it A ia A oR ERS it es. SSS OR ar at 1SSSaase BOGOaSSGAaSAaSAaSSaESoaGaaGaaganaaaaaaaagce VOL. IX, NO. 5 NOVEMBER, 1931 Research Bulletin OF THE National Education Association BBGSSSAGAGaaaaaaaaaeaeaoaoaaoaaoaaaae TEACHER DEMAND AND SUPPLY | SESSSSSGSSS6SS6665659S86546868SS5S86SS8SS ee sy) ©) ©) © © © © © © ©) S) © © © 9 ©) © © © €) © © © © ©) ©) ©) ©) © © © © © © © ©) © ©) ©) _—_ PUBLISHED BY THE RESEARCH DIVISION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201 SIXTEENTH STREET NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. ¢ 923, at the Post Office ) 912 Acceptance fo1 P Section 110 10, 192 Research Bulletin of the National Education Association Published five times each year in January, March, May, September, and November by the Research Division of the National Education Association of the United States. President, FLORENCE HALe Secretary, J. W. CRABTREE The payment of the $5 membership fee of the National Education Association entitles one to receive the Research Bulletin, the Journal, the Annual Volume of Ad- dresses and Proceedings, and certain other publications of the National Education Asso- ciation for one year. One dollar of each $5 membership fee is for a year’s subscription to the Research Bulletin. The Research Bulletin may be subscribed for separately at a subscription price of $1 per year. Copies may be purchased for 25 cents, and in quantities at a reduced rate. Those entitled to receive the Research Bulletin regularly are asked to report at once any change of address, giving old as well as new address. Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. Director of Research: William G. 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Index The index to the Research Bulletin is published annually with the November number. The contents are also indexed in the Education Index. Reproduction of Material in Research Bulletins Mat service: The Division of Publications will, on request, prepare and supply at cost, mats of charts which appear in the Research Bulletin. Material appearing in Research Bulletins may, with the usual acknowledgements, be reproduced for the advancement of education. No authority other than this notice is needed previous to such reproduction. For further information concerning the work of the Division, address the Research Division, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. [ 306 | TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Pitle Page For! WORD 4 INTRODUCTION 310 Committee on the Economic Status of the 7 310 Specific Purposes of the Study 310 Sources of Information and Methods of Investigatior 10 I. THe Proression AND ProBLeMs IN DEMAND AND S si What Is Meant by the Laws of Demand and Supply? 311 How Does the Law of Demand and Supply Apply to Wages? 312 Oversupply and the Waste of Individual Energy 314 What Is Waste in Teacher Training?. 314 What Agency Should Collect and Disseminate Facts as to the Demand and Supply of Teacher 315 Are There National Aspects to Teacher Supply and Demand? 315 Il. Previous Srupies or TEACHER DEMAND AND SupPL' 317 Ill. THe Sratus or TEACHER DEMAND AND SupPLy IN THE ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS 338 The Demand for Teachers in the Public Day | nentary and Secondary Schoois 338 The Supply of Teachers for the Public Day Elementary and Secondary Scho 343 The Status of Teacher Demand and Supply in 1929-30 345 Summary | 348 IV. Tue Procress or RESEARCH ON TEACHER SuPPLY AND DEMAND PROBLEMS IN THE VARIOUS S 350 V. ProcepureEs IN THE StuDyY, MANAGEMENT, AND ADJUSTMENT OF TEACHER PERSONNEL PROBLEM 358 State Control of Teacher Training 358 Certification of Teachers... ‘ 362 Guidance of High School Students 365 The Selection of Student Teachers Before and During Training 366 Records and Studies by State Departments of Education 371 Summary... 373 VI. A Succestep Strate ProGRam 374 VII. Summary AnD ConcLusIons 376 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 377 Inquiry Forms Usep 1n Stupy Sars 392 InpeEx TO Vo_umeE IX, Researcu BULLETINS 401 f I. Il. LIST OF TABLES An Illustration of Supply and Demand The Number and Biennial Increase of Teaching Positions in Elementary and Secondary Sihocle. Buckingham’s Statement of Supply and Demand in Ohio Teachers Trained in Ohio by Each Type of Teacher-Training Agency, 1925-2 Number of New Teachers in New York State in 1926-27 Types of Communities in Which New Teachers Were Employed............. Predicted Need for Elementary and Secondary Teachers in New York ee en er ee Comparison of Seven States in Regard to Teacher Demand as Determined by Various Bases. The Number of Teachers and the Amount of Experience Demanded in 1929-30 Ability of State Departments of Education to Report Annual Teacher Demand The 1929-30 Demand in Nine States for Inexperienced Teachers Compared With the Supply « Inexperienced Teachers as Estimated from 1927-28 Data Grouping of States on the Basis of the Percent of Demand Satisfied by Out-of-State Sources The Number, Training, and Sources of Teacher Supply Estimated 1928-29 Supply Compared with State Departments’ Reports as to 1929-30 Supply Percent the Number Certificated on Basis of Examination Is of the Number of Graduates of Teacher Training Courses Comparison Between Demand and Supply According to Figures Supplied by State Deper artments of Education Percent of the Total Demand in 1929-30 Formed by the Apparent Oversupply Types of General Control of State Institutions for Higher Education. . Place of State Educational Authorities in the Single Board Type of Control of f Higher E bes ation Budget Procedures of State Institutions Engaged in Teacher Training. . Administrative Agencies Issuing Teaching Certificates in the United States i in 1928 {eee Replies of Local Schooi Authorities as to the Status of Supply of Teachers in Pennsylvania in 192 18 Percent of Students Teaching Subjects for Which They Were Prepared Distribution of Newly Appointed Subject Teachers Who Were College Graduates honedinn ' to Their Major and Minor Subjects ; The Ten Life Careers Chosen Most Frequently by High School Seniors in Indiana. Summary of Certain Common Admission Requirements to State Normal! Schools wal Seate Te: ichers Significant Partial Correlations Reported by Morris Do State Departments Collect Certain Facts Which Concern Teacher Demand and Supply Problems? LIST OF CHARTS Tue Suppty ano Demanp Curves ProposeD ORGANIZATION OF State TEACHERS COLLEGES IN CALIFORNIA. FOREWORD OR seventy-four years the Proceedings of the National Educational Association have reflected the changing conceptions in American education. Problems of teaching technic, school finance, supervision, curriculum construction, and teacher personnel have swung between prominence and obscurity. Problems in the general field of teacher demand and supply have received periodic attention. In 1877 the Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools had a sub-committee on the supply of teachers. At intervals during the years there have been committees of our Association on salaries, tenure, and retirement allowances. In 1927 the Association appointed a committee to study the economic status of the teacher. As one of its first problems, this committee decided to investigate the status of teacher demand and supply. It was expected that an investigation of demand and supply would be not only timely from the viewpoint of teachers generally, but that it would focus the attention of state departments, teachers’ colleges, and others upon this major problem. After the Association had launched its survey the United States Office of Educa tion formulated -plans for an extensive study of teacher training. In the interest of cooperation and mutval aid representatives of the National Education Association conferred with Dr. William John Cooper and Dr. E. S. Evenden. ‘These directors of the Office of Education’s survey not only welcomed the Association’s efforts, but extended to us important aid and advice. The content of this bulletin should be of particular interest to state departments of education, teacher training institutions, superintendents of schools, and school prin- cipals. In the hands of these individuals lies the primary responsibility for the recruit- ment, selection, education, certification, and placement of teachers. Such responsi- bilities call for exact records, careful research, administrative adjustments, and most of all—vision. It is the wish of the Association that this bulletin will form the basis for confer- ences in state and local education associations. Out of the crucible of group thinking should come new plans and new principles to aid in the solution of our present teacher supply and demand problems. J. W. Crastree, Secretary National Education Association. Introduction At the sixty-fifth annual meeting at Seattle in 1927 the proposal was made to appoint a committee on the economic status of the teacher to replace the existing committee on salaries. Miss Cornelia Adair, President of the National Education Association, appointed the following persons: B. R. Buckingham, Chairman; Flor- ence Barnard, W. W. Coxe, Susan M. Dorsey, FE. C. Hartwell, J. R. McGaughy, and Fred- erick L. Whitney. A problem chosen by the committee for in- vestigation was that of teacher supply and de- mand. The Research Division of the National Education Association was asked to assist the committee with the investigation and the prep- aration of the final report.' Specific Purposes of the Study A nationwide study of the problems in teacher supply and demand is a gigantic task. It was necessary to decide as to which of the following sources should be depended upon for the major portion of the data: (1) state de- partments of education, (2) local superintend- ents of schools, or (3) individual teachers. The second and third sources would have required resources beyond those available for this investigation. Furthermore, the details ob- tained from these sources would have taken the study into fields beyond its general purposes: (1) to reveal some of the major teacher supply and demand problems, (2) to point out the significance of these problems to the welfare of the profession, and (3) to arouse the inter- est of state departments of education and other agencies in making careful investigations. Some of the specific questions to be consid- ered were: (1) Do state departments of educa- tion know whether or not there is an oversupply of teachers? (2) Do state departments know how many new teachers are required annually by the public elementary and secondary schools of the states? (3) Do state departments know how many new teachers are being prepared each year by the teacher-training agencies? (4) What agencies in each state are studying teacher supply and demand problems? (5) What are the nature and significance of investigations which have been made to date? (6) How state departments and other agencies atte: ing to influence teacher supply and dema: (7) What further steps or investigations desirable? It is not the purpose of this report to ansy the above questions completely or with fina The study aims to present evidence which stimulate an aggressive and continuous st of teacher supply and demand problems. Sources of Information and Methods of Investigation Through state departments of educatio: state educational associations, universities, libraries a number of previous investigatior were located. These studies were analyzed | discover the basic technics, the facts, and 1 significant conclusions which would be of va! in future surveys. A questionnaire was sent to the departm: of education of the 48 states and the Dist: of Columbia. This inquiry called for the nun ber of teaching positions, the number of new teachers employed each year, the number persons prepared annually for teaching, similar questions. A member of the Research Division of National Education Association visited 37 stat departments of education. On each visit he in terviewed the state superintendent of public instruction or other officials of the state office. A standard interview form was used in obtai: ing facts which would supplement the ot! sources of data. Annual reports and pamphlets issued by va: ous state departments of education were drawn upon for pertinent information. Numerous bu! letins of the United States Office of Education furnished valuable statistics. “Textbooks on eco nomics and education supplied viewpoints which have been woven into the interpretations of th: report. Finally, the members of the Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher and vari ous individuals on the Headquarters Staff of the National Education Association contributed from their experience as students of problems ot teacher personnel. +} 1 Shortly after the present study began the United States Office of Education undertook a comprehensive survey of teacher training under Dr. William John Cooper and Dr. E. S. Evenden. To avoid unnecessary duplication, and to provide the maximum of cooperation, conferences were arranged between representatives of the Research Division and officials of the Office of Education The outcome of these meetings was official recognition and important assistance from the United States Office of Education. [ 310 ] How attempt demand ? tions O answ finalit hich wil us study IS. 10ds of ucation. les, and igations yzed to and the »f value rtments District ie num- of new iber of g, and of the 7 State he in- public office. ybtain- other y Vari- lrawn s bul- -ation n eco which of the Pe on vari- ff of uted ns of eacher imum ‘ation \. CHAPTER I The Profession and Problems in Demand and Supply Each year finds some new phase of American education submitted to scrutiny. Investigations are made, data are published, and the educa- tional machinery is called upon for new adjust- ments. Yet, in spite of the many studies, and sometimes because of them, the great mass of teachers quite properly challenge with these questions: How does that affect the education of children? How does that concern my wel- fare? What can we do about it? The purpose of this chapter is to discuss cer- tain questions which give background to the re- port. Little attempt is made to support every point with objective evidence, although such substantiation may be found in subsequent chapters. Rather, the section summarizes ex- pert opinion and reviews some of the problems which are pertinent to a study of teacher de- mand and supply. What Is Meant by the Laws of Demand and Supply? The phrase, “demand and supply,” is com- monly used in economics to describe market conditions. The so-called “law of supply and demand”’ is a statement of the relation between value and the quantity of the things valued. A simplified statement of the law is as follows: Supply and demand in the market tend always to equality, any tendency to become unequal being immediately made up by an upward or a down- ward movement in price.’ Supply does not mean the “total amount” of a commodity existing in the world. Rather, the term is applied fo the quantity of things offered for sale. The amount actually taken is called “realized” supply. The untaken surplus is “po- tential” supply as long as it is on the market. Demand is a term applied to the amount of a thing that will be taken at a price. A superin- tendent of schools may want to buy ten pieces of playground apparatus, but the funds at his disposal may limit the demand made of manu- facturers to five articles. This illustration brings out that when the demander goes into the mar- ket he must have not only the desire, but the wherewithal to satisfy his demand. The determination of price—The statement of the law of supply and demand given above points out that the two “tend always to equal- ity.’ That is to say, in the interaction between buyers and sellers, the price tends to come to the place where the largest number of persons will be satisfied. For purposes of illustration, we may assume the conditions shown in Table 1. Here we have five sellers (A, B, C, D, and E) who are will- ing to dispose of the number of commodities in column 2 for the prices in column 3. The buyers (V, W, X, Y, and Z) are willing to purchase the number of commodities in column 4 for the prices in column 3. TABLE 1.—AN ILLUSTRATION OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND | uantity Quantity Sellers ffered Price | Demanded Buyers I 2 3 q 5 5 2.50 1 \ B 4 2.00 W 3 1.50 3 X D 2 1.00 4 \ E 1 50 5 Z In the competition between the buyers and sellers of Table 1 the price of $1.50 is the point at which the demand and supply come into equilibrium. At this price the maximum num- ber of sales would beconsummated. For example sellers C, D, and E would be willing to sell six articles, and buyers, V, W, and X would be pre- pared to purchase six articles. This simplified and theoretical illustration is shown graphically in Chart I. ‘ Chart I is simply a “snapshot” of the theo- retical conditions set forth in Table 1. Under actual market conditions a number of factors might enter in so as to force the price up or down. New sellers might enter the market with offers to sell at $1.00 or less, a cheaper substitute for the commodity might be found, or new de- manders might appear who were willing to pay 1 Faubel, Arthur L. Principles of Economics. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1923. p. 71. [ 311 ] $2.00 or more. It is beyond the purpose of this discussion to go into the intricate problems of demand and supply under market conditions.’ Elasticity and inelasticity—Both demand and supply react to changes in price. A commodity such as salt is said to have an “inelastic de- mand” because variations in price do not affect materially the amount used. The demand for costly jewelry may be “elastic’’ because reduc- tions or increases in the price produce gross changes in the demand. Supply is said to be “inelastic” if the variations in prices do not seriously affect the quantity offered for sale. If the quantity on the market varied widely with changes in price the term “elastic supply”’ is often applied. CHART I.—THE SUPPLY AND DEMAND CURVES Price per article Quantitv How Does the Law of Demand and Supply Apply to Wages? Writers on economic problems generally agree that the law of supply and demand in- fluences wages much as it does prices. A typical statement is as follows: Labor receives payment for services just as seller of any commodity receives a price fo: things he offers to buyers. In some instanc: service is purchased directly by the consume: the wages in that case are determined accordi: the principles of value. When the supply of dom: servants is very large their wages fall, the den for them remaining the same; if the demand creases, their wages rise. The same statement a) to all professions. The principle of demand supply controls the earnings.” In dealing with labor personnel the dema: is the employer. The workman offers his s ices for sale, i.e. he is the “supply” which j satisfy the employer’s needs. The payment exchange agreed upon by the employer and | employee is the “wage.”’ This transaction be represented by graphs similar to Chart | When Employer A offers a high way: demands a large amount of help, the supp! available workers tends to increase rapid|) the demand for helpers stops or slows doy and the supply keeps piling up then an ‘‘o supply” develops. The unemployed perso: who constitute the oversupply, can get an ir come in two ways: (1) by engaging in oth occupations, or (2) by underbidding and d placing some of Employer A’s present « plovees. If Employer A is anxious to redu production costs he may encourage the un ployed to underbid, or he may force his «1 ployees to accept a cut in wages. All that has been said above regarding mand, supply, and wages applies with eq force to the teaching profession. Since we considering in this report the public element and secondary schools, the demanders are thy school boards.* The unemployed teachers‘ wit the required certificates constitute the supp The annual demand would equal the tota! the replacements, the new teaching position and the vacancies or unfilled positions.° Demand for teachers tends to be fixed—\'| demand for teachers each year includes the placements, the new positions, and the unfi!! ! Interested readers should consult some of the standard textbooks on economics. Among the less technical books ar following: Principles of National Economy by T. N. Carver, Ginn and Company, Boston, 1921, p. 343-53; and Economic ciples, and Interpretations by Roy E. Curtis, A. W. Shaw and Company, Chicago, 1928, p. 191-277. For technical discussio: such references as: Statistical Laws of Demand and Supply by Henry Schultz, University of Chicago Press, 1928, 228 p., and Syn Economics by H. L. Moore, Macmillan Company, New York, 1929, 186 p. ‘Garver, F. B., and Hansen, A. H. Principles of Economics. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1928. p. 407. + Of course, boards of school trustees act for the citizens. In most school systems, the apparent demander is the superinte! who is acting for the board of education. * The bulk of the unemployed teachers in normal times are the annual graduates of teacher-training institutions. When tr ing schools turn out teachers too rapidly the supply includes not only the recent graduates, but all previous graduates wh failed to obtain positions. In times of financial to the supply. 5 Replacements are necessary when teachers resign or are discharged. New positions are those created by the building o! epression many former teachers return to the profession and thereby add fu: f schools or other increases in teaching positions. Vacancies are places which the demander hopes to fill with a person of a ce: training, failing in this no one is employed or a substitute temporarily fills the gap. [ 312] vacancies. In 1922-23 timated that about 110,000 teachers drop out of state superintendents es- the profession each year and must be replaced.! Table 2 gives some indication of the number of new teaching positions created every two years in public elementary and secondary schools. No data are available as to the total number of unfilled positions. TABLE 2.—THE NUMBER AND BIEN- NIAL INCREASE OF TEACHING POSI- TIONS IN ELEMENTARY AND SEC- ONDARY SCHOOLS Total Number of Biennial Increase in Period Teaching Positions | Number of Positions 1 ; al 2 ; 1916-1918 | 633,585 1918-1920 657,415 23,830 1920-1922 705 ,499 48 O84 1922-1924 748 , 309 42,810 1924-1926 795,745 $7 436 1926-1928 | 821,753 26,008 Read column 3 as follows: Between 1918 and 1920 the number of teaching positions increased 23,830 Data from volumes of the Biennial Survey of the United States Office of Education. A conservative estimate is that the annual de- mand in the United States is for 110,000 to 120,000 new teachers. This demand is fairly constant from year to year regardless of the status of salaries or supply. For example: If Superintendent A finds at the end of the year that his schools need 20 new teachers, his de- mand tends to be fixed. He may increase the size of classes and employ only 15 teachers. Or he may create several new positions and demand 25 new teachers. The fact remains, however, that the existence of a number of children makes it necessary for him to demand approximately 20 new teachers. In terms, then, of approximately 800,000 teaching positions, the demand for replacements and new positions would not vary widely from year to year. While factors which tend to in- crease tenure, such as retirement plans, salary schedules, and tenure laws, act over a period of years to reduce the total demand, the change in terms of a state or the nation is probably not very large. In general, the conclusion seems to be sound, that the demand for new teachers from year to year tends to be fixed. Supply of teachers tends to vary—lIn contrast with the fixed tendency of the demand, the supply of teachers is rather elastic. Supply is subject to rapid and large change for the fol low ing reasons: 1. In the collegiate departments of universities and colleges in 1928 there were 695,219 students.” Under many of the present state certification laws a number of these students are potential teachers.’ Of the 83,000 students obtaining the baccalaureate degree in 1928 how many attempted to get positions in teaching? How many of the 695,219 students may be attracted to teaching after one or two years of collegiate work? 2. In 1928 there were 274,348 teacher-training students in all teachers colleges and normal schools. These schools are training one teacher for every four elementary school positions and one teacher for every two high school positions.‘ How many of these persons may decide to accept a teaching position after one year of training? 3. In 1928 there were 46,565 students in teacher training courses in high schools. Under existing conditions in many states these persons may put their services on the market and become a part of the supply with very little training 4. Another factor making for a flexible supply of teachers is the lack of centralization of certification In some states local superintendents may grant emergency licenses which are good for one year Under such conditions the demander may increase the supply at will and license persons who will accept the demander’s wage offer 5. The supply of teachers tends to be elastic be cause of the persons with regular licenses to teach, who go into non-teaching occupations. Some of these individuals marry, others accept temporary employ- ment, and others are merely unemployed. Each year a number of these persons join the supply of teach ers, particularly when an economic depression makes for unemployment in non-teaching occupa tions. In some states the so-called “life” or “per- manent” certificate has tended to create a “potential supply” which may be brought back into the profes- sion at any time regardless of training or ability Summary—When demand and supply are approximately in equilibrium, the chances are favorable that the demander and the supplier will both be fairly well satisfied. When the de- mand is large and the supply of teachers small, salaries tend to go up. This upward trend of working conditions is good for individual teach- 1 See Table 3 in ‘‘ The Problem of Teacher Tenure,”’ Research Bulletin, National Education Association, November, 1924. p. 144 ? See the Biennial Survey, 1926-28, United States Office of Education. p. 698. Table 1. ; * A study of 83,472 graduates of 199 liberal arts colleges for the years 1923 to 1927 showed that 45 percent ing. See the Seventh Yearbook, Department of Superintendence, National Education Association, 1929. p. 451 ‘See the Biennial Survey, 1926-28, United States Office of Education. p. 887. 5 Ibid., p. 891. [ 313 | ers, but many communities in order to combat rising costs are forced to employ teachers with inferior training. When supply is greatly in ex- cess of demand, salaries tend to go down, and many of the best prepared teachers turn to the more lucrative occupations.’ Furthermore, an oversupply of teachers is a waste, both for the individual who fails to ob- tain employment, and for the state by which the training is provided. In state school systems the demand for teachers tends to be rather fixed, while the supply of teachers tends to be flexible. Obviously, equilibrium between demand and supply calls for an examination of the nature of the demand, and the development of sane meth- ods for controlling the supply. Oversupply and the Waste of Individual Energy Recently the writer interviewed a senior student in a four year municipal normal school. It is a matter of general knowledge, according to the student, that practically none of the 600 graduates finishing the course each year actually obtain teaching positions. A few of the gradu- ates go to the universities for advanced training. The bulk of the students go into temporary work for one or two years until a teaching posi- tion opens, because there is an oversupply of licensed teachers.? How many of the graduates of this school could have spent their time to better advantage® by pursuing training which led to immediate employment ? How many of these students en- tered the normal school under the impression that training in a public institution led auto- matically into a teaching position? Does experi- ence in department stores give the graduate in teacher-training additional skill for instructing children ? It may be argued that the students who pass through the normal school will make better citi- zens even though they never become teachers. Certainly, it is true that teacher-training may be ! Buckingham, B. R. Supply and Demand in Teacher Training. Ohio State University Studies, Vol. thought of as a type of liberal arts traini: However, if the state or city is financially a to provide for liberal arts training for its you citizens, it should do so without charging | costs to teacher-training. The purpose of the above section has not be to offer objective proof that teacher-trainin, always a waste for the individual who fails ¢ obtain employment as a teacher. The question merely raised at this time for careful consid tion. Surely, no one would attempt for lon, defend the thesis: “Even though it didn’t him any good, it couldn't do him any harn An argument of this kind cannot be permitt: to handicap or to forestall searching and scien tific inquiry. What Is Waste in Teacher Training? In 1877 Principal C. C. Rounds defended the normal schools against a concerted attack by state legislatures.* A major charge at that time was that few normal school graduates actual!) went into teaching. Mr. Rounds’ reply may summarized as follows: Since the average length of service of teache: was three years, the schools required 83,000 persons annually to supply the turnover. The normal schoo! of the United States were graduating 2206 teach: Obviously, the number of normal school graduates would seem small. The solution was immediate! to multiply the normal school nearly forty times The question today has taken somewhat dif ferent form: If a person is prepared for teach ing, by the state, and cannot obtain a position has the state wasted its money in teacher-train ing? It certainly is possible to show that th: state actually paid out several hundred dollars to prepare the graduate.® It may also be argued that teacher-training is a specialized education which should prepare specialists for the state's service. Furthermore, the state which contributes too generously to the number of trained teache: may be doing indirect damage to its own educa 2, No. 15, 1926. p. 1-¢ ? The reader should clearly distinguish between persons with licenses to teach and teachers with a high type of trai: Many teachers among the available supply in the United States have less than the commonly accepted standard of two years college work. +A challenging viewpoint of the dangers in an unplanned program of higher education is presented by Dr. Harold F. C| “*Economic Effects of Education.” Journal of Higher Education, March, 1930, p. 141-48. ‘ een al C. C. Rounds, Normal School, Farmington, Maine prepared a paper on “Attacks on Normal Schools’ e Proceedings, National Education Associ ation, 1877. p. in the Ninth Yearbook, Department of Superintendence, 193! printed int 5 See ‘Present Distribution of Expenditures for Education” * which w 159-67. BR: 315-39; F. H. Hamilton, Fiscal Support of State Teachers Colleges. Contributions to Education, No. 165. New York: Teache: ollege, Columbia University, 1924, p. 12-22; and the Biennial Survey of Education, 1926-28, U. S. Office of Education, p. 890. [ 314] ning y al youn: ig tl ; be n Ing is ils to 10n is de: l ny to rm.” itted clen g? ided k by ime ally ;, y be hers sons ools tional machinery. For example: an oversupply of teachers tends to reduce salaries, makes ten- ure insecure, and forces many superior teachers into non-teaching occupations. Can the state afford to drive out experienced and trained leaders from among its own employees ? What are the commonly discussed evidences of a surplus of teachers?—Among some of the indications of oversupply of teachers commonly cited are the following: (a) Graduate students at teacher-training insti- tutions often find some difficulty in obtaining posi- tions. Before assuming that there is an oversupply on this basis, due consideration must be given to (1) the unwillingness of many students to accept the available positions, and (2) the specialization of students far in advance of the typical public school demand. (b) Oversupply is assumed from the number of applications for positions which pile up in offices of city superintendents. Teachers who are seeking bet- ter salaries and employment conditions, often place applications in several advanced communities. The extent of these applications is not safe evidence of unemployment or oversupply. (c) Another phase of demand and supply in need of careful study and cautious interpretation, is that of the number of applications in public and private teacher placement bureaus. The large number of applications in these offices undoubtedly includes many duplications and represents persons who are merely seeking to improve over their present posi- tions. Gross figures from placement bureaus need exacting analysis before they can accurately repre- sent the status of teacher supply. (d) A fourth bit of evidence sometimes cited to show the status of teacher supply is the number of certificates issued in a state. Again the need for caution is evident, when we realize that many licenses are renewals of previous certificates. Cre- dentials are issued to teachers in other states and to college graduates who “may teach someday.” There- fore, the total number of certificates is likely to be larger than the actual supply of teachers. (e) A fifth caution in the gauging of teacher supply is to distinguish between persons with licenses to teach and teachers with adequate train- ing. Many teachers are now in teaching, or are entering it each year, who do not have even a minimum of professional preparation.’ If these per- sons were excluded or replaced, the demand for well-trained teachers would be increased. In many instances the “oversupply” of teachers in a state really means a surplus of persons with teaching licenses. Summary—The purpose of this section has been to raise the question: If the state prepares Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1927. p. 585-620. [ 315 ] more persons for teaching than can possibly find positions, have not public funds been misplaced ? The answer hangs upon the reason why the potential teachers have not been placed. If an individual simply refuses to teach, or gets mat ried, or moves to another state, the state has been the victim of circumstances. If the in- dividual, the training school, and the state placement officers discover evidence that a gen uine oversupply exists, then the question may be raised whether the state’s energies have not been misplaced. Before anyone can be sure of the genuineness of the oversupply, there must be an extensive and intensive collection of facts. What Agency Should Collect and Dis- seminate Facts as to the Demand and Supply of Teachers? The working unit for studying teacher sup ply and demand is the state. Education is a state function. Every state has a state department ot public instruction which is the fact-gathering and fact-reporting agency on matters of public education. The state usually assumes the major responsibility for teacher training. Local school units look to the state office for help and guid- ance in carrying out educational policies. ‘The state is and should be interested in the teachers who contribute so much to its welfare and progress.” State departments of public instruction have a challenging problem. It requires much pa tience, skill, and determination to assemble and to interpret facts regarding teacher supply and demand. Yet several states have made excellent surveys and report a vast store of helpful data. Elsewhere in this report are descriptions of pro- cedures which state offices have found useful. Are There National Aspects to Teacher Supply and Demand? The preceding section suggests the state as the working unit for fact-gathering and record- keeping in teacher personnel. ‘The state depart- ments are strategically placed to gather evidence on the demand and the supply of teachers. ‘The state education offices are also ideally situated for making the facts available to interested parties. There are, however, certain national 1 The problem of a long period of professional training has been questioned by educators as to its economic implications For example: Are there many districts where they cannot raise the money to pay an adequate salary to teachers with more than two years of professional training? ? Discussed fully in ‘‘The Training of Teachers for Service,” Chapter XXII, State School Administration E. P. Cubberley aspects of the question which deserve much thought and attention. Among these national problems are the following: Standardization of terminology in teacher per- sonnel work. If studies of demand and supply in teacher training are to be comparable between the states, the various categories, terms, and meanings must be generally understood. Among the terms re- quiring standardization of meaning and use are: demand, supply, new teacher, length of service, and vacancy. More general standardization of teacher training values and practises. Here we find such questions as: How long should the period of training be? What topics should the student teacher study ? What types of certificates should be issued? How can the reciprocity on certificates be standardized between the states? When is a person adequately trained for teaching ? A continuous nation-wide survey of teacher de- mand and supply. Eventually such a survey should be made at least every two years through the coop- eration of the Office of Education and the National Education Association.’ The need for a national survey is apparent, when one considers how vitally interested the nation, as a whole, is in the welfare of each state. Americans, in general, and teachers, in particular, move freely from state to state. Reci- procity in teachers certificates is commonly prac- tised between states. ‘leacher-training scho are often located near state lines, and the s! dents obtain positions in nearby states. L certification standards in one state tend to tract the poorly trained teacher from ot states. When one state raises its certification employment standards to a high level, the ferior teachers often crowd into another stat Also, if a state offers high-grade training surrounding states do not, the former | many of its well-trained teachers. The lat: become predatory states in respect to teachie In years gone by—perhaps even yet—graduat amounting to the equivalent of the output of average sized normal school in Wisconsin once took positions in other states. These and similar problems clearly indicat that the problem of teacher supply and demar does not stop with state boundaries. It is i: portant to have a national agency give publicit to the teacher demand and supply data whi have been collected by each state. This wid spread publicity will make for uniform resear: technics, mutual encouragement of state depart ments of education, and a general lifting o1 teacher-training standards to the level of th best practices. ' There will be many problems in making a national survey based upon state figures. For example: an experienced t entering a state is counted as unit in the supply for that state. On the national basis, however, this person is not a ‘‘new"’ t« A summing of state totals should make allowances for this migration of teachers. NDER these circumstances (an oversupply of teachers) persons who have been trained to teach but who find no opportunity so to do must of necessity take up other lines of work. They are likely to go out of teaching permanently; thus the money and time spent on their training become, in large part, a loss to them as well as to the state. Or, what is more disturbing, they may take teaching positions for which they are not well qualified. On the other hand, if the demand for teachers of a given type greatly exceeds the supply, there is a tendency for salaries to increase and for working conditions to be easy. If this were all, the result would not necessarily be alarming. In the effort, however, to resist the rising cost of education, a community faced with an overdemand for teaching talent frequently employs, under emergency provisions, teachers possessed of less than the legal qualifications. Thus the service is debauched and the children—in all these matters the “ultimate consumers’—are the losers.—Buckingham, B. R.., Supply and Demand in Teacher Training. p. 1. CHAPTER II Previous Studies of Teacher Demand and Supply As early as 1876, Alexander Hogg, speak- ing on the educational needs of the South, used the phrase: “The demand for well-qualified the 1 Superintendent Aaron Gove of Den- colored teachers is much greater than supply.” ver addressed the National Education Associa- tion in 1894 on the sources of supply of city 1897 the Twelve on Rural Schools submitted a sub-com- school teachers.? In Committee of mittee report on the supply of teachers.* These and other references in the Proceedings indi- cate that teacher demand and supply have re- ceived the attention of the National Education Association at intervals since 1857. Yet a close examination of the early speeches and reports does not show a realization that teacher demand and supply are closely associated The concerned with the economic welfare of teachers. primarily with three problems: (1) How to get enough teachers with adequate training, (2) How to make the more training agencies, and (3) How to keep up the professional skill and enthusiasm of teachers in service.* Buckingham’s pioneer study’ of Ohio in 1923-24 brought forcibly to the attention of the profession that teacher demand and supply had far-reaching economic consequences. Since 1926 other important studies have been made in Vermont, Ohio, Louisiana, California, New York, North Carolina, Colorado, North Dakota, and other states. This chapter summarizes nine outstanding investigations® under the headings: (1) State- ment of the problem, (2) Importance of the problem, (3) Basic definitions and assump- tions, (4) Scope and methods of study, (5) Findings of study, and (6) Recommendations or conclusions. At the end of the chapter certain general implications of the nine studies have been brought together for the sake of emphasis. early discussions were normal schools effective as 1 Hogg, Alexander, ‘‘ The Lack and Needs of the South Educationally."’ Pre 2 Gove, Aaron, ‘‘Sources of Supply of Teachers in City Schools.’’ Proceedings, National Education Associatior of the ¢ *Sabin, Henry (C. C. Rounds and Others), ** Report Education Association, 1897. p. 385-583. * Most readers will recognize that this third function is at the present time « § Dr. Buckingham made an investigation of teacher demand and supply in Wisconsin in 1917 Study I. Ohio 1923-24 in Ohio has served as a model for several subse Buckingham’s investigation in quent studies.‘ Statement of problem—A study of the rela- tionship between the need for trained teachers in Ohio and the number available for meeting this need. Information bearing upon this rela tionship in different types of teaching and dit ferent types of schools is presented. ‘he ade quacy of the state teacher-training program is considered. Importance of problem tains that the subject of this study is a matter The writer main of utmost importance to the educational wel fare of the state. The teacher is essentially the school, and any study which deals with the teacher strikes at the heart of the school system. Conditions in the schools are most favorable when the supply of and the demand for teach- ers are about equal. If the supply exceeds the demand, salaries are likely to go down, tenure becomes insecure, and working conditions more exacting. Persons trained for a particular type of teaching are forced to leave the profession or to take positions for which they are not fully qualified. On the other if the demand is greatly in excess of the supply, hand, salaries will tend to increase and working con ditions will improve, but many communities, in order to combat rising school costs, will be forced to employ inferior teachers. In either case the children will be the ultimate losers. Furthermore, a lack of adjustment in the supply of teachers to the need for them will result in an increased costliness of the teacher- training process. When a shortage of teachers exists, the teacher-training operate with classes but half full. When there institutions will is an over-supply, they will be training teachers for a service which the state does not need. 1876, p. 83. 374 ceedings, National Education Association 1894. p. ommittee of Twelve on Rural Schools.’ Pr ling il vervision s applied onsidered to be an important phase of suy The term to the Ohio study because the Wisconsin report was never published * A number of excellent studies have not been included in this chapter because of space limitations. Students f teacher | sonnel problems are referred to the annotated bibliography at the end of this report. ’ Buckingham, B. R. Supply and Demand in Teacher Training. Ohio State University Studies, Vol. 2, No. 15. Bureau of Educational Research Monographs, No. 4. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, March 15, 1926. 182 p. [ 317 ] Facts concerning school and teacher-training conditions are needed as a basis for the balanc- ing of teacher supply and teacher demand, yet in most states a knowledge of these facts is lacking. Investigations similar to this one should be instituted in all of the states. Basic definitions and assumptions—The study sets up the following basic definitions and assumptions: 1. Demand means the number of new teachers needed in a given year as measured by the number newly appointed plus the number of unfilled posi- tions in that year. p. 7, 11, 48. 2. Teacher means public school teacher and covers every type of professional service including not only classroom instruction, but also supervising offi- cials and all other professional school people. p. 8. 3. New teacher means any teacher who at the time of appointment had had no teaching experi- ence; experienced teachers whose entire teaching has been done outside of Ohio; and teachers, ex- perienced in Ohio, but not teaching for six months prior to appointment. It is clear that there are other types of newness than the three mentioned. None of them, however, has a bearing upon the general question of the teaching requirements of the state. p. 7-8. 4. Trained teacher. “The state provides for a certain acceptable degree of competence on the part of its teachers. Whether that degree of competence is sufficient it is not the primary purpose of this study to examine. We take our point of departure from existing conditions in this respect. . . . We shall regard a teacher as ‘trained’ who has been gradu- ated from a specified course in an institution sup- ported or approved by the state for teacher-training purposes. . . . In other words he may obtain a certificate without examination. It is this class of persons—those whose training the state does not question—whom we shall regard for the purpose of this report as trained for the service.” p. 4-5. 5. Supply means the number of graduates trained in the accredited institutions of Ohio to teach in the public schools increased by the trained teachers who come into the state, and decreased by those who go out of it. p. 26, 48. 6. Graduate. Some institutions have other types of graduates than those trained to teach. .. . We are not concerned with these others. . . . We shall, for the sake of brevity, refer to graduates trained to teach merely as graduates. p. 13. Scope and methods of study—The data re- ported in this study represent conditions in Ohio, exclusively. In order to obtain the de- mand data, superintendents were asked to report the names of all teachers who were new to their school systems in 1923-24. These teachers were then questioned as to teaching experience in Ohio and elsewhere, present position, last position, training, and present teaching program. Returns received were from 90 to 95 percent complete. Superintendent: were also asked to furnished information to the number of vacancies in 1923-24. Ry turns on this question were so incomplete that another attempt was made to gather these dat in 1924-25, when replies were received fro: all but four counties, one exempted village and eight small cities. It was assumed that th: same number of vacancies existed in 1923-24 as were reported for the year 1924-25. Data on supply were obtained from schools and colleges included in the state department of education’s list of accredited teacher-train ing institutions and from their graduates. In formation was requested concerning the year of graduation, record of teaching service since graduation in Ohio and elsewhere, course taken, length of course, major and minor sub jects, and number of credit hours of profes sional work of each person who graduated during the five-year period from January 1, 1919 to December 31, 1923. Returns were re ceived from 86 percent of the graduates of all types of institutions. Findings of study—Analysis of the data collected showed 5593 teachers who newly appointed to the public schools of Ohio in 1923-24. Vacancies to the number of 775 were reported in 1924-25. Assuming that the same number of vacancies existed in 1923-24 as in 1924-25, and adding this figure to the number of new teachers appointed, a demand for 6368 new teachers in 1923-24 was ar- rived at. Allowing for inaccuracies and incom pleteness in the data the annual demand for teachers in Ohio was placed at about 6500. Data collected concerning the supply of graduates of teacher-training institutions in Ohio showed an increase in the number of such graduates, between 1919 and 1923, of from 1507 to 3613. From an examination of the detailed information concerning these grad uates, it was determined that 2987 of those who graduated in 1923 actually taught in Ohio. Of the teachers reported as newly ap- pointed in 1923-24, 772 received normal school, college, or university training, outside of Ohio. In the same year there were estimated to have been about 1100 of the following classes of persons: (1) one year card students, entitled to teach after completing one year of a longer professional course and passing an examina tion; and (2) persons who obtained certifi- cates to teach on the basis of county examina- were [318] lent ain tions and 30 weeks of professional training. These 1100, while they did not constitute a part of the supply of trained teachers as de- fined in this study, did, nevertheless, represent a portion of the total available teacher supply in that year. Bringing together the data on teacher supply from the various sources, a total supply of 4859 teachers was discovered. When this figure was compared with the estimated annual demand of 6500, or the demand actually shown for 1923-24 of 6368 teachers, a shortage of 1641, or at least 1509, teachers was revealed. A tabular statement of annual supply and demand is given in Table 3. That the teacher shortage was being gradu- ally diminished, however, and that Ohio was, year by year, meeting its responsibilities for the training of teachers more adequately, was in- dicated by an increase in the supply of gradu- ates of 139.7 percent, during the five-year period studied, as compared with an increase in public school enrolments of 16.5 percent and an increase in number of teachers employed of only 11 percent. Data were studied to determine the part played in the teacher-training program by in- stitutions of various types. Seventy-six and a half percent of the teaching force of the state was supplied by publicly supported, and 23.5 percent by privately supported institutions. Of the state-supported institutions, the one-year county normal schools made a greater contri- bution than the state colleges and universities. It was felt that too great a reliance was being placed upon privately endowed colleges and universities, which alone contributed 16.5 per- cent of the state’s teachers, and that this reliance had tended to retard the development of an adequate state system of teacher-training. TABLE 3.—BUCKINGHAM’S STATEMENT OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND IN OHIO Number Total Total number new teachers appointed | | Demand: Estimated number of vacancies. Total.... Beas ; 6,368 Supply: Graduates (1923) who taught in Ohio had ; New teachers trained in other states Non-graduates having one year of training ; med | 0 ere Sins Excess of demand over supply... . With regard to supply and demand in the various types of schools and the various types of teaching, it was found that: 1. A shortage of trained teachers existed for po sitions in one-room rural, graded, elementary, junior high, and senior high schools. 2. Over one-half of the new appointees in the junior high school and approximately one-fifth of the new high-school appointees in 1923-24 were drawn from other parts of the school system. The question is raised as to whether these schools should be allowed to fill their needs at the expense of othe branches of the service. 3. The supply of kindergarten teachers who were graduates of private institutions was sufficient to supply the entire needs of the state. 4. Among subject teachers the supply of those who majored in chemistry, English, French, Ger man, sociology, and Spanish greatly exceeded the demand. The opposite was true with respect to commercial subjects, drawing, manual training, physical training, and especially general science, geography, and physiology. 5. Little was being done in the way of educa tional guidance for students in training, and infor- mation which would make possible the right type of guidance was lacking. The percents of teachers still in service four or five, three, and two years after graduation were found to be as follows: 4 or 5 years after graduation 50 percent years after graduation . 62 percent years after graduation 69 percent year after graduation 77 percent Survival in service was discovered to be greater among graduates of publicly supported institutions, and to increase with length of training. The proportion of graduates with one year of training increased during the five-year period studied, while the proportion of those with four years of training decreased. ‘The relative number of those with two years of training remained about stationary throughout the period. Recommendations—On the basis of the above findings the study offers as general recommendations: the establishment of stand- ards for different types of teaching based upon a careful analysis of conditions; provision of incentives to enter and temain in the teaching service; and better selection of personnel based upon job analysis and a study of the individual aptitudes of candidates. [ 319 | Among the more specific recommendations offered are the following: 1. The organization of the teacher-training in- stitutions of the state into a unified system. 2. Provision of free tuition and a liberal system of scholarships and in return the requirement of a pledge on the part of students to teach in the state. 3. The abandonment of the one-year county train- ing schools. 4. The establishment by the state of two, and ultimately of four, new teacher-training institu- tions. 5. Legislation requiring the provision of practice- teaching facilities. 6. The limitation to three, of the number of sub- jects which one teacher may teach. 7. Better recruiting facilities. Measures which will insure the delivery of the output of the teacher- training institutions to the schools of the state and cause teachers to remain longer in service. 