude, a worthy example to their pupils and to the community.—OQhio. 3. The teacher owes it to his pupils to keep him- self physically fit, morally straight, and to cultivate the virtues of patience, courage, justice, truthful- ness, and serenity.—W yoming. 4. The teacher should be neat and cleanly in person and of noble mind. He should be faithful in the discharge of duty, able after closest examina- tion to respect himself .. . In his business relations his conduct should be such as to dignify his profes- sion.—lowa. 5. The teacher touches life at many points, and touches it at its most receptive period. He needs, therefore, to be alive to many interests. ... He CHAPTER IV General Principles of Conduct must know the finer things, have a passion to; them, and further still, a passion for leading others to see and love them. Whatever it is permitted others to be, he must be a genuine man. He must | noble in order to draw out nobility in others. Hi, must be true, in order to show how manly it is to be true. In other words, he must be an embodiment of what he would have his pupils become... . . \ womanly modesty or a manly dignity should cha; acterize teachers in all their relations to the com munity. A lack of one of these qualities may, by causing a lack of respect, seriously interfere with a teacher’s success. . . . The teacher should respect the customs, the traditions, the moral and religious sentiments of the community in which he labors.- South Carolina. 6. It is the duty of teachers to conduct themselves in such a manner socially that they may bring neither criticism nor suspicion upon themselves and their profession.—Michigan. General Principles From the large number of general state- ments in the codes, six broad principles of con- duct for teachers may be derived: 1. The teacher’s conduct should be such as wil! keep him physically and mentally fit. 2. The teacher’s conduct should example for his pupils. 3. The teacher’s conduct should be such as will bring no reproach upon himself. 4. The teacher’s conduct should be such as will bring no reproach upon the profession. 5. The teacher’s conduct should conform in gen- eral to the accepted standards of the community in which he teaches. 6. The teacher’s conduct should contribute to harmony and efficiency in all of his professional relationships. be a_ worthy In connection with these general principles of conduct, two practical questions arise: (1 ) Is the teacher under obligation to maintain a higher standard of personal conduct than members of other professions in the same com- munity? and (2) To what extent should the personal conduct of the teacher be controlled by the moral and social standards of the com- munity in which he teaches? The Canons of Professional Ethics for law- yers state that “a lawyer will find his highest honor in a deserved reputation for fidelity to private trust and to public duty, as an honest man and as a patriotic and loyal citizen.” They also admonish members of the profession to “aid in guarding the Bar against the admission [ 32] oa EM aD ct Rete > to the qualifie charact dicial conduc the ap his per: and in also in proach be con: patient public indifte fluence The “the fession self as every and he that hi in the keep h a high also b duty ; far a propr of his Th stand other lished ate ir with First, every chara boys stron in la on hi upon but < eoewr tions id p. 729 a Stephe Teach to the profession of candidates unfit or un-_ side as well as inside the schoolroom. “The qualified because deficient in either moral sins of the teachers are the teachers of sins.” * haracter or education.” ' The Canons of Ju- This idea has been well expressed by Herbert dicial Ethics specify that “a judge's official Hoover: conduct should be free from impropriety and the appearance of impropriety . . . and his personal behavior, not only upon the Bench Ihe public school teacher cannot live apart; he cannot separate his teaching from his daily walk : ge alee oe and conversation. He lives among his pupils during and in the performance of judicial duties, but — school hours, and among them and thei: parente also in his every day life, should be beyond re- all the time. . . . His office, like that of a minister proach.” They also stipulate that “he should of religion, demands of him an exceptional stand be conscientious, studious, thorough, courteous, ard of conduct.” patient, punctual, just, impartial, fearless of public clamor, regardless of public praise, and indifferent to private, political or partisan in- In the second place, the teacher is a public servant. He is employed by the community to ge do a particular task. While it is not advisable fluences. eo ; ; — for the public to bind its teachers with minute The Principles of Medical Ethics state that “the obligation assumed on entering the pro- fession requires the physician to comport him- self as a gentleman and demands that he use every honorable means to uphold the dignity and honor of his vocation.” They also specify that he should be “ ‘an upright man instructed in the art of healing.’ Consequently, he must keep himself pure in character and conform to a high standard of morals. . . . ‘He should also be modest, sober, patient, prompt to do his duty without anxiety; pious without going so far as superstition, conducting himself with propriety in his profession and in all the actions of his life.’ (Hippocrates)”’ ® The foregoing statements indicate that the standards of personal and social conduct for other professions are similar to those estab- lished for teachers. However, two factors oper- ate in the case of teachers which do not apply with equal directness in other professions. First, one of the definite responsibilities of every teacher is the development of the ethical of other character of his pupils. He works directly with should be remembered that in most states a boys and girls at an age when example is stronger than precept. His efficiency depends in large measure upon his personal influence on his pupils, and this in turn depends not only upon his expertness in the art of instruction but also upon his conduct and reputation out- of conforming to the generally accepted social prescriptions regarding either the technics of their profession or the details of their personal lives, the community has a right to choose whom it will employ; and it will usually em ploy those who in their private lives, as well as in their professional relationships, conform in general to the moral and social standards of the community. Occasionally teachers owe it to themselves, their profession, and the public to resent and resist the rigid and puritanical censorship which some communities exercise over the con duct of their teachers.® If teaching is to be a profession which will attract the finest young men and women of each generation, those who enter it must be allowed to live normally inde- pendent lives. They should be expected to con form to the generally accepted standards of propriety, but should be as free from the har- rowing limitations of narrow-minded bigotry and provincial prejudice as are the members vocations." On the other hand, it teacher may be dismissed for any cause that renders him unfit, and that not only a good character but a good reputation is essential to the greatest usefulness in his position.® Teachers usually recognize the desirability 1 American Bar Association. Canons of Professional Ethics. Nos. 32 and 29 2 American Bar Association. Canons of Judicial Ethics. Nos. 4 and 34 8 American Medical Association. Principles of Medical Ethics. Chapter II, Art. 1, Sec. 1 and _ “Quoted by Anderson, Earl William. The Teacher's Contract and Other Legal Phases of Teacher Status. Contribu tions to Education, No. 246. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1927 5 Hoover, Herbert. “Education as a National Asset.” Proceedings, 1926. Vol. 64, National Education Association, 1927 p. 729-30, ® Anderson, Earl W. ‘“‘Hamstringing Our Teachers.” Atlantic Monthly 14 390-7; March, 1930. See also: Ewing, Stephen. “Blue Laws for School Teachers.’”’ Harpers Monthly Magazine 156: 329-38; February, 1928 7 Marsh, J. Frank. Op. cit., p. 163 ® Allen, Ira Madison. The Teacher's Contractual Status. Contributions to Education, N« 4. Burea f Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928. p. 69, 71. [33] and moral standards of the communities in which they work. Sixty-five percent of those replying to the questionnaire circulated by the National Education Association’s Committee on Ethics stated that it is unethical for teach- ers “to engage in a practice of recreation, dress, etc., of which the community does not approve’; whereas only 7 percent reported that they believed such procedure ethical, and 25 percent qualified their replies.* Of the 1627 violations reported by teachers in the present study, only 52 were classified as “disregard of the social standards of the community.” ? Although late hours, immodest dress, dancing, chewing tobacco, gambling, and drinking were mentioned, the only viola- tions cited more than twice were swearing, smoking, and indiscreet social relations be- tween teachers and pupils. These were men- tioned 4, 8, and 22 times respectively. The following are typical statements: 1. Two men teachers persisted in smoking in the men’s restroom during the school day. At the end of the year they were asked to leave. 2. A certain football coach smoked cigarettes in the gymnasium while coaching his team. The com- munity was very much opposed to it. 3. A teacher accepted the attentions of a high school boy whom she was teaching. 4. A man teacher persisted in courting senior girls and taking them to dances which lasted until the early hours of the morning. The teacher was dismissed at the end of the year. In regard to social relationships between teachers and pupils, Marsh says:. Well established policies growing out of the experience of our most successful school systems warrant the condemnation of courtships between teachers and pupils.’ The fact that relatively few violations were reported under the heading of “disregard of the social standards of the community” should not be interpreted to mean that these problems are not important. Few problems are more complicated, and experience has shown that they are almost always crucial when they oc- cur, because communities do not usually over- look violations of their traditional standards of behavior. The general principles suggested on page 32 of this chapter indicate the social and 1See Appendix, Table 20, Item 35. 2See Table 12, Chapter V. 8 Marsh, }: Frank. Of. cit., p. 165. * Marsh, J. Frank. Op. cit. p. 164. personal standards to which the public expec; members of the teaching profession to confo: and those who vary from them will frequen: find it necessary to defend and justify thei: actions. Marsh sums up this situation cor cisely in these words: The teacher’s success in her work and her cons, quent happiness depend to a rather large extent on the respect and confidence with which she is regarde: in the community. Her social habits affect this opinion very decidedly. It is for this reason wise for her to conform to the social standards of the community, regardless of her personal attitude to ward these standards.* General Attitudes and Traits While many of the codes mention various attitudes and character traits in connection with certain definite relationships, others men tion them merely as abstract qualities having general application. ‘The desirable qualities mentioned are listed in Figure 1. Few undesirable attitudes are mentioned in the codes, doubtless due to the desire to have these documents emphasize the positive aspects of character. Occasionally the teacher is ad monished not to be conceited, cynical, envious, grouchy, jealous, pessimistic, spiteful, suspi cious, or tyrannical. Violations of General Proprieties All of the 1627 violations reported in Table 9, Chapter III, could be cited as illustrations either of failure to exemplify the desirable general traits listed in Figure 1, or of failure to conform to the more specific, concrete stand- ards which are discussed in later chapters. Most of them are more significant when used to illustrate lack of conformity to specific standards. On the other hand, some of them are particularly useful in attaching definite meanings to abstract qualities, because they show certain specific situations in which teach- ers frequently fail to exemplify the ideal quali- ties desired. Accordingly, a number of viola- tions having special reference to certain ab- stract qualities are cited below: Jealousy: 1. Jealousy over fancied preference led one teacher to circulate malicious rumors about another. [ 34] ae eal HT mB Nn 2. Be ertain ent ir name \ Lack o. is superil fore by lay ni 3. Bi that hi was c ie she wi from ; 4. A about dents Selfish ee chairr basket sched tage | > ment printi Parti a becau 9 Upon religi plain Disc Si a cla the | 2 a ted $. ump 4. prof beet We 2. Because of jealousy a superintendent reported rtain so-called irregularities to the State Depart- ent in order to give another superintendent a bad ame with the Department. Lack of Tact: 1. A teacher tried to raise an argument with the superintendent of schools on some school issue be- fore bystanders as church was dismissing on Sun- lay night. 2. A woodshop teacher told at every opportunity that he was the only one in his department who was competent to organize the work. 3. A teacher constantly harped upon the fact that she was the only one on the faculty who had come from a city and graduated from a city high school. 4. A teacher spent a great deal of time boasting about his accomplishments to unsophisticated stu- dents whom he could easily impress. Selfishness: 1. The principal of a high school, acting as chairman of the schedule committee of a county basketball league, used his position to frame the schedule so as to give his own team every advan- tage possible. 2. A teacher was selfish in sharing school equip- ment with other teachers, such as victrola, books, printing press, etc. Partiality and Prejudice: 1. A principal kept a teacher from promotion because of personal grievances against her. 2. A principal complained about a teacher’s work. Upon investigation it was found to be a case of religious prejudice with little truth in the com- plaint. Discourtesy: 1. A principal told a teacher to “shut up” before a class of pupils. This caused lack of respect for the principal among both teachers and pupils. 2. A superintendent lost his temper and shouted a teacher to silence in a faculty meeting. 3. A coach insulted the opposing coach and the umpire at the end of a baseball game. 4. Certain teachers interrupted the speaker at a professional meeting by getting up and leaving simply because it was 3:45 o'clock he regular closing time for school 5. A supervisor went into a classroom auring the presentation of a lesson. She took the lesson out of the teacher’s hands and conducted it in an entirely different way. The children were given the impres sion that the teacher’s method was wrong Dishonesty: 1. A teacher created a financial obligation with no expectation of payment. 2. A superintendent promised (orally) a certain salary to teachers in June, and denied having made such promise in September. 3. A superintendent promised he would do all he could for het time of election did not even present her applica an applicant that and then at the tion to the members of the board 4. A supervisor told a teacher she was doing satisfactory work and then recommended her for dismissal, 5. Two teachers in the absence of the principal went to the office and looked up the ratings of the other teachers in the school 6. Teachers were allowed ten days sick leave with pay. Some teachers stayed out of school on days when they were not ill, thinking they were fooling the school authorities 7. A teacher, after being out of school all day because of illness, attended a dance in the evening and remained at home next day because of illness. 8. A teacher who was excused from a regular building meeting to attend a lecture left the city early to attend a week-end party 9. A teacher filled out attendance record at insti- tute as present full time when she was present only part time. 10. Teachers are expected to attend the meetings of the State Teachers’ Association because they receive full salary for the two days of the conven- tion. One teacher attended only the dance in the evening and none of the meetings 11. A teacher married in a system where mar- riage automatically discharges. She kept her mar- riage a secret until newspapers disclosed the fact 12. A teacher taking an extension course paid another to answer all the questions FIGURE 1.—DESIRABLE ATTITUDES AND TRAITS Alert Fair Altruistic Faithful Approachable Generous | Charitable Happy Clean Honest | Cooperative Idealistic Courageous Impartial Courteous Just Democratic Kind Dependable Loyal Dignified Magnanimous The Teacher Should Be Modest Reverent Neat Sensitive to Humor Noble Serene Openminded Strong (Physically) Optimistic Sympathetic Patient Tactful Patriotic Tolerant Poised True Positive Truthful Progressive Pure (Morally [ 35 ] 13. Tests were sent out with directions that they were not to be opened until a certain day. One teacher opened the tests and drilled her pupils on the questions. As a result, the children in that school ranked high. 14. A principal falsified the attendance register by marking a boy present when he was absent and working, in order to place him on the baseball team. 15. A grade teacher, upon protest by a mother and pupil that the latter’s grade in arithmetic kept her off the honor roll, raised the grade. 16. A high school teacher weak in ability to con- trol classes obtained poor examination results in elementary algebra and deliberately raised several marks to improve her own chances for retention. 17. A teacher systematically went through a pile of finished drawings by pupils in Grade I and “touched them up” for the supervisor to examine. 18. A teacher wrote a composition for a child. The composition won a prize. The child knew he had not written the composition and reported the affair to his parents. The mother came to school and traced the affair to the English teacher. 19. A superintendent made false statements to a service club in connection with a bond campaign. 20. A teacher boasted to others that she alwa kept a few well-planned lessons on hand for the supervisor’s visits. This chapter has discussed briefly the gen eral attitudes and character traits which vari ous codes of ethics designate as desirable fo: teachers to possess. Many of these are so vague and indefinite as to be of very limited value as guides to desirable conduct. Code-makers are coming to recognize this fact and are endeavor- ing, both in the revision of existing codes and in the preparation of new ones, to make thei: statements of standards as concrete and spe- cific as possible. A few general principles are necessary to cover the large number of situa- tions which are not mentioned specifically, but the greater proportion of any code should deal with concrete situations in which right conduct is desired. This chapter has suggested six gen- eral principles of conduct for teachers. The following chapters will analyze these in terms of more specific and definite standards. mance, Codes of Ethics, p. 2. HREE THINGS should be kept in mind by the student of ethical codes. The first is that a code of this character is designed to serve an immediate practical purpose. It is not a statement of general morality. It deals with the customs and ideals, the sins and duties, of a particular group of men. Ethical principles are stated in terms of their daily business experience. The code which falls short of this, or attempts to go beyond it, is likely to become a series of platitudes.—Edgar L. Heer- [ 36] Thi irds O ous CO relatio Each illustr nectio: practi Educa of the propo tice tc stands ingful cific s ards « pleme the o' profe Th ers a is she tions ard a yy fare his j speci mary gain and desig ice ti ing | 5% teack his p 2. inter selfis —W 3. not CHAPTER V Standards of Conduct in Relations with Pupils, Parents, and Community This chapter presents a selected list of stand- irds of conduct which, according to the vari- ous codes, the teacher should recognize in his relations with pupils, parents, and community. Each of these standards is accompanied by illustrative statements from the codes. In con- nection with each standard which involves a practice covered in the study by the National Education Association’s Committee on Ethics of the Profession, data are quoted to show the proportion of teachers who judged the prac- tice to be unethical.’ In addition, many of the standards are made more definite and mean- ingful by examples of their violation in spe- cific situations. Finally, the material on stand- ards of conduct for teachers is frequently sup- plemented by corresponding statements from the official standards of the legal and medical professions. The extent to which the standards for teach- ers are specifically mentioned in the 33 codes is shown in Table 11. The number of viola- tions reported in connection with each stand- ard appears in Table 12. The Welfare of the Child The teacher should recognize that the wel- fare of the child is the principal obligation of his profession. Twenty-one of the 33 codes specify that the welfare of the child is the pri- mary responsibility of every teacher. Personal gain and pleasure, community responsibilities, and even the mastery of subject matter are designated as subordinate interests, while serv- ice to the child is given first place. The follow- ing statements illustrate this point : 1. The highest obligation of every member of the teaching profession is due to those who are under his professional, care.—Pennsylvania. 2. The teacher’s first duty is to his pupils. Their interest must not be sacrificed upon the altar of selfishness, community responsibilities, or pleasure. —W yoming. 3. It is the duty of the teacher to teach children, not mere subjects—Alabama. 4. The first duty of teachers is to safeguard and bring to the highest state of perfection the physical, intellectual, aesthetic, moral, social, and so far as possible, the spiritual endowment of their pupils New Hampshire. 5. It is the duty of the teacher to consider service to the children paramount, rather than financial reward.—Colorado. 6. In adopting a comprehensive set of ethical principles, it is hoped that the Louisiana Teachers’ Association will Keep uppermost the child as the only reason for an educational system.—Louisiana. Individual Differences Among Pupils The teacher should respect the individuality of each pupil and should train it according to its requirements. Ten of the codes stipulate that the teacher should deal with each child according to its individual requirements. At first glance this injunction may appear to be a question of pedagogical method rather than of professional ethics.2, Further consideration, however, reveals the fact that it involves a fundamental professional relationship. It rec- ognizes that each child is entitled to the op- portunity of developing himself to the limit of his capacity. It is a warning against the dan gers of impersonalism inherent in mass pro duction,® and is a reminder that the benefit to society is greatest when the personal inter- ests and needs of each individual are recog- nized and respected. ‘The following statements from the codes are typical: 1. The teacher should consider the different in- terests, aptitudes, abilities, and social environments of pupils.—National Education Association 2. They (teachers) should always be mindful of the varied dispositions, characteristics, powers, and environmental conditions of children as determin ing the methods of treatment.—Louisiana 3. He (the teacher) should study pupils not only in the group, but also in their individuality, so as to develop wisely that individuality. In other words, respect the personality of each and train it accord- ing to its requirements.—South Carolina. The following are representative of the violations of this standard reported: 1. A teacher insisted on a boy going home and putting on better clothes, which he did not possess. 2. A boy of Syrian and Slavic parentage was failed because he did not talk loudly enough. 1 For a summary of judgments on 39 such practices, see Appendix, Table 20 2 Miller, George F. “Chaff in the Code of Ethics.” Phi Delta Kappan 12: 171; April, 1930 8 “Teacher or Factory Hand.” Atlantic Monthly 145: 500-2; Apr., 1930. See also: Journal « Association 19: 171-2; June, 1930. f the National Education [ 37 ] eE—————E—— mal al Sey, eet niet? 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Fight codes specify that fair and impartial treatment by teachers is the right of every child. Exhibitions of prejudice preference because of differences in intellec- tual ability or social standing should have no place in the relations between a teacher and his pupils. The following statements are typical : In instructional, administrative and other rela- tions with pupils, the teacher should be impartial, just and professional.—National Education Asso- ciation. Teachers should deal justly with every child without prejudice or preference.—Ohio. 3. The true teacher will strive to place whatever educational facilities the state can afford within easy reach of even the humblest of citizens.— Louisiana. Of the fourteen violations of this standard reported, the following are representative : 1. A teacher had two pupils of approximately the same ability whose work was below the passing grade. She passed one because of friendship and failed the other. 2. Certain teachers eliminated pupils from the Regents’ Examination who appeared to have little TABLE 12.—REPORTED VIOLATIONS OF STANDARDS OF CONDUCT IN RE- LATIONS WITH PUPILS, PARENTS, AND COMMUNITY Frequency Nature of Violations of Mention 1. Failure to recognize the individuality of each child = , 3 2. Failure to deal justly and impartially Wet GRC CRM. cc cccccscess 14 3. Unsympathetic and discourteous atti- tude toward pupils: a. Discouraging pupils by harsh criti- EES Se eee ee 24 b. Calling pupils insulting names..... 12 Cc. Giving discourteous replies to ques- RASS 3 d. Threatening pupils, shouting | at them and using physical force in Ne ie goon 6 pk Ke . 11 4. Failure to hold inviolate confidential information. ........ 35 5.* Tutoring for remuneration pupils of his own classes. . Ladieheueiee.us sks 4 6. Imposing priv ate views on ‘pupils 2 7. Lack of tact in meeting criticism of NS. 65-9 «a6 ian aide 2 8. Failure to participate in community RE rae 3 9. Disregard for social st indards of the community. . 52! 10. Becoming aligned ‘with factions in the community. . 9 ey OE ee 15 Pree i 180 1 For discussion of these violations see p. 33-34. _ chance of passing. These teachers did this in orde to assure themselves of a high marking averag Rege nts’ the welfare of the pupils. in the Department, without considering 3. A teacher refused to allow a pupil to continue in a certain course because of pers nal feeling Sympathy and Courtesy The teacher should be sympathetic and courteous toward his pupils. Five codes stipu late that the general virtues of sympathy and courtesy should be applied specifically in the teacher's treatment of his pupils. Some typical Statements are: ¢ should show his sympathy for the child in such a way that the latter may feel that in the teacher he has a personal friend.—South Carolina 1. The teacher should be approachable. H 2. ‘the teacher should always be courteous, kind, and sympathetic.—/owa 3. My attitude towards children will be sympa thetic but not irrational; kind but not coddling Utah No man or woman should enter the teach ing profession without a deep interest in and a genuine sympathy with children. The cir cumstances under which the teacher works make it easy for him to lapse into discourteous habits which are detrimental both teache1 and pupil. The nervous strain of teaching often produces an irritability and a sharpness of retort which would not be tolerated by cli ents in any other field. The inhibitions which usually prevent discourtesy between adults are often absent in the relationship of teacher and pupil, the teacher-pupil situation frequently leads to and the very intimacy which exists in an unfortunate laxness about courteous pro pricties. brutal teacher should Frankness is usually a virtue, but which the avoid as scrupulously as does the whose ideal in this regard is plainly stated: frankness is a vice, physician, A physician should give timely notice of danger ous manifestations of the disease to the friends of the patient. He should neither minimize the gravity of the He should assure himself that the patient or his friends have such knowledge of the patient's con- exaggerate nor patient’s condition. dition as will serve the best interests of the patient and the family.’ Teachers frequently find it necessary to call a pupil’s attention to his own shortcomings, 3The American Medical Association. Op. cit. Chapter I, Section 39 ] but there is no excuse for the careless, flippant, and discourteous remarks which teachers often employ. Of the fifty violations of this type reported, the following are typical illustrations: 1. An instructor used sarcasm extensively and the pupils became reluctant to recite. 2. A teacher said to a boy early in the year, “You are a failure. You cannot be promoted.” 3. A teacher used a poorly written English theme, but one which represented a pupil’s best work, as an example before the class of everything which should not be done in such a composition. 4. A teacher of mathematics told certain students that they were too “dumb” to learn mathematics. 5. A teacher called her pupils such names as “little simpleton,” “little nut,” and “good-for-noth- ing.” Confidential Information The teacher should hold inviolate all confi- dential information concerning his pupils. Twelve of the codes for teachers condemn the release of confidential information regarding pupils as a thoroughly unprofessional practice. Here are some representative statements of this standard: 1. The professional relations of the teacher with his pupils demand the same scrupulous guarding of confidential and official information as is ob- served by members of other long established pro- fessions.—National Education Association. 2. The teacher will hold inviolate matters of a purely professional and private nature, such as the intelligence rating of his children, or other data which might reflect upon the lives and opportunities of the children under his charge. Such matters should be kept as sacred by the teacher as the physician and the lawyer would keep the profes- sional secrets of their own profession.—Colorado. 3. Teachers should consider information con- cerning the mental, moral, physical, and financial limitations of parents and pupils in confidence and not discuss them in a way to embarrass parents or pupils.—Georgia. 4. Teachers should never indulge in remarks with pupils or before classes concerning the pecu- liarities or shortcomings of other pupils.—Louisi- ana. The corresponding specifications for physi- cians and lawyers are interesting and sugges- tive: Patience and delicacy should characterize all the acts of a physician. The confidences concerning individual or domestic life entrusted by a patient to a physician, and the defects of disposition or flaws of character observed during medical attendance should be held as a trust and should never be revealed except when imperative! required by the laws of the state.” in patients I will maintain the confidence and preserve i: violate the secrets of my client.* Ninety-three percent of the teachers who r plied to the questionnaire of the National Edu cation Association's Committee on Ethics stated that it is unethical “to discuss defici encies of pupils in such a way as would em barrass them or their parents.” ® Thirty-five violations of this standard were reported. The following are typical state ments: 1. A parent’s confidence concerning his child was discussed with another parent by the prin- cipal. 2. A teacher discussed with parents an experi- ment being conducted by the Educational Measure- ments Department and gave out facts which were misinterpreted, causing considerable disturbance and ill feeling. 3. A teacher, after a mental test had been given in her room, told various people the intelligence quotients of their neighbors’ children. 4. A teacher discussed the poor mental prepara- tion of various children with a fellow teacher be- fore the whole class and referred to some of them as being ‘stupid,’ ‘ignorant,’ and from ‘mean, «low parentage.’ 5. A teacher talked to one pupil about ancther pupil’s faults. 6. A teacher made an unkind remark about the parent of a child before the class. Tutoring Pupils of His Own Classes The teacher should not tutor for remunera- tion the pupils of his own classes. Eight codes stipulate that it is unprofessional for a teacher to accept remuneration for giving outside help to students of his own classes. Five of these ccdes add the phrase “except by special permis- sion of the school authorities.” * These state- ments are typical: 1. The sincere teacher will not accept remunera- tion for tutoring his own pupils in subjects which he teaches them. There is grave danger of bringing the profession into disrepute by this practice.— Wyoming. 2. It is unprofessional for a teacher to tutor pupils of his own classes for remuneration, except by special permission of the schoo! authorities.— Massachusetts. 1 The suuine Medical Association. Op. cit. Chapter I, Section 2 The American 8 See Appendix, Table 20, Item 16. 4 Kent Bar Association. Canons of Professional Ethics. soath of Admission.” y, Massachusetts, Michigan, Ohio, and South Dakota. [ 40] ese in EA a7 Fou reporte g iestio sociatit stated S$ perc qualifi Impo Th his rel This | a few nitely convit Natio unnec may the Ham ers de cial, I maint way.” code ( The ligiou teach but h to de W may, acter who high scien gene free, tain dice art evils turk has Four cases of violation of this standard were orted. Of the teachers responding to the estionnaire of the National Education As- sociation’s Committee on Ethics, 67 percent stated that the practice referred to is unethical, 8 percent said it is ethical, and 24 percent qualified their answers to the question.’ Imposing Religious or Political Views Upon Pupils The teacher should refrain from imposing his religious or political views upon his pupils. This practice is mentioned specifically by only a few of the codes. —IThe Utah document defi- nitely condemns the imposition of religious convictions upon pupils, and the code of the National Education Association warns against unnecessary and ill-advised controversies which may jeopardize the teacher’s effectiveness in the classroom. The New Jersey and New Hampshire codes stipulate that although teach- ers do not forfeit their right to their own so- cial, political, and religious beliefs, they should maintain them in an unobtrusive and dignified way.” This viewpoint is well expressed in the code of the Nationa! Education Association : The schoolroom is not the proper theater for re- ligious, political, personal propaganda. The teacher should exercise his full rights as a citizen, but he should avoid controversies which may tend to decrease his value as a teacher. or While this advice is sound in general, it may, if carried to extremes, devitalize the char- acter as well as the work of the teacher. The whole question of academic freedom has a highly significant bearing upon the progress of scientific thought and the welfare of society in general.* Teachers and pupils alike must be free, and must be encouraged, to discuss cer- tain types of controversial issues in an unpreju- diced and impartial manner.* Otherwise, the art of thinking will languish, and the many evils which beset society will continue undis- turbed by the light of honest criticism. Dewey the teacher to discuss controversial matters as one of the major issues confronting the public schools today,® and the Committee on Ethics of the American of Professors has called attention to the fact Association University that among teachers no worthy end can be achieved without an to educate o1 attempt influence others.° A satisfactory solution will not be forthcoming until teachers as a_ professional group recognize that a reasonable amount of independence of thought and speech is a uni versal right worth fighting fo: that 48 percent of the teachers of social science Lee reports included in his study stated that they avoid all controversial issues in their classes.’ Such a situation is unfortunate. However, it is one thing to discuss contro versial issues without partiality or undue emo tion, and quite another thing to attempt to force one’s convictions upon others. The latter practice is vicious, and should be carefully avoided by teachers on all occasions. Ninety two percent of the teachers replying to the questionnaire of the National Education As- sociation’s Committee on Ethics stated that it is unethical “to teach one’s religious, political, or other private beliefs to pupils.” ® Only reported. One of these is particularly sugges- two violations of this standard were tive: A teacher used the class time to expound specific political and religious views and ridiculed persons not holding these views. Cooperation with Parents The teacher should maintain cooperative reé lations with parents. Eighteen of the codes mention cooperative relations with parents the work advised to parents as being essential to efficiency in of the maintain school. ‘Teachers such are relations by keeping the progress of their children; by communicating informed regarding attendance and these facts candidly but tactfully; by meeting has recently raised the question of the right of the criticism of parents with courtesy and 1See Appendix, Table 20, Item 1! 2 See section on Politics and Factions, p. 43-44. 8 Brubacher, A. R. Teaching: Profession and Practice. Century Co., 1927. p. 10¢ 4 National Education Association, Research Division ‘Vitalizing the High-School Curriculum.’ / h Bulletin 173-276; September, 1929. “Can Social Issues Profitably Be Taken Up in High-School Social Science Classes?” p. % 6 Dewey, John. A Series of Questions Relating to the Duties and Responsibilities of the Teachis Profession with Reference Especially to Taking Decided Positions on Important Social and National Problems, (Presented at the meeting of the National Council of Education, June 28, 1930.) 6 Seligman, Edwin R. A. “Propaganda by Public Utility Corporations.”’ Bulletin of the American A ation of Uni versity Professors, 16: 349-68; May, 1930 7 Lee, Baldwin. Issues in the Social Studies. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928 p. 169, ® See Appendix, Table 20, Item 17 SES ae patience ; and by participating in organizations designed to promote cooperation between par- ents and teachers. The following statements from the codes are illustrative: 1. The teacher should seek to establish friendly and intelligent cooperation between the home and the school.—National Education Association. 2. The parents’ viewpoint should be appreciated. It may not be accepted, but it must not be ignored. —Florida. 3. It is the teacher’s duty to seek in every way the cooperation of parents; to show no partiality on account of the high social standing of some parents, or lack of sympathy and _ kindness, on account of the lack of high social standing of others. He should be especially considerate of ignorant and unreasonable parents. He should keep parents informed about the progress or lack of progress, the attendance or lack of attendance of their chil- dren. The teacher should tactfully make sugges- tions as to conditions suitable for study, when studying is to be done at home; should advise as to suitable equipment in books and other things needed by the child for the work to be done. All parents need information on these points. The teacher should welcome the visits of parents to the school, and should endeavor to create in them a personal interest and pride in the success, not only of their own children, but of the whole school; should enlist their interest in adorning the school grounds, in protecting the school property, and in making the school the center of interest to the whole community.—South Carolina. 4... . the duty of teachers to parents is to seek their acquaintance, to cooperate with them in the education of their children, to become informed of the home life and conditions by friendly visits, and in all other respects to manifest an interest in the individual child. Above all, a teacher should be frank, as well as sympathetic, in dealing with parents. Criticism by parents should be received with courtesy and patience—New Hampshire. 5. All teachers should establish friendly and frank relations of cooperation with pupils and parents and support organizations for that purpose. —Ohio. Participation in Community Life The teacher should participate actively in the life of the community. Twenty-one of the 33 codes specify that active participation in worthy community activities is a professional duty of teachers. These statements are typical : 1. In his relation to the community, the teacher should be an example of the value to society of an educated citizen. So far as may be consistent with the best performance of his specific duties as a teacher, he should actively identify himself with all movements of civic and social interest.—North Carolina. 2. The teacher’s second duty is to the communi: which employs him. He should interest himself in its problems and take an active part in its ciy social, and religious life —W yoming. 3. Teachers should support all efforts for th betterment of the community, for they are the foundation builders of it. Through daily contac: with the children, a teacher gleans the essenti needs of the community, the activities that wi lead the community to a higher physical, mora! and spiritual plane. Knowing these needs, a teache; should give unstinted support to worthy efforts To support an effort does not always mean to finance it, or to be an active worker in it. As a teacher is a personage of standing in the com munity, his advice and counsel are often accepted and followed. With inspiring words, he can lead an activity to success; by his attitude he can blaze a trail to cultural heights that others in the com munity will seek to travel.—Connecticut. 4. Inasmuch as the public schools belong to al! the people of the community, it is essential that teachers form contacts with all those groups with whom sympathetic understanding of educational! problems should be cultivated, or with whom a more active cooperation may secure a larger serv- ice to the life of the community or the state.— Washington. In connection with this standard and the one which follows, two important questions deserve attention: (1) How far is the teacher under obligation to participate in community life? and (2) How far should the teacher be permitted to participate in community life? As a citizen the teacher has both the right and the responsibility of participating actively in political, religious, and social activities. As an educated person he has an added responsi- bility in such matters, and in his capacity as a public servant, the community has a right to expect certain service from him along these lines, particularly in the direction of further- ing the cause of popular education. On the other hand, the proviso which appears in the Connecticut Code—‘“To support an effort does not always mean to finance it or to be an active worker in it” is a significant and subtle pro- test against the undue pressure often brought to bear upon teachers in some communities. The teacher’s primary job is the instruction of children; and it is unfair to expect him to spend all of the time outside of school hours in performing miscellaneous tasks which fre- quently can be done quite as well by others whose vocations are less exacting than teach- ing.t While the contacts formed by the teacher 1 See Dewey, John. ‘What is the Matter with Teaching?” Delineator 107: 5-6, 78; October, 1925. [42] j ; reg her e ) The \meric ment a p irticif Princif limited physic: trained torm: Physi professi render the pul bear th taining of hum: the pré sanitar’ ready t sanitary Physici health © quarant ment, 4 prisons, measur tagious Few obligat the co practic culiarl Simila bility ¢ comm strengt the te: munit' call 0 special assume but hi: fare n comm Ho ties of ugh participation in community activities ‘frequently help to promote educational wel- fare, it is doubtful whether his obligation in regard is significantly greater than that of er educated citizens of the community. Phe Canons of Professional Ethics of the \merican Bar nt as to the responsibility of lawyers for irticipation in The Principles of Medical Ethics specify only a limited number of community duties which Association contain no state- community activities. physicians as good citizens and as professionally trained individuals are under obligation to per- torm: because their them to as good citizens and training specially Physicians, professional render this service, should give advice concerning the public health of the community. They should bear their full part in enforcing its laws and sus- taining the institutions that advance the interests of humanity. They should cooperate especially with administration of qualifies the proper authorities in the sanitary laws and ready to counsel the public on subjects relating to sanitary police, public hygiene, and legal medicine. Physicians, especially engaged in public health work, should enlighten the public regarding quarantine regulations; on the location, arrange- ment, and dietaries of hospitals, asylums, schools, and concerning regulations. They should be those prisons, and similar institutions; measures for the prevention of epidemic and con- tagious diseases.’ Few would seriously question the physician’s obligation to perform certain extra services to the community, over and beyond his regular practice, along those lines for which he is pe- culiarly fitted by training and experience. Similarly, few would question the responsi- bility of the teacher for participating in worthy community activities insofar as his time and strength permit, but the time has passed when the teacher should be looked upon as a “com- munity nurse maid” ? subject to the beck and call of every social welfare movement. His specialized training enables him frequently to assume a leadership in many community affairs, but his first duty is to his pupils and their wel- fare must not be sacrificed upon the altar of community responsibilities.* However, participation in community activi- ties often helps the teacher to serve the school. 1 The American Medical Association. Op. cit Chapter III, Sections 1 and 2. It broadens his outlook upon life and yields contacts with other leaders in the communit } which enable him to advance the cause of edu cation. Six of the codes specifically mention this responsibility.* ‘he following statements are typical : duty of the teacher to be a lead others 1. It is the loyal citizen of the community . . and to to a realization of the educational needs of the community.—Alabama. 2. It is the duty of teachers and their organiza tions to keep the public informed as to the funda mental importance of universal democratic educa tion and the needs and problems of the school and the profession.—Ohio. 3. The teaching profession must assume a large share of responsibility for making common school education available to all and for the eradication of illiteracy —Washington. Of the teachérs who responded to the ques- tionnaire of the National Education Associa tion’s Committee on Ethics, 79 percent stated that it is unethical for a teacher ‘‘to fail to par ticipate in activities for community better ment.” Below are a few statements in which viola tions of this principle were reported : 1. A teacher did not attend any meetings of the Parent Neither did she take part in the extra-curricular activities of the school. Teacher Association 2. A teacher week-ends out of town instead of cooperating with the superintendent in spent many activities of the community related to the school 3. Certain teachers showed an attitude of dis respect and disregard for the affairs of the small were teaching community where they Politics and Factions The teacher should avoid aligning himself with factions in a community. Participation in community activities, although highly com mendable in certain circumstances is not with out complications and dangers. ‘The first duty of the teacher is to the children under his care. Other activities must invariably be subordi nated to this primary responsibility. Although the codes insist that the teacher should exercise his full rights as a citizen, they also condemn undue political ambition, participation in con rn troversies ® which precipitate ill feeling, and 2 Walsh, Matthew J. Teaching as a Profession. Henry Holt and Co., 1926. p. 271. 8 See section on The Welfare of the Child, p. * Alabama, Iowa, Ohio, Rhode Island, Texas, S47. } - , and Washingtor See the discussion of academic freedom in the section Imp. ng Religious or Political Views Upoy [ 43 ] alignment with factions in the community. This point of view appears clearly in the fol- lowing typical statements: 1. The teacher should exercise his full rights as a citizen, but he should avoid controversies which may tend to decrease his value as a teacher.— National Education Association. 2. The duty of refraining from undue political ambitions and activities is especially enjoined upon all teachers. This item, however, shall never be construed as discouraging the exercise of the fran- chise; and the eminent propriety of teachers hold- ing public office of an educational character is hereby recognized.—Louisiana. 3. Every member of the teaching profession, be- cause of his special relationship to the school board of his district, should carefully refrain from all political activity in connection with the election of school directors in his district, except the casting of his ballot.—Pennsylvania. 4. It is incumbent on teachers loyally to acknowl- edge all the duties and obligations of citizenship, and to discharge them both in letter and spirit . . . Teachers are and should be the servants of the people, without regard to distinctions of political party, religious faith, or other matters which are brought into issue and upon which individuals honestly disagree. Teachers are fully entitled to liberty of conscience, but it is unprofessional for them to become partisans upon issues which divide the community—New Hampshire. In a similar manner the American Bar As- sociation warns judges against aggressive par- ticipation in political affairs: While entitled to entertain his personal views on political questions, and while not required to sur- render his rights or opinions as a citizen, it is inevitable that suspicion of being warped by polit- ical bias will attach to a judge who becomes the active promoter of the interests of one political party as against another. He should avoid making political speeches, making or soliciting payment of assessments or contributions to party funds, the public endorsement of candidates for political office, and participation in party conventions.’ There is considerable division of opinion among teachers as to their professional prerog- atives in political matters. Of those who re- plied to the questionnaire of the National Edu- cation Association’s Committee on Ethics, 30 percent stated that it is unethical “to do more than to vote for a candidate in a political cam- paign;” 38 percent stated that such practice is ethical; and 30 percent qualified their an- swers.? Doubtless there are occasions when school people may and should exert their influ- ence to secure the election of certain cand dates. However, it is usually advisable teachers to avoid flaunting their political erences and convictions before the public. Of the 15 cases reported in which tea appeared guilty of unwise factional activi! the following are typical: I 1. A principal passed out handbills to pupils j regard to a coming election. 2. A superintendent lost his job because he join: the Ku Klux Klan. 3. An assistant principal proceeded to get men bers elected to the school board for the purpos of ousting the principal and getting himself pointed to that position. 4. A school superintendent asked his teachers permit distribution of election cards for certai school board members in the homerooms on the day before election. 5. A superintendent asked a supervisor to go t the polls on election day and work for those Boar of Education candidates who were known to ly favorable toward the present educational polic; in the district, and upon whose election depended the reappointment of both the superintendent ani supervisor. Disparaging the Community The teacher should refrain from belittling in any way the community in which he is em- ployed. This obligation is evidently considered so obvious or so widely accepted that most of the codes make no specific mention of it. The Florida code is the only one which contains a definite reference to the matter. The statement is brief and direct: It is unethical for the educator to belittle in any way the community in which he or she has accepted a position. This standard is much more important than the scant attention given to it in the codes would indicate. Teachers frequently find fault with various characteristics of the communi- ties in which they are employed, particular]; in the smaller towns and villages. The practice usually arouses resentment in the loyal resi- dents of the community, and reacts unfavor- ably upon the teacher and the teaching profes- sion as a whole. Constructive criticism is often necessary and valuable, but petty, malicious, or purely destructive criticism usually does more harm than good. 1 The American Bar Association. Canons of Judicial Ethics. No. 28. 