8. The establishment of a teacher placement bureau in the state department of education. Above all, a continuous study on the part of the state, of the problems which are basic to the training, placing, and holding in service of a sufficient corps of teachers, is recom- mended. Legal authority to put into effect measures based on the results of such a study should be granted. Study II. Vermont Steele studied teacher demand and supply in Vermont in 1924-25." Statement of problem—A study of the num- ber of teachers needed in the rural, high and elementary schools of the state, the present status of the training of teachers with ref- erence to a defined desirable minimum stand- ard, and the adequacy of present state teacher training facilities. Basic definitions—Preliminary to the study the following definitions were set up: 1. High school teacher. A teacher employed in any of the high schools or junior high schools recog- nized by the state board of education. 2. Graded school teacher. A teacher employed in an elementary school having two or more rooms. 3. Rural school teacher. A teacher employed in a school having not more than two teachers and offer- ing instruction prescribed for the rural school course. 4. Teacher-training course. A teacher-training school or class, rather than a division of instruction within the teacher-training curriculum. Scope and methods of study—The study confines itself to the administrative phases of the problem. Where consideration is given to instructional or curricular phases, it is on incidental to their bearing upon the m: problem of administration. The scope of ¢! study is also limited to the training of teache: for general, rural, graded, and high scho positions. No attention is given to the trai ing of teachers of special subjects. Records on file in the office of the stat commissioner of education, reports of sup: intendents of supervisory districts of the stat: and applications of teachers for certificat: were sources used in obtaining data on th present status of the teaching force at th time. Records of every third high schoo teacher, every fourth elementary teacher, and every sixth rural teacher were examined. This plan involved handling the records of 2()() teachers in 79 high schools, 200 teachers in the graded schools of 79 cities, and 275 teachers in rural schools of 196 towns and rural districts. Personal visits were made to the one-yea: and two-year teacher-training classes. State ments were obtained from students and _ in structors at these institutions. Superintendent: principals, and others conversant with condi tions were interviewed with reference to the teacher-training situation in the state. Information of a historical nature wa taken from reports of the state board of edu cation and other documents on file in the stat commissioner’s office. Recent state surveys and other studies, including unpublished material, were made use of as sources of information relating to conditions in other states. Findings of study—On the basis of reports of superintendents of supervisory districts, it was discovered that Vermont employed 508 high school teachers in 1919-20, and 588 in 1924-25. During the same period the numbe: of graded school positions increased from 684 to 816. The number of rural school teachers decreased from 1548 in 1919-20 to 1345 in 1924-25. Data on turnover of teachers revealed an annual need in Vermont of 150 new high school teachers, 45 graded school teachers and 325 rural teachers. The typical high school teacher of the period studied was found to be between 26 and 27 years old, a college graduate, with or without professional training, who had taught an aver 1 Steele. Robert McCurdy. A Study of Teacher Training in Vermont. Teachers College, Contributions to Education, No. 243 New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1926. 111 p. [ 320 } on! main i the chers *hoo rain State Iper tate Sates the that hool and This 200 s in a/) and age of 2.5 years in Vermont, but only 1.6 years in the same position. She received a salary of $1400. The typical graded school teacher was about 28 or 29 years old and had a high school education, one year of professional training, and four weeks of summer school. Her teach- ing experience was eight years and she had remained in each position 27¢ years. Her annual salary was $1000 and she held the same grade of certificate as that held by the typical high school teacher. The typical rural teacher was 23 years old and a graduate of a one-year county training course. She had an average teaching experience of 3.15 years and had served in one community on an average of one year. She had the same grade of certificate as was held by the typical high school and graded school teachers. Nearly one-third of the high-school teachers in Vermont came from other states. While nearly all of the teachers in rural and graded schools were natives of the state, the graded schools, by paying higher salaries, drew the best trained of these away from the rural schools. The chief problem in teacher-training, with which Vermont was confronted was, therefore, to provide training for her high school and rural school teachers. Measured by the generally accepted stand- ards of four years of training of collegiate grade for high-school teachers, and two years of training in a standard teacher-training in- stitution, for elementary schocl teachers, 31.6 percent of high school teachers, 83 percent of graded school teachers, and 91 percent of rural school teachers were found to have less than standard training. Also, 41 percent of the graded school teachers had had less than one year of professional training. By means of a weekly rebate schedule, i. e. a system by which the state reimburses the town for a certain part of the teacher’s salary, the state sought to induce better trained teachers to accept positions in the rural school. The amount of the payments made by the state over and above a certain specified minimum salary which the town was required to pay in such cases, varied in proportion to the certifi- cate held by the teacher and the number of years’ training which she possessed. The amounts paid by the state, however, were not sufficiently large to repay the teacher for the outlay involved in taking an additional year of training. A study of the certification system revealed that no distinction was made in the certificates issued for elementary and high-school teach- ing; no distinction was made between the cer- tificate granted a graduate of a one-year train- ing course in a high school and that given a university graduate with or without profes- sional training (although to obtain a qualifica- tion certificate the former was expected to attend summer school for four weeks) ; no dis- tinction was made between professional train- ing and mere attendance at an institution of higher learning. Four two-year training courses and eleven one-year training courses were maintained by the state. A prerequisite to admission to any of these courses was graduation from a four- year high school. An analysis of figures on enrolment in teacher-training courses in Vermont during the five-year period between 1921 and 1926, indicated that the one-year classes in high schools and academies were losing their appeal. A decline in enrolment in these classes was accompanied by a corresponding increase in the number enroled as first year students in the two-year training courses. A great weakness of all the teacher-training courses, except that offered at the University of Vermont, was a lack of practice-teaching facilities. Practice work afforded in schools in the neighborhood of the one-year training classes was without adequate supervision. Recommendations—On the basis of the facts discovered, the following recommenda- tions are offered: 1. The setting up by the state board of educa tion of definite standards for the training of teach- ers. The completion of a four-year course of col- legiate grade including not less than twelve sem- ester hours of professional work in the secondary education field, four semester hours of which shall be observation and practice teaching, is suggested as the requirement for high school teachers. For elementary, graded, and rural teachers, two years of professional training in a well-equipped teacher- training institution are suggested as a reasonable minimum standard. 2. The formulation and adoption of a system of certification in accordance with these standards. Certificates should be issued only by the state board of education and on the basis of training, only. Provisions should be made whereby teachers of less than standard training may increase their training in summer sessions until they are qualified to hold standard certificates. [ 321] 3. A new schedule of rebates which will recog- nize more adequately the teacher’s investment in a year’s training. Eighty-five dollars per month should be established as the minimum salary permissible for the holder of a standard certificate. 4. The setting of a date after which all teachers entering the system shall have met the require- ments for standard training and for the holding of a standard certificate. 5. Abandonment of teacher-training classes in high schools and academies. 6. A central teachers’ college under direct state control, located at, and afhliated with, the Univer- sity of Vermont. 7. The extension of the present four weeks sum- mer session for teachers, to six weeks. Study III. Louisiana Smith examined the high school teacher situ- ation in Louisiana in 1925-26 and made predic- tions as to the future needs." Statement of the problenm—The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the need of an ade- quate state program for the training of high school teachers in Louisiana and to determine the essentials of such a program. Scope and methods of study—lIn order to accomplish the purpose stated, the high-school situation in 1925-26 was studied, predictions were made as to the need for new high school teachers during the decade 1925-26 to 1935-36, and the facilities of the state for supplying these needs were considered. Data for 1925-26 were collected as to num- ber of schools, enrolments, number of teachers employed, and training, certification, tenure, salaries and teaching programs of teachers. Educational opinion and practice as to stand- ards of training high school teachers were sur- veyed. For the prediction of annual needs of Louis- iana high schools for new teachers, figures showing the percent of the high school teaching force employed as new teachers in each year since 1915, were first obtained. It was recog- nized that the need for new teachers is depend- ent upon two factors; namely, the number of teachers needed to fill new positions created in the schools each year as a result of increased enrolments, and the number needed to replace those leaving the service. The number of teach- ers needed annually to fill new positions, in the vears 1915 to 1925, was obtained by ascertain- ing the increase from year to year in the total number of high school teachers employed. ‘| number of teachers required for replaceme: during the same period, was obtained by s tracting the number of teachers required to new positions from the total number of n high school teachers shown by the records { each year. By determining the rate of grow: in high school enrolments during the past + years, and modifying this figure in the light experience of other states where high sch systems are more fully developed than Louisiana, estimates of public high school e: rolments and the probable size of the hi school teaching force in the years 1925-26 : 1935-36 were arrived at. On the basis of thes estimates and the percent of the high scho: teaching force needed for new positions in th ten-year period since 1915, predictions were made as to the need for high school teachers +, fill new positions, in each year up to 1936. Pr: dictions as to the number of teachers needed replacements were made on the basis of the pe: cent of new teachers required for this purpos: since 1915, considered in the light of ten dencies in salaries and certification requirements calculated to result in a longer period of teac! ing service. By adding together estimates of the need for teachers to fill new positions an of the need for teachers for replacement pu: poses, the total need for new high school teac! ers, in each year of the decade 1925-26 1935-36, was predicted. Agencies for training high-school teachers in Louisiana were divided into two classes: th: private colleges and universities; and the stat supported institutions. The proportion of th: total high school teaching force which each type of institution was contributing and the number of teachers coming from other states were taken into account. The capacity of th state-supported institutions for supplying th: predicted needs for new high school teache: was determined, as indicated by the number of high school students available for practice teaching purposes. A majority of the data employed by this study were taken from annual reports of th Louisiana department of education and the division of high school inspection, and from reports of high school principals on file in th: office of the state department of education 1Smith, James Monroe. The Training of High School Teachers in Louisiana. Teachers College, Contributions to Educati No. 247. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1926, 101 p. [ 322] . TI ments Vy sul to I f new ds for rowt! St ten xht of schor | in in )] en high 26 to these choo] n the were TS to Pre d for » per rpose ten nents each im 6 Or and pur -ach H to rs in the fate the each the ites, the the hers covering a period of ten years. Information as to opinion and practice concerning standards of teacher training was based upon studies and articles dealing with the subject and related subjects, written expert opinion, reports of survey commissions, and committee reports of the National Education Association, the Na- tional Society for the Study of Education, and the American Association of Teachers Colleges. Definitions—The study sets up the follow- ing definition as basic to a proper understand- ing of the data presented: New teacher. For the purpose of this study a teacher is considered new to the state if he is ap- pointed either to a new position, or to fill a vacancy without having had continuous experience in the high schools of the state prior to his appointment. This leads to four possible types of new teachers. First, the teacher who has had no experience what- ever is obviously a new teacher; (2) the teacher whose experience prior to appointment has been gained in schools outside the state is a new teacher; (3) the teacher whose experience prior to appoint- ment has been gained in the schools of the state, other than approved high schools is a new teacher; and (4) the teacher who has had experience in ap- proved high schools of the state, but has ceased to teach long enough for his successor to be appointed and installed, is likewise a new teacher. p. 67-8. Findings of the study—According to the data collected, the public high school system of Louisiana in 1925, comprised 341 approved four-year standard high schools, with an en- rolment of approximately 42,000 students, teaching personnel of 1726 instructors, and a valuation of physical plants in excess of 16 mil- lion dollars. The minimum standard of training required of high school teachers had been raised since 1916 to full college graduation, with 1416 teachers, or 82.2 percent of the total of the high school teaching force in 1925, meeting or exceeding this standard. Almost one-half of the high school teachers of the state had had less than five years of teaching experience, more than one-fourth had had less than two years of experience, and more than one-eighth were teaching in their first positions. Thirty-five per- cent of all Louisiana high school teachers were teaching for the first time in their present posi- tions. The median length of tenure in one position was 2.06 years. The average salary of high school teachers was found to be $1275 per year. A direct rela- tionship between low salaries and lack of pro- fessional training, on the one hand, and a short period of tenure, on the other, was indicated by the data. Two types of certificates were issued high school teachers; one a life certificate, and the other, a limited certificate, valid for five years. Although issued by the state, upon credentials, both of these were blanket certificates entitling the holder to teach any subject in any high school of the state, regardless of his training. Five prescribed curricula were offered in Louisiana high schools; namely, general, agri- culture, home economics, manual training, and commerce. Approximately 75 percent of all high school students were enroled in the first of these. English, mathematics, science, and social science, constituting 75 percent of the total curriculum content, were common to all five curricula. A study of the teaching pro gram of high school teachers showed 35 per- cent teaching one subject, only, 80 percent teaching one or two subjects, only, and 20 pet cent, required to teach three or more subjects. Subject combinations found in teachers’ pro- grams revealed a considerable diversity, but the following combinations were the dominant ones: (1) English and social science; (2) sci- ence and mathematics; (3) home economics and social science; (4) Latin and English. The number of new teachers employed in Louisiana high schools in the year 1925-26 was 420. Of these, 390 were needed for replace ments and 30 were required to fill new posi- tions. In the year 1924-25, there were 530 grad- uates of state-approved private institutions of higher learning in Louisiana, only 47 of whom were appointed to teaching positions in the high schools. Graduates of public institutions of higher learning numbered 422, but only 195 were graduates of the four-year professional curricula for teachers, and not all of these en- tered the service of the high schools. Approxi- mately 30 percent of the total high school teaching force employed in 1924-25 received their training in other states. If all the 1924-25 graduates of all four-year and five-year curricula (professional and non- professional ) in state-supported institutions of higher learning had been certificated to teach in Louisiana high schools in 1925-26, and if no teachers had been drawn from other sources, [ 323 ] only 2 graduates would have failed to receive appointments. During the decade 1915-25, the number of teachers required each year to fill new posi- tions was 8.8 percent, and the number required for replacement, 21.8 percent of the total num- ber of teachers employed, making a total of 30.6 percent of the entire teaching staff new to the high schools of the state each year. It was estimated that by the year 1936 the total number of educables would be approxi- mately 450,000; the total school enrolment, 340,000; and the total high school enrolment, 85,000, or approximately 25 percent of the total enrolment. For the decade 1925-26 to 1935-36, it was predicted that the number of teachers needed each year to fill new positions would be 8 per- cent of the total high school teaching force; that the number of teachers needed for replace- ment would be 17 percent of the total high school teaching force in the first year of the ten-year period ; and that the percent required for replacement would be reduced by one per- cent each year for seven years. Therefore, the total number of new teachers needed each year would be 25 percent in the first year; 24 per- cent, the second year; 23 percent, the third, and so on, reducing one percent in each year thereafter, until 18 percent was reached, at which rate it would remain to the end of the period. Of the total teaching force of 1925-26, the state institutions of the state had trained only 39.1 percent, and the private institutions only 13.9 percent. However, the total number of graduates with the bachelor’s degree from state institutions increased 225 percent, be- tween 1920 and 1925, and the number of graduates of professional courses for teachers, 167 percent, between 1922 and 1925. The maximum capacity for training teachers of the state-supported institutions, based upon the number of high school students available for practice-teaching purposes, was found to be approximately equal to the number of new teachers needed annually by the high schools of the state. It was predicted that in the near future, if practice-teaching facilities were provided, pub- lic and private institutions in Louisiana would 1 Myers, Alonzo Franklin. A Teacher-training Pr New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, am for Ohio. Teachers College, olumbia University, 1927. 144 p. be able to supply the state’s needs for trai: high school teachers. Recommendations — The following among the recommendations included in proposed program for training high scly teachers in Louisiana: 1. The state board of education should set standards for the training of high school teachers 2. The minimum standard for the training high-school teachers should be fixed at graduat from a four-year professional curriculum. 3. The curricula for the training of high-sch teachers should be definitely prescribed. 4. All institutions seeking approval for the tra ing of high-school teachers should be required provide adequate practice-teaching facilities as ; fined by this study. 5. The plan of certification of all high-sch teachers upon the presentation of credentials as n provided by the state board of education should continued, but the general or blanket certifica: should be abolished and teachers should be certifi by subjects only. Two classes of certificates should be issued to high school teachers: a. Professional certificates, valid for five years b. Life certificates, granted to teachers whose p: fessional certificates have expired, at the end of five years of successful teaching experienc: 6. Consolidation of small! high schools should | effected wherever possible, and higher standards should be adopted by the state department of educa tion for the approval of high schools. 7. A sound minimum salary schedule should established. Study IV. Ohio Myers studied the 1925-26 teacher-training institutions in relation to th 1926-27 demand and proposed a state progran of teacher training.* Statement of problem—On the basis of an investigation of the need for new teachers an an evaluation of teacher-training facilities in Ohio, the formulation of an improved state program for the training of teachers is at tempted. The state teacher-training system is viewed, not only with regard to its present status, but in the light of its historical back ground, as well. Basic definitions—T he following definition is considered essential to a clear understanding o! the facts presented by this study: Newness has been defined for purposes of this stud) as the condition of a teacher who is doing her firs teaching in Ohio. This includes inexperienced teach ers and teachers who have been transferred to the state from another state. It seems obvious that if « number of teachers who formerly taught in Ohio output Contributions to Education, No. 266. [ 324] hers. ing f luatior schoo! train red as d schoo! $s now ald be ificat. rtified hould ars. 2 pro e end lence Id be dards duca- ld be ot the Tram f an and $ in tate at n is sent ick- are to return each year to teaching in Ohio, there is no need to include them in determining the number of new teachers which Ohio needs to train and deliver into public school teaching positions in the Newness, then, in this study, state each year. refers to those teachers who are teaching for the first time in Ohio, p. 67-8. Scope and methods of study—Annual re- ports of state commissioners of education, the files of the Ohio Journal of Education and the Ohio Educational Monthly, and studies of educational legislation in Ohio were sources of the information presented concerning the historical development of the state teacher- training system. For the purpose of making a study of the teacher supply, teacher-training institutions were classified in eight groups, as follows: State institutions; municipal universities; city normal schools; denominational and endowed colleges (exclusive of Catholic colleges and normal schools) ; Catholic colleges and normal schools; private kindergarten schools; private commercial colleges; and private special schools. Each institution was asked to report the number of 1925-26 graduates trained for teaching who were known to be teaching in Ohio public schools in 1926-27. In cases where reports of graduates known to be teaching seemed to be especially inadequate, an estimate of the probable number teaching was arrived at by applying the percentage of trained grad- uates, found to be actually teaching in 1923-24 by Buckingham, to the total number of grad- uates reported by the institution in 1926-27. Data included two-year, three-year, four-year, and five-year graduates. Graduates of one-year courses, in whatever type of institution, were not considered. Data on the annual need for new teachers were obtained by two methods: (1) all super- intendents in the state were asked to submit the names of all new teachers, with newness de- fined as indicated above, and these teachers were then asked for information as to the type of teaching service entered; (2) the records of the state teachers’ retirement board were con- sulted for the purpose of obtaining the names of all new teacher members. Findings of the study—The number of new teachers appointed to teaching positions in the public schools of Ohio in the school year 1926- 27 was 5446. The total number of teachers graduating from Ohio teacher-training in- stitutions in 1925-26 was 2464. Oho teache training agencies therefore failed to supply the needs of the schools in 1926-27, to the extent of 2982 teachers. After adding the number of trained teachers coming from other states in that year (about 750), and subtracting the number of graduates in 1925-26 who were pre- viously experienced in Ohio, a total supply fo: that year amounting to 2734 trained teachers, and a shortage of 2712 trained teachers, were revealed. The output of the various types of teacher- training institutions was found to be as shown in Table 4. In comparing Buckingham’s 1923 figures with those of this study for 1925-26, it was discovered that between 1923 and 1925-26, there was an increase in the number of gradu ates of state supported institutions who ac- cepted teaching positions in Ohio, of 12.5 per- cent, as against an increase of 97.4 percent in the number of graduates trained in denomina- tional and endowed colleges who entered teach- ing in the state. In 1923, 44 percent of those trained in Ohio, with two years or more of training, who accepted teaching positions in the public schools of the state, were trained in the state institutions, and 26 percent were trained in denominational and endowed colleges. In 1926, 39.5 percent were trained in denomina- tional and endowed colleges. The discrepancy between the supply of trained teachers and the demand for them was discovered to be greatest in the elementary school field. A total of 3656 new elementary school teachers were appointed to positions in TABLE 4.—TEACHERS TRAINED IN OHIO BY EACH TYPE OF TEACHER-TRAINING AGENCY 1925-1926 Number | Probable | | Known to | Number Number | Be Teach-| Teaching | | Trained |ing in Ohio| in Ohio } Public | Public Schools Schools Type of Teacher- Training Agency State Institutions. . 1,4 792 1,026 Municipal Universities. | 7 153 153 City Normal Schools. 207 136 136 Denominational and Endowed Colleges. . . " 878 Catholic Colleges and Normal Schools... . 