2 See Appendix, Table 20, Item 34. [ 44 ] . + ae ita ee st Aegan ei ATR PERU 2 rine 8 a0 Cod mpha yper ery : specific ing W the co these | as in t Sev the te and Vv: ments Golde and a alty, ¢ frank sympa courte relati ties al sional which tratio quent Th ing st wa their is ad beaut ; learne the c the lz perso! witho perfe profe in on Se] other to all usual stand 4, | teach imbu: invol 1 2 CHAPTER VI Standards of Conduct in Relations With Associates ethics for teachers place special Codes ot mphasis upon the need for harmonious and yperative relations among the teachers in ry school system. This chapte1 presents the specific standards of conduct under this head- ng which were derived from an analysis of the these standards follow the same general plan codes. The discussion and illustration of as in the preceding chapter. General Statements Several of the codes cover the relations of the teacher with his associates by very general and vague statements. For example, six docu- ments state that teachers should apply the Golden Rule in all their professional relations and activities.t Such general qualities as loy- alty, cooperation, confidence, respect, fairness, frankness, friendliness, generosity, sympathy, charity, courtesy are usually emphasized as essential in relationships with associates. These generali- ties are not as useful to the student of profes- sional ethics as are the more specific standards which follow, but they are interesting as illus- trations of the type of material found fre- honesty, goodwill, sincerity, and quently in many of the codes. The following are typical of these generaliz- ing statements : 1. As guidance for the conduct of teachers in their relations to one another, the Golden Rule is adequate and applies with explicit force and beauty.—North Carolina. 2. The teaching profession differs from the other learned professions in the fact that the service to the community is not individualistic like that of the lawyer, the physician, and the minister. The personal service of the teacher cannot be efficient without cooperation, without solidarity, without perfect unity of effort. The very A B C of professional loyalty is mutual confidence and faith in one another.—New York. 3. It is the duty of every teacher to regard every other teacher as a fellow craftsman and as entitled to all the rights, courtesies, and emoluments that usually obtain in other professions with recognized standards.—New Hampshire. 4. The most important obligation of individual teachers toward themselves and coworkers is to be imbued always with the spirit of loyalty. This ideal involves sacrifice for the common good; cheerful 1 Alabama, Delaware, Kentucky, ® New Hampshire, Ohio, and Rhode Island. ] cooperation with one’s colleagues e exclusion from one’s nature of all tendencies to envy eal ousy, rivalry, and distrust V Y | + in many of the codes the ven il oDligations mentioned above are applied to certain specine types of situations. Table 13 shows the extent to which each of these specific standards is in | able l violations reported in In +4. cluded in the thirty-three codes. dicates the number of each type of situation. Assisting in the Formulation and Execu- tion of Policies The teacher should assist in developing and carrying out the policies of the school system. Eighteen of the codes stipulate that teachers have an obligation to aid in the formulation and execution of official school policies. By implication as well as by direct statement ad- ministrators are admonished to give teachers a share in the development of these policies. This does not mean, of course, that the ad- ministrators of a school system should not have final authority in establishing policies, or that teachers have a right to ignore policies of which they do not personally approve. Once a policy has been officially adopted all members of the staff should adhere to it as long as it re- mains in effect. The of three states specify that a teacher should resign if he can codes not accept in good faith the policies adopted.? The following are typical statements of this standard: 1. The superintendent should be recognized as the head and professional leader of the school sys- tem. He in turn should give his teachers an oppor- tunity to collaborate in the solution of the profes- sional problems. When a policy has been deter- mined upon, it should be loyally supported by all teachers.—Georgia. 2. Those who are responsible to the conduct of the school should attempt to acquaint the teacher with the larger purposes of the organi- zation and to furnish him with such assistance and guidance as will enable him to cooperate intelli- gently. The teacher should make a sympathetic effort to understand those purposes and, regardless of personal feeling or private opinion, so long as he continues a part of the organization, faithfully to carry them out. 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A , which only one mind is allowed to think and only ( S¢ hool voice to speak is ethically as well as educa- nally indefensible-—North Carolina. Genuine cooperation presupposes a share in formulation of policies as well as in their execu- tion. Before any radically new program, either for study content or pedagogical methods, is intro- juced, there should be laid before the teachers an early and clear explanation of that program, to- gether with the reasons which have led the super- intendent to propose the innovation; they should be allowed ample opportunity for broad-minded dis- cussion and constructive criticism, given always in the spirit of earnest inquiry for the good of the pupils. When a new program is actually adopted, after such preliminary consideration, all teachers should cooperate loyally in its execution.—Connec- ticut. 4. Effectiveness in school work can be only by concert of Misunderstandings differences of opinion, both between colleagues and inevitable ; obtained action. and between superiors and subordinates, are but these, when arising, posed by frank and straightforward conferences. In these conferences, whether of many, it is entirely proper, and even obligatory, that one should maintain his own convictions with dignity, The right of decision should be promptly com- two or earnestness, and persistency. lies either with the superior or with the majority, as the institutional organization may provide. Ac- ceptance of such decision is a duty, but in no sense demands or supposes opinions. Acceptance should, however, be in good faith and there should be no the conference. The only allowable alternative to ac- ceptance is resignation from office.—Rhode Island. repudiation of one’s own echoes outside TABLE 14.—REPORTED VIOLATIONS OF STANDARDS OF CONDUCT IN RE- LATIONS WITH ASSOCIATES | Frequency Nature of Violations of Mention 1. General improprieties 257 2. Failure to give opportunity for assist- ing in the development of policies 7 3. Failure to assist in carrying out policies of the system..... Lataeaa 111 4. Failure to support associz ites 71 5. Failure to help associates with advice and helpful ideas 31 6. Failure to give credit for: issist: ance ‘and achievements. .. ¢. 53 7. Failure to assist’ associates to secure merited promotion fj 7 8. Interfering in schoolroom affairs of associates... are 26 9. Shifting responsibility to others... 6 10. Failure to hold confidential informa- CU UUIIIE c occ cencccce ; 35 11. Criticism of associates... 504 12. Failure to transact business through proper channels. . 75 13. ae to organize and leave adequ: ate data for successors............ 2 _ 9 ee er 1185 1See Appendix, Table 20, Items 21 and 23. Of those who responded t o the questionnaire of the National Education Association's Com eae on Ethics, 54 percent stated that it is unethical “for school officials not to consult their ‘aie before they make policies.” Fighteen percent stated that this procedure is ethical, Kighty-five percent reported and 26 percent qualified their replies. that it is unethi cal ‘‘to fail to support school policies until they changed even though one does not 1 are with them.” agree Among the violations reported, seven cases were cited in which teachers were not given opportunity to participate in de veloping poli- cies. [he following are typical illustrations: 1. A supervisor handed out a “cut and dried” program of activities for five kindergarten groups within her range of supervision, and rebuked any teacher who varied from it by a “hair’s breadth.” A superintendent refused to cooperate with a principal who desired to conduct an experiment which might result in a change The principal, could and the valuable. The superintendent then issued a or s¢ hool polic y however, went ahead as best he proved bulletin results of his experiment on these results but failed to give oper credit to the 3. In a principal. teachers’ meeting devoted to the subject of salaries, two supervisors took charge and domi- nated the meeting. The that the supervisors wished to adopt their own plan, teachers were quick to see and therefore did not oppose the latter because they feared unpleasant consequences. One hundred eleven cases were cited in which teachers and other staff members failed to assist in carrying out the policies of the sys- tem. The following statements are typical: A teacher objected to turning in reports to the ofice which would assist in keeping propel attend- ance records. 2. Two teachers made no pretense of getting to school at the designated time, fifteen minutes before the students’ tardy bell. 3. A teacher felt no responsibility for conforming to the rules of her building. She constantly violated these rules by being tardy, time, and by by doing clerical work during class visiting the rooms of other teachers during school hours. 4. In a certain the mitted supervisors to visit classrooms without being beforehand. One principal sent a pre- them system official policy per- announced arranged signal to her teachers to inform that the supervisor had arrived and would prob- the the rooms within next few hours. that dismissed ably visit their 5. A teacher, knowing absent from the building, an hour early. principal was her class half 6. A school system adopted a new textbook in history after careful study by a group of history teachers. After the adoption, one of the older teach- ers who had not favored the change discussed it with her pupils in such a way as to make them feel that they were under a handicap in being required to use the new book. Support of Associates The teacher should support his associates in conversation with others both inside and out- side the system, particularly in matters of school discipline. Five of the codes specify that it is a professional duty to uphold and defend one’s co-workers in discussions with other peo- ple. The following statements are typical: 1. It is the duty of the teacher to cooperate with his associates in the work when discussing the schools with outsiders in order that his social in- fluence may at all times contribute a wholesome school sentiment in the community.—Colorado. 2. It is the ethical duty of all educators to strive to maintain the professional dignity, good name, influence, and honor of all within the system by maintaining the authority and dignity of their coworkers before everyone.—Florida. 3. In all matters of right, it is the duty of super- intendents, principals, and teachers to support one another for the best interest of the children in the schools.—Louisiana. This standard does not imply that teachers should feign hearty approval of a fellow-work- er’s actions if the latter is clearly in the wrong. It means, rather, that teachers should be quick to emphasize the good things which others are doing, and particularly to defend their col- leagues against unjust accusations. Of those who answered the questionnaire of the Na- tional Education Association’s Committee on Ethics, 90 percent stated that it is unethical “to fail to defend members of the profession when they are unjustly attacked.” Fifty-six percent reported that they consider it unethical “for school officials to take the side of pupils against teachers,’’ while 39 percent qualified their replies.* Seventy-one cases were reported in which a member of the staff failed to give his associates reasonable support. A few typical statements follow: 1. A superintendent encouraged a principal to be strict in the enforcement of discipline. When a son 1 See Appendix, Table 20, Items 26 and 28. of a member of the Board of Education received the same disciplinary treatment as other pupils, his complaints caused the superintendent and principa| to be called before a meeting of the board. The superintendent failed to uphold the principal unde; these circumstances for fear of unpleasant conse- quences to himself. 2. Two teachers complained that a certain child was causing disturbances regularly. The superin- tendent called the child’s parents to discuss the matter in his office. When asked to state their com- plaint before the parents, the teachers denied that they had any cause for complaint or had requested help. 3. A principal gave children permission to do certain things which their teacher had previous) ruled against. When told by a pupil about the teacher’s ruling, the principal replied, “I am the principal and I tell you that you can.” 4. A principal gave a teacher permission to pun ish a certain child, and then refused to back the teacher in the face of the child's angry parents. Shifting Responsibility The teacher should accept full responsibilit, for things which he says and does. This impor- tant standard is mentioned specifically in onl; one code, that of Louisiana: No teacher is ever justified in shifting respon- sibility to another that should be borne by him- self.—Louisiana. The following statements are typical of the violations reported : 1. An irate parent called on a teacher to demand why her child had not been promoted. The teacher sought to quiet the parent by stating that she would have promoted the child but that the Research Department forbade it because of the child’s low rating on achievement tests. 2. A certain principal frequently made remarks of this kind to his teachers: “The superintendent wants this done. I don’t agree, but I’m not the boss”; or “You had better get this done. The super- intendent will be here tomorrow.” Giving Constructive Advice and Help- ful Ideas The teacher should aid hi? associates by giv- ing constructive advice and helpful ideas. Sev- enteen of the codes stipulate that teachers have an obligation to assist their colleagues with ad- vice and counsel, and to share with them help- ful ideas and methods.” Six codes state that the teacher is entitled occasionally to statements of his professional record, whether it be favor- 8 See “Helping the New Teacher,” Ohio Schools, 8: 5; January, 1930. [48] able or istrator: 3 opinion sion il V deficien I = nate ea stateme { 1. Te Sone anc advice | can per S their w © carded ' tion, be cepted.— 2. WI may ha by grot By visors | should sion an desire t $. It to mak nesses ( the sup 4. Ea a state favorat request: 5. A serve should followi recomn and all he shot work a he shor ers or Ap sion ¢ Ethics Expe cian to Conseq and gr ices to vicinit physici } Th report 1A { discipl problei sown See n Dai ende ro neatly — Je or unfavorable.’ Four specify that admin- ‘+rators and supervisors should express an nion upon work observed after each profes- | visit, pointing out excellencies as well as leficiencies, and recommending ways to elimi- nate each fault pointed out.* The following statements are illustrative: 1. Teachers should at all times be ready to assist ne another by giving information, counsel and advice and by such services and acts as teachers can perform without detriment to themselves or their work. Such reasonable service should be re- garded as a professional duty for which remunera- tion, beyond actual cepted.—New Hampshire. 2. Whatever mav have been perfected by an individual teacher, expenses, should not be ac- ideas, methods, plans, or devices by groups of teachers or by teachers and super- visors jointly, within any one system of schools, should always be regarded as open to the profes- sion and should be freely available to all who may lesire to secure them.—New Jersey. 3. It is the duty of principals and supervisors to make every effort to correct faults nesses of teachers before reporting their faults to and weak- the superintendent.—Colorado. 4. Each teacher is entitled from time to time to a statement of his professional whether favorable or unfavorable, and may properly make record, requests for such statement.—Pennsylvania. 5. A supervisor of classroom work should ob- serve the should express an opinion upon the work observed following ethical principles: (a) he following each professional visit; (b) he should recommend ways to remove every fault pointed out ind allow reasonable time for improvement; (c) he should not hesitate to point out excellence in the work as well as points needing improvement; (d) he should not criticize a teacher before other teach- ers or pupils—Oklahoma. A parallel standard for the medical profes- sion appears in the Principles of Medical Ethics: Experience teaches that it is unwise for a physi- cian to treat members of his own family or himself. Consequently, a physician should always cheerfully and gratuitously respond with his professional serv- ices to the call of any physician practicing in his vicinity, or of the immediate family dependents of physicians.* Thirty-one violations of this standard were reported by teachers. A few examples follow: 1. A supervisor was asked for help concerning disciplinary problems. She replied, “That is your problem; work it out as best you can.” 1 Delaware, Louisiana, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, 2. A superintendent made no comment on a teacher's work until the end of the vear, and then told her that it wasn’t good enough and that he couldn’t recommend her for another year ‘ 3. A supervisor entered a classroom, observed a lesson, and then left without saving a word to the teacher. 4. A principal in criticizing his teachers always noted their faults but never mentioned the good things they did. The result was that the teachers considered him a “bear.” Credit Due for Achievements and for Assistance Received The teat her should Jive due credit t sociates for their achievements and for assist ance received from them. Four of the codes specify that due credit should be given for as sistance received and for achievements accom ] | I plished. The following are typical statements of this standard: 1. If should share it; those who use it should give credit a teacher originates an efficient method, he to the initiator.—Connecticut 2. Between teachers and executives there should always be found the confidence which arises out of a complete understanding and the mutual attitude of being co-workers in a great cause. Each should maintain a Each impossible, in the fullest sense, without the corres New Jersey justifiable pride in the work of the other. success 18 should feel that his or her ponding success of the other Of the 53 violations of this standard re ported, the following are typical: i. A teacher obtained suggestions and and superior officers as her own ideas > plans from another teacher, then presented them to her The head of a department presented as his own work a course of study which had been pre pared entirely by one of his teachers 3. A superintendent published over his own sig nature some reading material prepared by his pri- mary teachers. He failed to acknowledge the source of this material. 4. A mimeographed pages to several hundred supervisor distributed a illetin of 30 teachers. Che material had been copied from a recently pub- lished book, but no credit was given to the author. Assisting Associates To Secure Promo- tions Whenever possible the teacher should assist his fellow-workers to obtain merited promo tion. Eleven of the codes stipulate that teach- and South Dakota. 2 Massachusetts, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, and South Dakota ; 8 American Medical Association. Op. cit. Chapter II, Article II, Section I. [ 49 ] ers should help their associates to secure merited advancement in the profession. Below are some typical statements of this standard: 1. School officials should encourage and carefully nurture the professional growth of worthy teachers by recommending promotion either in their own school or in other schools. For school officials to fail to recommend a worthy teacher for another posi- tion because they do not desire to lose his services is unethical—National Education Association. *. 2. It is ethical that any member of a school sys- tem shall use his influence or authority to secure for another member of that system a deserved promotion.—Florida. 3. The securing of harmony and sympathy is peculiarly promoted by fairness on both sides in the matter of promotions. It is by no means undesir- able in a teacher to look forward to promotion and even by legitimate means to seek it. When oppor- tunity offers, teachers will naturally and rightly choose service with a town or institution which is liberal and helpful in the matter of securing better positions.—Rhode Island. Of those responding to the questionnaire of the National Education Association’s Commit- tee on Ethics, 96 percent stated that it is un- ethical “for a school official to fail to recom- mend one of his teachers for a position in an- other community because he does not want to lose her services.” + Among the violations of this standard re- ported are the following: 1. A superintendent wrote a recommendation for a supervisor who was doing excellent work and whose character was above reproach. He com- mented favorably upon her work, but added, “I do not think she is the type of person you want on your faculty.” The supervisor remained in her old position. 2. A superintendent refused to recommend a good teacher because the latter had already signed his contract for the next year. This happened be- fore school closed in June. 3. A superintendent neglected to answer inquiries from another school system concerning a teacher whom he had rated very highly. Interfering in Another’s Affairs The teacher should refrain from interfering in any way, unless his official position war- rants it, in the schoolroom affairs of an asso- ciate. Four codes specifically warn the teacher against intruding upon the professional affairs of his colleagues. The following statement is typical : 1 See dix. Table 20, Item 6. 2 See Appendix, Table 20, Items 25 and 27. A teacher should not interfere between anot! teacher and a pupil in matters such as discip|i or marking.—National Education Association Ninety-one percent of those returning the questionnaire of the National Education Asso ciation’s Committee on Ethics agreed that it js unethical “for one teacher to mark the work of a pupil in another teacher’s class or to inte: fere in disciplinary or other problems,” and $2 percent reported that it is unethical “for schoo! officials to change pupils’ marks.” * Twenty-six violations of this standard were reported of which the following are typical : 1. A teacher quizzed children regularly as what was happening in the room to which they had just been promoted. 2. One classroom teacher peremptorily told a new teacher what duties the latter should perform although the principal had already explained thes: duties to the newcomer. 3. After school hours one high-school teacher assisted pupils from another teacher’s class in algebra. This placed the regular algebra teacher in an unfavorable light before the pupils. 4. A teacher failed to promote a certain child Other teachers in the building openly expressed the opinion that he should have been promoted. 5. A principal asked a teacher to raise a mark given to a pupil from an influential family, even though the pupil did not deserve the higher mark. 6. One teacher sympathized with pupils whom an- other teacher was trying to discipline. Confidential Information The teacher should hold inviolate confiden- tial information concerning his associates. Nine codes state that it is unprofessional for a teacher to disclose confidential information re- garding a fellow worker. The following are typical statements of this standard: 1. Confidential correspondence or conversations among teachers and school officers should not be violated either during the time of official relation- ship, or at any time. The very nature of the work of teaching and administering schools gives rise to many difficult end delicate situations which must be handled in a confidential manner.—New Jersey. 2. Those in authority are, in turn, duty bound to withhold from the public information and opinions as to the personal qualities or the per- sonal attainments of teachers so long as they are under contract.—Louisiana. 3. Information given to a superintendent or other school official by a teachers’ agency in confidence should be held in strict confidence, and under no circumstance be divulged to the candidate.—Penn sylvania. [ 50] A tel i ant eH TAI te O of th mitt unet! ence Tl repo! follo BA matte cipal 9 denti: positi teach job. a of ed was passe by th 4. schoo frien meeti anno! £, certa supe! T ing | teacl most fessi since prov defir hanc casu: to ul ages tion. V the | welc cond ates. cour: & @o@ewere i Of those who replied to the questionnaire § the National Education Association’s Com- mittee on Ethics, 95 percent agreed that it is unethical “to violate confidential correspond- ence or conversation among teachers.”’ Thirty-five violations of this standard were A few statements reported. representative follow 3 1. At a bridge party a teacher openly discussed matters relating to the recent discharge of a prin- cipal from the system. 2. Supervisors and principals gave out confi- dential information about applicants for teaching positions. Occasionally this occurred even after the teacher had been employed and had arrived on the job. 3. A principal had a personal friend on the board of education. At a board meeting a certain teacher was discussed and criticized. This discussion was passed by the board member to the principal, and by the latter to the teacher in question. 4. A superintendent’s wife was teaching in his school system. The wife knew and reported to her friends everything that happened in school board meetings these announced by the board. before happenings were officially 5. A superintendent carried back to two teachers certain remarks made to him in confidence by the supervisor. Criticism of Associates The teacher should carefully avoid gossip- ing about or criticizing adversely his fellow- teachers. Criticism of associates is one of the most complex problems in the field of pro- fessional conduct. Honesty, frankness, and a sincere desire to help an individual or to im- prove a particular situation sometimes require definite criticism of an associate. On the other hand, adverse criticism of a teacher either in casual gossip or with malicious purpose tends to undermine that teacher’s usefulness, encour- ages disloyalty, and thwarts genuine co-opera- tion, While four codes definitely stipulate that the progressive teacher should seek, expect, and welcome constructive criticism,” 25 specifically condemn the adverse criticism of one’s associ- ates. Four codes condemn the inciting or en- couraging of conspiracies against superiors; ‘ 1See Appendix, Table 20, Item 24. 2 Alabama, Connecticut, Delaware, and Wyoming. 8 New Jersey, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Rhode Island 4 Colorado, Georgia, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Ma New Jersey, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Dakota 5 See p. 59-60. Wye 17 condemn criticism of one’s predecessor ot of the teacher of a previous grade;* and 11 specify that it is a professional duty to report to the proper authorities corrupt or dishonor able practices known to exist.® The following statements illustrate the vari ous phases of this standard: 1. Constructive criticism should be eagerly sought and gratefully accepted; and he who thus seeks and accepts it is a truly great teache: . . Unjust or indiscriminate criticism of co-workers should be avoided No criticism should be made in_ the presence of children, fellow-teachers, or patrons Criticism should never be destructive in its el should it ever include pet ments; nor sonal feelings Refraining from criticism is perhaps the most difh cult requirement of a professional attitude. It is the little strokes that fell great trees. Since criticism is the reverse of cooperation, its use is justifiable only as a constructive agent and under constructive conditions. Professional criticism is a two-edged sword to be drawn only in the cause of child wel fare and only in formal accusation before those whose delegated right it is to try the case on its merits.—Connecticut. 2. Bad opinion of the members of the board of education, of a superintendent, or other superior school official no matter what the reason for such opinion, can never justify a teacher or other inferior official, in public expression of such opinions as long Ady erse a teacher employed as such official relationship exists criticism of a predecessor or of the a lower grade, is unethical, in particularly of a_ teacher of should indulged in by those who are mindful and regard- same _ system, and not be ful of the dignity of teaching. Such criticism, if made, should be made only with the intent of serving some good end.—Mississippi 3. It is unprofessional for a teacher to offer destructive criticism to the administration, to other teachers, or to patrons about a fellow teacher or about the management of the school in general. All criticism should be constructive in character and voiced to the proper authority and only for the purpose of remedying an existing evil. Therefore, it becomes equally unprofessional not to report to matters that involve the best the administration interests and well-being of the school.—Missouri 4. As long as one remains a member of a school organization, loyalty to the interests of the school and community demands the entire suppression of irresponsible criticism of the institution, its policies, and its officers. Especially to be avoided and con demned are inciting and encouraging or tolerating t officers antagonisms among pupils towar¢ yr poli- cies and indulgence in outside criticism, ill-natured Michigan, Mississippi, Montana, New Hampshire, nd the National Education A [51] gossip, and backbiting. Above all, no teacher worthy of the name will engage in organized conspiracy against his superiors. . . . While one cannot always approve of one’s colleagues (or for that mat- ter of superiors either), the only correct profes- sional attitude toward them is genuine (not hypo- critical) reticence, and absence from expressions of disapproval or ill-will—Rhode Island. From the large numbers of similar state- ments in the 25 codes which treat this problem specifically, it is clear that certain principles regarding criticism of associates have received general approval: (1) Teachers should wel- come constructive criticism from their fellow- workers; (2) all criticisms should be definite and constructive; (3) all criticisms should be given directly and privately to the individual involved; and (4) in exceptional cases, when the circumstances are serious enough to war- rant such action, the criticisms and the facts upon which they are based should be reported fearlessly to the proper authorities, with the expectation that the person criticized will be given an opportunity to explain his conduct. In both medicine and law the criticism of professional associates has been recognized as an acute problem meriting definite proscrip- tion in the official standards. The following quotations are illustrative: 1. The physician, in his intercourse with a patient under the care of another physician, should observe the strictest caution and reserve; should give no disingenuous hints relative to the nature and treatment of the patient’s disorder, nor should the course of conduct of the physician, directly or indirectly, tend to diminish the trust reposed in the attending physician. In embarrassing situations, or wherever there may seem to be a possibility of a misunderstanding with a colleague, the physician should always seek a personal interview with his fellow." 2. When a physician does succeed another phy- sician in the charge of a case, he should not make comments on or insinuations regarding the prac- tice of the one who preceded him. Such comments or insinuations tend to lower the esteem of the patient for the medical profession and so react against the critic.” 3. It is the duty of the lawyer to maintain to- wards the courts a respectful attitude, not for the sake of the temporary incumbent of the judicial office, but for the maintenance of its supreme im- 2 Ibid. Section 4. portance. Judges, not being wholly free to defend themselves, are peculiarly entitled to receive the support of the Bar against unjust criticism and clamor. Whenever there is proper ground fo; serious complaint of a judicial officer, it is the right and duty of the lawyer to submit his griey ances to the proper authorities. In such cases, but not otherwise, such charges should be encouraged and the person making them should be protected.’ 4. In the trial of a case it is indecent to allude to the personal history or the personal peculiarities and idiosyncrasies of counsel on the other side.* 5. He (the judge) should utilize his opportuni- ties to criticise and correct unprofessional conduct of attorneys and counsellors, brought to his atten- tion; and, if adverse comment is not a sufficient corrective, should send the matter at once to the proper investigating and disciplinary authorities.° The unusual importance of this particular standard in the minds of teachers is shown by the fact that 504 or about 30 percent of the 1627 violations reported in this study were criticisms of professional associates. Table 15 presents a detailed frequency distribution of these 504 violations according to several spe- cific types of situations. A few typical ex- amples are given below: 1. A supervisor gave a certain teacher helpful suggestions as to how tc improve her work. The teacher resented these suggestions because she TABLE 15.—SPECIFIC TYPES OF VIO- LATIONS CLASSIFIED AS CRITICISM OF ASSOCIATES Frequency Nature of Violations of Mention ' 1, Teacher resented criticism............ 2 2. Teacher criticised fellow teacher: S. To other teachers............... 5 b. To or before pupils............... 39 I das cintvectdvdecse 22 *, Saar 16 @, Bememeiee cheese... ............... 25 3. Teacher allowed pupils to criticise Ls ann sao eae heb oe vies 13 4. Teacher criticized superiors.......... 76 5. Teacher criticized predecessors........ 29 6. Principal criticized teachers.......... 111 7. Principal criticized other principals... . 8 8. Principal criticized superiors.......... 27 9. Supervisor criticized teachers, prin- cipals, other supervisors, and superin- ee re 62 10. Superintendent criticized teachers, principals, other superintendents and " | Se rere 40 11.’ Organized conspiracy against superiors. 9 12._ Miscellaneous cases of criticism. ...... 20 in 6 oii ho 6k Bde enemann 504 1 American Medical Association. Op. cit., Chapter II, Article IV, Section 1. 8 American Bar Association. Canons of Professional Ethics, No. 1. 4 Ibid, No. 17. 6 American Bar Association. Canons of Judicial Ethics. No. 11. [ $2] thought made 2. Fil teacher teacher work d with he 3. A statem¢ giving fend h 4,.A ference out bei tion Cc teacher 5. O who h year. | lower not so teache methoc She s: teache the lat was 8 trouble 6. T an un entere depart charge head 1 i A ties of much funda ceding not on comin; ers fo a3 the su work | the ot loafing attenti pointi: Tran Th busin the cr dle al lished avoid Teache thought her work was already satisfactory, and nade a personal issue of the 2. An art supervisor, upon finding ichers in an upper grade room, said to the new teacher, “Now that you are here, we shall get some work done.” The new teacher was well acquainted matter. a change of with her predecessor. 3, A teacher told a class of pupils that certain statements made by another false, giving the latter no opportunity to explain or de- fend her statements. 4. A teacher came to the principal’s office for acon- ference, and during the discussion she related, with- out being asked to do so, some unpleasant informa- tion concerning the affairs of another teacher in the school. 5. One day a teacher met the mother of a pupil who had been in the teacher’s class the preceding year. The mother stated that her child’s marks were lower than the year before, and that the child was not so happy as she had been under her former teacher. In reply the teacher openly discussed the methods employed by the child’s present teacher. She said that she was surprised at the present teacher’s attitude, that she would not think of using the latter’s methods, and that the child in question was so sweet that no teacher should have any trouble with her. 6. The head of an English department, hearing an unusual noise as she was passing a classroom, teacher were domestic entered and expressed her disapproval. When the lepartment head had left the room, the teacher in charge remarked to the class that the department “ head was always “snooping around 7. A fourth grade teacher, discussing the difficul- ties of one of her pupils with the parent, attributed much of the child’s trouble to faulty teaching in fundamentals by another teacher during the pre- ceding year. 8. A superintendent of schools called in members of his high-school teaching staff and pointed out not only their own weaknesses, but also the short- comings of their principal. He also asked the teach- ers for additional criticism of the principal. 9. The principal of a certain school was lax in the supervision of teachers, leaving much of this work to the assistant principal. One teacher incited the others to take advantage of the situation by loafing on the job. She urged the others to pay no attention to the advice of the assistant principal, pointing out that the latter had no real authority. Transaction of Business through Prop- er Channels The teacher should official business through the proper channels. Nine of the codes specify that the teacher should han- dle all business matters according to the estab- lished procedure of the system, and should avoid even the appearance of going over the transact all : 1 Olsen, Hans C. The Work of Boards of Education. Teachers College, Columbia University, 1926. when official exceptional circumstances heads of his superiors, except require the latter action. The following statements are typical : administrators should ob- 1. Both serve professional courtesy by teachers and transacting ofhcial business with the properly designated person next in rank.—National Education Association 2. To giving directions or instructions to a avoid confusion or misunderstanding in subordinate other than an immediate subordinate, a superior officer should transmit such directions or instruc- tions through all intermediary subordinates in due order, or with their knowledge.—Rhode Island 3. Teachers should not make special requests to individual members of the school board. If an un- should but this should usual or extraordinary condition arise, a teacher may go direct to the board be done with full knowledge of the superintendent or principal The practice of teachers going direct to the board with complaints, or for favors, should be condemned as opposed to a professional spirit and as counter to principles of successful organiza Mississippi 4. If a grievance arises, or if ther¢ tion and management is a question work, it of salary, promotion, or assignment of should be submitted to the immediate executives Failing to obtain satisfaction, teachers may then appeal the case until the highest authority is reached.—New Jersey. 5. A teachers’ association should confer with the superintendent, by committee, on all questions in- volving the relation of teachers and superintend ents, before submitting them to the school board or the public—South Dakota. Although school organizations difter some different I what in communities, the teacher will usually do well to transact het > hool business with the following general principles in mind: 1. The elected board of education is appointed as the legal representative of the people to see that the schools are properly administered. Ordinarily it should not attempt members of delegate this to deal directly with subordinate the school function to a system, but should chief (superintendent) appointed by administrative officer held re- maintaining efi 2. The superintendent is usually sponsible by the board for harmonious relations within the this except in cient and system, and for reason his subordinates should not, very unusual circum stances, attempt to deal with the school board except through the superintendent himself. official super! TS should transact all their 3. Teachers business through immediate Contributi [ 53] a F except when special conditions warrant a different procedure. Persons of higher rank than teachers should administer their policies through those who are next below them in rank. Where lines of responsibility between individuals are indefinite or entirely lacking, ordinary courtesy and a cooperative attitude are the best guides to proper conduct. Of those who replied to the questionnaire of the National Education Association’s Com- mittee on Ethics, 71 percent stated that it is unethical for a teacher “to go over the head of one’s superiors” in transacting the business of the schools.* Seventy-five violations of this standard were reported. The examples which follow are typical: 1. A teacher went to the superintendent with her schoolroom troubles without saying a word to her principal. 2. A teacher in a city system wished to be trans- ferred from one building to another. Instead of consulting the principal of her building, she took the matter up with the supervisor of instruction. 3. A teacher tried to secure a position in a cer- tain school system by direct appeal to members of the school board, in spite of the known opposition of the superintendent. 4. A coach annually created a community con- troversy over his salary. He went directly to the board of education over the superintendent to nego- tiate his contract. 5. A principal always went directly to members of the school board in regard to matters of school 1See Appendix, Table 20, Item 22. organization, without first consulting her superi: tendent. 6. A supervisor visited the teachers of a certain building without informing the principal that sh was in the building. Organizing Data for Successor The teacher leaving a position should organize and leave for his successor such re ords and other information as will be needed in beginning the next year’s work. Five codes specify that no teacher should retire from a position without leaving adequate records fo: the use of his successor. The following stat: ments illustrate this standard: 1. On leaving a position a teacher should tak: every precaution not to injure in any way the school. Care should also be exercised to leave in writing all information that would be of servic to his successor.—Georgia. 2. Teachers retiring from positions should leave on file such records and reports for the guidance of successors as they themselves would like to receiv: on entering upon the duties of similar positions.— New Jersey. The following violations of this standard were reported : 1. A teacher left at the end of the school yea: without filing certain records which were required of all teachers. 2. A superintendent who had been discharged destroyed valuable records in the office in order to embarrass his successor. [ 54] MMe respol their group stand: W hick becau Th specif show! repor show! T/ in th codes a gel Apol« it, fa using vocat lowir md convi ate il callin shoul: parag 4 digni a stef . the i long and { siasti profe 4. make ter f tain; ing | His 1 Sout) Fi the CHAPTER VII Standards of Conduct in Relation to the Profession \Iembers of every profession have certain responsibilities which they carry by virtue of their that roup. This chapter presents some of the ae nae , membership in particular social standards of conduct suggested by the codes which teachers are under obligation to observe because they are members of the profession. The extent to which these standards are specifically mentioned in the codes analyzed is shown in Table 16. The number of violations reported in connection with each standard is shown in Table 17. Pride in the Profession The teacher should manifest genuine pride Fourteen of the codes stipulate that the teacher should have a genuine personal pride in the _ profession. Apologizing for it, speaking disparagingly of it, failing to prepare adequately for it, and using it merely as a stepping stone to other vocations are definitely proscribed. The fol- lowing statements are typical: in the teaching profession. 1. All members of the profession should feel convinced that the work of the educator is coordin- ate in rank and dignity with every other human calling and branch of human service. They should have enthusiasm for it and never speak dis- paragingly of it, in or out of the system.—Florida. 2. All teachers should feel deeply the worth and dignity of their calling and not regard it as merely a stepping stone to other vocations.—Ohio. 3. A teacher should prepare for his work with the intention of remaining in the vocation for a long enough period to justify thorough preparation, and to insure that sincere, painstaking, and enthu- siastic type of work profession.—Loutsiana. which characterizes a _ real 4. If one has no interest in teaching except to make money to do something else, it would be bet- ter for him to seek some other employment. Cer- tainly while he is teaching he should not be spend- ing his time in preparation for some other calling. His work should receive his undivided attention.— South Carolina. Forty-four percent of those who replied to the questionnaire of the National Education 1 See Appendix, Table 20, Item 33. 2 Ibid., Item 32. \ssociation’s Committee on Ethics reported that it is unethical “to critici the profes sion” ; 23 percent reported that it is ethical and 30 percent qualified their replies.' Forty three percent reported that it is not ethical “to use the profession as a stepping-stone to other professions or vocations’ ; 2+ percent re plied that this is ethical and 30 percent quali fied their replies.” Of the five violations of this s tandard re ported these are representative: 1. Miss X openly stated that she did not like he: work and that she was teaching only for the salary. , 2. A teacher was ashamed of her profession when speaking to her friends. 3. A teacher did not want to be recognized as a teacher when outside of the school Standards of Entrance The teacher should Support, assist in pro teachers and raising, the standards of entrance to the that should uphold, and cooperate in improving the fession. Seventeen codes specify requirements for admission to the profession. The following statements are typical: 1. The teacher should uphold professional stand ards by making the best initial preparation pos- sible for his own work and by assisting to secure such legislation and such local regulations as will render it impossible for a community to place the children under the tuition of unqualified teachers.— Colorado. 2. It is incumbent upon all classroom teachers to secure full standard professional training, and upon all school supervisors and administrators to specialized courses to fit them pursue advanced selves better for their positions.—Louisiana 3. Nor will I disgrace it (the teaching profession) by seeking a position for which I am not scholasti- cally and professionally prepared.—Utah. 4. Teachers should not try to circumvent the cer- tification provisions in our state laws.— South Dakota. 5. Teachers should encourage only those of high quality to become recruits to the profession and should support every movement toward the eleva- tion of its standards and efficiency.—O/zio. er = 3 2 co's ao” jo 2 a So 8 BEvs a » ~~ Oo ” a ef °.. ape Pesxr dS 2 2 2. Se < md off ge feof ae fe efesfeosd oe [ef Se ee bee] blak. Vaabes 4 ae |X |x Po X/X/x] * x x x 3SIx2 07 UMoUy S901 eid ®1qes0u0YsIp . | | pue idns109 SeMuoyine sadoid 947 03 q0daz oL Bay 2 tee: 3 a tee Le xX |X a hed be od ed XPX EXP Px [xP py 2k Sed ae Se ercios [euOIs901d jo aar8ap yary | | ™ | | 40} Aressa.ou SUONIPUoD jeLazeUr 40} 410M oF * cll [xl x ela | [xe [3 [3 Fe Tae he x|x xxx] x) lle lahee x |x} x suon al bos in | | | -PB1D0sse TPUOTSsajord YQ 1M Apanoe eye of; - oe eeehes ess > a ae Xix x }°: x a PES Pate > 2 ieee Oh Cees ae > a ae xfer: ENT i Eos oscaeccapnense en 8821301d [euowsajoid | JO SULI03 [Te spremo} Puru uado ue urejurem oy of ;X|/xXixix x |x Hh Oe X/X/X/|x/x X/X}lxlx X/X/X/x X/X/""lxIlx x/|xX Tre sold 243 Buaqua saxze Buy ~“4oP9} 10; yuaMIdInba Teuoneonpa sry uepeoiq oy - “eel ge “hy ly es ily “Ix ly ees Tx]. x X/]xI]r°-]---]-. XIlx X/xI]x/--: WOISS9}0I0 3) 07 aoueZUD on | fel Ul 7SIsse pue woddns oy - 2 lores]. x x Xfix}xl x XX tx fry el ree x}: why ol Md Dd bs ES errrernv uorssajord ww Suryoea ay} Ul aplid jeuogiad ev woyueur oF -] qT UM HEH UMS EBERTIGAHECRRATE I ee si eBiSalier| gs 2/2 misis 8 sis sialr ~ i BIEIB eR Fee iais | | oe e\e|/e/2/2/8 “|S8/Fl als ‘ 2/5/5/ & ° =/Fls elel|e2 g. } 5 E Ey § |e/s | EIR Eg B e/R/ SE /F/E/B le g a/e/ Sprepurg ; | (s/s Ble Fl Sig} jEl o/s . | g£ oe Shed he z = a ® | NOISSa4a0ud 4HL OL NOILV1a4 NI Lona “NOD 4O SCYVaNVLS SNOIYVA AdIDads HOIHM SOIHLA 40 SAq090—91 aTav1 samc AINE i 0 a 17—REPORTED VIOLATIONS TABLE OF STANDARDS OF CONDUCT IN RE- LATION TO THE PROFESSION Frequency Nature of Violations of Mention 1. Lack of pride in the profession 5 2. Failure to support and assist in raising standards of entrance 1 3. Failure to be a progressive student of education. . sit ah 6 4. Failure to affiliate actively with pro- fessional organizations 8 5. Failure to work for material conditions necessary for a high degree of profes- sional service....... ‘ 3 Total Number ‘ 23 The corresponding statements for physicians and lawyers are as follows: The obligation assumed on entering the profes- sion requires the physician . . . to exalt its standards and to extend its useful- ness . . . It is unprofessional for a physician sphere of to assist unqualified persons to evade legal restric- tions governing the practice of medicine .. . Every physician should aid in safeguarding the profession against the admission to its ranks of those who are unfit or unqualified because deficient in either moral character or education.’ The lawyer should aid in guarding the Bar against the admission to the profession of candi- dates unfit or unqualified because deficient in either moral character or education. He should strive at all times to uphold the honor and to maintain the dignity of the profession and to improve not only the law but the administration of justice.’ Seventy-eight percent of those who replied to the questionnaire of the National Education Association’s Committee on Ethics reported that it is unethical ‘‘to fail to encourage the fit to enter and to discourage the unfit from enter- ing the profession.” ® The only violation of this standard reported was: A teacher accepted a position to teach subjects which she was unprepared to teach. Growth in Service The teacher should be a progressive student of education. Thirty of the codes stipulate that the teacher should increase his educational 1 American Medical Association. Op. cit., Chapter II, Article I, 2 American Bar Association. Canons of Professional Ethics, 3 See Appendix, Table 20, Item 31. equipment after entering the service, and nine specity that he should maintain an open mind toward all forms of professional | ess. ‘Uhe various means suggested for accomplishing these standards are summer school and exten sion courses, reading professio magazines and books, travel, visiting classes, attending institutes and teachers’ meetings and serving on committees. The following statements are typical : 1. The teacher should maintain his efficiency and teaching skill by study and by contact with local, state, and national associations.—National Educa tion Association. 2. All teachers should be subscribers to at least journal of recognized worth, books on each year one professional should read a few of the most important including those education, appearing should visit classes of other teachers, should attend teachers’ meetings as often as is practicable and should enroll in summer or extension courses in normal schools, colleges or universities —Nex Jersey. 