3 Private Kindergarten Schools x &4 Private Commercial ON ee ee 5 Private Special Schools 2 er [ 325] 1926-27. In 1925-26, Ohio teacher-training institutions graduated 1022 trained elemen- tary school teachers, thus failing, by 2634 teachers, to supply the needs of the elementary schools of the state. Even after allowing for the trained elementary teachers coming from other states (about 320) and 200 teachers trained in Ohio institutions, who were already experienced in the state, the data showed that at least 2500 of the new elementary teachers appointed to positions in 1926-27 had had only one year of training beyond the high school. The greater discrepancy revealed in the elementary school teaching field, as com- pared with other branches of the teaching service, was believed to be due to several causes; namely, the provision for certificating elementary school teachers on the basis of only one year of training, the fact that many teach- ers leave elementary school teaching and enter teaching in the junior or senior high-school fields each year, and the fact that agencies for training high school teachers in the state are more nearly adequate than those for training elementary teachers. There were in 1926-27, 119 agencies ac- credited for the training of teachers in Ohio, a larger number than in any other state. On the other hand, omitting Wilberforce Univer- sity for colored students, which made almost no contribution to the teaching force of the state, Ohio had fewer state teacher-training institutions per million of population than any of the 48 states. Viewed in the light of the standards set up by the state department of education for the training of teachers, to become effective by the opening of the school year 1927-28, it was found that in 1926-27: . 1. The state institutions, the municipal univer- sities, and two of the three city normal schools fully met the new requirements or were prepared to do so by the opening of another school year. 2. Two of the twenty-seven denominational and endowed colleges already met the new requirements, and a number of others were prepared to do so be- fore the opening of another school year. Eleven en- gaged in the training of elementary school teachers and not one of these had an adequate organization for carrying on this work. Eight of the twenty-seven institutions were not accredited by any of the prin- cipal accrediting agencies for colleges and universi- ties. 3. Only two of the Catholic institutions were ac- credited by any of the principal accrediting agencies. 4. The county normal schools were being reduced in numbers as rapidly as possible. The number of these schools decreased from 51 in 1925-26 to 3 1926-27, and still further reductions were expect during the comix year. 5. None of the private commercial colleges met standards set up by the state department of edu tion and it seemed unlikely that any of them wo. be able to do so before these standards went in: effect. 6. A few of the private kindergarten trainin schools were in the process of affiliating with othe: institutions. Few, if any, of the others were abl: to meet the new requirements and it seemed impro able that they would be able to do so. The same situation existed with regard to private specia schools. 7. The facts discovered seemed to indicate that fully one-half of the institutions engaged in t! training of teachers in Ohio would be eliminated a teacher-training agencies before the opening of th school year 1927-28. 8. Teacher-training standards in the state wer: far below those recognized as desirable. Standards generally considered to be the minimum desirab| were maximum standards in Ohio. 9. Besides the state department of education whic! alone was authorized to grant state-wide certificates there were 93 city, 88 county, and 15 exempted vil lage boards of examiners engaged in the certifica- tion of teachers. 10. A lack of coordination among the state institu tions operated as one of the greatest handicaps in th: developmeutt of an adequate state teacher-trainins program. There was overlapping in the work of th various institutions. Each institution had a separat: board of trustees. Recommendations—On the basis of the facts revealed by the study, a state teacher-training program involving the following steps was proposed : 1. All teacher-training institutions operated solely) for profit should be eliminated with the exception of any that were found to measure up in every respect to those agencies operated by the state or by en dowment. 2. The training of elementary school teachers by denominational and endowed colleges should be dis continued. 3. County normal schools should be abandoned as rapidly as state institutions can be provided to take their place. 4. Teacher-training requirements in Ohio should be raised. 5. Better salaries and better working conditions for rural school teachers should be provided. 6. The state department of education should be reorganized and strengthened and given sole au thority over the certification of teachers. 7. The state should be committed to the policy ot no state support for denominational and private colleges. 3. A single board of trustees consisting of nine la) members should be established for all of the stat: universities. A research secretary and the necessar) [ 326 j 30 in pected let the ‘duca would t int Lining other able prol same recial that 1 the ed as f the were lards rable v hic h sates, vil ifica- titu 1 the ning f the rate acts ling was ely n of pect en- } by dis- | as ake uld staff to enable the board to secure reliable data on which to base institutional policies should be em- ployed. 9. Four additional state teacher-training institu- tions for the training of elementary school teachers should be established. These colleges should de- velop strong departments for the training of rural teachers. Study V. New York Coxe investigated teacher demand in New York for the year 1926-27 and made predic- tions as to future demand.’ Statement of problem—This study seeks to determine the demand for teachers in the pub- lic schools of New York State for the school year 1926-27 and on this basis to forecast the demand for the years 1927-28 to 1933-34, in- clusive. Data for the year 1926-27 are care- fully analyzed with respect to the need for dif- ferent types of teachers in different types of schools and in different size communities. Importance of problem—Since the function of training teachers is generally accepted as a state responsibility, and since teacher-training facilities are provided primarily to supply the needs of the schools for trained teachers, rather than to give training to all who wish to enter teaching, an accurate statement of teacher de- mand is essential to an intelligent planning of a state teacher-training program. The needs of the state, rather than the needs of the individ- ual, are of first importance, but in serving the needs of the state, the individual will probably also be benefited, since it is folly for one to train for a service for which there is an insuffi- cient demand. Basic definitions—The following definitions are set up by the study: 1. Teacher. The term includes not only classroom teachers but also special teachers, supervisors, prin- cipals, and superintendents. Medical inspectors, clerks, teachers of evening, vocation, and Ameri- canization classes, and attendance officers are not included. p. 1. 2. New teacher. Teachers included in the follow- ing groups are considered to be new teachers: I-B Teachers who began to teach in the fall of 1926; but had not taught during the school year 1925-26. I-M Teachers who began to teach in the middle of 1926-27, but who did not teach the first half of 1926-27 nor any of 1925-26. II-B Teachers who began their teaching in the fall of 1926, who had not taught the previous year, but who had taught the first half of 1925-26. II-M Teachers who began teaching in the mid- dle of 1926-27, had not taught the first half of that year, but had taught all or a part of 1925-26. III-B Teachers who came from private schools to public schools in the fall of 1926. III-M This group is the same as III-B except that the teachers began teaching in the middle of 1926-27. IV-B Teachers who came from outside of New York State and who first taught in New York State, and who first taught in the state in the fall of 1926. IV-M This group is the same as IV-B except that the teachers began teaching in the middle of 1926. V-B Teachers who are not new to the state, but are new only with respect to the kind of position which they held beginning in the fall of 1926. For example, if a classroom teacher became a super- visor or a supervisor became a principal, she would be included in this group. A change in the type of school, as well as in kind of position may be involved. V-M This group is the same as V-B, except that the teachers were new to the position in the middle of 1926-27. VI-B Teachers who were new with respect to the type of school, but not with respect to the kind of position, in the fall of 1926. The group would in clude a teacher who was transferred from an elementary school to a junior high school, or a principal who changed from a junior high school to a senior high school. VI-M This group was the same as VI-B except that a change in type of school took place in the middle of 1926-27. p. 1-2. All inexperienced teachers are included in groups I-B and I-M above, although these groups also contain some experienced teach- ers. All members of other groups have had pre- vious teaching experience. Scope and method of study—Data pre- sented are for New York State, exclusive of New York City. They were obtained from reports received from the following types of communities : Villages Supervisory districts Cities of the Ist class Cities of the 2nd class Cities of the 3rd class Due to the difficulty of obtaining accurate information, one phase of teacher demand (i. e., the number of unfilled teaching positions) was omitted from consideration. Data received were 98 percent complete. In spite ot this fact a separate correction factor was applied for each type of community. In predicting the future need for new teachers in New York State two assumptions were necessary: 1 Coxe, W. W. Teacher Demand in New York State. Albany, New York: Bureau of Educational Measurements, State Educa- tion Department, 1928. 23 p. Mimeographed. 1. That the increase in the number of teachers employed during the years 1928-34 would follow the general trend of the increase since 1918. 2. That the proportion of new teachers to the total number of teachers in 1926-27 would remain constant. Predictions as to the total size of the teach- ing force in each of the years 1928 to 1934 in- clusive were made by extending to 1934 the curve showing the trend in the number of teachers employed in the years 1918-28. To the figures thus obtained was then applied the percent of teachers who were new (as de- fined in Groups IB and IM) in the school year 1926-27. The results indicated the prob- able need for new teachers in each of the school years between 1928 and 1934. Predic- tions were obtained by this method for ele- mentary school teachers and for high school teachers, separately. Findings of study—Examination of the data collected revealed 7921 new teachers in 1926- 27. This figure was thought to be fairly repre- sentative of the annual need for new teachers in New York State (exclusive of New York City). The number of new teachers in the various groups set up by the study is shown in Table 5. Groups I-B and I-M, comprised largely of inexperienced teachers, constituted 69 percent of all new teachers reported were employed in groups were experienced, these two groups should perhaps be considered most important in indicating the need for teacher-training fa- cilities in the state. Of the total number of teachers employed in the state in 1926-27, 12.9 percent of elemen- tary teachers and 12.7 percent of secondary teachers were new as defined by Groups I-B and I-M. TABLE 5.—NUMBER OF NEW TEACHERS IN NEW YORK STATE IN 1926-1927! Number Percent III-B and III-M..... IV-B and IV-M..... V-B and V-M........ VI-B and VI-M. A re : 1 Not including New York City From Table 6 it will be seen that 64 percen: of all new teachers reported were employed ji supervisory districts (rural or semi-rural! Twenty-nine percent of the teaching force i supervisory districts was new in 1926-27. This percent decreased as the size of the community increased. In first-class cities only 10 percent o! the teaching force was new. With regard to the separate subjects taught in the high school, English and mathematic: were the subjects most in demand. Subject most frequently taught in combinations wit! other subjects were English, French, history Latin, mathematics, and biology. With respect to different types of teachin positions the data indicated an annual need of 138 supervisors, 231 principals, includi: supervising principals, and 28 superintendent The predicted need for new elementary a: high school teachers is shown in Table 7. Study VI. California Eakin investigated demand and supply California for 1926-27.’ Statement of the problem—The purpose of this study is to discover the relation between the supply of teachers available for placement in California for the first time in the academ: year, 1926-27, and the demand for them. 1 Eakin, Ruth M. Supply and Demand of Teachers in California, 1926-27. Bulletin No. H-3. Sacramento, Calif.: Divisior Teacher Training and Certification, California State Department of Education, 1928. 23 p. TABLE 6.—TYPES OF COMMUNITIES IN WHICH NEW TEACHERS WERE EMPLOYED Type of Community Total Number of Teachers Percent of Total Teachers Who Are New Percent of New Teachers Number of New Teachers Cities of the Ist class 5,262 571 i Cities of the 2nd class 4,495 482 Cities of the 3rd class 6,559 4,489 18,070 38,875 [ 328 ] rcent ed in ral ) ‘ce in This unity ‘nt ot tught latics jects with tory, hing ‘d of ding ents and e of veen nent mic Importance of problem—That teachers’ sal- iries, although somewhat slow in responding to economic changes, will eventually be fixed by the law of supply and demand is pointed out. If the demand is greater than the supply, com- munities may be forced to pay high salaries for inferior service. An oversupply of teachers will tend to lower salaries. The best conditions prevail when supply and demand are approxi- mately equal. During recent years, reports from teacher placement agencies have indicated that the sup- ply of teachers is in excess of the demand. If this is true, certain questions arise. Is the over- supply general, or does it exist only in certain branches of the profession ? Is the state training too many teachers? Can the situation be im- proved by a better selection of candidates for training, or by the establishment of higher certification standards? These, and many other questions, can be answered only on the basis of data of the kind supplied by this study. Definitions—The study sets up the follow- ing definitions : Demand is indicated by the number of positions filled by teachers not employed in the state during the previous year. p. 5. New teachers include teachers: (1) without ex- perience; (2) with experience outside the state; and (3) with experience in California but with an in- terval of at least one year of unemployment in Cali- fornia. p. 5. Supply is indicated by the number of (1) creden- tials granted to graduates of California teacher- training institutions; (2) credentials granted to candidates who apply directly to the state board of education (3) certificates issued on county exami- nations; (4) certificates issued by county board of education on diplomas or degrees from other states; (5) certificates issued to graduates of private train- ing schools for kindergarten teachers. p. 5. TABLE 7.—PREDICTED NEED FOR _ ELE- MENTARY AND SECONDARY TEACHERS IN NEW YORK! Elementary- High- School School Teachers Teachers 932 980 ,030 ,080 130 ,190 , 240 , 300 | | | | | } | | Scope and methods of study—tThe study is limited to a consideration of the supply of and demand for elementary, junior high, and senior high school teachers. No attention is given to data on substitute teachers and teachers em- ployed in evening schools and junior colleges. Data presented are for the school year 1926-27. Supply data were procured from the follow- ing sources: data with regard to credentials issued by the state board of education and the state teachers colleges, from the statistical rec ords of the teacher-training and certification division of the state department of education; data with regard to graduates of private train- ing schools for kindergarten teachers, from the records of those schools; data concerning cer- tificates issued on the basis of county examina- tions, and on the basis of degrees and diplomas from institutions outside the state, from the county superintendents. Demand data were obtained by checking the names included in the list of new teachers filed with the state board of education in November, 1926, for purposes of the state teacher retire- ment system, against information, contained in city and county school directories, as to grade of school in which employed. When names were found in the retirement list which did not appear in the directories, further information was procured through correspondence with the local superintendent or personal visits to the school systems. Findings of study—Analysis of the data col- lected revealed a total demand for 3935 new teachers in California in the year 1926-27, a total supply of 7320 new teachers, and an excess of supply over demand of 3385 new teachers. Of the excess, 2671 teachers, or 78 percent, were certificated to teach in the high schools, and 533, or 15 percent, in the junior high schools. Only 181 more teachers, five percent of the excess, were certified to teach in elementary schools and kindergartens, than were actually needed. How many of the 2818 elementary school positions available were filled by teach- ers certificated to teach in secondary schools, is not known. If secondary teachers, holding ele- mentary school positions*could be eliminated, it is possible that an actual shortage of persons trained to fill elementary school positions might be found to exist. [ 329 ] Study VII. North Carolina Noble analyzed the North Carolina situa- tion in 1924-25 relative to teacher demand and supply.' Statement of problem—An analysis of the teacher-training situation in North Carolina, in certain of its quantitative and qualitative as- pects, is presented in this report. Part I, in the light of data on supply of trained teachers in 1925-26, and estimates as to the number of beginner teachers needed annually, 1900-50, seeks to predict the relationship that will ob- tain, in the years 1925-50, between teacher supply and teacher demand. Part II considers the quality of training of the North Carolina teaching force, as indicated by improvement in the type of certificates held, and by require- ments for certificates. Scope and methods of study—Part |. Fig- ures showing the annual need for beginner teachers, at five-year intervals between 1900- 25, are from records of the state department of public instruction. Forecasts for the years 1925-50, also at five-year intervals, were taken from the 1927 report of the state educational commission. By deducting from the figures forecast by the state educational commis- sion, amounts suggested by the actual numeri- cal increase in number of teachers employed in 1900-25, modified estimates of demand for the years 1925-50 were also obtained. Data on supply of trained teachers, collected in 1926, were made use of. The estimates of teacher demand, in the years 1925-50, made by the state educational commission, and the modified estimates computed were then compared with a hypothetical supply of trained teachers based on one of two assumptions: (1) that the 1925-26 supply is maintained only during the period between 1925 and 1950; and (2) that the supply of 1925-26 is increased 100 percent during this period. Part II. Analysis of certificates for teaching in the elementary schools was limited to Pri- mary Class A and Grammar Grade Class A certificates; and in the secondary schools to Class A certificates held by teachers of Eng- lish, history, and French. Only teachers who received all their training in in-state institu- tions of higher learning were included in the groups whose certificates were subjected analysis. Findings of the study—Part I. As a resu); of the study the following facts were revealed concerning the relationship between estimat teacher demand in the years 1925-50 and ¢ supply of trained teachers, as indicated by da: for the year 1925-26. In the year 1925-26, 1237 veachers repr sented the total supply of new or beginn teachers (teachers who actually taught in North Carolina) from in-state institutions of higher learning. Of these, 685 were certificated to teach in elementary schools, and 552 in high schools. In the same year, 418 white teachers were received from out-of-state institutions of whom 167 were elementary school teachers and 251 were high school teachers, thus mak ing a total supply of white beginner-teachers for the public schools of North Carolina, of 1655. North Carolina needed approximately 4000) white beginner teachers in 1925-26. Ther: fore, in that year, there was an actual shortay of 2345 trained teachers. According to estimates of the state educa tional commission as to the number of beginne: teachers needed, it was found that if the sup ply of white teachers from in-state institutions were barely maintained, the supply of elemen tary teachers would, in 1930, equal only 2° percent of the demand; in 1950, only 21 pe: cent of the demand. The supply of high schoo! teachers, in 1930, would equal only 88 percent of the demand, and, in 1950, only 47 percent of the demand. If the supply of white beginne: teachers from in-state institutions in 1925-26 were increased 100 percent by 1950, a 57 pe: cent shortage would still exist. With regard to negro teachers, if the 1925 26 supply from in-state institutions were merely maintained, it would amount to onl) 10 percent of estimated demand for negro ele mentary teachers in 1930, and only 8 percent in 1950. The supply of negro high school teach ers in 1925-26 would equal only 24 percent of the demand in 1950. When the modifications were applied to the original estimates of the demand for beginne: teachers, it was found that if the total 1925-26 supply of 1655 white beginner teachers were ! Noble, M. C. S., Jr. Teacker Training in North Carolina. Educational Publications, No, 135. Division of Information a: Statistics, No. 1. Ral N. C.: State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1929. 70 p. [ 330] ted resu] vealed. imated nd the Vv dat i repre- ‘inne: ht in ONS Of icated 1 high achers itions. chers, mak- ichers 4000 ‘here rtage duca nner- sup- tions hoo] rcent rcent nner 5-26 per- 925- vere only ele cent ach- t of the ner -26 merely maintained, it would, in 1950, equal only 40 percent of the demand for 4149 new teachers, estimated on this basis. If the 1925-26 supply were increased 100 percent, it would still, in 1950, be equal to only 80 percent of the estimated demand. While all teachers represented in the data on teacher supply in 1925-26 were from in- state or out-of-state institutions of higher learning, and therefore considered as a part of the state’s supply of trained teachers, it should not be understood that all of them were “well-trained.””’ The amount of training pos- sessed by these teachers varied from one year to four or more years of training beyond high school graduation. More than one-half of the white teachers and more than three-fourths of the negro teachers, had had not more than two years of training beyond high-school grad- uation. Although during the period 1900-26 there was in every year a sufficiently large number of persons desiring teaching positions, there was never, in any year, an adequate supply of trained teachers. This study indicates that even if the teacher supply of 1925-26 should increase 100 percent by 1950, there will still be a marked shortage of well-trained teachers. Part II. On the basis of an analysis of certi- ficates held by elementary and high school teachers of North Carolina, it was discovered that: 1. Elementary and high school teachers, both white and negro, were making rapid progress in the type of certificates which they held. 2. Minimum standards of professional ttaining in North Carolina were still far below the generally ac- cepted standards. In 1926-27, 55.6 percent of the white elementary teachers, and 88.2 percent of negro elementary teachers had had less than two years of training beyond high-school graduation; 31.4 per- cent of white high school teachers and 59.7 percent of negro high school teachers had had less than four years of training beyond high school graduation. 3. Candidates for the highest types of elementary and secondary certificates, while in attendance at institutions of higher learning, were apt to study subjects which had little relation to their profes- sional needs. Guidance, as a rule, seemed to end with the completion by the candidate of certain com- pulsory freshman courses. 4. Transcripts presented in application for the highest type of elementary and secondary certificates, showed little specific preparation for the type of teaching for which the certificates were issued. 1 Whitney, Frederick Lamson. Teacher Demand and Supply College, 1930. 139 p. 5. Many high school teachers were teaching sub- jects for which they had had no preparation, what- soever, at an institution of higher learning. Recommendations—The following recom- mendations are offered : 1. There are three ways in which North Carolina may provide an adequate supply of teachers for its public schools, namely, (1) by the enlargement of existing teacher-training institutions, (2) by the establishment of additional teacher-training insti- tutions, (3) by a combination of these two methods. 2. North Carolina should establish higher stand- ards for the training of her teaching personnel. Study VIII. Colorado Whitney presents evidence on teacher supply and demand in Colorado in 1926-27 as com- pared with previous studies.’ Statement of problem—The study seeks to ascertain the facts concerning the teacher- training situation in Colorado, particularly with reference to sources of trained teachers, the number of teachers supplied from these sources, the number needed to take care of the annual turnover, and questions dealing with length of service, training, teaching programs, and salaries of teachers. Importance of the problem—Attention is called to increased enrolments in teacher-train- ing institutions and the fact that placement bureaus are reporting difficulty in finding posi- tions for graduates, a situation which seems to indicate a supply of trained teachers in excess of the need for them. An oversupply of teachers, while it may make possible better methods of teacher selection, is apt to result in a lowering of salaries to a level inconsistent with amount of preparation and experience. A knowledge of the true facts of the situation is essential. Concerning the importance to the educational welfare of the state of information of the type set forth in this study, the writer has the following to say: The prime need with regard to teacher training in any state is a constant study similar to that re- ported in this book and carried on continuously year by year. This should be conducted by the state as an annual inventory check-up of business done in the preparation and use of public school teachers. It should be centered in the office of the department of public instruction which must then be furnished with professional leadership on a high level and with an adequate research organization in the Pubiic Schools. Greeley, Colo.: Colorado State Teachers capable of handling a continuity investigation such as is suggested. In this way, as in manufacturing efforts, accurate information of actual conditions both in plant and in market will always be at hand. Likewise, stand- ards for production and for use of product will eventually appear, and this will guide all efforts to maintain a balance between demand and supply of public school teachers. These will contribute, not only to knowledge about gross numbers, but to information about types of jobs involved in public school teaching, maximum and minimum amounts of training allowable, compensation necessary to buy needed levels of teaching ability, probable amount of annual defection of trained graduates from teach- ing, and like vital questions. Furthermore, if re- search workers are competent, they will study pertinent personnel problems among teachers in training and teachers on the job, as well as curric- ulums needed for prospective teachers and for public school pupils. As a result, the public school system of the state ought to begin to emerge slowly from the curse of methods of administration based on guess objectives and traditional practices. Then, education will be- gin to become more of a profession in that there will be a skillfully chosen personnel, paid while at work on a single salary basis (not in terms of sex, experience, age of pupils, and size of community only) and supported after retirement by an organ- ized state plan, managed in accord with well known principles of business administration. Definitions—lIn order to clarify the informa- tion presented in this study, the following definitions are set up: Teachers. This includes all public school officers of whatever rank and duty . . . who were ren- dering any sort of professional service to the state. p. 128. New teachers. The following are considered as new teachers to the school system: 1. Teachers with no previcus experience. 