3. Every member of the profession should be a progressive student of education. To this end, he should be a thoughtful reader of educational litera ture, should attend and participate in educational meetings, should engage in such experimentation and collection of data as will test the value of edu cational theories and aid in the establishment of a scientific basis for educational practice, and should be willing to give to his fellow members the benefit of his professional knowledge and experience Pennsylvania. 4. In the interest of professional growth, he (the teacher) should maintain a friendly attitude toward change.—North Carolina. The Michigan code suggests that the board of education should stimulate and encourage the professional growth of teachers while in service by granting them permission to attend educational meetings without loss of pay, al- lowing visiting days, and encouraging them to attend summer to travel, and in other ways to improve their knowledge and skill in teaching. Physicians are likewise advised to school, avoid stagnation: A physician should not base his practice on an exclusive dogma or sectarian system, for “sects are implacable despots; to accept their thraldom is to take away all from one’s action and thought.” * liberty Sections 1, 6 and Ne 29 * American Medical Association. Op. cit., Chapter II, Article I, Section 1 [57] > omeses, Se — eee 66 Meroe pe Pha is — Eighty-eight percent of those who replied to the questionnaire of the National Education Association’s Committee on Ethics reported that it is unethical ‘‘to fail to be a progressive student of education.” * Of the six violations of this standard re- ported, the following are typical: 1. An older teacher consistently belittled exten- sion work and other means of growth before en- thusiastic beginning teachers. 2. A teacher showed a general let-down as soon as she was safely established under the state tenure law. 3. A teacher habitually assumed an adverse atti- tude toward any suggested new activity or pro- cedure. Affiliation with Professional Associa- tions The teacher should cooperate actively with local, state, and national professional organiza- tions. Twenty-six of the codes stipulate that the teacher should affiliate with and participate actively in the programs of professional or- ganizations. Three specify no definite organ- izations ; * two specify membership in the state association ; * one specifies membership in state and local associations; * two specify member- ship in the state and local associations and add, “and the national, if possible”’;° while two specify the state and national associations ;* and 16 specify the local, state, and national associations.’ The following statements are typical: 1. The teacher should cooperate actively with local, state and national associations, should know their plans and help by active membership in mak- ing better plans and contribute purposefully to their fulfillment.—Alabama. 2. It is the ethical duty of the educator to be- come an active member of at least the state and local education associations.—Florida. 3. It is unethical to accept benefits while with- holding support from organizations which secure 1See Appendix, Table 20, Item 30. 2 Delaware, Michigan, and New Hampshire. 8 Mississippi and Oregon. * Florida. 5 South Carolina and South Dakota. * Missouri and Oklahoma. and maintain them. Consequently a teacher should give active support to the local association, to th State Federation and to the National Education As sociation.— Massachusetts. 4. Every teacher should be a member of th South Dakota Education Association and, if pos sible, the National Education Association.—Sout/ Dakota. The Principles of Medical Ethics contain the following specifications: In order that the dignity and honor of the medi- cal profession may be upheld, its standards exalted, its sphere of usefulness extended, and the advance- ment of medical science promoted, a_ physician should associate himself with medical societies and contribute his time, energy, and means in order that these societies may represent the ideals of the pro- fession.® Seven violations of this standard were re- ported of which the following are typical: 1. A teacher refused to join the state education association because he was from outside the state and expected to remain for only one year. 2. A teacher refused to join local, state, and na tional organizations of the profession. Improving Economic and Social Conditions The teacher should work actively for such economic and social conditions as will permit the profession to render the best possible serv- ice. Eighteen of the codes mention the responsi- bility of the teacher to work for the conditions which are necessary to secure a high type of professional service. The specific conditions stipulated vary in the different states. “wo codes advise teachers to refrain from accepting a position in communities “where conditions are such that no ambitious or self-respecting teacher could hope to succeed”’;® three specify tenure of position; *° one mentions “provision for teachers who have given many years of faithful service to the state’’;*? three specify 7 National Education Association, Alabama, Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia, Idaho, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Ohio, Texas, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. ® American Medical Association. Op. cit., Chapter II, Article I, Section 2. ® Mississippi and New Jersey. 2 Florida, Idaho, and Kansas. 1 Florida, [ 58] aie aoe 4 A “| e] a “equal s of equi cess” demand keeping cess. * 1. Sho in a cor that tea such sitt son can such po any can thoroug! garded 2. Eth teachers being tl plan fc Florida. 3. Te for sal comfort study, | retirem 4, Ev profess: membe! keeping of the i rience, tion to grade, unprof in tern to teac living The and |; It is his se sible t which physic menta' sician, In which well a Fo quest ciatio equal salaries for equal service to all teachers of equivalent training, experience, and suc- ess’; and 14 stipulate that teachers should jemand a “just and worthy compensation in keeping with training, experience, and suc- cess.” 2? The following statements are typical: 1. Should a condition so unethical exist in a community, or within a board of education, that teachers are forced out of their positions and such situations created that no self-respecting per- son can subscribe to the conditions maintained, such position should be left absolutely open, and any candidacy for the position on the part of those thoroughly advised of the conditions should be re- garded as unprofessional—New Jersey. 2. Ethical practice looks securing for teachers, tenure of position during efficiency, this being the condition under which a teacher can best plan for a life of Florida. 3. Teachers should expect and work collectively for salaries sufficient to enable them to live in comfort and security, improve themselves by travel, study, and meeting, and provide for the year of retirement.—Ohio. 4. Every member of this profession and the professional organizations should demand for its members a just and worthy compensation in keeping with the training, experience, and success of the individual members. For equal training, expe- rience, and ability there should be equal remunera- tion to all teachers, whether they teachin elementary grade, junior or senior high schools. While it is unprofessional for the teacher to measure his work in terms of financial rewards, it is unprofessional to teach for a wage that is insufficient to cover living expenses for twelve months.—Oklahoma. ever toward development and service.— The corresponding statements for physicians and lawyers are as follows: It is unprofessional for a physician to dispose of his services under conditions that make it impos- sible to render adequate service to his patient or which interfere with reasonable competition among physicians of a community. "To do this is detri- mental to the public and to the individual phy- sician, and lowers the dignity of the profession.* In fixing fees, lawyers should avoid charges which overestimate their advice and services, as well as those which undervalue them.‘ Forty-five percent of those who returned the questionnaire of the National Education Asso- ciation’s Committee on Ethics reported that it ? Florida, Missouri, and Oklahoma. 2 National Education Association, Connecticut, Delaware, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, and Texas * American Medical Association, Op. cit., Chapter II, Article 6, Section 2 * American Bar Association. Canons of, Professional Ethics, l 5 See Anpendix, Table 20, Item ®Tbid, svem 12. 3 7 Additional statements will be found under the section on Criticism is unethical “to accept a position from which the immediately preceding occupant was dis missed unjustly.” 5 TI’wenty-four percent re- ported that this procedure is ethical and 30 percent qualified their replies. Fifty-one per cent reported that it is unethical for teachers “to enter a combination to force increases in salaries.’’ Sixteen percent reported that this procedure is ethical and 31 percent qualified their replies. Three violations of this stand- ard were reported of which the following is representative : A superintendent always salary raised but when the teachers asked for an managed to get his increase he said there was no money Reporting Corrupt and Dishonorable Practices The teacher should report to the proper au dishonorable practices known to exist in the profession. Eleven of the thorities corrupt or codes stipulate that the teacher should report to the proper authorities any matters which involve the best interests of the school. The following statements are typical: 7 1. Teachers should fearlessly expose corrupt or dishonest conduct in the and there should be no hesitancy on the part of teachers in exercising the utmost diligence to disqualify debar the criminal teacher time becomes a reproach to the profession. Sip pi. 2. When the rights of the children are being de nied, and when the schools are being subordinated profession, and whose conduct at any Missis- to personal and partisan politics, and whenever it is that the being exploited for personal gain, it becomes the duty of the teachers, principal, or superintendent, jointly or individually, to appraise the public of the facts, and through legitimate channels to seek to remedy the evils.— New Jersey. known schools are For the legal and medical professions the duty of reporting corrupt and dishonest prac- tices is specified in the following statements: 1. Lawyers should expose without fear or favor before the tribunals dishonest conduct in the profession, and should accept with- proper corrupt or Florida, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusett Michigan, Ol N ‘ Associates, Pp [ 59 ] ne < et ae ase ee —— out hesitation employment against a member of the Bar who has wronged his client. The counsel upon the trial of a cause in which perjury has been committed owe it to the profession and to the public to bring the matter to the knowledge of the prosecuting authorities.’ 2. Physicians should expose without fear or favor, before the proper medical! or legal tribunals, corrupt or dishonest conduct of members of the profession.” 3. Physicians should warn the public against the devices practiced and false pretensions made by charlatans which may cause injury to health and loss of life.* Apparently this standard has not yet ceived general approval among the members «; the teaching profession, as only 50 percent of those who replied to the questionnaire of the National Education Association’s Committee on Ethics reported that it is ethical “to censure and disclose unprofessional or immoral con duct, including inefficiency within the pro fession,” while 24 percent reported that this is unethical and an equal number qualified thei; replies.* * American Bar Association. Canons of Professional Ethics, No. 29. ® American Medical Association. Op. cit., Chapter II, Article I, Section 7. 8’ Ibid, Chapter III, Section 3. *See Appendix, Table 20, Item 29. N ORDER that the code (of the National Education Association) may be made known to all teachers, particularly to those who are entering the profession, each institution for the training of teachers should give every student the opportunity of becoming familiar with its provisions. Other practical means for making the code known are by publishing it from time to time in pedagogical magazines, and by dis- cussing it at teachers institutes and similar meetings. Each state teachers organization should establish a committee on professional ' ethics. This committee should be given the duty of interpreting the code, of investi- gating reported violations of the code, and of securing the cooperation of all mem- bers of the profession in abiding by the code. Each teacher should regard as an obli- gation the necessity of reporting to this committee any cases of unprofessional con- duct which may come under his observation. Before making a decision against the accused the committee should give him an opportunity to be heard. When appropriate to do so, the findings of the committee on such cases should be published in the maga- zine of the state organization.—Final Report of the Committee on Ethics of the Profes- sion, National Education Association, 1929. | 60] Stal This « ures whi securing ment. T: standard analyzed lations f cedures. Unle. otherwi tion to the code cally th proved ment al credent or thro specify scribe © or thre that af throug! that “! agent ¢ a teacl The 1. U1 scribe, | positior Associa 2. Al boards schools membe 3. It qualific directl; setts. Six questi ciatio: een” latest) oe. | I fession CHAPTER VIII Standards of Conduct in Securing and Terminating Employment This chapter presents the standard proced- ures which the codes suggest for teachers in securing positions and in terminating employ- ment. Table 18 shows the extent to which each standard is specifically mentioned in the codes analyzed. Table 19 indicates the number of vio- lations reported in connection with these pro- cedures. Applying for a Position Unless the rules of the system prescribe otherwise the teacher should apply for a posi- tion to or through the superintendent. All of the codes imply and most of them state specifi- cally that with certain exceptions it is an ap- proved procedure for teachers to seek appoint- ment and promotion by filing applications and credentials either with the superintendent direct or through a teachers’ agency. Ten of the codes specify that unless the rules of the system pre- scribe otherwise, applications should be made to or through the superintendent. Four suggest that applications may with propriety be filed through a teachers’ agency,’ and one stipulates that “no teacher should accept the aid of an agent of any book or supply house in obtaining a teaching position.” ” The following statements are representative: 1. Unless the rules of the school otherwise pre- scribe, he (the teacher) should apply for a teaching position to the chief executive —National Education Association. 2. Application for positions should be made to boards (of education) through the superintendent of schools as executive officer, and not to individual members of the board of education.—Colorado. 3. It is proper for the candidate to make his qualifications known to the school authorities either directly or through a teachers’ agency.—Massachu- setts. Sixty-five percent of those who returned the questionnaire of the National Education Asso- ciation’s Committee reported that it is un- ethical “for a teacher to apply for a position di rectly to the board instead of to the superin tendent or to a similar executive.” The teacher should apply only for a position known to be vacant. ‘Twenty of the codes recognize the danger of injury to the profes- sion which arises from teachers broadcasting general applications for positions. These twenty codes stipulate that a teacher should apply only for a position which is known to be vacant. Five * of these twenty codes, however, are un- able to get completely away from approving the traditional system of distributing applica tions indiscriminately, and they qualify the standard by stating that it should not be con strued to mean that teachers should not file gen eral applications on blanks furnished for that purpose or direct letters of inquiry to educa- tional authorities concerning probable vacan cies. It is a significant fact that earlier editions of three ® of the codes specifically discouraged applying for several positions simultaneously.® Until certification requirements are raised to include the recommendation of an accredited professional school, and until the professional schools recognize more fully their responsibility for limiting their output somewhat in keeping with the demand, it is probable that the quali- fied proscription of general applications will remain in vogue. However, it seems inevitable that eventually the custom of broadcasting ap- plications will fall into disrepute as completely as have “ambulance chasing” and “display ad- vertising’ in the fields of law and medicine. Advisers to graduating classes in professional schools, although aware of the futility of gen- eral applications, frequently hesitate to pro- scribe their use for fear that some of their pro- teges may fail to secure positions. No one fa- miliar with the facts doubts the futility of gen- eral applications, and their detrimental effect upon the development of the profession is equally obvious. 1 Massachusetts, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, and South Dakota. 2 Massachusetts. ®See Appendix, Table 20, Item 2. 4 Colorado, Georgia, Massachusetts, Mississippi, and New Jersey 5 Alabama, Michigan, and Oklahoma. * National Education Association, Committee on Ethics of the Profession fession. (Sarah T. Muir, Chairman.) 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Applying for positions not vacant ; 52 . Positions sought, assigned and refused on bases other than merit 3. Open and inaccurate letters of recom- mendation. .. i em 6 4, Underbidding for a position 14 5. Seeking an offer elsewhere to obtain in- crease of sal iry in present position 5 6. Violations of contracts 60 7. Negotiating with teachers without giv- ing notice to present employers 21 8. Refusing to release teachers from con- tracts... Tere 4 9. Failure to give due notice regarding termination of employment 3 16 ee ca 205 The following statements of this standard are representative: 1. The teacher should not apply for a specific position unless a vacancy exists.—National Educa- tion Association. 2. Before making application for a position, he the teacher) should definitely ascertain that there is a vacancy. This should not be construed to mean that teachers should not file general applications on blanks furnished them.—Colorado. 3. Teachers should not become applicants for a position that is not vacant or about to become va- cant. If their application is sought by a board or board member before there is a vacancy the board should be informed that a vacancy must be declared before an application or teacher’s name can be used. rhis rule is not to be construed to forbid a teacher from making a proper inquiry as to possible va- cancies.—Georgia. 4. A teacher should take no steps towards obtain- ing a specific position until he knows the position is vacant or about to become vacant. A superintend- ency or other supervisory headship of a school sys- tem should be considered as “about to become va- cant” only when the present incumbent shall have notified the school board that he does not desire to be reelected, or the school board, sitting in commit- tee of the whole, or by some equivalent process, shall have determined that the present incumbent will not be reelected. Any other kind of position shall be con- sidered as “about to become vacant” only when the present incumbent shall have notified the proper su- pervisory officer that he does not desire to be con- tinued, or the superintendent or some other author- ized supervisory officer shall have notified the pres- ent incumbent that he intends to recommend the dis- continuance of his employment.—Pennsylvania. 1 See Appendix, Table 20, Item 1. 2 See Appendix, Table 20, Item 4. Sixty-five percent of those who returned the questionnaire of the National Education Asso ciation’s Committee on Ethics reported that it is unethical “to apply for a position not known to be vacant.” Ten percent reported that this procedure is ethical and 23 percent qualified their replies.’ Fifty-two cases of applying for positions not reported. The following are vacant were typical illustrations: 1. A teacher made application for a position be fore the position was declared vacant 2. High-school principal asked a neighboring su- perintendent if he was going to stay next year. The superintendent said “Yes.” The high-school princi pal applied to board regardless of the information 3. The principal of high school applied for the superintendent’s position while school was running smoothly and both were on the job 4. A man applied for a superintendency when the status of the superintendent was in doubt. He fought so vigorously for the place that he was elected and displaced the former man. 5. A town on a rumor that the superintendent was not superintendent applied in a _ neighboring coming back. He failed to ascertain from the super- intendent whether the rumor was true or not Withdrawing Applications Upon accepting a position the teacher should withdraw all outstanding applications. Fight of the codes stipulate that after accepting a posi all other tion a teacher should notify persons with whom applications have been filed. ‘The following statements are typical: 1. When accepting a position a teacher should in form any other place where an application has been filed that his services are not available.—Oklahoma 2. It is the duty of the teacher to withdraw im- mediately all applications when a contract has been who signed, and to notify immediately all persons may be actually assisting in securing a position Oregon. Kighty-two percent of those who returned the questionnaire of the National Education Association’s Committee on Ethics reported that it is unethical “to fail to withdraw out- standing applications when a position has been accepted.” ? [ 63 ] Merit the Sole Basis for Appointment or Promotion The teacher should seek appointment and promotion only on the basis of professional merit. Twenty-four of the codes stipulate that merit, the possession of proper professional fit- ness, should be the only basis on which teachers should seek and on which authorities should make appointments and promotions. The use of family, political, religious, or fraternal in- fluences, length of service, and fawning on members of the board of education are definitely condemned. The following statements are typical : 1. The duty of superintendents is to select teach- ers only on the basis of fitness for the work to be done without fear or favor.—Colorado. 2. Teachers should neither seek nor expect pro- motion except on the basis of professional merit. Outside solicitation regardless of established efh- ciency should not be considered in securing posi- tions; neither should mere length of service.—Con- necticut. 3. Obtaining and securing positions by fawning upon members of board of education or others in authority by courting their personal favor, or by doubtful relations with them will be regarded as undignified and unethical by respectable and self- respecting teachers. The election of teachers to of- fice should be based solely upon merit. No other should be so quick or so zealous to insist upen elec- tions under such a system as teachers themselves.— Mississippi. The regulations regarding teachers in Fresno, California, stipulated in 1925 that the use of any personal or political influence or the urging of any factor other than professional fit- ness, would be regarded as unprofessional con- duct which would warrant the superintendent in refusing to further the applicant for a teach- ing position.? Twenty-seven violations of this standard were reported. The following are typical illus- trations: 1. A superintendent refused to consider the con- tract of a teacher because of religious belief. 2. A teacher played politics by catering to the interests of a certain few children of influential parents, and then when she had failed as a teache, she used these friends to try to compel the superi: tendent and Board of Education to reelect her. 3. A superintendent retained on his force of teach. ers a woman whom he knew to be inefficient, solely because of a political connection which might have affected him. 4. A superintendent dismissed a teacher to give , relative a position. 5. A candidate for the principalship of a high school invoked the aid of the Kiwanis Club and Board of Trade, bringing pressure to bear upon the superintendent of schools in order to secure appoint ment. 6. One of the directors in a certain district in sisted that a certain teacher should not be reelected so that his daughter, who had just graduated from normal school, could be given a position. Nepotism Is it good form for a teacher to seek or accept employment from a board of education of which a near relative is a member ? The Michi- gan code stipulates that a board member should avoid seeking to secure a position as teacher for a member of his family. Allen reports that statutes quite generally invalidate contracts in which a board member holds or may hold a pecuniary interest, and that thus a contract with a near relative of a board member is held invalid.? A recent writer protests vigorousl) against the custom on the grounds that the com- plications and embarrassments resulting from it often lead to inefficiency. He quotes the opin- ion of the attorney-general of the State of Washington to the effect that “while the em- ployment of relatives by school directors is not expressly forbidden by statute when the direc- tors have no interest in such employment, never- theless the practice is contrary to the spirit of the law and should be limited to cases of neces- sity.” * However, only 22 percent of those who returned the questionnaire of the National Edu- cation Association’s Committee on Ethics re- ported that it is unethical “to accept a position in a community where a relative is a member of the board or is the superintendent of schools.’ Forty-four percent reported that this procedure is ethical and 33 percent qualified their replies.‘ 1 Anderson, Earl William. The Teacher's Contract and Other Legal Phases of Teacher foes Contributions to E: cation, No. 246. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1927. p. 2 Allen, Ira M. Op. cit. p. 51. % Thomas, Maurice J., “School Boards and Teacher Hire,” Washington Education Journal 9: 201; March, 1930. *See Appendix, Table 20, Item 5. [ 64 ] wees eT oe The scheme se lf- -ad' typical 1. Te himself vertisen 2. At obtain pliment dignifie Nin the qu Associ that i maint: compl Ad physic terms. tive: Soli uals, ¢ these wheth sonal not p adver and sf It is | indire or by inspir cerni! conce tradit so ar adve and | estab fessic but n The busin local per s disre in pi profe cures 1 2 8 4 6 : : Self-advertising The teacher should not lend himself to any cheme of self-advertising. Six codes condemn self-advertising. The following statements are typical : 1. The teacher should not exploit his school or himself by personally inspired press notices or ad- vertisements.—National Education Association. 2. Any endeavor to establish a reputation or to obtain a position by innuendo, exploitations, com- plimentary press notices or advertisements is un- dignified and unprofessional.—Mississip pi. Ninety-three percent of those who returned the questionnaire of the National Education Association’s Committee on Ethics reported that it is unethical “to endeavor to secure or maintain position by innuendo, exploitation, complimentary press notices, or advertising.’’ ? Advertising is proscribed in the standards for physicians and lawyers in almost identical terms. The following statement is representa- tive: Solicitation of patients by physicians as individ- uals, or collectively in groups by whatsoever name these be called, or by institutions or organizations, whether by circulars or advertisements, or by per- sonal communications, is unprofessional. This does not prohibit ethical institutions from a legitimate advertisement of location, physical surroundings, and special class—if any—of patients accommodated. It is equally unprofessional to procure patients by indirection through solicitors or agents of any kind, or by indirect advertisement, or by furnishing or inspiring newspaper or magazine comments con- cerning cases in which the physician has been or is concerned. All other like self-laudations defy the traditions and lower the tone of any profession and so are intolerable. The most worthy and effective advertisement possible, even for a young physician, and especially with his brother physicians, is the establishment of a well-merited reputation for pro- fessional ability and fidelity. This cannot be forced, but must be the outcome of character and conduct. The publication or circulation of ordinary simple business cards, being a matter of personal taste or local custom, and sometimes of convenience, is not per se improper. As implied, it is unprofessional to disregard local customs and offend recognized ideals in publishing or circulating such cards. It is un- professional to promise radical cures; to boast of cures and secret methods of treatment or remedies; 1Jbid., Item 15. 2 American Medical Association. O 8 National Education Association, *See Appendix, Table 20, Item 8. 5 Ibid., Item 9. to exhibit certificates of skill or of success in the treatment of diseases; or to employ any methods to gain the attention of the public for the purpose of obtaining patients.’ Recommendations The teacher should neither ask for nor give general testimonials, and personal letters of recommendation should be frank and honest. Four of the codes proscribe the use of open recommendations while seven * stipulate that recommendations given should be frank, candid, and without reservations. The following state- ments are typical: 1. It is the duty of the teacher to refuse to give or accept open recommendations.—Oregon. 2. Recognizing the small value of open recom- mendations teachers will not ask for them but will place their faith in the confidential statements of those qualified to speak.—W yoming. 3. Testimonials regarding a teacher should be frank, candid, and confidential.—National Education Association. 4. It is most unprofessional and unethical for a school superintendent or principal to issue a testi- monial to a teacher ascribing qualifications which she does not possess. In giving verbal or written estimates of a teacher’s qualifications for a position, schoolmen should be absolutely frank with one an- other and act without any mental reservations what- soever.—K entucky. Forty-two percent of those who returned the questionnaire of the National Education Association’s Committee on Ethics reported that it is unethical “‘to issue or use a ‘to-whom- it-may-concern’ testimonial.” ‘Thirty-six per- cent reported that this procedure is ethical and 18 percent qualified their replies.* Seventy-five percent reported that it is unethical “to fail to give all pertinent facts when writing recom- mendations.” 5 Six violations of these standards were re- ported. The following are typical: 1. A superintendent gave to a teacher open letters of recommendation that praised her, but in con- fidential reports stated that the ‘teacher was un- desirable. 2. A supérintendent recommended highly to another superintendent a teacher whom he had discharged for inefficiency. . cit., Chapter II, Article I, Section 4 olorado, Delaware, Kentucky, Mississippi, South Dakota, Wyoming [ 65] Underbidding The teacher should not underbid a rival candidate for a position. Thirteen of the codes stipulate that it is unprofessional for a teacher to underbid a rival or a salary schedule. The following statements are typical: 1. He (a teacher) should not knowingly underbid a rival in order to secure a position; neither should he knowingly underbid a salary schedule—National Education Association. 2. It is unprofessional for a teacher to underbid another teacher for a position. —Georgia. 3. To secure a position by underbidding where a certain salary schedule prevails and can be maintained, constitutes disloyalty to the profession. —Washington. Eighty-six percent of those who returned the questionnaire of the National Education Association’s Committee on Ethics reported that “it is unethical to bid or underbid for a position.” ? Fourteen violations of this standard were reported. The following are typical: 1. A teacher in the system offered to take the principalship in the senior high school for $400 less salary than the principal was then receiving. 2. A superintendent made application for a posi- tion and knowingly offered to work for less than another candidate. Seeking an Offer Elsewhere The teacher should not seek an offer else- where for the sole purpose of forcing an in- crease in salary in his present position. Seven of the codes stipulate that the teacher should not seek an offer elsewhere for the sole purpose of using it as a means for securing an increase in salary in his present position. The following statement is representative: The teacher should not apply for another posi- tion for the sole purpose of forcing an increase in salary in his present position. Correspondingly school officials should not pursue a policy of refus- ing to give deserved salary increases to their employees until offers from other school systems have forced them to do so.—National Education Association. 1Jbid., Item 10. 2 See Appendix, Table 20, Item 11. Fifty-six percent of those who returned the questionnaire of the National Education Asso- ciation’s Committee on Ethics reported that jt is unethical “to seek an offer elsewhere for the purpose of securing advancement in one’s pres- ent position.”” Twenty-eight percent reported that this procedure is ethical and 15 percent qualified their replies.” Five violations of this standard were re- ported of which the following is typical: A teacher applied for a new position when she was already employed and then used the new offe; as a lever to obtain a higher salary. Fulfilling Contracts The teacher should fulfill any agreement which he makes. ‘Twenty-nine of the codes stipulate that the teacher should execute full) any contract entered into. Six suggest that be- fore signing the contract the teacher should make sure that it is fair and just; * seven men- tion the reciprocal responsibility of superin- tendents and boards of education for fulfilling contracts ; * eight warn superintendents against offering a position to any teacher known to be under contract without first determining the willingness of employer to grant a release ;° and twelve recognize the possibility of emer- gencies which may warrant requests for re- lease but even in these cases, while employers are advised to be generous and superintendents are urged to aid successful teachers to secure deserved promotion, teachers are admonished to fulfill their agreements. The following statements are typical : 1. A contract once signed, should be faithfully adhered to until it is dissolved by mutual consent. In cases of emergency, the thoughtful consideration which business sanction demands should be given by both parties to the contract.—National Educa- tion Association. 2. A teacher should thoroughly understand a con- tract before signing it. A contract just to the pro- fession should be demanded. The signing of a contract demands more than a casual perusal before so doing. Each clause should be carefully studied and local conditions known before the position is accepted. Once the contract is signed, it should be * Connecticut, Michigan, New Hampshire, Ohio, Oklahoma, Texas. * National Education Association, Alabama, Louisiana, North Carolina, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Wyoming. 5 Kentucky, Michigan, New Jersey, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Washington, Wyoming. * National Education Association, Connecticut, Georgia, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Wyoming. [ 66] ee eet oe ies wor strictly a tract is the same matters | the same to its ter demand, the child toward ent whe release ticut. 3. Th teachers or other It shou fulfill a any oth 4. Th professi ness, or to disre tice Car fession 5. A not off under ¢ ingness will a in the teacher Wyom Six! the q Assoc! that 1 accept that 1 their that i to a 1 tion her | porte perce Ei were a woul She : secur signe me resig' he w 1 2 8 strictly adhered to until mutually dissolved. A con- -ract is a business document and should receive the same consideration and attention that all like matters of business demand. In case of emergency the same thoughtful consideration should be given to its termination as business etiquette and sanction demand, with the further thought, that the good of the child is paramount. However, a liberal attitude toward release should be taken by the superintend- ent when it is possible to do so. Conditions of release should be stated in the contract.—Connec- ticut. 3. The practice of terminating contracts with teachers because of shortage of funds, epidemics, or other causes ... should be tolerated no longer. It should be as obligatory on a municipality to fulfill a contract with a teacher as a contract with any other official of the municipality.—Louisiana. 4. There is probably no action which brings the profession into greater disrepute with men of busi- ness, or with the public generally, than for teachers to disregard the obligation of contracts. The prac- tice cannot be too severely condemned by the pro- fession itself.—New Jersey. 5. A superintendent or other school officer will not offer a position to a teacher known to be under contract without first determining the will- ingness of the employers to grant a release. Neither will a superintendent or other school officer stand in the way of a worthy promotion to a successful teacher within his own or another school system.— Wyoming. Sixty-eight percent of those who returned the questionnaire of the National Education Association’s Committee on Ethics reported that it is unethical “to break a contract to accept another position.” Four percent replied that this is ethical and 26 percent qualified their replies. Seventy-two percent reported that it is unethical “for a school official to go to a teacher to persuade her to accept a posi- tion with him before he has conferred with her present officials.” Fourteen percent re- ported that this procedure is ethical and 12 percent qualified their replies.? Eighty-five violations of these standards were reported. The following are typical cases: 1. A teacher signed a contract knowing that she would not return if she could find a better job. She sent out applications and was successful in securing another appointment. Immediately she re- signed her former position. 2. A teacher accepted a position, but wired his resignation six days before school opened, because he was offered a job which paid $200 more. 1See Appendix Table 20, Item 13. 2 Ibid., Item 7. ® Ibid., Item 14. lays before the 3. A superintendent resigned ten schools were to open for the sole purpose of accept ing a position with a book company. 4. Without conferring with the present employ ers, a superintendent wrote teachers asking them if they would like to teach for him. 5. A supervisor from a neighboring town came into a and which he made offers of positions to the teachers He even failed to ask the principal or the superin- tendent for permission to interview the teachers. 6. Although a teacher was offered a much better position the superintendent refused to grant her a release from her contract venience involved in securing a successor school visited several classes after because of the incon Notification Regarding Termination of Employment Due notice should be given by school officials and teachers whenever a change of position is to be made. Coupled closely with the principle of fulfillment of contracts is that of due noti- fication of intention to terminate employment. This also involves a reciprocal obligation be- tween teacher and employer. Seventeen codes mention this duty. The following statements are typical: 1. It is the duty of the teacher ... to inform the administration as soon as possible of definite decision to resign.—Alabama. teachers all weeks 2. In fairness to should be made at close of school.—Kentucky. 3. Teachers who fail to meet the school or of the community are entitled to a frank statement by the chief executive or other authorized representative of the Board of Education, of the reappointments least six before the needs of the cause, and should never be subjected to the humilia- tion of non-election without due notice. This infor- mation should also come in time so that they may seek positions elsewhere.—New Jersey. 4. If at any time before the expiration of a contract either party should decide that a new con- tract should not be entered into, the party so decided should notify the other party at such time and in such manner as may be calculated to produce the minimum amount of inconvenience and embar- rassment.—North Carolina. Ninety-two percent of those who returned the questionnaire of the National Education Association’s Committee on Ethics reported that it is unethical “to dismiss or recommend for dismissal, a teacher without giving her ample notice and an opportunity to be heard.”’ * oo ae ie Sixteen violations of this standard were re- ported. The following are typical cases: 1. A supervisor recommended the dismissal of a teacher without first informing her that she was not giving satisfaction. 2. A superintendent failed to notify some of his teachers that they were not to be reelected. These teachers received no warning of the true situation until they found their names omitted from the list of elections which appeared in the newspaper. 3. To a principal who, upon renewal of his con- tract, would have come under the provision for legal tenure, the superintendent’s only remark wa; “I haven’t anything to say. I might hurt myself.” 4. A teacher had been employed in a school s\5 tem for four years. Although there was some dissatisfaction with her work, no suggestions {o; improvement had been made by the superintendent. When she was not asked to return to her position for a fifth year, no explanation was given, and she found herself without employment and decidedly hurt over the situation. She did not know, until the day before the close of school in June, that other teachers had received reappointment, while she had received none. ACH PROFESSION or trade has its own problems of ethics. The conduct of their members must be judged by its consequences, to the group itself and to the community. In the course of time there is likely to develop a certain standard of practice. Traditional customs are questioned and revised, in the light of wider experi- ence. The association comes to have a fairly definite ethics, enforced by an unwritten code of honor. But there is always a fringe of unscrupulous men who are ready to disregard the accepted standard, for the sake of immediate gain. Unethical practices are not only a menace to society. They jeopardize the standing of the group as a whole, and tend to depreciate the value of its service. The enforcement of the stand- ard becomes a matter of self-preservation. The written code has been found a most effective means of accomplishing this result. It makes the standard definite enough to serve as a basis for moral pressure. It educates sentiment within the profession or trade, particularly among the younger men who have entered or are about to enter. It puts the association in the proper light before the employing public, and enlists the aid of that public in enforcing the standard.—Edgar L. Heermance, Codes of Ethics, p. 1. [ 68 J Stan Tea tact W types— panies presen! the cc their 1 The agenci recog? codes a posi' procec cal: It is ficatiol directl setts. Th conde to vic fessio specif The teache break ment make positi leave an he N. ceive from inclu ethic Tea Twe the { ws Oa f&© @ Be CHAPTER IX Standards of Conduct in Connection with Teachers’ Agencies, Publish- ing and School Supply Houses Teachers frequently have professional con- tact with commercial organizations of three types—teachers’ agencies, publishing com- panies and school supply houses. This chapter presents the standards of conduct suggested by the codes which teachers should observe in their relationships with these organizations. Teachers’ Agencies The teacher should deal only with teachers’ agencies which operate in conformity with recognized professional standards. Four of the codes mention the filing of an application for a position through a teachers’ agency as proper procedure. The following statement is typi- cal: It is proper for the candidate to make his quali- fications known to the school authorities, either directly or through a teachers agency.—Massachu- setts, Three of the codes ? admonish teachers to condemn agencies which encourage teachers to violate generally accepted standards of pro- fessional conduct. The Pennsylvania code specifies this standard in greatest detail: The profession should unhesitatingly condemn teachers’ agencies that (1) encourage teachers to break their contracts, (2) work for the appoint- ment or promotion of unqualified teachers, (3) make recommendations for positions not known positively to be vacant, or (4) induce teachers to leave their positions during the school year unless an honorable release should be secured. No teacher or employing official should re- ceive a commission or anything else of value from a teachers’ agency. Two ® of the 33 codes included in this study as well as the code of ethics adopted by the National Association of Teachers’ Agencies* include this standard. Two violations of it were reported of which the following is representative : 1 Massachusetts, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Dakota. 2 Louisiana, Pennsylvania, South Dakota. 8 National Education Association and Pennsylvania. *Heermance, Edgar L. Op. cit., p. 489. 5 From the Ohio code. A principal received a percentage of his teachers’ salaries by securing them from a certain agency which offered a 10 percent commission to the per- son who reported vacancies. Publishing and School Supply Houses The teacher should avoid any entanglement publishing houses or other firms commercially interested with or unearned favors from in the schools® Seven of the codes stipulate that “The teacher should not act as an agent, or accept a commission, royalty or other re ward, for books or supplies in the selection or purchase of which he can influence or exercise the right of decision.””® This statement has been criticized as being too broad in scope since it condemns accepted procedure in the case of superintendents and teachers who are authors of textbooks. The following statements avoid this difficulty: 1. Teachers employed by publishers and business houses that deal with teachers and boards of educa tion or trustees should make such announcement of their connection as will prevent their recommenda tions from seeming disinterested.—Georgia. 2. It is unprofessional for superintendents and teachers, in their relations with publishing or sup ply houses, their agents or salesmen, to give just grounds for the suspicion of obligations tending to influence the purchase or adoption of books or sup- plies in favor of any particular agent or firm New Hampshire. Powers reports that the laws in nine states forbid a teacher acting as agent or receiving a commission, royalty, or anything else of value for books or supplies which he officially helps to select, but that one (Minnesota) makes an exception of royalties on books written by the teacher on the grounds that the best texts by the schoolmen is to be en- “The writing of couraged.” ? The corresponding statements for physicians and judges are as follows: ® National Education Association, Florida, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Dakota ? Powers, J. Orin, ‘“‘The Ethics of the Teaching Profession,” Journal of Educational Research 12:272; November, 1925 [ 69 ] we oo Pe i —- oe ee — It is unprofessional to receive remuneration from patents for surgical instruments or medicines; to accept rebates on prescriptions or surgical appli- ances, or perquisites from attendants who aid in the care of patients.’ He (a judge) should not accept any presents or favors from litigants, or from lawyers practising before him or from others whose interests are likely to be submitted to him for judgment.” It is not necessary to the proper performance of judicial duty that a judge should live in retirement or seclusion; it is desirable that, so far as reason- able attention to the completion of his work will permit, he continue to mingle in social intercourse, and that he should not discontinue his interest ir. or appearance at meetings of members of the Bar. He should, however, in pending or prospective liti- gation before him be particularly careful to avoid such action as may reasonably tend to awaken the suspicion that his social or business relations or friendships, constitute an element in influencing his judicial conduct.* Ninety-three percent of those who returned the questionnaire of the National Education Association’s Committee on Ethics reported that it is unethical “to act as agent for or to receive a commission, royalty, or anything else of value from books or supplies in the pur- chase of which he or she exercises official de- cision.” * Seven violations of this standard were re- ported of which the following are typical illus- trations: 1. A principal told teachers that they would lose their positions if they failed to purchase books or have their classes purchase books of a local dealer. 2. A superintendent dismissed a high-school in- structor because he, the instructor, failed to pur- chase room equipment from a friend of the super- intendent. 3. A superintendent accepted as a personal gift a valuable collection of victrola records from a competing book concern. The Massachusetts code includes the state- ment that “No teacher should accept the aid of an agent or any book or supply house in ob- taining a teaching position.” Brubacher points out the wisdom of this proscription with the significant comment that “Some superintendents carry book company tags on their professional reputations and live in hope of the company’s assistance in gaining professional advance- ment.” © The teacher should not write general test. monials for canvassers or other salesmen. he New Hampshire code is the only one of the 33 included in this study which proscribes this practice. However, it appears that a large pro portion of the profession condemn it, since 78 percent of those who returned the question naire of the National Education Association’s Committee on Ethics reported that it is un ethical “to write general testimonials fo: salesmen” while only 7 percent approved the practice unqualifiedly. The teacher should not solicit sample text books when there is no immediate prospect of a change of texts. The New Jersey and South Dakota codes condemn indiscriminate requests for sample textbooks. Their statements follow: 1. The practice of soliciting sample texts, when there is no serious or immediate prospect of a change or adoption, should be discouraged. Fur- thermore, teachers should not request sample books outside of their departments or the particular sub- jects they may be teaching. The use of sample texts should be for the school only and any such books should not be sold unless the pro- ceeds are applied to school funds.—New Jersey. 2. It is unprofessional for teachers to receive books gratis from publishing houses when there is not a real expectation of examining them for pro- spective texts—South Dakota. Forty-eight percent of those who returned the questionnaire of the National Education Association’s Committee on Ethics reported that it is unethical “to solicit sample text- books,”’ 20 percent indicated that this practice is ethical, and 28 percent qualified their re- plies.© The following violations of this stand- ard were reported : 1. A teacher ordered many books as samples and kept them in her personal library. 2. A teacher wrote to many publishers for sample copies of readers. These she put into a classroom library. 3. A teacher wrote for sample textbooks. The various companies asked for statements of opinion regarding these books but the teacher did not give them. * American Medical Association. Op. cit., Chapter II, Article I, Section 5. 