2. Teachers with previous experience outside Col- orado. 3. Teachers with previous experience in Colorado, but with an interval of six months or more be- tween the teaching positions. . Teachers coming from a teaching position in another community. . Teachers who have changed rank in the same system; for example, from being a classroom teacher to acting as principal. . Teachers who have changed to some other type of school in the same system; for example, from being an elementary school teacher, to acting as high school teacher. ‘ However . . . it will be seen that items 4, 5, and 6, do not deal directly with actual teacher needs (of the state). They give information about movements of teachers into different communities and to different types of work within the state. p. 4-5. Demand. Demand is given in terms of teachers newly appointed in the state . . . Vacancies re- maining unfilled by regular teachers clea represented additional “demands” and must be tak, account of. p. 7-9. Graduates. A graduate in this investigation is student who has been “trained” by attending an stitution of higher learning with the result that may receive a state certificate to teach without wu: dergoing an examination. p. 16-17. Trained teacher. A public school employee wa taken to be trained if he had graduated from a tw or a four year college course and had been admitt to state certification without examination. p. 128. Supply. Supply is reported (1) by the totals of graduates of Colorado institutions who taught j the state, and (2) by the number of new teachers appointed in Colorado who came from other state: p. 7-8. Scope and methods of study—In Novembe: 1926, the five state-supported and two privat: teacher-training institutions of the state wer asked to furnish detailed data concerning thei: graduates for the years 1923-24, 1924-25, an: 1925-26. Facts were sought for each graduat on twenty items, including name, year ot graduation, details of teaching service sinc graduation (as to length, type of school, rank and teaching service) and facts about prepara tion (as to length of course and type of spe-ia! ization). For all three years studied, an av erage return of 71.7 percent on these questions was received, but returns for the year 1925-21 were 86 percent complete, and, in computin; the relation between demand and _ supply figures reported for this year were used as typical of the period under investigation. In order to obtain data on annual demand, cards were sent to each of the 36 superintend ents in first class districts, 79 superintendents in second class districts, and 63 county super intendents who were in closest touch with third class schools located in rural districts. Each su perintendent was asked to have one card filled out by each teacher new to his school system and to return these cards to the Department ot Research, Colorado State Teachers College. The cards called for twenty-four items of in- formation covering detailed personnel data, as to experience, training, salary, present position, and present teaching program. A 100 percent return was received in first class districts, 5U percent in second class districts; of county su- perintendents, 76 percent replied. The number of vacant positions left unfilled was estimated on the basis of the percent of available positions left unfilled in Ohio, as dis- [ 332] clear > take M is a an i hat | ut un € was a two mitted 8. als of rht in ichers tates nber. ivate were thei: and uate e. OF ince ank, ara- ‘ial av- ions -26 ing ply, as nd, nd- nts er- ird su- ‘ed =m covered by Buckingham in his 1923-24 study. Corrections for incomplete returns were ap- plied both to figures on supply and to figures on demand. In order to supplement and partially to check on data obtained by the above methods a report on certificates issued in 1925-26 to all public school teachers in the state was obtained. Figures reported as a result of similar in- vestigations made in Ohic, Vermont, Wiscon- sin, and Kentucky were used for comparative purposes. Findings of the study—Reports were re- ceived from a total of 1,825 new teachers ap- pointed to public school positions in the school year 1926-27, but 839 of these were new only to the school system, 25 were new to the rank of position held, and 9 were new to the type of position held, leaving 952 teachers who were actually new to the state. Of these 952 teach- ers who were new to the state, 238 received appointments in first class districts, 168 in sec- ond class districts, and 546 in third class dis- tricts; 643 had had no previous experience ; 260 were from other states; and 49 had re- turned to teaching after an interval of six months or more of non-service. Adding to the number of teachers new to the state an estimated probable number of va- cancies of 98, a total demand in that year for at least 1,050 new teachers was arrived at. It was thought that if returns concerning new teachers appointed were complete, a true de- mand for about 1,200 new teachers would be revealed, With regard to the supply of trained teach- ers, data collected showed 1,129 graduates of Colorado’s seven institutions of higher learn- ing in the year 1925-26. Individual reports were received concerning 971 of these. After making corrections for incomplete returns, it was estimated that 960 graduates actually entered teaching and that 775 of these were appointed to teaching positions in Colorado. Reports were received from 307 teachers trained in institutions in other states. Adding this number to the 775 graduates of teacher- training institutions in the state estimated to be teaching in the public schools of the state, a total supply of 1,082 teachers was indicated. While it was believed that the true demand was approximately 1,200,-it was also con- sidered probable that the supply from other states amounted to considerably more than 307 teachers. Reports from the state department of education showed that there were 960 such teachers certificated in the year 1925-26. If only half of those certificated actually became teachers in Colorado, the supply would be ap proximately equal to the estimated teacher de mand of 1,200. It therefore seemed probable that the total supply of trained teachers, avail able for the public schools of Colorado in 1926-27, was somewhat, but only slightly, in excess of the actual needs. In addition to the trained teacher supply, however, the report on certificates issued, re- ceived from the state department of education, revealed a total of 1,318 teachers certificated on the basis of examinations and ten weeks of professional training. This group did not con- stitute a part of the supply of trained teachers as defined in the study, but it did form a part of the state’s total available teacher supply, thus causing a considerable oversupply when both trained and untrained teachers available for positions were considered. The state law requires that in 1931 and thereafter all teachers certificated in Colorado must have had a minimum of two years of pro fessional training beyond the secondary school. It was anticipated that this law, by eliminating the large body of untrained applicants for teaching positions, would go far to restore a proper balance between teacher demand and the total teacher supply. Study IX. North Dakota Peik made a survey of teacher demand and supply in North Dakota in 1929-30. Statement of problem—A study of the teacher-training program of North Dakota to determine whether it fills the need of the schools, with respect to the number and quality of teachers, as economically and efficiently as possible. Scope and methods of study—A survey was made of the number of teaching positions, the number of teachers new to the state and to the local school systems, and the number of twelve- week, one-year, two-year, and four-year gradu- ates of teacher-training institutions in the state. Curricular offerings, class-size, and enrolments of these institutions were also studied. 1 Peik, W. E. The Training of Teachers in North Dakota. Reprint from the Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of North Dakota. 1930. 71 p. [ 333 ] Data on the number of new teachers were reported on the basis of a check made in No- vember of the school year, 1929-30, and in- cluded all new appointments up to December of that year. Data presented on the graduates of teacher- training institutions were for the year Sep- tember 1, 1928 to August 31, 1929. Future demands for new high school teach- ers were predicted by estimating the average annual need for new high school teachers and then raising this estimate, by adding for every year after 1929-30, an amount representing the estimated average annual increase in the need for new high school teachers. In the ab- sence of statistics covering a period of years prior to 1929, the estimate of average annual need for new high school teachers was made by using the figure for the number of new high school teachers appointed in the year 1929-30 up to December, increased slightly to allow for possible appointments after Decem- ‘ber, and then again increased slightly (since it was desired that the estimate should err on the side of liberality, if at all) to the point where it bore a ratio of 1 to 5 to the total number of high-school teachers employed. Findings of recent studies made in neighboring states in- dicated that this ratio was ample for North Dakota. The estimated average annual increase in the number of new high school teachers needed was arrived at by applying this ratio to the total number of high school teaching posi- tions in each of the years 1925 to 1929, aver- aging the year to year increases or decreases shown by the resulting estimates of the annual need for new high school teachers during this period, and increasing the average thus ob- tained to take account of the more rapid trend of growth during the last two years of the period, 1927 to 1929. Information concerning North Dakota's wealth, income, expenditures, and population characteristics and trends was taken from published reports of the Federal Government and from the Research Bulletin of the Na- tional Education Association. Findings of the study—In 1928, North Da- kota ranked second among the states, with re- spect to percent of its population living in the open country, ninth, with respect to per capita wealth, and forty-eighth, with respect to the percentage relationship of income to wealth. This means that, in spite of the unfavora ratio of income to wealth, North Dakota faced with the responsibility, to a greater « tent than almost any other state, of providing an adequate system of rural education and well-developed program for the training teachers for rural school positions. Neither the population of the state nor t total number of teachers employed has been growing rapidly. Data collected indicated that North Dakota needs to train fewer teachers for positions within the state, than do from two-thirds to three-fourths of the states of the Union. The total number of teaching positions in the state in November, 1929, was found to be 8,534 of which 4,361 or 51.1 percent were i: one-room rural schools. The total number of positions in schools of more than one room was 4,173, of which 1,570 were in high schools and high school departments offering less than four years of high school work, and 2,603 were in elementary graded town and rura schools of more than one room. Over fou: fifths of all teachers were elementary scho teachers, and of these about 63 percent were in one-room rural schools. Of the total teaching force of 8,534 teach ers, 1,585, or 18.6 percent, were teaching fo: the first time in North Dakota. Of these, 978 were employed in one-room schools, 334 in el: mentary rural, village and city schools of more than one room, and 273 in high schools and high school departments. In the year from September 1, 1928, to Au gust 31, 1929, a total of 2,297 persons com pleted teacher-training courses in North Dakota. Since only 1,585 new teachers were needed in 1929-30, 712, or 45 percent more than enough teachers, were trained to meet the demand. There was a demand in the year 1929-30 up to December, for 273 new teachers in the high schools, and the supply of teachers avail- able who had earned degrees through the com pletion of four-year professional courses was 285. There were also 51 teachers with degrees from other curriculums, and 43 graduates ot Jamestown College, making a total of 379 teachers holding degrees available for high school teaching positions, or 106 more than were needed. [ 334] } Orable ‘Ota is er ex viding | that ichers from ns In to be re in er of room hools than 603 rural foul hoo! were ach for 978 ele 10re and Au om- rth ded han the 30, the uil- m- yas ees ot 79 gh an To make allowance for possible new ap- pointments in the high schools, after Decem- ber 1, the demand figure indicated by the data for the year 1929-30 was raised to 279 and a liberal estimate of the average annual demand for new high school teachers was placed at 315. An estimate of an average yearly increase of 15 in the number of new high school teach- ers needed, was believed to be sufficiently liberal. On the basis of these figures it was pre- dicted that 330 new high school teachers would be needed in North Dakota in the year 1931- 32, and that this demand would be increased by about 15 teachers each year for several years thereafter. A decline in this annual increase after a number of years would indicate that high school enrolments were approaching the saturation point. Facilities for the training of high school teachers were judged to be ample. Figures col- lected indicated that present overproduction would take care of any increased temporary demand for training which might result from the recent ruling of the state board of educa- tion requiring all new high school teachers to hold degrees. Only 334 new teachers were needed in 1929-30 for elementary positions in graded schools. To supply this need, 734 graduates from standard two-year and one-year curric- ulums were provided by the five teachers col- leges and normal schools, or more than twice as many as were needed. A surplus of 400 was available to meet the need for teachers of one- room rural and village schools. In 1929-30, there was a need for 978 new teachers to fill positions in one-room schools. In the previous year, the teacher-training in- stitutions turned out 760 graduates of the twelve-week curriculum, and, in addition, 403 graduates of the one-year curriculum who could not be placed in elementary schools of more than one room, or a total surplus of 1,563 teachers. Although there were included among these some who already held positions and were merely up-grading their certificates, and others who, in all probability, did not enter teaching, it was, nevertheless, apparent that a large over- supply of teachers existed. There were not enough one-year and two-year graduates to fill the need for teachers in elementary graded and one-room rural schools, but when the supply of twelve-week graduates was added, there were many more than enough. According to the state certification law, four- year high-school graduates were permitted to become teachers in elementary and rural schools, with only 12 weeks of additional training. Since summer sessions at state teacher- training institutions were twelve weeks in length, it was possible to qualify for a certifi- cate to teach in a single summer session. A ma- jority of the rural teachers in the state obtained their training in this way. Of graded and high school teachers in the towns, 92 percent were discovered to have at tained the minimum standard, accepted as de sirable, of two years of training beyond high school graduation, but only 12 percent of rural teachers had met or exceeded this standard and only 19.1 percent had completed one year of training beyond the high school. Comparison with conditions in other states revealed that North Dakota had a relatively large number of teachers colleges and normal schools; that the number of colleges and uni- versities in proportion to the population was above the average; and that the number of population behind each institution was rela tively small. With six institutions of higher learning en- gaged in the training of high-school teachers, no institution possessed a sufficient enrolment to enable it to provide economically a complete curricular offering. The number of majors offered per institution was large, and the num- ber of graduates, by majors, widely scattered among the institutions. A large number of small classes was found; the median class size was 19.6 pupils. In recent years the state university, the col- lege of agriculture, and Jamestown College have practically met the need for high school teachers of standard qualifications. All state institutions of higher learning were found to be under one governing body, the state board of administration. This system of concentrating under one board of control all of the state higher educational institutions makes possible the subordination of the ambitions of each local institution to a unified state-wide system of teacher training. Therefore, an op- portunity possessed by few other states is open to North Dakota for developing a well co- ordinated state teacher-training program. [ 335 ] Recommendations—Among the recommend- ations based on the facts revealed by this study are the following: 1. Careful state financial administration of the public school system, including the teacher-training institutions, because the cost of providing adequate educational opportunities in North Dakota is rela- tively higher than in other less rural states. 2. An annual factual self-survey of all state teach- er-training institutions to furnish facts upon which state and institutional policies may be based. 3. The development of a coordinated state pro- gram of teacher training, which shall meet the needs of the public schools as fully as possible without over- production and unnecessary expense. 4. A more intensive program of professional training for rural teachers on the part of the normal schools and teachers colleges, to consist of a one-year specialized rural curriculum in each of these institu- tions, this curriculum to articulate with or be re- quired as a part of the standard two-year and four- year curriculums for elementary teachers. 5. Reduction of the length of the summer session from 12 to 10, 9, or 6 weeks, so that young high school graduates may not be able to qualify for rural teach- ing during one summer session. 6. Raising as soon as possible the legal minimum requirements for the second grade elementary certifi- cate, from twelve weeks to one year of professional training. Whether this is done immediately or not, teacher-training institutions should take advantage of the existing oversupply of teachers by preparing a larger proportion of rural school teachers in the one-year curriculum. 7. The abandonment of the “dual purpose’ cur- riculum, the first two years of which prepare for elementary school teaching, while the third and fourth years prepare for high school teaching. 8. The issuance of separate first grade profes- sional certificates for elementary and for secondary school teaching with certain additional specification as to content in education for those who are to super- vise or administer schools. 9. Integrated two-year and four-year curriculums in elementary education in each teachers college for rural and urban elementary teachers, grade super- visors, junior high school teachers, and elementary school principals, with possible specialization in upper grade and junior high school work. 10. The designation of special centers for the training of teachers of special subjects. 11. The upgrading of professional training of in- structors in teachers colleges. 12. The concentration of the function of training high school teachers in the state university and the state college of agriculture. General Implications and Conclusions Since all of the nine studies given above were not equally complete, it is not possible to find this emphasizes an educational rather than an economic wages offered is a satisfactory supply. unanimous agreement upon all problems. H: ever, there were conclusions and recommen tions with certain common implications. W) many of these points of tentative agreement \ require further research and experimental ad justment, it is worthwhile to summarize th. as follows: 1. The salaries and welfare of teachers «a closely associated with economic laws. An ove: supply of teachers tends to lower salaries, mak: tenure insecure, and forces many excellent teachers to seek more lucrative occupations. 2. There tends to be an oversupply of pe sons with licenses to teach, but a limited suppl, of persons with a high level of professiona training. The certification laws of a number of the states permit persons with little or no pro fessional training to obtain temporary creden tials. Such persons can often be employed at smaller wage than the teacher with two year: or more of college preparation." 3. In a period of an oversupply of teachers the certification and professional training r: quirements should be raised. The theoretic pur poses of raising the requirements are: (1) to keep out those who refuse to meet high stand ards, (2) to force those holding temporary ce: tificates to obtain higher licenses, and (3) to diminish the number of new graduates until the profession can absorb the oversupply. 4. The certification requirements need to /| revised, and the certification power should |, centralized in the state department of educa tion. The certification laws in a number of states are behind actual practices. This condi tion has come about where local authorities de mand teachers with more training than the state laws require. Another common weakness is that the certification power is divided among such authorities as the local superintendents, the teacher-training colleges, and the state depart ment of education. Under such conditions it is dificult to maintain a high, uniform standard throughout the state. When revisions in ce: tification laws take place, the power to issue licenses should rest only with the state depart ment of education. 5. The high school normal training classe: and similar inferior teacher-training agencies should be abolished as rapidly as possible. The product of such training is so young and inex 1 An “adequate professional training” in these studies is one defined as two or more years beyond high school. Obviously, viewpoint. In an economic sense anyone who will accept the [ 336 ] Hoy 1enNd Whi e It wil! al ad the n rs ar ove! nakes ellent ‘, per- upply tonal er of | pro eden ata years chers 7 Tre pur- ) to and cer- ) to l the o be 1 be uca- r of ndi- de- tate that uch the art- it is ard Ser- sue irt- perienced as to be able to give rural children little intellectual inspiration. The turnover among those with inferior training is so rapid is to be harmful to rural schools. As long as this inferior supply exists in many districts it will be impossible to raise salary and teaching conditions to an attractive level. 6. Particular attention should be given to the need for better salaries and better trained teach- ers in rural areas. If high school training classes ire abolished, which institutions will provide rural teachers? Can rural schools ever get bet- ter trained teachers until salary and living con- ditions are improved? Will rural salaries ever be attractive without state aid and a state-wide minimum salary schedule? These and other problems will not be solved by the abolition of the low-grade credentials and the inferior teacher training school alone. 7. There is need for guidance of the number of teachers preparing to teach specific subjects. English, social studies, and similar academic subjects are more quickly oversupplied than the vocational and commercial subjects. Should teachers be certificated to teach in only one or two fields? If so, what effect will these limita- tions have on the small high school ? 8. Teacher-training activities need to be cen- tered under state control. Since the state is the largest demander for trained teachers it should coordinate both the public and the private teacher-training activities. Some propose co ordination through a state board of higher edu cation, others advocate a director of teachet training in the state department of education, and others suggest a combination of the two plans. 9. The migration of teachers between states seriously influences teacher supply and the state teacher-training program. Even in states with well-developed teacher-training institutions the number of teachers employed from other states may be 10 percent of those appointed during a given year. In other states the out-of-state- teachers constitute over 50 percent of the annual supply. These facts suggest the desirability of statistics gathered on a national basis. 10. There is a need for continuous and ex tensive study of teacher demand and supply by state school officials. The facts gathered by state departments at the present time require supple- menting through questionnaires and other re- search technics. The extra effort forces states to irregular and periodic surveys which are often informing, but not conducive to construc- tive policies. ‘There is need for continuous fact gathering and publicity by state departments of education. These facts should be made avail- able to students, teachers, to local school au- thorities, and to teacher-training officials. | ‘EACHER training is the basic business of the state in an attempt to perpetuate itself through the agencies of public education, and this function must be raised in its management above the present level of expediency and guess which maintains in nearly every state unit. A careful and objective check of teacher demand and supply, made as a continuation study year by year in a well organized state department of education, will constitute the first minimum necessity. Common business principles demand it. The state must study its teacher-making institutions in terms of both quality and quantity of product. At the same time, it must know in detail how this product is disposed of in the teacher market of the area supplied. In this manner only, can a proper balance be maintained between professional needs and teacher output. Only then can it be made sure that state funds wili not be misapplied and that the social and economic life of the state will not suffer from inefficiency and inadequacy in the state system of public education. —Whitney, Frederick L., Teacher Demand and Supply in the Public Schools. p. vii. CHAPTER III The Status of Teacher Demand and Supply in the Elementary and Secondary Schools For several years, even before the present economic depression, superintendents and other educationists have asked the question: Do we have a surplus of teachers? Opinion has given both negative and affirmative answers. In planning this survey it seemed reasonable to assume that state departments of public in- struction should be able to give exact data, or reliable estimates, as to teacher demand and supply in each state. These state offices issue teacher certificates, collect personnel statistics, approve teacher-training institutions, and other- wise come in contact with teacher personnel facts. Under this assumption interviews and questionnaires were used in obtaining from state departments of public instruction the data set forth in this chapter." The Demand for Teachers in the Public Day Elementary and Secondary Schools Demand is defined in this study as the num- ber of new teachers? appointed to replace resignations and to care for the increase of teaching positions.* The gross annual demand for new teachers in each state may be deter- mined either (1) by estimating the annual loss of teachers in terms of the average teaching life, (2) by asking state departments how many newly appointed persons are added an- nually to the state teaching personnel, and (3) by totaling the number of newly appointed teachers in all of the school districts of the state. The resources available limited the com- mittee to procedures (1) and (2) above. W hat is the annual loss of teachers in each stat’?—If we know the average teaching life of teachers it is possible to compute the num- ber who will have to be replaced each year. Obviously, a computation based upon an “average life’ may not square with the exact facts. Also, an estimate of teacher turnover does not include the number of new teacher appointed to care for the growth of the systen With these cautions in mind we may examin column 3 of Table 8 Table 8 gives the demand for new teachers as determined on two bases. Column 3 shows the annual turnover as estimated on an ave: age teaching life of six years. Six years* was the median of the replies of 33 states to th question: “On the average, how long do teach ers remain in service in your state?” ‘The total number of teaching positions (column 2) was used in computing turnover, because state de partments seem surer of this figure than they do of the total number of teachers employed According to Table 8 the schools of the United States must replace about 145,291 per sons each year. No doubt column 3 is very in accurate when applied to specific states. In California, New York, Massachusetts, and similar states the average teaching life is prob ably above six years. The average period of service in South Dakota, North Dakota, Wj oming, and Iowa is probably less than six years. Evidence that Table 8 must be accepted with caution is shown by ‘Table 9. Table 9 compares annual turnover (column 2) with two estimates of annual demand. Col umn 3 contains demand figures taken from the various research studies reported in Chapter II. These data are chiefly for the years be tween 1923-24 and 1926-27, and are not di- rectly comparable to column 4. In column + we have the annual demand for 1928-29 as estimated by state departments of education. (Table 8, column 4.) It is clear from Table 9 that to assume a six-year period of teaching as the teaching life” can only give approximations of the real demand. While the computations of “ average 1 In a few instances statistics of the United States Office of Education and other agencies have been used to supplement thos: collected for this study. Due credit has been given to all such secondary sources of information. The term “teacher” in this study includes superintendents, classroom teachers, principals, and supervisors. A ‘‘ new teacher is one who did not hold a teaching position in the state during the year prior to the study. 3 Dr. Buckingham’ s pioneer study in 1923-24 used a definition which adds to the above statement “‘ plus the number of unfilled positions in —_ year. considers usually that * The median was 5.77 years. there were no unfilled positions. * That is, if a position is left vacant during the year or is filled by a temporary substitute, Dr. Buckingham tion as a part of the demand. In this study, vacancies have not been considered because state departments 5 An estimate yA state Ronnestetendene | in 1922-23 gave 110,560 as the annual ceacher turnover. See Table 3 of the Resear Bulletin, National Education Association, November, 1924. [ 338 } column 3, Table 8, should be helpful to inter- teachers appointed in each state for 1929-30 ested officials, such approximations are poor’ by writing directly to the local school super- y and substitutes for painstaking surveys. intendents.' The fact that there are about What do state departments report as the 6,700? district, city, and county superintend- annual demand for 1929-30?—It might have’ ents indicates the magnitude of such a task. r teachers ile x ‘ ta been possible to locate the number of new’ The investigator was forced by circumstances ° ’ examine 1 Asa test, questionnaires were sent to local superintendents in Arizona, Connecticut, and Wyoming. After f letters about 80 percent of the superintendents returned the inquiry blanks. Difficulties encountered: (1) Much of d on estimates, (2) inexact replies called for endless correspondence, and (3) duplications of jurisdiction between r teachers district superintendents were impossible to straighten out in a national survey. These problems emphasize the need for caret state studies. 3 shows 2 According to the Educational Directory, United States Office of Education, 1930. an aver 3 It is beyond the purposes of this report to present detailed statistics. See Introduction. sars* was es to the do teach TABLE 8—THE ANNUAL DEMAND FOR NEW TEACHERS c The total —_— 1 2) was Number of Teaching | Annual Demand on Basis of | Annual Demand Records State Positions in 1929-30 a Six Year Teaching Life! and Estimates of | state de State Department * han they Sa ; . sth , : mployed. ploy d Pe eee re 16,306 2.718 371 Ss of the SSE ea - 3,1943 532 1.048 Arkansas....... waked 12,763' 2,127 291 per- California........ 43.000 7° 167 » 806 RI 6 as 08 ees is aan 9,812! 1,635 - very in- Connecticut....... Ter 10,817 1,803 915 SR eee 1,420 237 *150 tates. In District of Columbia... 2,932 489 *210 } i Sere 11,0185 1,836 *1,135 | ‘tts, and a ae eae 19,047 3,175 P (ere cmos 4,658 776 *600 Is prob nS cabal 45,724 7,621 . Indiana........ 23,8534 3,976 1,764 eriod of Ee cc anians es na 25842 4,307 5'192 , er 19,695 3,283 *3,400 ta, Wy Kentucky. . . ae 15,991 2,665 *3 500 . s Louisiana....... ‘ . 11,959 1,993 1,525 1X years, Maine....... ‘ ‘ ‘ 5,847 975 *O75 5.8 SS ee —r 8 , 3964 1,399 8446 | ted with Massachusetts a saa 25,573 4,262 *1 300 | Dy cwcccnctscee ‘ 32,0474 5 341 Minnesota... .. are 22,196 3,699 *3, 329 | - Mississippi... .. ee *16,500 2,750 *? 000 | (column Missouri... . . . 24,936 4.156 2675 ’ : SIR a 000560010 c 6,053* 1,009 | nd. Col- : Nebraska........... 14,6444 2,441 : res eT 8754 146 rom the New Hampshire... 3,003 501 457 | | " New Jersey....... ; *28 500 4,750 > 317 Chapte I New Mexico. . sins *3,530 588 > = I 006s btesea's *75,150 12,525 *9 567 cars be North Carolina... . | 23,623 3,937 : North Dakota...... 8,534 1,422 1,585 not di- as Saan« ; er 41,8155 6,969 4,355 | Oklahoma... : 19,5655 3,261 umn + Oregon... ea Sas 8, 1854 1,364 oO 20 « Pennsylvania. .... *62 000 10,333 *4 500 8-29 as Rhode Island. . . *3'850 642 55 ~aty South Carolina...... 13,271 2,212 ucation. q South Dakota.. : 9,044 1,507 Tennessee........ *17,950 2,992 *? 500 «a : 43,276 7,213 ~ ‘ a : ; 4,552 759 Ss rs — & Vermont..... ; 2,864 477 *350 average Virginia. ..... ; *16, 800 2,800 *1,600 “4 wree / Washington . 12,128 2,021 ? 006 tions of West Virginia. 15,800 2,633 *1,750 P Wisconsin... . 20,218 3,370 *1 200 ons ot Wyoming.... 2,981 497 *500 | Total... ; 871,737 145,291 69,181 | rent those — —— ‘teacher’ * Estimated for 1929-30 by state departments. 1 Replies of 33 states as to the average teaching life have a median of 5.77 years. | of unfilled ? Figures supplied by state departments either as exact records or estimates. } ckingham ; * Figures for 1927-28 supplied by state department. artments 4 Figures for 1927-28 from bulletin of the U. S. Office of Education. 5 Figures for 1928-29 supplied by state department. | ® Does not include Baltimore. | Resear 7 Total for 32 states and District of Columbia. [ 339 ] TABLE 9—COMPARISON OF SEVEN STATES IN REGARD TO TEACHER DEMAND AS DE- TERMINED BY VARIOUS BASES Annual! De- | Annual Annual mand on Demand Demand Basis of According | Reported State Number (to Research by State Replaced | Studies of Depart- Each Year | Chapter II ments (Column 3, Table 8) | 1 | 2 3 4 California 7,167 | 3,395! 2, 806 Colorado 1,635 | 1,200? bw New York | 12,525 | 10,5963 *9 567 North Dakota 1,422 | 1,5854 1,585 North Carolina. 3,937 5,169 5 ; ed Ohio 6,969 6,368 * 4,355 Vermont 477 5207 * 350 ! Reported by Ruth M. Eakin for 1926-27. * Reported by F. L. Whitney for 1926-27. 3 W. W. Coxe reported a demand of 7,921 for 1926- 27 in New York, exclusive of New York City. The average number of new teachers appointed in New York City in 1927-28 and 1928-29 according to the city superintendent's report was 2,675. This number has been added to the demand reported in Coxe's study. ‘ Reported by W. E. Peik for 1929-30. 5 Reported by M. C. S. Noble for 1925-26. need for 1,169 negro teachers. * Reported by B. R. Buckingham for 1923-24. o 7 gd 1924-25 turnover of teachers reported by R. M. Steele. * Estimated by state departments of education. Includes to ask state departments of education to supply the data. Table 10 presents the statistics sent in by 33 state departments of education. Column 2 gives the total number of new teachers in 1929-30, while columns 3 and 4 distribute the total on the basis of experience. Columns 5 and 6 give the number and the percent of the new teachers from outside of the state. Thirty-three states‘ reported the number of new teachers. Fifteen based their replies on exact records, and 18 gave estimates. Utah, Texas, South Dakota, South Carolina, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Michi- gan, and Georgia returned the questionnaire blank, but with no answer to this question. Arkansas, Colorado, Illinois, | Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, and Oregon did not re- turn the inquiry blank.* Recapitulation of the ability of state departments to supply data as to annual demand is given in Table 11. 1 including the District of Columbia. According to Table 11 about one-third the states are unable to supply even estimat as to the annual need for new teachers.* O; third of the states can estimate the annual cd: mand for elementary and secondary teachers. Only about one-third of the states a able to supply demand data based upon exa records, Is the demand for experienced or inexper enced teachers?—The amount of experienc demanded, as shown in Table 10, is of signi! cance to several groups. First, the trainin schools may be sending out a larger numb< of inexperienced persons than the demand r quires. For example: State A has an annua demand for 1,000 teachers. The number of experienced teachers employed from nearby) states is 200. The number of experienced teach ers returning to teaching from within the state amounts to 100 persons. Hence, the demand for experienced teachers is 300 out of the total demand of 1,000. This condition leaves a de mand for 700 inexperienced persons but the teacher-training schools are graduating 1,200 inexperienced teachers. Theoretically, there would be an oversupply of 500 teachers.* Table 12 is not conclusive evidence, but it illustrates the condition suggested by the ex ample given as State A, above. ‘The states which reported exact statistics on inexperienced teachers in Table 10 are included in Table 12. Columns 2, 3, and 4 of Table 12 are based upon 1927-28 reports from teacher-training institutions. Column 6 of Table 12 includes the 1929-30 demand for inexperienced new teachers, as reported by state departments to the investigator. Columns 2 and 3 are probably larger than they should be, clude teachers who obtained holding regular positions.’ Obviously, such persons are neither inexperienced nor new teachers. On the other hand, column 5 is prob- ably smaller than it should be for some states because it does not include the inexperienced persons certificated on the basis of examina tion, nor does it contain the graduates of high school teacher-training classes.° schor because they in- degrees while 2 The inquiry forms were mailed May, 1930 and followed up by three or more letters. 3 A few states said that they did not finish tabulating their 1929-30 statistics until the Spring of 1931. This fact may acc: for several of the states where neither records nor estimates are available. 4 Under actual conditions a few of the 500 would enter non-teaching occupations, marry, move to other states, or fail to ¢ teacher’ 8 certificates. What are the facts? At present few states are able to say what is actually happening. * Foster found that a significant percent of the degrees granted in summer sessions in Ohio were to teachers who were hold regular teaching positions. See annotated bibliography. * Most of students enroled in high school teacher-training classes are qualified for certificates in one year or less. ge 5 of Statistics of Teachers Colleges and Normal Schools, ce of Education, ; there were 50,286 students in such classes according to tin, 1929, No. 14. U. S. Department of the Interior, In 1927-28 1927-28. Bu ashington, D. C [ 340 ] Neen ee Liha ey e-third of estimate *rs.2 Ons nnual di ry scho states are pon exact inex peri “xperience of signifi training r number mand re n annual! umber of n nearby -ed teach- the state » demand the total ves a de- ; but the ng 1,200 ly, there ers.* -e, but it y the ex- he states perienced ‘able 12. ire based -training includes ced new ments to probably they in- es while ly, such nor new ) is prob- ne states yerienced examina- s of high lay account r fail to get rere holding In 1927-28 7-28. Bulle- This section has included a discussion of the significance to teacher-training institutions of the demand for shown in column 3 of Table 10. Another in- teresting implication of this same table is that a large percent of the demand for experienced teachers in several states is supplied from out- inexperienced teachers, as of-state sources. This condition may be seen by comparing columns 4 and 5 of Table 10 for such states as Arizona, California, Connec- ticut, Delaware, Idaho, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, and Wyo- ming. What does it mean when the number of “outside” teachers is much smaller than the TABLE 10—THE NUMBER OF TEACHERS demand for experienced teachers? Kentucky is an example of this, with 150 outsiders em- ployed, and a demand for 3,200 experienced teachers. Does Kentucky have 3,000 former TABLE 11—ABILITY OF STATE DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION TO REPORT ANNUAL TEACHER DEMAND Type of Report Number); Percent Dy SOE CN occ is brane 15 } 30.6 2. Estimates...... ; is | 36.7 | 3. No records or estimates possible. 9 } 18.4 | 4. No answer to inquiry...... 7 14.3 | BOO tr iedledntwtadasbans 49 100.0 AND THE AMOUNT OF EXPERIENCE DE- MANDED IN 1929-30 "i Column 2 Divided on Basis New Teachers from Annual Demand in Terms of Experience Outside of State | State | of New Teachers 1929-30 - | | Inexperienced Experienced Number Percent of Col. 2 ! 4 ) Alabama ? 371 *2,24 *129 129 5 | Arizona 1,048! 350 698 *626 60 Arkansas. . California . 2, 806 2.156 650 650 3 | Colorado Connecticut. .... 915 619 296 474 52 Delaware hte ac *150 *60 *00 5 50 District of Columbia *210 *77 *133 *>« 12 J re *1,135 *567 *568 *284 5 Georgia ae *600 *350 *250 300 50 Illinois. . oka Indiana... ar 1,764? *1,411 *353 BG couse 5,192 *3, 894 *1,298 400 ~ Kansas. .... ‘ *3,400 *3,100 *300 *SO 1 Kentucky ‘ *3,500 *300 *3, 200 *150 4 Louisiana, . . ere 1.525 1,425 100 Maine...... *975 *750 *225 Maryland... 8443 583 261 14 25 Massachusetts *1 800 *1 300 *500 *550 31 Michigan. ... Minnesota... *3,329 *2 885 *444 *444 13 Mississippi . . *2 000 *1,500 *500 *400 0 Missouri. . 2,675 2,460 215 185 7 Montana... . Nebraska.... ss wkesies oon New Hampshire 457 371 86 *906 1 New Jersey... . ; 317 1,409 908 1,055 46 New Mexico... New York....... *9 567 *8 657 *910 *744 8 North Carolina ‘ 5004 North Dakota... 1,585 *1,135 *450 363 23 ee 4,355 *3,605 *750 *750 17 Oklahoma : Oregon...... Pennsylvania *4,500 *4, 300 *200 *200 Rhode Island *255 *170 *R5 *100 39 South Carolina. . South Dakota... *500 Tennessee *2,500 *2 250 *250 *150 6 ce Vermont.... *350 *300 *50 *125 36 Virginia. . . *1 600 *1,450 *150 *75 5 Washington 2,006 1,087 919 322 16 West Virginia. . *1 750 *1,700 *50 *87 5 Wisconsin. . . *1. 200 *600 *600 *400 33 Wyoming......... *500 *300 *200 *250 50 ea iy 69,181 53,363 15,818 10,673 Average: 23.2 *Estimated by state departments of education 4See page 12 of reference 28 in the bibliography at the end 1Data supplied for 1927-28. of this report. ?Data supplied for 1928-29. Does not include Baltimore City teachers returning to the profession after a year or more in training institutions? Or are these former teachers persons who married or entered non-teaching occupations and are now return- ing to regular teaching? * When the number of teachers entering from outside sources exceeds the demand for new experienced teachers, does it mean that inex- perienced .persons are entering from other states? For example, Connecticut received 474 teachers from the outside, and employed 296 experienced teachers. Does this mean that 178 new inexperienced teachers entered Connecti- cut from the training schools of nearby states? Columns 4 and 5 of Table 10 raise these same questions in regard to Idaho, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wyoming. What part of the demand is met by teachers from other states?—Each state department was asked to report the number of the newly ap- pointed teachers for 1929-30 who came from out-of-state sources. These data are given in 1 Although state departments were asked not to count new teachers with practice teaching, only, as tasty 9 figures may be in error on this point. columns 5 and 6 of Table 10. Column 6 show the percent of the total demand formed “outsiders.” It is interesting to re-state thes: facts as shown in Table 13. TABLE 13.—GROUPING OF STATES ON THE BASIS OF THE PERCENT OF DEMAND SATISFIED BY OUT-OF-STATE SOURCES Group I Group II Group III Group IV Less 10 to 30 30 to 50 Over 50 10 percent percent percent percent | Alabama California Delaware Arizona | lowa Dist. of Col. Idaho Connecti: | Kansas Florida New Jersey | Kentucky Maryland Mass. | Missouri Minnesota R. Island | New York Mississippi Vermont } | Pennsyl- Hampshire | Wisconsin | vania North Dakota | Wyoming Tennessee Ohio | Virginia Washington | W. Virginia | Table 13 shows rather clearly that there are national aspects to the teacher demand and supply problem. The states in groups III and IV comprise one-third of the 30 states shown in Table 13.2 These states get 30 percent or Ke experienced,” the Although a majority of the states in groups III and IV of Table 13 are among the smaller states in population and area they contain}104,075 or 12 percent of the total number of teaching positions in the United States. TABLE 12—THE 1929-30 DEMAND IN NINE STATES FOR INEXPERIENCED TEACHERS COMPARED WITH THE SUPPLY OF INEXPERIENCED TEACHERS AS ESTIMATED FROM 1927-28 DATA | | Status of the Demand Estimated Supply of Inexperienced Teachers and Supply for Inex- from Various Sources } i emenens Teachers napeeii 1929-30 hee Demand | First De Gradu- for State! Normal ates of Colleges and Inexperi- | Schools Universities enced | | and Total® Teachers Shortage | Surplus | Colleges Art and | eges? 3) an Education dtenaee 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 & | r % a a Ni sinn tthe nd binnsianeds | 395 | 92 26 513 ip ees Mae PN 6 6 Guta wh 60.5045 sacmiad ee | 1,360 | 462 1,318 3,140 2,156 acl 984 Con Dee as io pivgad as 633 | 12 441 1,085 619 467 ES ee 492 | 139 244 875 1,425 550 ae ; Pe Diath dureghenerd os evaae' 2,597 217 438 3,252 2 ae 792 DO SPP e ere ee 343 0 270 613 371 242 REE ery so 1,560 3 403 1,966 1,409 557 Rhode Tsland Re ie cw dhe Rare A een 40 6 203 249 *170 |.. 79 i Sih. cee deh ba wke see On oe 1,574 278 347 2,199 1,087 |.. 1,112 were Trt eee 8,994 1,209 3,690 13,893 10,047 550 Ci. 396 1 Nine states reporting exact records in column 3 of Table 10. Maryland omitted above because statistics reported to the investi tor did not include Sas balthmere. = number granted credentials for one to four years of training plus all degrees conferred in both public and private colleges. From Tables 4, 9, 15, and 17 in Statistics of Teachers Colleges and ioe Schools, 1927-28. Bulle- tin, 1929, x 14, Lad Ss. + aeement t of the Interior, Office of Education, Washington, D. 2) Orica te degrees in education in both — and private i From Tables 9 and 11 in Sialsies of Universities bens Colleges. 1927-28. Bulletin, 1929, No. 38. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Educa- *Column 4 contains 45 eS ae of the baccalaureate degrees in arts and sciences granted by public and private insti- tutions of higher ed t has been assumed on the basis of a study of 83,000 graduates of 199 liberal arts colleges. See page 450 crr the Seventh ou Yearbook (1929), Department of Superintendence, National Education Association. * A comparison of these figures with column. 5 of Table 15 shows a fair degree of agreement. This condition is particu- larly true when exact data are given in Table 15. See Arizona, California, New Jersey and Washington. [ 342] hey more of their annual demand from other states. Even the states in group II of Table 13 obtain a significant proportion of their teachers from the outside. Data are not available on the details of this migration between states. Is there a distinct westward movement of teachers? Are teachers moving south? Are rer states losing more teachers than they gain? Are several states providing the teacher-training program for their neighbors? These and other problems call for careful study by state school officials. The Supply of Teachers for the Public Day Elementary and Secondary Schools The supply for 1929-30 is defined in this study as the sum of (1) the number of persons in each state completing training courses in 1928-29 which qualified them for teaching, (2) the number of persons certificated in each state in 1928-29 for teaching, on the basis of examinations in place of training courses, and (3) the number of persons employed from other states. The facts as reported by state de- partments of education are given in Table 14. 1 The report of state departments as to the number of outsiders actually employed in 1929-30 was taken as the total available supply of outsiders. Of course, the total number willing to accept employment in other states was probably much larger than the number actually employed. Hence, the estimate of the total supply for 1929-30 is probably less than actual conditions. TABLE 14.—THE NUMBER, TRAINING, AND SOURCES OF TEACHER SUPPLY ! * Estimated by state departments of educz ation. 1 Daia for 1927-28. Number Years of Training of | Total Number of Persons mapeste’ ti in Column 2 Number Number of | Total Supply State | Persons Completing} ————____ . ae a Teachers (Columns | Teacher Training | by from Other | 2 6, and 7) in 1928-29 Less than | 2-3 years | 4 or more | Examination States 2 years | years 1 2 3 4 § 6 7 & Alabama..... 2,191 965 593 633 51 * 129 2,371 Arizona..... 422! *) *307 *115 0 * 626 } 1,048 Arkansas... . ; . California... . ; 3.603 *0 *1,103 *2 500 *100 650 4,353 Colorado... ‘ aig Connecticut . 4472 0 447 474 921 Delaware. . 40 *0) *31 *9 *30 *75 145 District of Columbia.. *202 *0) *0 *202 0 *25 227 Florida . *850 *250 *350 *250 2,786 *284 3,920 Georgia. ... *737 *0) *584 *153 ; 737 Idaho..... : 412 0 330 82 18 *300 730 Illinois. . . aout . Indiana 4,846 0 2, 284 2,562 0 4,846 lowa...... *5 640 *1, 800 *1,440 *2,400 *3 837 400 9,877 Kansas... 6,520 2,995 2,028 1,497 1, 800 *50 8,370 Kentucky *2 600 *1, 800 *600 *200 1,570 *150 4,320 Louisiana 1,293 360 603 330 0 1,293 Maine..... 6652 ; 665 18 683 Maryland. . ; 677 0 510 167 0 214 891 Massachusetts *1, 4842 0 *1 033 *451 0 *550 2,034 | Michigan... . *6 983? a *785 *6,198 *) *6 983 Minnesota... . , 3,093 900 1,193 1,000 0 *444 3,537 Mississippi. . . *1,750 *1 000 *450 *300 *1,800 | *400 3,950 | Missouri... .. ¥ 1,796 1,387 267 142 2,672 185 4,653 | Montana....... er) i eee re Nebraska...... ] Nevada. . mre F : New Hampshire ed *3582 0 273 85 | 0 | *06 454 New Jersey. *1,629 0 *1 400 *229 0 1,055 2,684 New Mexico. ; ue aid - aa | New York...... *5 3622 1,271 2,427 *1 664 0 *744 6,106 | North Carolina *1,300 0 *550 *750 e. *500 1,800 North Dakota 2,376 1,013 1,020 343 209 363 | 2,948 | Ohio. . aes 3.370 *1,018 *780 1,572 ; ‘ *750 =| 4,120 | Oklahoma. . x | Oregon..... ‘ ‘ ee } Pennsylvania. . . ‘ *6 500 *0 *3,500 *3,000 0 *200 | 6,700 } Rhode Island. . . *130 0 *50 *80 *10 100 | 240} South Carolina | ; ee . J | South Dakota *1 370° | *391 *432 *547 *1,203 *500 3,073 } Tennessee... . *2 000 *1,000 *825 *175 430 *150 | 2,580 | . ey : 12,341 4,650 *5 374 *2,317 587 12,928 ae ; ; a paths ; Vermont. .... *290 *80 *160 *50 4 925 =| 415 eR ee *3,000 *1 200 *1,000 *800 *200 | ~~) 3,275 | Washington : 2,624 0 1,743 R81 7 322 953 West Virginia..... 1,233 *0 506 727 *810 *87 | 2,130 Wisconsin. ..... *2 800 300 *800 *700 *08 *400 3, 200 Wyoming...... *400 ‘#198 *152 *50 *50 S| *250 700 , - 93,334 23, $7 8 36,595 33,161 18,188 | 10,673 | 122,195 | 2Not including graduates of colleges and universities, only state teachers colleges. 3 Wisconsin weported ° ‘very few” purenas certificated on the basis of examination. [ 343 | Each group of facts in this definition of sup- ply might be obtained (1) by writing directly to every teacher-training agency in each state, or (2) by asking state departments of educa- tion to report the facts. Data on the certificates granted through examinations might be learned from either (1) county and city superintend- ents,' or (2) the state departments of educa- tion. The number of teachers from other states is information which may be asked of either (1) local superintendents, or (2) state departments of education. Because of the resources available for this survey it was necessary to obtain all of the basic data on supply from state depart- ments of education.? In a few instances sup- plementary facts were obtained from state edu- cation associations, local superintendents, and the United States Office of Education. How many persons completed teacher train- ing in 1928-29 in each state?—In the inquiry blank state departments were asked to report the number of persons who completed teacher training courses in 1928-29. This question was meant to include graduates of high school train- ing classes, normal schools, teachers colleges, liberal arts colleges, universities, and any other training courses which qualified them for a teaching certificate. However, a number of the state departments reported that they had no statistics on the number of graduates of liberal arts colleges and universities who were qual- ified to enter teaching without examination. Column 2 of Table 14 is undoubtedly, in most instances, less than the total number of persons completing some type of teacher training.’ Some evidence that column 2 of Table 14 is too small is shown by Table 15. Note particularly Con- necticut, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jer- sey, and Rhode Island. It is interesting to note how closely columns 4 and 5 of Table 15 agree for Arizona, California, and Washing- ton. The reports from these last three states are based upon exact records and are reliable. How many persons obtained teaching licenses in 1928-29 on the basis of examinations ?—Per- sons who obtained certificates in 1928-29 o; the basis of county or state examinations co: stitute the second part of the supply, as defin: earlier in the above section.