2 American Bar Association. Canons of Judicial Ethics. No. 32. * American Bar Association. Canons of Judicial Ethics. No. 33. *See Appendix, Table 20, Item 39. ° Brubacher, H. R., Op. cit., p. 218. ® See Appendix, Table 20, Item 38. [70] A Meet = ed The (1) te tices I ics; ( ments may lt accept and ( list of may b trainil Th ters § profes prosp of $0! callin schoo atten duct. diver tion of Of pract leade of et subje stude cepte less ject grou tion to cl prof tive. syste spec that aspe vide oth lum sior pra | tea sep: the the CHAPTER X Conclusions and Recommendations The purpose of this study was threefold: 1) to discover current administrative prac- tices regarding instruction in professional eth- ics; (2) to suggest administrative arrange- ments which professional schools for teachers may use to acquaint their students with the accepted standards of professional conduct; and (3) to prepare a selected and annotated list of standards of professional conduct which may be used as a basis for discussion in teacher training classes and among teachers in service. The evidence presented in the first two chap- ters shows clearly that leaders in the eight professions studied are generally agreed that prospective members should receive instruction of some kind in the ethics of their respective callings. A large majority of the professional schools in each field report that they give some attention to the problems of professional con- duct. On the other hand, there is a marked diversity of opinion as to the type of instruc- tion which should be provided. This variation of opinion is reflected in a wide diversity of practice among professional schools. Some leaders assert that the incidental consideration of ethical problems in connection with regular subject matter is sufficient. Others argue that students cannot be adequately trained in ac- cepted standards of professional conduct un- less separate and distinct courses in this sub- ject are provided. Still others take a middle ground, maintaining that while the considera- tion of this important topic must not be left to chance, the provision of separate courses in professional ethics is neither feasible nor eftec- tive. Members of this third group favor the systematic treatment of ethical problems in specific units of other courses. They point out that the latter policy eliminates the accidental aspect of ethical instruction, and that it pro- vides systematic training without adding an- other course to the already crowded curricu- lum, and with less likelihood that the discus- sion of ethical principles will be divorced from practical school situations. Leaders in the professional preparation of teachers are not generally inclined to favor separate courses in professional ethics. Most of them believe that the specific treatment of these problems in definite units of other courses is sufficient to meet the needs of prospective teachers. However, the relatively even divi sion of opinion and practice in this regard among schools of law, medicine, architecture. and journalism, together with the overwhelm ing trend toward separate courses in schools of dentistry and nursing, make it impossible to draw definite conclusions as to the relative merits of these two procedures. Extensive ex perimentation will be necessary to settle this question. The principal conclusion of this study is that systematic instruction in professional eth ics should be provided in every professional school for teachers. The question of whether this should be done in entirely separate courses or in specific units of certain other courses is of relatively minor importance. The essential thing is that the instruction should be system- atic rather than merely incidental. ‘Vhe incul cation of high standards of professional con duct is too vital a matter to be left to chance. The preceding statement, however, does not imply that the incidental treatment of profes sional ethics in other courses should be neg- lected. A great deal can be accomplished inci dentally by instructors who are alert to the ethical implications of technical subject matter, and who are skillful in bringing these implica tions to the attention of their students. Inci dental instruction in professional ethics should be encouraged. On the other hand, profes- sional attord to leave solely to casual instruction matters of so schools for teachers cannot great importance. In setting up a plan for systematic instruc tion in professional ethics, several important questions arise. How much time should be de voted to this subject? Should it be required or elective? In what year or years of the cur riculum should it be placed ? If this instruction is to be organized as specific units of other courses, in what course or courses does it be- Most important of all, suitable subject matter for the discussion of long? where may ethical standards be found? The preceding chapters have suggested tentative answers to most of these questions. No single set of administrative provisions can be formulated which will be suitable for [71] all institutions. Nevertheless, a consideration of the needs of prospective teachers, and the application of certain principles of curriculum construction have led to the following pro- posals : 1. That systematic instruction in professional ethics be provided in each curriculum offered. 2. That this instruction be a prescribed part of every graduate’s professional preparation. 3. That incidental treatment of the problems of professional conduct be given whenever pertinent in all courses. 4. That the units devoted to systematic instruc- tion in this subject be located, if possible, in three different places in each curriculum: (a) in the first year of training; (b) during the practice teaching period; and (c) during the last months of the train- ing period. This plan is expressed in general terms, and is merely suggestive. The important thing is not that the details of any particular plan should be universally adopted, but rather that all institutions engaged in the preparation of teachers should provide for each student the most effective program of systematic instruc- tion possible. The second part of this study contains a large amount of material on existing stand- ards of professional conduct for teachers. Th’s material is selected and organized for the defi- nite purpose of stimulating constructive dis- cussion, Certain standards of practice have received more or less general acceptance among teach- ers. Many of these have been included in the various codes studied. Others included in some of the codes have not yet received general ap- proval from the profession at large. Many questions as to what constitutes proper profes- sional conduct, therefore, remain to be settled. Progress toward the development of group opinion for or against these standards can best be made by thorough discussion of general principles and by careful consideration of con- crete cases viewed in the light of all factors involved, including the influence of the prac- tices in question on the development of the pro- fession and on its service to social progress. The material presented here may be used in several ways: (1) as a guide for instructors in professional schools for teachers; (2) as a handbook for the students in these schools; (3) as a manual for study by state and local teachers’ associations; and (4) as a part of the in-service training of teachers under the dire tion of superintendents of schools and others, The supplementary references and the anno- tated bibliography contain suggestions fo: further reading and study in the field. One unfortunate characteristic of many ex- isting statements of ethical standards for teach ers is that they are too general and indefinite. The tendency in recent years has been toward greater definiteness both in the revision of old codes and in the preparation of new ones, but there is still room for much improvement in this regard. Those who prepare codes for official! adoption should give special attention to this problem. Students in training institutions, with little or no experience as teachers, can- not be expected to comprehend standards of professional conduct unless these standards are stated in terms of specific, concrete situations which they will encounter during active serv- ice in the profession. It is impossible, of course, to mention in any code of ethics all of the various specific situa- tions in which right conduct is desired. A cer- tain amount of generalization, therefore, is in- evitable, but a sufficient number of concrete situations should be available to furnish defi- nite and vivid concepts of the general princi- ples under consideration. At present the task of vitalizing existing standards rests largely with instructors in schools for the preparation of teachers. This study offers assistance in this task by supplementing statements from exist- ing codes with numerous examples of the actual violation of standards in specific school situations. Interest in the improvement of professional relationships has spread rapidly during the last thirty years. This growing interest has mani- fested itself in industrial and professional cir- cles in the development of codes of ethics and statements of standard practices. Teachers as a group have been followers rather than leaders in the formulation and adoption of official codes, but in the main the acceleration of in- terest among them has been similar to that in other professional groups. It is well that teachers are developing stand- ards of practice for themselves, because thei: professional conduct is a matter of paramount concern. The Nation's corps of teachers is one of the largest and most important groups en- gaged in professional service. Upon no other [72] grouf enrichil Moreo' our CIV of intel are int is to fu to maif fessions ward | Becaus guiding bers of obligat ment te For terest 1 especia. mains cent a There he cl is re vroup does responsibility for preserving and enriching our civilization rest more squarely. Moreover, it appears that the weaknesses in ur civilization are not so much in the fields f intellectual or material achievement as they are in the field of ethics. Therefore, if teaching is to fulfill its major responsibility, and if it is to maintain its proper place among other pro- fessions, teachers must progress constantly to- ward higher levels of professional conduct. Because of their peculiar opportunities for guiding and influencing the prospective mem- bers of all vocations, teachers have an added obligation to lead in the nationwide move- ment toward higher social levels. For these reasons the recent growth of in- terest in professional ethics among teachers is especially encouraging. Nevertheless, much re- mains to be done if the promise given by re- cent activity in this field is to be fulfilled. There is at present a serious need for action along three distinct lines: (1) a clearer defini- tion of the standards set up in teachers’ codes of ethics; (2) the promotion of a better under- standing among the rank and file of teachers in regard to the issues involved in these stand- ? ards; and (3) the creation of machinery for enforcement in cases where teachers willfully and persistently violate accepted standards of conduct. This study has been concerned with the first two of these problems only, and pri- marily with the second, the education of teach- ers everywhere regarding the approved prac- tices of their profession. As the training which teachers receive in this field more thorough and effective, the problem of enforce- ment should become proportionately less dif- ficult. The arrangements proposed and the standards suggested will hoped, to the attainment of the leadership in social progress which is within the reach of the becomes contribute, it is teaching profession. REAT as is the need of scientific attainment in every profession, there is even greater need of moral responsibility. We want lawyers, physicians, teachers, engineers, business men, who not only know how to do things but who will also insist on doing them right—men who, conscious of their ability as leaders, are jealous of their professional honor—men who will readily sacrifice personal gain to uphold the dictates of conscience in their professional service. The professional school is the place above all others where such ideals can be impressed upon young men.—James E. Russell, The Trend in American Education, p. 87. HE PUBLIC school teacher cannot live apart; he cannot separate his teaching from his daily walk and conversation. He lives among his pupils during school hours, and among them and their parents all the time. He is peculiarly a public character under the most searching scrutiny of watchful and critical eyes. His life is an open book. His habits are known to all. His office, like that of a minister of religion, demands of him an exceptional standard of conduct.—Herbert Hoover. [73] Selected Bibliography P12. Cw Pro The following bibliography deals with pro- 4. ANDERSON, Eart W. The Teacher’s Contract wai fessional ethics for teachers and other groups and Other Legal Phases of Teacher Statu; . ‘ . : Contributions to Education, No. 246. New York Ica included in the foregoing study. The references Anas 99 s . P Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Co 192. are presented in two sections: I. Professional lumbia University, 1927. 180 p. witl Ethics for Teachers, and II. Professional A critical analysis of contracts, rules and 13. CH! Ethics in Other Fields. Those included in Sec- regulations of local school boards and statutor Yor tion I have been briefly annotated. In the sec- provisions affecting teachers’ status. D ond section the material cited is classified under 5. ANDERSON, Ear. W. “Hamstringing Our Teach- Ad these heads: Architecture, Business and Com- ers.” Atlantic Monthly 145: 390-97; March ratk merce, Dentistry, Journalism, Law, Medicine, 1930. 14. Bro and Nursin Opposes rules and regulations denying teach- ” a g- . ‘ 2 Con A a a ™ ers the freedom and independence in private es 8 attempt re oon ee Se eee 7 life enjoyed by members of other professions jan that material which is of most value to persons : ki th iest of wrafecstonel ethics 6. ASPINWALL, W. B. “Code of Ethics for Teach D aa oe oe . Pr 2 ers.” School and Society 17: 640-44; June 9 the for teachers. References to literature dealing 1923. Def with ethical standards and practices in the other An attempt to present a more comprehensiv. or professions are included for comparative pur- and systematically organized code of ethics fo: tion poses. teachers than hitherto formulated. Codes a| obli The codes of ethics adopted by the state ready adopted for teachers and other groups ore ened 4 ‘ serve as a basis. sch teachers’ associations, and considered in the pi preceding pages, are not listed below. They 7. BAGLEY, WILLIAM C. Classroom Management ; in dentinal t . f th na New York: Macmillan Company, 1907. Chapter 15. “Ce i aay ootaines in uses — _— Co _ f 18, “The Ethics of Schoolcraft,” p. 267-73. Col taries of the yeapective Setaens. ope 6 A pioneer discussion of professional ethics S these codes and additional references on the See tnnaioes, blem of professional ethics for teach- 16. Det whole ales fle i 4 R h Divisi £ the 8. BacLey, WiLL1AM C., and Keiru, JoHN A. H. Yo: ers are On me In t e auence bs ween & . An Introduction to Teaching. New York: Mac- F - National Education Association, 1201 Six- millan Company, 1924. Chapter 2, “Personal! , teenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. Qualifications for Teaching,” p. 316-40; Chap- 17. Ep. ter 12, “Specific Qualifications for Specialized Pro I. Professional Ethics for Teachers F ields of the Teaching Service,” p. 341-83. ing Discusses personal qualifications and pro- 192 } 1. ALLEN, Ira M. The Teacher's Contractual fessional relationships essential for effective ; t Status. Contributions to Education, No. 304. teaching. mb: f New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers : a} . - : 9. Bactey, WiLiiAM C. “A Code of Professional! ear ; Coll Columbia University, 1928. 147 p. nee 3 , pts i? nn v p Ethics for the Public School Service.” School- le: 4 An analysis of court decisions relative to men’s Week Proceedings, 1917. Philadelphia sup teachers’ contracts. Compares certain legal and University of Pennsylvania, 1917. 18. Er professional standards. Proposes a code based on principles in state of 1 : 2. Atmack, Joun C. The School Board Member. = already adopted and personal experi- Ma ' New York: Macmillan Co., 1927. Chapter 7, ‘ y ; “Conforming to Ethical Principles,” p. 215-43. 10. BRUBACHER, ABRAM R. Teaching: Profession pom 2 , and Practice. New York: Century Company, ae Suggests importance of boards of education 1927. 301 p. : " conforming to ethical principles of teaching Seeilanities ot an bl ‘ - “ profession. Prints Pennsylvania code for teach- a ; ee eee 19. Evi eso tank coebnene 6 Gate Bor sched! beards professional ethics. Chapter 12 includes numer- - = dioaih ’ ous cases for study and Chapter 13 presents a tiot } 3. ALMACK, Joun C., and Lane, Aubert R. Prob- code for teachers. = — < oe ee ee te an 11. Casor, RicHarp C. Adventures on the Border- Ed de ougaton Siimun Co., - Chapter 4, . lands of Ethics. New York: Harper and Bros., i4 Ethics of the Profession,” p. 59-75. 1926. 152 p. 3 I Discusses professional standards and codes A discussion of the growing interest in pro- - of ethics, with especial reference to develop- fessional ethics; its significance and applica- ee ment and application of a code for teachers. tion, especially in medicine and business. 4 om ( 74] CHAMBERS, GEorGE G. “Ethics for the Teaching Profession.” Journal of the National Educa- tion Association 11: 401-03; December, 1922. Reprint from The Annals of the American 1cademy of Political and Social Science, May, 1922. of with special reference to Pennsylvania code. Discusses codes ethics in teaching Cuarters, W. W. Teaching of Ideals. New York: Macmillan Co., 1927. 372 p. Deals with problems of character education Advocates definite and systematic instruction rather than incidental, haphazard procedures. BrooME, Epwin C., Chairman. “Report of the Committee on Propaganda—Abstract.” Proceed- ings, 1929. Vol. 67. Washington, D. C.: Na- tional Education Association, 1929. p. 204-17. Discusses the entrance of propaganda into the schools through textbooks and other sources. Defines the problem, indicates its significance, and offers tentative conclusions, recommenda- tions, and principles of action. ‘The ethical obligations of teachers, administrators, and school boards regarding the relationship of the school to outside influences, specifically mentioned. are “Code of Ethics of the Board of Education.” Colorado School Journal 43:16; May, 1928. Suggests brief code for board members. Dewey, JoHN, and Turts, J. H. Ethics. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1910. 618 p. A general consideration of ethics. EpMonson, J. B., and ScHorLInG, RALEIGH. Problems of the High School Teacher. Bloom- ington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Co., 1924, Problems 58 to 68 concern professional duties and responsibilities. Problem 66 includes an early draft of the Michigan State Code for Teachers, and Problem 67, tentative code for superintendents and school board members. ETTINGER,\ WILLIAM L. “The Ethical Standards of the Teacher.” School and Society 17: 568-72; May 26, 1923. Address delivered before Schoolmasters’ As- sociation of New York, April 20, 1922. Outlines some of the essential of a code of ethics for teachers. features EvVENDEN, Epwarp S. “What Courses in Educa- tion are Desirable in the Four-Year Curriculum of a State Teachers College.” Proceedings, 1926. Vol. 64. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1926. p. 889-903. Reports a survey of education courses offered in four-year training curricula for elementary teachers. Proposes list of such courses as a part of a teachers college curriculum. > au. [75 ] for the struction of Teachers College Curricula.” 1926. Vol. 64. Washington, | Education Association, 1926. p EVENDEN, Epwarp §S. “Criteria ceedings, National 93. Raises training curricula for teachers fundamental problems regarding Proposes nine principles of curriculum making, and advocates to practices of different curricula an investigation evaluate elements and STEPHEN. “Blue Laws Harper's Monthly 329-38; February, 1928. Is against unduly the in EWING, for School Teachers.” Magazine, 15 limiting ot regulations and life. and freedom private rules independence teachers M. “Professional of 1916. FORBES, Code of Education GEORGE Ethics for Journal 84: 593-4, 14, Deals with responsibility to of a obligations. Teachers.” 606; December society of mem and ethical fundamental bers profession, resulting Discusses ethical principles of a code for teachers. College Teacher's of Education § GouonTy; I. j. “A Creed.” Peabody Journal 131-34; November, 1927. Discusses briefly relation between college teacher and his colleagues, and students. superiors, of Ethics. Bur- > Printing HEERMANCE, Epcar L. Codes lington, Vermont: 1924. 525 Free Press Com Pp. pany, Handbook 200 Tor In containing codes of ethics over professions and of National Associations, state codes from Michigan, New occupations, cludes code League of Teachers Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, tentative code for superintendents and boards of edu (p. 490-504), of the National Association of Agencies (p. 489) and National Association (p 72-473). cation codes Teachers’ School Supply “Helping the New Teacher.” Ohio Schools 8: 5, 29; January, 1930. Would have the National code of include ment regarding duty of teachers to help thei: Asso state I duc ation ciation’s ethics some associates, especially new ones. HILLBRAND, E. K. “Securing a Teaching Position.” Journal of the National Education Association 17: 86; March, 1928. A brief discussion of procedures in seeking a teaching position. Condemns broadcasting letters of application or inquiry as creating an regarding available erroneous impression supply of teachers. Includes most of the im portant items mentioned in this connection by of ethics. state codes | 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 34. Hines, HARLAN C. Finding the Right Teach- ing position. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1926. 200 p. A suggestive presentation of problems faced by teacher seeking a position. States that there is little likelihood of return from cir- cular letters of application or chance letters of inquiry. Advocates serious attention to problems of supply and demand and teacher placement. Horne, HerMan H. “The Teacher’s Code of Honor.” School and Society 19: 477-482; August 26, 1924. Defines and gives reasons for “teachers’ code of honor.” Presents a code. Horcukiss, J. V. “The Ethics of the Teacher.” Ohio Educational Monthly 58: 376-83; July, 1919. Points out need of greater emphasis on standards of ethics in the profession, discusses the teacher in his professional relations. Howe, C. M. “Teachers’ Ethics as Viewed by Teachers.” School and Society 16: 546-49; No- vember 11, 1922. Presents and reviews code of ethics adopted by Cincinnati Teachers Association, June, 1922. Kino, Crype L., editor. “The Ethics of the Pro- fessions and of Business.” Annals 101: 1-315; May, 1922, Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. A comprehensive discussion of significance of codes of professional ethics and their pos- sibilities for social control. Presents codes, creeds, or standards of practice of 22 different vocational groups, including code of Pennsyl- vania State Education Association. Koos, Leonarp V. The American Secondary School. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1927. p. 673-9. Chapter 18, “The High-School Staff,” in- cludes discussion of ethics of the teaching pro- fession, based largely on the article by Powers. (See reference number 48.) Lanois, Benson Y. Professional Codes. Con- tributions to Education, No. 267. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Co- lumbia University, 1927. 108 p. A sociological analysis to determine the ap- plication of professional codes to the teaching profession. Twelve vocational groups were studied with regard to social situations oc- casioning their codes, methods of meeting and defining these situations, types of code in- volved, mechanisms of enforcement, and effec- tiveness. Questions the value of codes for social control unless widely disseminated and defi- nitely enforced. Lee, Epwin A. “The Need for a Professional Spirit.” School and Society 15: 659-66; June 17, 1922. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 41. [76] . Mitver, Georce F. Deplores lack of professional standards anq unity in teaching profession as compared to law and medicine. Presents tentative code of ethics, involving six material standards and creed. LEHMAN, W. G. “A Principal’s Code.” Educa- tional Research Bulletin, 5: 152; March 31, 1926. A brief code of ethics relating to conduct of the school principal in certain types of activities not considered in other codes. Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teaching Staff. New York: Century Co. 1925. Chapter 21, “Ethics of the Teaching Profession,” p. 413-27. Discusses need of code of ethics for teach- ing profession. Distinguishes between a “bus- iness” and a “profession.” Presents Pennsy|- vania code for teachers as a model. MarsH, J. FRANK. The Teacher Outside the School. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y.: World Book Co., 1928. 234 p. Includes discussion of many problems of professional ethics, especially in Chapter 5, “Ethics, Personal and Professional,” p. 66-82, and Chapter 10, “Social Life,” p. 154-71. Code adopted by Michigan State Teachers Association appears on p. 72-5; by Ohio As- sociation, p. 76-9; and by the Massachusetts Superintendents’ Association, p. 75. MassacuHusetts. Professional Ethics in Nor- mal Schools. Department of Education Bulle- tin, 1923, No. 2, Whole number 142. Boston: Wright and Potter Printing Company, 1923. 32 p. Manual for use as guide in courses in professional ethics offered by teacher-training institutions. McAnprew, WILLIAM. “Educational Ethics for Boston.” Educational Review 75: 61-64; February, 1928. Editorial on Boston code of ethics. “Chaff in the Code of Ethics.” Phi 170-72; April, 1930. A protest against certain general state- ments in code of ethics adopted by National Education Association. Delta Kappan 12: Muir, SARAH T., chairman. “Committee on Ethics of the Profession.” Proceedings, 1925. Vol. 63. Washington, D. C.: National Edu- cation Association, 1925. p. 241-43. Discusses briefly the need of a. professional code of ethics for teachers, some points in state codes already adopted, and prospective work of committee of National Education As- sociation appointed to formulate a code. 44. are 3. Mul the Pro D. | p.. 0 In Edu educ with Rect ever mili state mitt NAT ON Ethi Mui tion: T anal . Nut Sup Job1 “Eth In pers . Oia ucat Nev Coll D boa: and the . PHE Sch A rela . Pov Pro 12: A ethi . Pry Eth Nov P to | ee) te 44. 45. 46. 47, 48. 49. Muir, SARAH T., chairman. “Report of the Committee on Ethics of the Profession.” Pro- ceedings, 1927. Vol. 65. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1927. p. 197- 200. Reports a study of how well the state codes are functioning. “Final Report of Profession.” Washington, 1929. Muir, SARAH T., chairman. the Committee on Ethics of the Proceedings, 1929. Vol. 67. D. C.: National Education Association, p. 179-90. Includes code of ethics adopted by National Education Association, and judgments of 1,606 educators regarding 39 questionable practices, with list of unethical practices reported. Recommends that training institutions every student opportunity for becoming fa- miliar with provisions of the code; that each state teachers’ organization establish a com- mittee on professional ethics. give NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, COMMITTEE on ErnHics OF THE Proression. Report: The Ethics of the Teaching Profession. (Sarah T. Muir, Chairman.) Washington, D. C.: Na- tional Education Association, July, 1926. 61 p. Traces evolution of codes of ethics and analyzes 28 state codes for teachers. Current Problems in the Supervision of Instruction. Richmond, Va.: Johnson Publishing Co., 1928. Chapter 2, “Ethics in Supervision,” p. 3-14. Nutt, Husert W. Includes proposed codes for supervisors and persons supervised. OLseN, Hans C. The Work of Boards of Ed- ucation. Contributions to Education, No. 213. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1926. 169 p. Detailed analysis of responsibilities of board of education in determining policies, and of superintendent as executive officer of the board. Puetps, W. R. “Code of Ethics.” High School Quarterly 16: 84-85; January, 1928. A code of ethics for the principal in his relations to his school. Powers, J. Orin. “Ethics of the Teaching Profession.” Journal of Educational Research 12: 262-74; November, 1925. Analyzes and summarizes existing codes of ethics for teachers in convenient form. Pryor, H. C. “A Code of Parent-Teacher Ethics.” Journal of Education 104: 516-17; November 29, 1926. Presents code setting forth duties of parents to school. [77] 50. 51. *) te 7 we $4. 55. 57. Extra-Instructional Activi- Garden City, New York: 1930. Chapters PULLIAM, ROscoE. ties of the Teacher. Doubleday, Doran and Co., 12-15, p. 326-447. Discussion of several problems of profes sional ethics, especially relations of teachers with parents and associates, and their profes- sional obligations. “The Need of a National Teachers.” School and April 9, 1927. REEDER, WARD G. Code of Ethics for Society 25: 417-21; Presents arguments for formulating national code of ethics for teachers. “Ethics of the Teaching National Educa- 1929 Reever, Warp G. Journal of the 260-61; Profession.” tion Association 18: November, Code of ethics adopted by National Educa- tion Association, with brief account of its de velopment. REINEL, F. “A Code of Ethics for Counselors.” Vocational Guidance 8: 263-4; March, 1930. JOuN Magazine Proposes a code for counselors, to guide in their relations with the child, parents, school, community, the profession, and in their own conduct. Ross, Epwarp A. “Making of the Profes- sions.” International Journal of Ethics 27: 67-81; October, 1916. Deals with professional ethics, establish- ment of codes of ethics and their enforcement. Recommends greater emphasis on ethical in- struction. Classroom Organization and 1928. SEARS, JESSE B. Control. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., Chapters 16-20, p. 293-391. Considers the teacher’s personality, health, training, and growth in their relation to his work. Epwin R. A. “Propaganda by Bulletin of the Profes- SELIGMAN, Public Utility Corporations.” Association of Uniwersity May, 1930. American sors 16: 349-68 4 Prepared at request of Committee on Ethics of the American Association of University Professors. Georce D. and Orners. Problems Administration. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1925. Problem 116, “Ethi- cal Considerations,” p. 748-55. STRAYER, in Educational Suggests 14 problems in professional ethics Includes codes of Michigan and Utah state teachers’ associations. SS OA na le ee AE te pgs oS Sree a et 58. 59. 61. 63. 65. . THomas, Maurice J. SuzzaLto, Henry. “Professional Ethics.” Monroe’s Cyclopedia of Education. New York: Macmillan Company, 1925. p. 536. States some of the basic principles of professional ethics which appeared to have found wide acceptance among American teach- ers. Taeuscu, Cart F. “Proposed Teachers’ Code of Ethics.” School and Society 23: 115-117; January 23, 1926. Presents code setting forth duties of teacher in relation to his pupils, self-development, and profession. - “Teacher or Factory Hand.” Atlantic Monthly 145: 500-502; April, 1930. Also Journal of the National Education Association 19: 171-72; June, 1930. A protest against the system of education which does not allow the teacher time or opportunity to know and help the individual pupil. TTEAGARDEN, FLORENCE M. “Professional Ethics for Educators.” Journal of the Na- tional Education Association 13: 64-7; Feb- ruary, 1924. Tells of progress in adoption of local and state codes of ethics for teachers. Urges formulation of national code, instruction in professional ethics in all teacher-training institutions, and establishment of national, state, and local commissions to interpret, revise, and enforce the codes. TEAGARDEN, Fiorence M. “Bibliography of Professional Codes of Ethics for Educators.” School and Society 20: 599-601; November 8, 1924. List of references on ethics of teaching and other professions. “Tentative Code of Ethics for Superintendents and Boards of Education.” Texas Outlook 7: 16; August, 1923. Reprint of tentative code proposed in Mich- igan. “School Boards and Teacher Hire.” Washington Education Jour- nal 9: 201-2; March, 1930. A protest against nepotism. Refers to em- barassing complications and inefficiency that arise when relatives of board members are employed as teachers. Watsn, Matruew J. Teaching as a Profes- fession. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1926. 587 p. Devoted largely to ethical standards of teaching. Bibliographies given at close of chapters. 66. Vol. 3. 67. II. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. [78] Wickey, N. J. Goutp. “Ethics for Teachers,” Journal of the National Education Associa. tion 13: 261-63; September-October, 1924. Deals with content and desirable features of codes of ethics for teachers. Presents jp brief outline a general basis for formulation of a code. Woobtey, Oscar I., and Woopiey, M. Vir- cinta. The Profession of Teaching. Boston Houghton Mifflin Co., 1917. Chapter 2 “School Ethics,” p. 19-41. Takes up problems of professional ethics Professional Ethics in Other Fields Architecture AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS. “A Cir- cular of Advice Relative to Principles o{ Professional Practice and the Canons of Ethics.” Amnals 101: 277-81; May, 1922 Philadelphia: American Academy of Politica! and Social Science. LorcH, Emit. “The Architectural Student and His Relation to Professional Practice.” Annals 101: 114-20: May, 1922. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. SeL_Lars, Horace W. “The Ethical Standards of the Architects and the Procedure for Their Enforcement.” Annals 101: 108-14; May, 1922. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. Business and Commerce HEERMANCE, Epcar L. The Ethics of Busi- ness. New York: Harper and _ Brothers, 1926. 244 p. Business Ethics. New 312 p. Lee, JAMES MELVIN. York: Ronald Press Co., 1926. Lorp, Everett W. Fundamentals of Business Ethics. New York: Ronald Press Co., 1926. 196 p. Taeuscn, Cart F. Professional and Business Ethics. New York: Henry Holt and Co. 1926. 370 p. U. S. CHAMBER oF Commerce. Principles of Business Conduct. Washington, D. C.: U. S$ Chamber of Commerce, 1924. Pamphlet, 22 p. Reprint from: Parker, Edwin B. “The Fifteen Commandments of Business.” Nations Business 12: 16; June 5, 1924. Yost, Casper S. “A Business Code of Ethics.” W orld’s Work 43: 471-3; March, 1922. : ie E iS ? f a - 84 5. Myers, JosepH S., compiler. . ARCHER, GLEASON LEONARD. . CARTER, Orin N. . CoHEN, Jutius HENRY. Dentistry DeWitt. Dental V. Mosby 6... Juris pru- 1914 BROTHERS, ELMER dence. St. Louis: C. “Code of Ethics of the National Dental Asso- ciation.” Annals 101: 266-7; May, 1922. Phila delphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. of Dentis- 180 p. The Business Sid V. Mosby Co., 1929 KENT, EpwIn N. iry. St. Louis: C. Wuitinc, A. D. “The Professional Organi- zations, Training and Ethical Codes of Physi- Nurses and May, 1922. Pharmacists.” Philadelphia: cians, Dentists, Innals 101: 51-67; American Academy of Political and Social Science. Journalism BLEYER, WILLARD GROSVENOR, editor. The Profession of Journalism. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1918. CRAWFORD, NELSON ANTRIM. Ethics of Jour- nalism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1924. 264+ p- FLINT, LEON NELSON. Conscience of the News- paper. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1925. 470 p. LAHEY, THOMAS A. Morals of Newspaper Making. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame, 1924. 180 p. The Journalistic Code of Ethics. Ohio State University Bulle- tin Vol. 26, No. 8. Journalism Series Vol. 1, No. 4. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State Univer- sity. February 18, 1922. 35 p. Law . AMERICAN Bar AssociaATION. Canons of Pro- fessional and Judicial Ethics. Baltimore: Lord Baltimore Press. 31 p. Obliga- Brown Ethical tions of the Lawyer. Boston: Little, and Co., 1910. 367 p. Ethics of the Legal Profes- Ill.: Northwestern Univer- 116 p. sion. Evanston, sity Press, 1915. Law: Business or Profession: New York: G. A. Jennings Co., 1924. $13 p. 9?. 94 96 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. [79] COSTIGAN, (GsEORGI P Cases and Ut 4 {u- t rities on Legal Ethics ot Pau West Publishing Co., 1917 Jessup, HENRY WyNAns. Professional Ideals of the Lawyer New York: G. A. Jennings Co., 1925 292 p WaARVELLE, GEORGI W Essays Legal Ethics Chicago: Callaghan and Co 192 234 p. Medicine AMERICAN MEDICAL AssociATION. Principles of Medical Ethics Chicago: the Association 1926 28 p CATHELL, DANIEL W., and CATH! WILLIAM [. Book on the Physician Himself and Things that Concern His Reputation and Success. Phila delphia: F. A. Davis Co., 1913 CopPENS, CHARLES. Moral Prin: iples and Med tical Practices New York: Benziger Brothers, 1921. SAUNDBY, ROBERT Medical Ethics Phila delphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 190 Nursing AIKENS, CHARLOTTE A. Studies in Ethics for Nurses. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co 1923. 3ROGAN, JAMES M. Ethical Principles for the Character of a Nurse. Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Co., 1924. 126 p FINNEY, Patrick A. Moral Problems in Hos pital Practice. St. Louis: B. Herder Book Co., 1922. 208 p HARDING, GERTRUDE. Higher Aspect of Nurs ing. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1919 LOUNSBERY, Harriet C. Making Good on Private Duty. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1912. Parsons, SARA E. Nursing Problems and Ob ligations. Boston: M. Barrows and Co., 1919 Ross, IsABEL HAMPTON. Nursing Ethics. Mil waukee: Caspar, Krueger, Dory Co., 1905 Ethics ; a G. P. Putnam’s T exthook for Sons, TALLEY, CHARLOTTE Nurses. New York: 1925. 140 p. TABLE 20.—SUMMARY OF JUDGMENTS BY TEACHERS AND ADMINI APPENDIX ON 39 QUESTIONABLE PRACTICES’ STRATOR; = Per- l Total | Per- Is It Ethical? Zou, pan Fae 4 coat | “Dee | epee to “ ” “ ” ” ” - Yes No” | pends pends Swered| ans’d 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 i?) 1. To apply for a position not known to be vacant?. . 154 10 1049 65 374 23 29 2 1606 2. For a teacher to apply for a position directly to a board instead of to the superintendent or to a BT POEL EOE: 175 11 1055 65 362 23 14 1 1606 3. Toa a position from which the immediately . ing occupant was dismissed unjustly?........ 381 | 24 715 | 45 487 30 23 1 | 1606 | 4. To fail to withdraw outstanding applications when a position has been accepted?..................... 170 10 1317 82 91 6 28 2 1606 5. To accept a position in a community where a rela- tive is a member of the board or is the superin- is iain eh ee awne heise o<> % 703 44 351 22 529 33 23 1 1606 6. For a school official to fail to recommend one of his teachers for a position in another community be- cause he does not want to lose her services?........ 45 3 1536 | 96 22 1 3 0 | 1606 7. For a school official to go to a teacher to persuade See te apnaes 8 : a position with = before he has } conferred with her present o te 233 14 1157 72 191 12 25 2 1606 8. La Ls or use a ‘‘to-whom-it-may-concern"’ testi- 1 BIOGAS) ne 575 | 36 682 | 42 293 18 56 4 | 1606 9. To" “ail to . all pertinent facts when writing DACA CNERERERSEDEO SHH 0kb4 40004 127 & 1204 75 252 16 23 1 1606 10. Tot bid or mone REE 101 6 1382 86 98 6 25 2 1606 11. To seek an offer elsewhere for the paspens of secur- ing advancement in one's t position?......... 453 28 898 56 233 15 22 1 1606 : ry 2 = & — to force orce increases in —. 255 16 829 | 495 31 27 2 1606 . To break a contract another tion 66 4 1092 416 26 2 1606 14. To dismiss, or caeumenh tor dismissal, a teacher - without vine her ample notice and an oppor- ive das nobis «ban bses0s 0cses 37 2 1470 92 87 5 12 1 1606 15. To endeavor to secure or to maintain position by oe 9 Seana, complimentary press notices, ES cok 655 debs Cheb 5 os.ebib 04 p0csse cee 42 3 1492 93 65 4 0 1606 16. To - ng SRE f+ 7 in -_ a way as : would embarrass them or their parents?............ 35 2 1492 | 93 75 5 4 0 | 1606 17. To teach one’s religious, political, or as private as ds Me Rd spite svn od:60 od eke se 33 2 1474 | 92 86 5 13 1 1606 18. To accept pay for whe al ¢ own pupils?........ 127 x 1075 67 385 24 19 1 1606 19. To accept gifts f ER err rr ere 378 24 471 29 714 44 43 3 1606 20. >= pupils — ether eviget until the e ng aut ty has m consulted?......... 81 5 1346 84 163 10 1 1606 21. Hae they — 1 ape their subordinates os ore they make policies?.............. 066.0055. 283 18 870 | 54 416 26 37 2 1606 22. To #0 ‘over the heads” of one’s superiors?......... 36 2 1136 71 392 24 42 3 1606 23. To fail to support school policies until they are chem even though one does not agree with Rete EV adatths ca en He Phe h eWeek 66% « 62 4 1364 | 85 157 10 1 1606 24. Tov violate official correspondence or conversation ad ON Tree ete 37 2 1519 | 95 18 1 32 2 1606 25. se school officials to change pupils’ marks?........ 37 2 1320 | 82 219 14 30 2 1606 26. For school officials to take the side of pupils against ee cee Re ae ik ak ue cba l seit 4.0 0.02 32 2 898 | 56 630 39 46 3 1606 27. ae we one teacher to mark the work of a pupil in eh a. or to interfere in disci- nary or other problems?........................ 27 1464 | 91 101 14 1 1606 28. pliner to defe: pan ~ wel of the profession when they are unjustly attacked?...................... 58 4 1455 | 90 78 5 15 1 1606 29. To censure mages or immoral conduct, including inefficiency within the pro- EE cine atta EER maken buks 4 64.44.0465 «6.0.6 801 50 393 | 24 384 24 28 2 1606 30. To fail to be a progressive student of education?.... 80 5 1417 | 88 59 4 50 3 1606 31. To fail to encourage the fit to enter, and to dis- courage the unfit from entering the profession?..... . 199 | 12 1247 | 78 101 6 59 4 1606 32. To use the profession as a stepping-stone to other greieestons ox ea eeG ace batessee sees 68, 387 | 24 696 | 43 489 30 34 2 1606 33. To criticise the profession?....................... 372 23 699 | 44 489 30 46 3 1606 34. To do more than to vote for candidates in a political ne SEAN enila, » o's vas ese 606 | 38 477 | 30 483 30 40 2 1606 35. To engage in a of recreation, a etc., of the community does not approve?........... 109 7 1046 409 25 42 3 1606 36. To fail to participate in activities for sabia DE ss 5 DAMME NOSENEN ES ORR 6 Occ e ces e mess 78 5 1270 79 215 13 43 3 1606 37. To write general testimonials for salesmen?........ . 107 7 1248 78 210 13 41 2 1606 38. To solicit sample textbooks?...................... 323 20 777 | 48 450 28 56 4 1606 39. To act as an agent for, or receive a commission, royalty, x anything of value from books or sup- plies in =e pyeuee of which he or she exercises Es oh Meenas af 6s wepatecavesenr eave 55 3 1486 | 93 56 3 9 1 1606 1 Obtained and condensing Tables 2, 3, and 4 included in the P+ Regent of the Committee on Ethics of the tg Le Fm 1929, National Education Association. p. 179-90 + 1 NGS gh HORE END Ne 4 ES mE A eam ANA AG A LAS IRIE RS + | TABLI TRA Gossip Slurrin Breaki' A pplyi Exaggt whe | Cultiv: ana | Failure | Failure Under! Going Discus pare Permit Posses Failure Using | Failure unju School subc Dismis tuni Violat Failur [ 80] TABLE 21.—UNETHICAL PRACTICES REPORTED BY TEACHERS AND ADMINIS- TRATORS IN A STUDY BY THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION'S ORS COMMITTEE ON ETHICS OF THE PROFESSION’: Frequency Tota Re. : Pp olies Name of Practice —— Adesieie- Chief ; room Subordi- Execu- Total Rank 10 | Teachers | nates tives 6 _ Gossiping about and criticizing other teachers ; 207 111 121 439 1 Slurring the profession. ................... he 152 65 57 274 ) 1606 Breaking a contract. “ee ii 54 60 93 207 3 Applying for positions not known to be vacant 39 57 109 205 4 1606 Exaggerating qualifications, and failure to give all pertinent facts when writing recommendations. .......... 50 41 84 175 5 1606 Cultivating friendship among board members and their families in an attempt to exercise a “pull”... wc ccc ccc ccccens ka 52 49 64 165 6 Failure to be a progressive student of education. ... Sab anaes 61 46 57 164 7 1606 Failure to support school policies until they are ch: inged amine , 51 48 61 160 Ss Underbidding for a position. Pikeeens ee pt artenes a a-ee ag 43 38 69 150 9 Going over the head of an administrative superior. ie 36 52 45 133 10 1606 , Discussing pupils in such a way as would embarrass them or their ees ike din hb SDC Ce CREAN 4 OHS w OES ERS ; 52 46 29 12 11 Permitting selfish reasons to influence one’s actions ‘toward pupils 53 21 25 99 12 1606 | Possessing bad personal habits..................6..eeeeeees 41 15 42 98 13 | Failure to participate in activities for community ‘bette rment baa de 37 31 28 96 14 1606 Using the profession as a stepping stone to another vocation 43 25 26 94 15 | Failure to defend other members of the profession when they are | 606 eS eee ree 39 29 25 93 16 606 School officials making policies without consulting ‘their administrative | EERE RS SP ee reer re Terre ne 52 21 15 &8 17 606 Dismissing teachers without giving them ample notice and an oppor- 606 tunity ) eee ee fesadaoaus 40 | 32 14 86 18 606 Violating official correspondence or convers ation es ee Pe 40 21 14 85 19 Failure to withdraw outstanding applications when a " position has od Cea ere go ues Bh dee aes maw £98 24 15 37 76 20 606 Endeavoring to secure or maintain position by innuendo, exploit: ation complimentary press notices, or advertising. 33 14 22 69 21 Applying for a position directly to the board of educ ation instead of 606 ' Sara Sac aie ms bw dim iorw/o oii 9 15 28 52 22 A school official going to a teacher to persu:z ade her to accept a posi tic yn 606 | with him before he has conferred with her present officials. .... 13 7 31 51 23 Securing, or holding a position through ‘ ‘pull” J uk Oa Ce oa 21 19 10 50 4 506 | Failure of school officials to recommend their teac chers for better posi- 506 tions in other communities because of disinclination to lose their 506 SS EE ee eee Sree ie 15 17 17 49 25 | Teaching one’s religious, political, or other private beliefs to pupils 17 11 11 39 26 06 School officials being influenc ed by “‘pull’’ and politics. ‘ 2 19 13 6 38 27 | Issuing and using general testimonials. SEE SS eB 4 5 26 35 28 06 | Accepting a position in a community where a ‘rel: ative is a member of 06 | the board of education or superintendent.............. 11 5 15 31 29 | Failure to encourage the fit to enter and to discourage the unfit from Ce on wd due waéel 6 Ghredac cat 14 4 9 27 30 06 School officials unjustly taking the side of pupils against teachers 13 7 5 25 31.5 Conspiring to undermine one’s administrative superiors and coworkers 4 | 18 3 25 31.5 06 School officials changing marks which teachers have given to pupils 17 4 3 24 33 06 Failure to support teachers associations. ................ece00. 11 7 5 3 34 er. cas wagbiab bene edbe cieaweas 7 7 7 21 35.3 06 | Acting as agent for, or receiving a reward from the pure hase of school | books, equipment, or supplies over which one has jurisdiction 10 4 | 35.3 ji Unwarranted solicitation of sample textbooks................ 8 } 5 i 35.3 6 | Accepting a position from which the preceding inc umbent was dis- : EE SE SE ar renee 8 3 9 0 38.5 6 Interfering between another teacher and one of her pupils. .... 14 2 4 20 38.5 EES EP rene ; 5 9 4 18 10 | Accepting gifts from pupils........ Nasias Reman 7 5 17 41 6 | Admitting pupils expelled from other schools before the expelling "4 | _ authority has been consulted. 4 5 6 15 42 | Permitting and encouraging pupils to make slurring remarks about 6 es caw bean wee edad ce 11 3 1 15 43 Writing testimonials for salesmen..................0.0000 3 7 14 44.5 6 Permitting teachers to be discharged unjustly without protesting 10 2 ) 14 44.5 6 eee rah bh yawns os ¥ew. gonee be « 4 4 5 13 46.3 Applying for positions which one is ‘not qu: alitied to fill... cm 4 | 7 13 16.3 6 | Failure to censure and disclose unprofessional or immoral conduct, and } | _ inefficiency within the profession 4 2 7 13 16.3 6 | Gossiping about the community by which one is employ ed 4 . 12 49.3 Accepting pay from one’s pupils for tutoring them.......... 4 8 12 49.3 6 | Permitting other work to interfere with school duties 5 4 3 12 19.3 , Assuming credit which should go to some other person. .. 6 4 1 11 52 5 | Kow-towing”’ to administrative superiors in the eyo of personal RRS a De Se ree eee Se re 7 2 1 10 53 | | ) 1 This table is a reproduction of Table 6 in the “Final Report of the Committee on Ethics of the Profession,”’ Pro- ; ceedings, 1929. National Education Association. p. 190. [81] i ett TABLE 22.—LAW SCHOOLS IN THE CATALOGUES OF WHICH DEFINITE COURSES IN PROFESSIONAL (LEGAL) ETHICS WERE NOTED i } State City School Catalogue Year Page DP RS yc gn tae 4 de Ee Fayetteville......... University of Arkansas............. 1924-25 9 Ee Berkeley........... University of California............ 1927-28 16 IL, 056.0000 aepere Los Angeles.........| University of Southern California.. 1927-28 16 IR, ..5.0.500.0 6 Rade I is in ak aie 0.0 a University of Colorado............. 1928-29 15 Connecticut... ......0.: New Haven , Rr 1927-28 18 District of Columbia. ...| Washington......... ee ee 1928-29 9 District of Columbia. ...| Washington......... Georgetown University............. 1926-27 17 District of Columbia. ...| Washington......... George Washi m University...... 1928-29 28 District of Columbia....| Washington......... Washington College of Law......... 1925-26 9 PL... chee p60K6 eRe Se EEE 1923-24 16 a bathe soko Gainesville University of Florida. . . 1927-28 18 Es Chats ho «cre Pee no 0's se ded Mercer University................. 1928-29 28 Se lll ee University of Idaho................ 1927-28 12 St a os 6 2 ee ae iid Cie ik de BARS Ae 00 1926-27 11 | Sp re ae Sa DePaul University................. 1928-29 15 | SSPE ics aria aiere a arg See 1927-28 14 EG A, > eihia. 46 0 saan ee Loyola Univerdity................. 1927-28 15 NCS db £ Ele os ya CS | Northwestern University.......... 1926-27 22 SS. i 5 0 OSE k Ses 6 xsehel RENEE ye University of Illinois............... 1928-29 20 I, oh 6-5: inl’ Sea ew aC Bloomington........ Indiana University................ EY ee | A are Des Moines.........| Drake University................. 1927-28 13 University of Kansas. ena 1927-28 16 po SS re 1928-29 14 DR SII gg enc cceccceccces 1928-29 16 Tulane University................. 1928-29 30 TOGUNO TIMIUIIIIET 5 occ ccc cciess... 1928-29 11 University of Detroit.............. 1928-29 17 0 ee ee 1926-27 7 University of Mississippi........... 1927-28 108 University of Missouri............. 1925-26 18 Ee) eee 1928-29 25 St. Louis University. .............. 1927-28 14 Washington University............. 1928-29 24 University of Montana............. 1926-27 158 Creighton University.............. 1928-29 19-22 Union University...... 1927-28 15 Northern University. . . 1926-27 23 Ohio State University. . 1928-29 20 University of Pennsylvania......... 1928-29 18 po > oS eee 1927-28 219 University of South Carolina........ 1924-25 178 Cumberland University............ 1927-28 7 Texas University of Texas................ 1928-29 16 Virginia University of Virginia.............. 1927-28 11 Washi Os uty eaten | ee University of Washington.......... 1928-29 14 Wi a ee es Se University of Wisconsin............ 1927-28 19 . | er Milwaukee......... Marquette University.............. 1928-29 24 1 Summer Session, 1927. TABLE 23.—MEDICAL SCHOOLS IN THE CATALOGUES OF WHICH DEFINITE COURSES IN PROFESSIONAL ETHICS WERE NOTED [ 82] State City School Catalogue Year Page ins Wins 6 wee aug Little Rock.........| University of Arkansas............. 1928-29 47 iad ikea Loma Linda. .......| College of Medical Evangelists...... 1927-28 55 Beas Sie bees 08h Boulder............| University of Colorado............. 1928-29 31 of Columbia. ...| Washington University............. 1927-28 22-39 of Columbia. ...| Washington ashington University........ 1927-28 52 ata wate bakes 0% Chicago............| Loyola University................. 1927-28 82-84 lite im aa ie tacks Rosedale...........| University of Kansas.............. 1928-29 34 ae Seurs oipa os at Louisville. . . University of Louisville............ 1928-29 96 ere Boston.............| Boston University................. 1928-29 32 peerr. Boston.............| Tufts SO Oey an 1927-28 38 Serr s Detroit.............| Detroit of Medicine......... 1927-28 47 ee aba S's wall St. Louis...........| St. Louis Uni Ries cd Saab lom 6 1927-28 101 Dac. sos acme St. Louis...........| Washington University............. 1928-29 120 ee ale vik. a 5 a bids aiye ns ore. Cole > ee see 13 SS BA. Brooklyn........... ng Island le dd wie ewe ce hess Sie Buffalo.............| University of tials Fis ma 6 1927-28 21 Sd useeeacaaks New York..........| Univ. & Hospital.......... 1928-29 62 1 New York..........| Homeopa Med. College......... 1927-28 4 i a cin University..........| University of North Dakota........ 1928-29 14 Rae ome... ay University........ 1927-28 96 ale ny on OL Se Temple Univer es ooo. —* 38 ee) 8 ee em: a pee -? oe $465.05 we Asie Nashville........... went Rye ete acte cbs 1927 27 + ee Galveston.......... iy of Fexae. nec 1928-29 41 ie Reds,