* In some states th county merely administers a state test whi entitles the successful candidate to a state | cense. California and other states have count examinations which certificate the candidat: only within the one county. Column 6 of Table 14 gives the number ot persons in each state who obtained licenses i: 1928-29 on the examination basis. It is assumed that 1928-29 examinees are available for em ployment in 1929-30. It is interesting to note that out of 36 units answering the question, 16 report no certificat« granted on examinations. We may restate column 6 of Table 14 in comparison with column 2 as shown in Table 16.° That is, what percent of the number of graduates of system atic teacher-training courses does the numbe: of untrained examinees form? TABLE 15.—ESTIMATED 1928-29 SUPPLY COMPARED WITH STATE DEPARTMENTS’ REPORTS AS TO 1929-30 SUPPLY ' | Estimated 1928-29 Supply ? 1929-30 wiiteuiatiliied ne | Supply | Accord- State Normal | Total | ing to | Schools | Other | | Table 14: |Teachers| Colleges | | Colleges I we: 3 4 5 Arizona...... 395 118 | 513 422 California...... 1,360 | 1.780] 3,140 3,603 Connecticut... . 633 | 453 1,086 | 4474 Louisiana...... 492 | 383 875 | 1,293 Missouri.......} 2,597 | 655 3,252 | 1,796 New Hampshire 343 | 270 613 | *358 | New Jersey....| 1,560 406 | 1,966 *1,629 | Rhode Island... 40 209 | 249 *130 | Washington....| 1,574 625 | 2,199 2,624 pA 8,994 4,899 13,893 12,302 1 Graduates of teacher training in 1927-28 are.con- sidered as the bulk of the 1928-29 supply. The 1929-30 supply in Table 15 includes only the 1928-29 graduates of teacher-training courses. 2See Table 12. 3 See column 2, Table 14. 4 Reports from state departments specifically stated that graduates of colleges and universities were not included. * Estimated by state departments, not exact records 1 In some states the examinations are county tests. while in other states the counties administer the test prepared by state officials. As a test questionnaires were sent to all of the colleges and universities in Connecticut, Arizona, and Wyoming. After three or four ‘‘check-up"’ letters, replies were received from about 90 percent of these institutions. The liberal arts colleges wer« usually unable to report th number of their graduates who became teachers. Even the distinctly teacher-training institutions could not always give exact data. These difficulties indicate that exact and detailed facts must be collected by state agencies such as the state departments of education. 3 In some states graduates of teacher-training courses are not certificated until they apply to the state department. Other states consider the diploma a teaching certificate. Since in the first case the application is largely a formality it is reasonable t consider all graduates of teacher-training classes in 1928-29 as potential 1929-30 supply. ‘ Generally speaking persons certificated on the basis of examination have little or no systematic professional training * Table 16 does not show what percent of the total supply is constituted by the number of persons certificated on the basis of examination. See the definition of supply at the first of this section. [ 344 ] } whic! ate |; ount\ didate ber ot ses In sumed r em- units icates estate with what stem- mber PPLY NTS’ State \fter were tions cies, ther e to aASsIS Column 1 of Table 16 and the first footnote of Table 16 show that in 22 out of 36 states? the number of persons certificated on the basis of examination is relatively unimportant. Col- umn 4 of Table 16 shows states in which the proportions are significant. For example, Dela- ware reports that it certificates three persons on the basis of examinations to every four graduating from systematic teacher-training courses. Florida certificates about 300 exami- nees to every 100 graduates of teacher-training courses. Similar deductions may be made for all of the eight states listed in column 4 of Table 16. How many teachers does each state get from its neighbors?—Each state department was asked to tell how many of the newly appointed teachers in 1929-30 were from outside of the state. For purposes of this study it is assumed that the number of these outsiders for 1929-30 is fairly representative of annual conditions. Each state acquires from the outside a number of teachers which must be added to the num- ber of graduates produced within the state, in TABLE 16.—PERCENT THE NUMBER CERTIF- ICATED ON BASIS OF EXAMINATION IS OF THE NUMBER OF GRADUATES OF TEACHER-TRAINING COURSES 5 percent 6-10 | 11-30 | Over 30 orless' | percent percent | percent? ous) 2 3 i Alabama (75) N. Island. | Tennessee | Delaware California R. Island Kansas | Florida (328) Idaho Virginia | Wyoming | Iowa (68) Maine } | Kentucky (60) Texas | Mississippi (103) Washington | | S. Dakota (88) W. Virginia (66) Missouri (149) 1 Units reporting no certificates issued in 1928-29 on basis of examination: Arizona, District of Columbia, | Indiana, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michi- gan, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New | York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, | Vermont, and Wisconsin. See column 6, Table 14. 2 Figures in parentheses are percents. That is, in | Florida the number of persons in the 1929-30 supply who were certificated by examinations was three times the number who were licensed on the basis of regular professional training. order to determine the total supply.“ Column 7 of Table 14 gives the reports of each state department as to the new teachers employed from other states. At the same time that it is acquiring teach ers from its neighbors each state is also losing a number of teachers. A common assumption is that the number lost just about equals the number gained. This assumption fails to take into account that states with high salaries tend to attract teachers from a distance. States with high certification standards probably tend to send out more teachers than they acquire. Among those going out of such high-standard states are many who will return after they have had experience.’ Finally, states with pro- lific teacher-training institutions, in times of oversupply particularly, tend to flood thei: neighbors with teachers. At present, the above points are tentative conclusions based on observation. Few state de partments can say with certainty just what are the facts on the problem of the exchange of teachers between states. There is a need here for more extensive and intensive study than has been possible in this survey. What was the total supply of teachers for 1929-30?—Column 8 of Table 14 presents a summary of the various types of supply: (1) the graduates of teacher-training courses in 1928-29, (2) the number of persons certifi- cated in 1928-29 on the basis of examinations, and (3) the number of teachers employed from other states in 1929-30.* As explained above (in the text and various footnotes) the totals in column 8 of Table 14 are probably smaller than actual conditions in most states. The Status of Teacher Demand and Supply in 1929-30 The two previous sections of this chapter present the separate facts as to teacher demand and supply. It is the purpose of this section to bring the data together in answer to these 1 The number of states supplying data in column 6 of Table 14. 2 See the definition of supply at the beginning of this section. _ * Several state departments pointed this out in the course of the personal interviews. For example, California sends a number of inexperienced persons each year to Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona. Many of these teachers return eventually to the higher salaries and larger opportunities of California. The same condition exists in relation to Massachusetts and such states as Vermont, New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Maine. ‘ Tt has been explained previously that this third set of facts is in reality ‘‘the demand for teachers from other states"’ because it is the number of new outside teachers actually employed. The “‘ supply of outsiders’’ is probably very much larger because it would include all persons, who through placement bureaus or otherwise, have shown a willingness to leave their home state and teach in another state. It is impossible at this time to measure the true supply of these outsiders, therefore, the number actually employed is used to represent a group which is probably much larger. This whole question vanishes when we consider the nation, not as a series of states, but as a continuous territory within which a certain number of persons annually become available for teaching service and a certain number are appointed for such service. [ 345 ] questions (1) Was there a surplus of teachers in 1929-30? and (2) Was there an oversupply of trained teachers in 1929-30 ? Comparisons between the demand and sup- ply data are summarized in Table 17. It is ences. On the other hand, the status of teac! demand and supply as shown in ‘Table squares reasonably well with expert advic probably not necessary to caution the readers who have followed the discussion closely up to this point, that the figures in Table 17 are often estimates and not exact records. For this reason it is probably unsafe to place too much confidence in relatively small numerical differ- and it is considerably more exact than curre: opinion, Was there a surplus of teachers in 1929-3 —Table 17 summarizes the status of teache: supply and demand in 1929-30 according to t! records and estimates of state departments « education. Column 2 shows the total supply as summarized previously in Table 14. Colun 1 As previously defined the term ‘‘teacher"’ includes principals, supervisors, superintendents, as well as classroom teacher The figures include both white and colored teachers in all public day elementary and secondary schools. TABLE 17——-COMPARISON BETWEEN DEMAND AND SUPPLY ACCORDING TO FIGURES SUPPLIED BY STATE DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION State Alabama Arizona Arkansas California. . Colorado... .. Connecticut... .. Ds wad kes ; District of Columbia. .. Florida Georgia‘....... Idaho. ... Illinois. . Indiana lowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Se Maryland. : Massachusetts. . Michigan‘ Nevada....... New Hampshire. ..... New Jersey New New York Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota‘ Washington West Virginia. . Wisconsin Wyoming Status of the Supply (Col. 2 minus Col. 3) The Trained Supply’ Supply! Demand? |__ SAE OT ‘pede a Shortage | Surplus | Shortage | Surplus 2 3 —) 3 @ 7 2,371 2,371 0 0 1,016 1,048 1,048 0 0 0 0 | 4,353 di SE St Seats 1,547. 1,447 ~ =F) Re a 145 *150 5 35 227 | ae 17 - 17 3,920 hy ee | 2,785 251 Ror ONE ie See oe ot 730 i Seeerep "430 on ae ar 7 a nee et OM et] 3683 9.877 Tl eee | 4,685 ee re 8: 370 + eeeoes x “ay eee ol 175 4,320 *3,500 |........ 820 2,550 | 1,293 1,525 232 - 592 | 683 *975 292 310 | 891 ge ee PP SER 47 2,034 _- aeeceree 234 234 ir ) Oo * BB eeserree Baek sme 692 3,950 _ S jee 1,950 850 4,653 oy eoRReeD | 1,978 2,081 | veeeggaeadeeee: apo 3 veeedeeeee es ; 2,684 PT Be vadecnes i ee 367 "6.106 || #9567 | 3,461 eka ae SE Boswsess ee as ee Sy Sesrigeen lee RiMOE Wbadink vies: i41 4,120 4,355 ig Eee: 1,253 2 -e* Tim * ee eeeeESe am DOM Ex cécccss ct. 2280 240 *255 RS cn ORS ( eee -—” io: p eens h he’ om Seeeee er Ee eal Aba p, Sea 3,275 2 Se - ty Opa 275 2,953 ‘i Saar Oe Biewses sa 940 2,130 5 eat 380 Me Finies. 3,200 << |. Seen | Gt eee 700 700 > Sere 200 48 i 96,674 | 69,181 4,243 31,736 17,185 9,737 * Estimated by state departments of education. 1 Computed, See Table 14, Col. 8. 3 Exact 4 Supply figures omitted in Col. 2 because no demand figures available for Col. 3. record or estimates from state departments of education. See Table 10, Col. 2. * Not including persons with less than two years of college preparation or those certificated by examinations. [ 346 ] teache able 17 ady ice, current 129-3()? eacher ' x to the ents of pply as Solumn teachers. upply* seer peeeel ATi = ea ae art Pw 3 gives the 1929-30 demand as previously sum- marized in Table 10. Columns 4 and 5 of Table 17 show the states in which a shortage or over- supply of teachers existed in 1929-30. A quick inspection of Columns 4 and 5 shows that an oversupply is the general typical con- dition. According to these figures, Alabama and Arizona have an almost perfect balance between demand and _ supply. Delaware, Louisiana, Maine, New York, Ohio, and Rhode Island have an apparent shortage.’ Yet when we consider that these and other states were unable to give full data on teacher supply,” it is safe to say that an oversupply of persons with certificates to teach existed in most of the states in 1929-30. What percent of the total demand is the apparent oversupply * in each state? Table 18 presents these data. The figure in parenthesis after each state (Table 18) is obtained by di- viding Column 5 of Table 17 by Column 3 of Table 17. Table 18 shows that the apparent oversup- ply is not large in several states. However, the surplus seems to be a serious problem in Cali- TABLE 18.—PERCENT OF THE TOTAL DEMAND IN 1929-30 FORMED BY THE APPARENT OVERSUPPLY 25 to 50 | 50 to 100 | Over 100 fornia, Florida, Indiana, lowa, Kansas, Mis- sissippi, Missouri, North Dakota, Virginia, and Wisconsin. In several other states the pro portion of the surplus is large as compared with the demand. It may be well at this point to urge state school authorities to avoid drastic steps. The above statistics are challenging, but neither exact nor final. The present need is not for radical changes in the teacher-training pro- gram, but for an extensive and intensive search for facts. What is the exact condition of teacher demand and supply? The answer calls for thorough study and research by interested ofh- cials under the leadership of state departments of education. Was there an oversupply of trained teachers in 1929-30?—The National Education Asso- ciation has set as one of its major objectives: “a trained teacher in every classroom.” The term “trained teacher” changes its quantita- tive and qualitative meanings somewhat from year to year. At present, there is general agree- ment among educators that the minimum preparation for teaching should require two years beyond high school graduation.* In fact, in many cities of the country, few teachers who do not hold the baccalaureate or a higher de- gree are employed. A trained teacher for the purpose of this survey is defined as follows: A teacher has met the minimum training when he has completed two or more years of specified prep- aration in an institution supported or approved by the state for teacher-training purposes. 25 percent or less percent | percent | percent | 1 2 | i et ees | Conn. (1) Penn. (49) | Calif. (55) | Fla. (245) D. of C, (8) Tenn. (32) Iowa (90) Ind. (175) Idaho (22) Wash. (47) Miss. (98) Kans. (146) y. (23) Wyom. (40) | Mo. (74) Va. (105) | | Maryland (6) N. D. (86) Wis. (167) | Minn. (6) | N. J. (16) ‘ . ~ os . | Vermont (19) It is recognized that the above definition is | W. Va (22) | | somewhat arbitrary. Two years of certain | types of training may be utterly inadequate for making teachers out of inferior human mate- rial. In contrast, some persons with little more than a high school education, have risen far | _ Mass. (13) | | ’ Read table as follows: according to the data reported in Table 17 the apparent surplus of teachers in 1929-30 in Connecticut was one percent of the demand. | 1 Although New York State has an apparent shortage of 4732 teachers in 1929-30 there is evidence that several thousand well-trained teachers are unemployed or working in non-teaching positions in New York City. Obviously, there is an accumulated supply which can hardly be measured on a nation-wide basis. Also, there is a problem of distributing the trained teachers out to communities where they are needed. All of these problems are seriously complicated by economic, social, and psychological factors. The intricacy of these problems calls for intensive state-wide surveys followed by extensive national studies. 2 We must keep Table 14 in mind, because it shows that the supply figures are too small for many states. Several states could not give statistics on the graduates of teacher training in liberal arts colleges. Nor are state departments able to estimate the number of liberal arts students who enter teaching each year. Finally, there are a number of persons returning to the profession each year from non-teaching jobs. This condition is particularly noticeable in 1930-31. No one except the local superintendents and the individual teachers can supply data on this last point. * The term “‘apparent oversupply” is meant to imply that the conclusion that an oversupply exists, is only a tentative one. Further discussion in the next few pages will demonstrate that there is a difference between too many people with licenses to teach and an oversupply of persons with adequate professional training. ‘See ‘Teacher Training” by Benjamin W. Frazier in The Biennial Survey of Education, 1926-28, United States Office of Education, p. 301-35, § In 1926 Cook found that 27 states required two years or more of training beyond high school for elementary school teachers. In 1929 Stoutemyer found that 30 states required two or more years of college training for secondary teachers. See Chapter III In “Teacher Personnel” the April issue (1931) of the Review of Educational Research, American Educational Research Association. [ 347 ] above their meager training. Yet the two-year standard suggested above has the advantage of being definite and in conformity with current practices in progressive school systems. Columns 6 and 7 of Table 17 show what happens when the “untrained supply”’ is elimi- nated. That is to say, we subtract from Col- umn 2 of Table 17, (1) the persons with less than two years of training beyond high school,’ and (2) those who were certificated by exam- ination in place of specific teacher training.” Stated in new form these changes may be noted : 1. Florida, with the largest oversupply in terms of demand as shown in Table 18, really has a short- age of well-trained teachers. Referring back to Col- umn 6 of Table 14, we find that Florida has admitted almost 3000 teachers to the 1929-30 supply on the basis of examination in place of systematic teacher training.® 2. Indiana’s oversupply continues without change in Columns 6 and 7 of Table 17, indicating that no persons are certificated on the basis of examination or with less than two years of training. Of course, no one should assume that Column 7 proves that Indiana had 3600 unemployed teachers in 1929-30. The chances are that many of these trained persons found teaching positions in states in the South and West, or else entered non-teaching occupations.’ 3. When teachers with less than two years of pro- fessional training are removed from the available 1929-30 supply in Kansas and Wisconsin, the ap- parent surplus is materially diminished. (Column 7, Table 17.) 4. California’s oversupply is not-materially af- fected when the “trained teacher” standard is ap- plied to Column 5 of Table 17. This condition is to be expected because salaries, certification and teacher training standards are high in California. 5. Iowa, Mississippi, and Missouri have large surpluses according to Table 18. If we eliminate the untrained supply, these states would have had too few persons to meet the demand in 1929-30. This tendency for the surplus to change to a shortage is shown by Tennessee also. 6. Summing up the conclusions brought out by Columns 6 and 7 of Table 17 we may say that a majority of the states have too few well-trained 1 See Column 3 of Table 14. 2 See Column 6 of Table 14. teachers. An apparent oversupply of well-train teachers exists in certain areas: (1) Massachuset: (2) California and Washington, (3) New Jers and Pennsylvania, plus New York City, and Indiana and Wisconsin. Summary The major portion of the data presented ji this chapter was supplied by state department of education. In numerous instances, whe: exact records did not exist, state officials ga estimates based upon such facts as were avai able. For this reason the following conclusio: and summary statements must be looked upor as subject to revision in the light of futur: research. 1. Demand for 1929-30 is defined as th: number of newly appointed teachers in eac! state who did not hold positions in 1928-29 This group includes, (a) beginning teachers (b) those returning to teaching after an al sence of one year of more, and (c) those en tering each state from other states. 2. Supply for 1929-30 is defined as the num ber of persons who qualified for teaching during 1928-29. This group includes, (a) the gradu ates of all types of teacher-training which make one eligible for certification, (b those who qualified for teaching licenses on thx basis of examination in place of training course and (c) those teachers who were available fron other states.® courses 3. Inspection of the statistical reports of state school systems shows that it is common practice to report the total number of teachers. On the basis of annual increases and other data state departments can usually give a fairly accurate estimate of the annual demand for new teach ers.° Supply figures on the other hand usually are deficient (a) as to the number of teachers trained by private and public liberal arts col leges, and (b) in regard to the available suppl) of teachers from other states. For this reasor § The standard of two years or more of professional training can be defended in terms of child welfare and education. In view of the inadequate taxation systems in many states the question may be raised whet her a number of districts will ever be ails t pay for a well-trained teacher. This study does not attempt to discuss the economic problems involved by these questions. 4 Mr. Whisler of the state department made a survey of unemployed teachers in 1928-29. The county and city superintendent reported about 863 unemployed of the 1929-30 supply failed to obtain teaching positions. . As the supply for 1928-29 was practically the same as 1929-30 probably not more than 100 * The number actually employed from other states was used for the (c) part of supply. Obviously, the number employ: was less than the number who sought employment. * However, the complete demand should include (1) the number of unfilled positions, and (2) the number of new teacl required during the year. Unfilled sy include actual vacancies and positions filled by temporary substitutes. New teachers required during the year are those em: to meet unusual enrolments or to fill vacancies due to death retirements, or resigna ployed + ay Tables 1 this study do not iachede the full demand figures because state departments did not have these additional dat [ 348 ] aha al eaten he ae a adh lage on l-traine: ichusetts v Jerse and (4 nted rtments where ls gave e avail clusions d upon future as the in each 928-29. -achers, an ab ose en e num during gradu- courses n, (b) on the courses le from of state ractice Jn the a state ‘curate teach- isually achers ts col- supply reason In view >» able to 1s. tendents lan 1000 m ple yyed teachers teachers resigna- al data the supply figures in this chapter are undoubt- edly smaller than actual conditions would jus- tify concluding. 4. In terms of teacher demand and supply as defined immediately above in 1 and 2 there was a wide-spread oversupply in 1929-30 of persons with teaching licenses. ‘This statement does not mean that unemployment necessarily existed in direct proportion to the total surplus.! 5. If we accept two years of training beyond high school as the minimum professional train- ing for teaching, there was in reality a wide- spread shortage of trained teachers in 1929-30. When we consider the hundreds of persons holding positions who have less than two years of professional training beyond high school, the need for “trained teachers”’ is even more serious. It must be pointed out, however, that under ex- isting certification laws these persons usually hold valid teaching licenses.2 “They are em ployed to the complete satisfaction of local trus tees ; hence, their positions are not a part of the demand. A discussion of the many problems of economics and of in-service training raised by these points is not included under the purposes of this study. Complete data on teacher supply and de- mand are not available in most state depart- ments of education. The present annual statis- tical summaries of state superintendents do not give all of the details which a complete study of teacher personnel should contain.* The prob- lems of teacher demand and supply cannot be handled satisfactorily until state departments and other interested state officials gather the necessary facts. 1 Some persons left teaching through marriage, others went into states where teachers were needed, others returned to teacher training institutions for further study, and a number entered non-teaching occupations. 2 For example, in 1928 about 41 percent (8010 teachers) of the rural teachers in Missouri held licenses which required only four years of schooling above the eighth grade. See the Eightieth Report of the State Superintendent for the year ending June 30, 1929. Similar figures could be cited from other state reports. 3 Gross figures as to the annual demand and the total output of teacher training institutions are not enough. State depart- ments should know such facts as: (1) how many valid certificates are held by persons living in the state, (2) how many teachers leave the state each year, (3) how many teachers are needed for the elementary, intermediate, and secondary school levels, (4) what are the subject combinations in which high school teachers should be trained, and (5) what percent of the graduates of teacher- training institutions are lost to teaching each year. The present annual reports of state officers are inadequate on these and similar questions of teacher demand and supply. State School Administration, pp. 612-13. O INTELLIGENT state policy in teacher-training would be complete which concerned itself alone with the mere preparation of teachers. This is but a part of the general problem. In- stead, the authorities in control of teacher-training should also take into account the many col- lateral problems which condition the training work of the teacher, so as to make the most of possibilities in those whom they train. The problem of finance and an adequate state salary schedule form one of these problems. The improvement of high-school preparation is another. The certi- fication and salary laws should be such as to place a premium on adequate and continued profes- sional preparation, and proper teacher tenure comes in as another phase of the problem. The elimination of the district system, and the provision of close, adequate, and professional school supervision for all teachers in the State is another. The reorganization of rural education is stil] another problem of large importance for teacher-training. The development of an adequate state policy in teacher-training, then, means the building | up of strong central control and supervision of all such training and certification, and also the | formulation of an intelligent and forward-looking state plan with reference to all the factors conditioning the work of a teacher after the training has been given.—Cubberley, Ellwood P., [ 349 ] ao CHAPTER IV The Progress of Research on Teacher Supply and Demand Problems in the Various States The purpose of this chapter is to bring in brief review the important studies of teacher personnel problems for each state. Particular attention is given to investigations of supply and demand completed, or in progress, under the direction of state departments of education. Reference is also made to the research activ- ities of state education associations. A few in- dividual and independent studies of topics re- lated to teacher demand and supply have been included, when they seem particularly signifi- cant.' Data for the chapter were obtained largely through a questionnaire sent to the state de- partments of education.” Information in regard to state education associations came from direct correspondence with the secretaries.? Between June and December of 1930 officials in 45 state education offices were personally inter- viewed by the investigator.* The omission of a state from this chapter does not mean that the state department has done nothing about teacher demand and supply problems. In fact many of the annual statistical reports of state offices show tables on the num- ber of certificates issued, the number of gradu- ates of state teachers colleges and similar per- tinent data.® Since few of these statistics are complete or interpreted in terms of teacher de- mand and supply, they have been omitted. Several state and national school surveys have not been included in this chapter although they contain sections on teacher demand supply.® Alabama Parkinson, director of teacher training, m a study of teacher supply and demand in 1928 29.7 Pannell is preparing a thesis on the prep ation and work of high-school teachers.* Ande: son compared the training and the subject com binations of first-year high-school teachers The United States Office of Education mad general educational survey in 1919."° Arizona A survey made about 1917 by the United States Office of Education dealt with problems of teacher turnover, training, and experience. Tupper studied the preparation and characte: istics of teachers.’? Arkansas A survey made by the United States Office of Education contained studies of teacher train ing and characteristics of the teaching staff Grant laid out a teacher-training program fo: Arkansas in 1925. His report shows the train ing of employed teachers, the annual demand and the annual supply.'* Colvert has shown the oversupply of high-school teachers and pro posed certain next steps.'® The state department of education is planning to make a study of teacher demand and supply in 1931. 1See the bibliography at the end of this report. Also, the bulletin ‘Teacher Personnel,’ Review of Educational Resear April, 1931, American Educational Research Association, a department of the National Education Association. ? Blanks were returned by 42 states, including the District of Columbia. * Replies were received from 47 state education associations. * Personal interviews were held with state officials in 39 states. In six states the state officer received and returned the sta ard —— blank by mail, making a total of 45 reports out of 49. ‘or example, see Education in Wisconsin. John Callahan, (State Superintendent), Chapters VI, VIII, IX and the appendix Sixty-thed Annual Report of the Maryland State Board of Education, Albert S. Cook, (State Superintendent), 1929, p. 133-47, 185-90 * For example: Klein, A. J. (Director) Survey o Yay Colleges and '/niversities, Bulletin, 1930, No. 9. U. S. Departmen of the foseiet. of Education, Washington, . p. 113-297. Consult the Topical Analysis of 234 School Surveys, Bulletin of the School of Education, Indiana University, Vol. s "No. 4, March, 1927, 111 p ’ ie, R. L. (Director of Teacher Training). Annual Report. Alabama State Department of Education, 1929, 47 p a s ae. H. C. The Preparation and Work of High-School Teachers in Alabama. Unpublished thesis, University of Alabam n process. * Anderson, Julia D. Some Aspects of Teacher Training at the University of Alabama. Unpublished master’s thesis, Univers! of Alabama, 1927. 73 ms. p. ”U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of apa, An Educational Siudy of Alabama. Bulletin, 1919, No. 41. W ington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1919. 522 "wu. S. ment of the Interior, Office of Saseuniain Educational Conditions in Arizona. Bulletin, 1917, No. 44. W ington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1917. 200 p 12 Tupper, C. Ralph. A Survey of the Arizona Public School System. Phoenix, Arizona: State Board of Education, 1925. 112 %U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. The Public School System of Arkansas. Bulletin, 1923, No. 10. W ington, D. C.: owe Printing Office, 1923. 79 p. 4“ Grant, James R. A State's Teacher-Training Program. Contributions to Education No. 18, 1925. Nashville, Tenn Peabody College. 1925. 101 p. (The author was on the state department staff at the time of the survey.) % Colvert, Clyde C. The Demand and Supply of High-School Teachers in Arkansas. Unpublished master’s thesis. Fayette) Arkansas: University of Arkansas, 1931. (Typed) 115 p. : Geor [ 350 } lems in nand and ing, made in 1928. le prepar- Ander- ject com- teachers.’ n made a e United problems erience.?! haracter- es Office ler train- x staff.’ rram for he train- demand, own the nd_ pro- yartment study of | Research the stand- appendix 17. 185-90. epartment s, Bulletin . 47 p Alabama. University 41. Wash- 14. Was 25. 112 p 10. Wash- .: George yettevi California Eakin, as a member of the state department, reported on teacher demand and supply in 1926-27.1 Clement brought Eakin’s study up to date.? Biaggini has studied the train- ing and qualifications of rural high-school teachers.* Teacher demand and supply have been investigated by Henderson,* Shambaugh,° and Mushlitz.* The relationships between train- ing and positions held have been examined by Ogden,’ Sattgast,* and Stum.® Richmond has analyzed the subject combinations in Cali- fornia high schools.!° Colorado The administration and support of the Colo- rado school system have been studied by the United States Office of Education."! The Research Committee of the Colorado Education Association is beginning a study of teacher certification in teacher supply and de- mand. One purpose of this investigation is to defend from legislative attacks ?* the present teacher certification law, which requires two years or more of college training. Whitney has compared’ demand and supply statistics for Colorado with those from other states.‘* Fras- ier experimented with the use of regression equations in predicting the success of student teachers.’ Connecticut Bechtel, assistant in special education, stud- ied the possibility of using intelligence tests in selecting students for admission to normal schools.*® Myers analyzed the training, experi- ence, and teaching assignments of the new high-school teachers appointed in September, 1929.*° At the annual conference in 1929 vari- ous members of the normal-school faculties contributed papers on the selection and place- ment of student teachers.*? Delaware The certification and training of teachers were included in a survey of Delaware schools by the General Education Board.?® Florida Strayer directed a comprehensive survey of the educational system. Chapter VI deals with teacher personnel problems.'® Georgia Martin, state supervisor of schools, collected facts in 1923-24 on the qualifications of white teachers in Georgia and made recommenda- tions on the maintenance of an adequate sup- 1 Eakin, Ruth M. Supply and Demand of Teachers in California, 1926-27. Bulletin No. H-3, 1928. Sacramento, California: 23 p. California State Department of Education, 1928. 2 Clement, Evelyn. ‘‘The Supply and Demand of Teachers in California, 1928-30."" California Schools 1:154-64; June, 1930. Sacramento, California: California State Department of Education. 3 Biaggini, Albert. Training and Qualifications of Rural High-School Teachers. Unpublished master’s thesis. Stanford, Cali- fornia: Leland Stanford University, 1929. 4 Henderson, Adin D. A Phase of Supply and Demand for Secondary Teachers in the State of California. Unpublished master's thesis, Stanford, California: Leland Stanford University, 1928. ’ Shambaugh, Charles Gilbert. Teacher Supply’ and Demand in California. Unpublished doctor's thesis. Stanford, California: Leland Stanford University, 1929. (See ‘‘Teacher Turnover in California and Its Significance.’’ Nation's Schools 7:77-80; 82, 84; January, 1931). * Mushlitz, Manford E. Are There Too Many Teachers? Unpublished master's thesis. Stanford, California: Leland Stanford University, 1930. (Summarizes opinion of state school officers as to teacher demand and supply in the various states.) 7 Ogden, George L. The Relation Between Major and Minor Training of Stanford Graduates and Teaching Position Held, Un- published master’s thesis. Stanford, California: Leland Stanford University, 1930. *Sattgast, Charles P. Relation of Teachers’ Qualifications to Position Secured. Unpublished master's thesis. Stanford, Cali- fornia: Leland Stanford University, 1926. *Stum, og = ee The Relation Between the Subjects Taught and the Training of California High-School Teachers. Unpublished master’s thesis. niversity of California, 1923. 1° Richmond, Preston A. A Study of Subject Combinations in the California High Schools. Unpublished master’s thesis. Stan- ford, California: Leland Stanford University, 1927. 4 U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Report of An Inquiry into the Adetisration and Support of the Colorado School System. Bulletin, 1917, No. 5. Washington, D. C Government Printing Office, 1917. 93 p 2 Reported by W. B. Mooney, Secretary, Colorado Education Association, in a letter dated November 4, 1930, 8 Whitney, Frederick L. Teacher Demand and Supply in the Public Schools. Greeley, Colorado: Colorado State Teachers College 1930, 139 p. 4 Frasier. C. M. The Selection of the Student Teacher. Unpublished master's thesis. Greeley, Colorado: Colorado State Teachers College, August, 1928. 80 p. % Bechtel, Helen W. Intelligence Test Scores in Relation to Success in hry Connecticut State Normal Schools. Special Education Bulletin No. 1. Hartford, Connecticut: State Board of Education, 1930. 34 p. % Myers, Alonzo F. New High-School Teachers in Connecticut, Mememtnst 1929. Hartford, Conn.: State Department of Educa- tion, January, 1930. (Mimeographed) 9 p. Myers, Alonzo F. ery y a4 the Annual Conference of Connecticut Normal School Faculty Members. Hartford, Conn.: State Board of Education, 1930. 6 % General Education Board. ata Education in Delaware. New York: General Education Board, 1910. 202 p. 1 George D. (director). Oficial Report of the Educational Survey Commission. Tallahassee, Florida: State of Florida, 1929. 743 p. [351] ply. The Committee on Disability, Salary, Tenure, Retirement, and Pension, of the Geor- gia Education Association made a report in 1930.? Idaho A committee of the state teachers association is working on the problem of tenure.* Indiana In a survey of the state school system Bach- man collected statistics on the preparation and characteristics of the teachers.‘ Freeman was chairman of a committee which collected data about the rural teachers.5 Whisler, director of teacher training, collected statistics on the number of unemployed teachers in Indiana for the year 1929-30 by means of a mimeographed inquiry blank to local superintendents and to 33 colleges.® Foster, chairman of a special committee of the Indiana State Teachers Association, re- ported on the enrolment in teacher training in Indiana colleges and universities in September, 1930.’ Devricks has made a preliminary re- port on the subject combinations of high school teachers in 1927-28, 1928-29, and 1929-30. The final committee report will be published in 1931 as a bulletin of the Bureau of Co- operative Research, Indiana University. Illinois The Illinois School Masters’ Club presented data on the demand for teachers and the oppor- tunities for preparation.* Iowa A comprehensive survey of teacher person: is being made in Iowa under the general di; tion of the state superintendent, Agnes Sam son.® The survey is under the immediate su, vision of E. T. Peterson and E. F. the State University of Iowa. Inman mad: study in 1926 of the academic preparation graduates of the State University of Iowa jn relation to their teaching assignments in high school.’° Later Inman made a more comprehe: sive study of the graduates of eleven colleges in Iowa."! Williams studied the teaching assign ments of graduates of the lowa State Teach: College.'? Lindquist Kansas O’Brien studied the preparation and teach ing assignments of high-school teachers in 1924-25.18 A report of the school code con mission devotes sections to teacher tenure and related problems.'* Kentucky Bachman directed a survey of public edu cation in Kentucky.*® Donovan studied the status of elementary school teachers and the teacher-training program in Kentucky just prior to 1925. He used considerable material from the office of the state department of edu cation and the committees of the Kentucky Education Association.*® Peyton, director of 1 Martin, J. O. Varying Types of Service Rendered Georgia by Teachers with Recommendations for Their Training in Service Atlanta, Georgia: State Department of Education, August, 1926. 45 p. **Report of Committee on Disability, Salary, Tenure, Retirement, 2? Wager, Ralph (chairman). tion Journal 23:16-19; September, 1930. and Pension."’ Georgia Educa * Reported by Secretary John I. Hillman, Idaho Education Association, September 3, 1930. ‘Bachman, Frank P. Public Education In Indiana. New York: General Education Board, 1921. 213 p. 5 Freeman, G. W. (chairman). Report of the Indiana Rural Education Survey Commiitee. Indianapolis, Indiana: State Depart- ment of Education, 1926. 130 p * Whisler, H. M. rt of Teachers. 930. (Mimeographed bulletin) p. 9, " Educational News. Indianapolis, Indiana: State Department of Educatior 7 Foster, I. O. Mimeographed a report of September 5, 1930. 7 p. The committee: I. O. Foster, chairman, India eg H. N. Fitch, Ball Teachers College; E. C. . Devricks, Indiana State College. Bowman, DePauw University; G. L. Roberts, Purdue University; a: 8 Illinois School Masters’ Club. Opportunities for High School Graduates in Public School Teaching in Illinois. Normal Sch: Quarterly, Series 27, No. 108. Normal, Illinois: State Normal University, 1928. 24 p. ® Samuelson, Agnes (state superintendent). pane of the Public Elementary and Secondary Schools of Iowa. Des Moines, low State Board of Educational Examiners, 1930. 36 Inman, James H. The College Preparation os High School Teachers. Unpublished master's thesis. lowa City, University of lowa, 1926. Iowa: State " Inman, James H. The Training of Iowa High School Teachers in Relation to the Subjects They Teach. University of lowa Studies Vol. IV, No, 9, August 1, 1928. 66 p. 12 Williams, R. C. A Study of the Output of the lowa State University of lowa, 1926. Teachers College. Unpublished master's thesis. Iowa City, low 13 O'Brien, F. P. The High School Teaching Load and Preparation of High School Teachers. Kansas Studies in Education, Vol. | No. 5. Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas, 1926. 37 p. 4 State School Code Commission. Report. Topeka, Kansas: the Commission, 1929. Volumes I, II, and III. % Bachman, Frank P. Public Education in Kentucky. New York: General Education Board, 1921. 213 p. % Donovan, Herman L. A State's Elementary Teacher Training Program (Kentucky). Nashville, Tenn.: George Peabody College for Teachers, 1925. 96 p. Contributions to Education, No. ! { 352] personne] ral direc- ; Samuel- ite super dquist of 1 made a ration of lowa in } in high mprehen- colleges ig assign Teachers d teach- hers in de com- ure and lic edu- ied the and the cy just naterial of edu- entucky ctor of nm Service ia Educa- » Depart- ducation, , Indiana sity; and al Schoo! es, Iowa ra: State Studies, y, lowa », Vol. I, ee ae ere certification, has issued a preliminary report of state certification plans in collaboration with D. Cocking.' Louisiana Smith studied the status of high-school teach- ers in Louisiana, estimated future needs, and proposed training standards.* Maryland Flexner and Bachman directed a survey of the Maryland school system, in which some attention was given to teacher-training.° Massachusetts Lord, director of research, made a study of the salaries of teachers in public day schools in 1926. He included some facts as to the train- ing, experience, and turnover of teachers.* A similar report will be made in 1931. Michigan Woody has studied the number and com- binations of subjects taught in the high schools of Michigan.® A committee of the state teach- ers’ association has made a study of the prepa- ration, experience, and salaries ot rural teach- Minnesota Hutson investigated the training of high- school teachers in relation to their teaching assignments.’ Overan has developed indices for the prediction of teacher demand and supply.* Mississippi O’Shea has directed a study in Mississippi which gave some attention to teacher training and certification.® Missouri A survey of teacher training in Missouri, about 1920, includes data closely related to teacher demand and supply.'® Hill followed the 1920 investigation with a survey of progress in Much of the 1924 survey is devoted to the qualifications, placements, and At the present time teacher training." certification of teachers.'* Strayer and Engelhardt are directing a survey of public schools and higher institutions in Missouri. The preliminary report of this sur vey contains facts on teacher personnel and es- timates as to the annual demand.'* Nebraska Rosenlof, director of secondary education and teacher training, has completed a study of the rural teacher personnel.'* He is now work- ing upon the status of urban elementary and secondary school teachers. Cushing, director of certification, has written a thesis on desirable pasennnes for the issuance of teachers’ certifi- cates.1° Moritz has published charts showing the supply and demand for college and high school teachers." 1 Peyton, W. W., and Cocking, W. D. Certification of Teachers. (Typewritten, printed cover). 1930. 51 p 2Smith, James Monroe. The Training of High School Teachers in Louisiana. Contributions to Education, No. 247. New York Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1926. 101 p. $ Flexner, Abraham, and Bachman, Frank P. Public Education In Maryland. New York: General Education Board, 1916. 230 p 4 Lord, Arthur B. Salaries of Teachers. Bulletin, 1926, No. 5, Whole Number 170. Boston, Mass.: State Department of Educa- tion. 45 p. 5 Woody, Clifford. ‘‘ Number of Subjects Taught by Graduates of the University of Michigan Who Began Teaching in the School Year 1922-23 and the Amount of Aci ademic Preparation in the Subjects Taught.” Educational Administration and Super- vision 10:368-84; September, 1924. Also, ‘‘ Number and Combinations of Subjects Taught in the 1924-25 School Year in North Central High Schools of Michigan.’ Educational Administration and Supervision 12:529-48; November, 1926. Michigan State Teachers Association. Rural Teachers Salaries in Michigan. Bulletin No. 5, Part I. Lansing, Mich.: the Asso- ciation, 1925. 35 p 7 Hutson, P. W. The Training of High School Teachers in Minnesota. Educational Monographs, No. 3. Minneapolis, Minnesota University of Minnesota, 1923. § Overan, A. V. Study to be published sometime in 1931 by the University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis ® O'Shea, M. V. (director), Public Education in Mississippi. Jackson: Mississippi: State Department of Education, 1926. 362 p ” Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The Professional Preparation of Teachers for American Public School Bulletin No. 14. New York: the Foundation, 1920. 475 p. " Hill, Clyde M. A Decade of Progress in Teacher Training. Contributions to Education, No. 233. New York: Bureau of Pub lications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1927. 217 p. Lee, Charles. (state superintendent) Facts Concerning Public Education in Missouri. Missouri School Survey, Jefferson City, Missouri: State Department of Education, 1924. 139 p. % Strayer, G. D., and Engelhardt, N. L. Preliminary Report of the Survey of the Public Schools and Higher Institutions. In the Eightieth Report of the Public Schools, Charles A. Lee, State superintendent. Jefferson City, Missouri: State Department of Edu- cation, 1929. 464 p. 4 Rosenlof, G. W. The Rural Teacher Situation in Nebraska. (Mimeographed) 3 p. 4% Cushing, Herbert L. A Desirable Procedure for the Issuance of Teachers’ Certificates. Unpublished master's thesis. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska. June, 1930. 100 p. % Moritz, R. D. ‘Report of the Department of Educational Service of the University of Nebraska.’ Educational Research Record 11:49-66; December, 1929. [ 353 ] ee — eee ee Ee ty New Jersey The state department in New Jersey has laid plans for a continuous study of teacher sup- ply and demand. West, former director of teacher training, circulated questionnaires ‘eg- ularly among local supperintendents. Data as to demand are reported each year along with the enrolments of state teachers colleges.' Up- degraff is directing a study of public educa- tion in New Jersey, including problems of teacher personnel.? New York Works directed a survey which collected data on the experience, preparation, certificates, and teaching assignments of rural teachers.® Coxe, director of research in the state depart- ment, has made a study of demand in 1926-27.* Elsbree made an investigation of teacher turn- over in the city and village school systems.® Belknap studied the teacher demand according to the appointment office records of 40 teacher- training institutions.® Coxe and Soper reported data on the preparation and teaching assign- ments of high school teachers.’ North Carolina The General Education Board’s study of education in North Carolina included sections on teacher training and experience.* Morrison has presented data on tenure and simil topics.® Noble, director of information and st tistics in the state department, made a stud) teacher demand and supply.’® He also studi: the relationship between the home areas student teachers and the areas where their fi: teaching positions were obtained.** Hillma: summarized the resources, facilities, and pra tices of the colleges of North Carolina.’? Hi examined the subject combinations of high school teachers.?* A recent governmental surve proposes the reorganization of the state’s educa tional machinery.* North Dakota Peik has studied the training of teachers in North Dakota. His report includes data on teacher supply and demand.*® The study was made at the request of the state board of ad- ministration, governing body of all state higher institutions of learning. Ohio Buckingham’s pioneer study in 1923-24 started a series of very valuable studies of teacher demand and supply. The state depart- ment cooperated with the questionnaires and communications sent to local superintendents." Myers followed in 1927 with a study of Ohio’s teacher-training facilities and with recommen- dations for the future.*’ 1 West, Roscoe L. Oficial Report. Trenton, New Jersey: State Department of Education. (Mimeographed) 1929-30, 12 p. 2 Updegraff, Harlan (director). Report of Commission to Survey Public Education. Trenton, New Jersey: State Department of Education, 1930. 204 p. * Works, George A. and others. Rural School Survey of New York State. Ithaca, New York: Joint Committee on Rural Schools 1922. 8 vole. 4 Coxe, W. W. Teacher Demand in New York State. (Mimeographed) 23 p. Teacher Demand in New York City. (Mimeographed) Albany, New York: State Department of Education, 1926-27. 5 Elsbree, W. S. Teacher Turnover in Cities and Villages of New York State. Contributions to Education, No. 300. New York Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928. 88 p. * Belknap, Fredericka. A Comparison of Supply and Demand for Teachers and School Administrators Based on Statistics of the Sous of Appointments from May 1, 1926 to July 1, 1927. Unpublished master's thesis. New York: New York University, 1928 45 p. 7 Coxe York: University of the State of New York, 1931. . W. W., and Soper, Wayne W. A aly 7: the High School Teacher in New York Siate. Bulletin No. 964. Albany, New * General Education Board. Public dee sely in North Carolina. Report of Public School Commission. New York: General Education Board, 1921. 137 p. ® Morrison, Fred and others. Report on the Public School System of North Carolina. Raleigh, North Carolina: State Educational Commission, 1927. 269 p. ” Noble, M. C.3. Jr. Teacher Training in North Carolina. Educational Publication No. 135. Raleigh, North Carolina: State Department of Public Instruction, 1929. 70 p " Noble, M. C. S., Jr. Relationship fensene Area of Source of Supply from High Schools and Area of Beginning Service for the Teaching Profession in ‘orth Carolina. Raleigh, North Carolina: State Department of Public Instruction. (Mimeographed) 23 | 2 Hillman, James E. Certain Statistical Data on North Carolina Colleges for the School Year 1928-29. Raleigh, North Carolina State Department of Public Instruction. (Mimeographed) 26 p. o Hill, Henry H. State High School Standardization. Bulletin of the Bureau of School Service, University of Kentucky, March 1930. p. 46-76. 4 Institute for Government Research, Brookings Institution. Report of a Survey of ihe yr and Administration of the State Government of North Carolina. Raleigh, North Carolina: State of North Carolina, 1930. p. 152-75. % Peik, W. E. The Trainin 7 oy in North Dakota. Reprint from \ era Report of the Superintendent of Publi Instruction. Bismarck, North Board of Administration, 1930. 7 1 Soaten, B. R. Supply and enemas in Teacher Training. Bureau of al Research, Monograph No. 4. Columbus Ohio: Ohio State ee Aye arch, 1926. 182 p. 1 Myers, Alonzo F. A Teacher-Training Program for Ohio. Contributions to Education, No. 266. New York: Bureau of Publica tions, Teachers College. yoo University, 1927. 144 p. [ 354] simil; ind Sta tudy of studied reas ot eir first Lillman d prac- 22 Hill f high- survey ; educa- hers in ata on dy was of ad- higher 923-24 dies of depart- es and lents,.?° Ohio’s mmen- 12 p. ment of Schools, raphed) w York: ics of the y, 1928. ry, New General cational a: State e for the d) 23 p. arolina: March, m of the f Public Jumbus Publica- In May 1929, Foster, director of research of the Ohio Education Association, brought the data on supply and demand up-to-date.’ Re- cently, Foster and Anderson have completed re- ports of demand and supply which are based upon data gathered through the cooperation of the state department of education and the Ohio Education Association.* The plans in Ohio call for continuous sur- veys to keep up-to-date the above studies. Rec- ord forms and questionnaires for this purpose are to be sent out under the direction of the state director of teacher training. Oklahoma A study by the United States Office of Edu- cation includes sections on the tenure, experi- ence, and preparation of teachers.® Oregon The Committee on Investigations, of the Oregon State Teachers Association, made a study in 1928 of the status of the elementary teacher. Data were included as to salaries, training, turnover, experience, and responsibili- ties of teachers.* Recently, Huffaker completed a study of teacher demand and supply in Oregon.° Pennsylvania Taylor presented figures on the teacher de- mand and supply situation in 1923.° King di- rected a survey which devoted sections to the experience, training, and tenure of teachers.’ The state department of education made a comprehensive study of teacher personnel in 1928. Data from this survey have been used by MacDonald in a study of the preparation of elementary school principals.* Van Houten has investigated the tenure and stability of high- school teachers.® Yeager studied state certifica- tion as a factor in the training of elementary teachers in service.’ Blackburn surveyed the preparation, salary, experience, and teaching as- signments of newly appointed high-school teachers.” South Carolina Parkinson reported on the professional preparation and certification of white public school teachers in South Carolina in 1924-25.'* A committee of the state teachers association is working on the problem of tenure.'® South Dakota The study of the state educational system by the United States Office of Education included sections on the tenure, cectificates, experience, and training of teachers.'* Tennessee Vance has studied the contributions to the supply of the public and private colleges. He compares supply with the demand for well- trained teachers.’® 1 Foster, Richard R. The Relation Between the Demand and Supply of Elementary Teachers in Ohio With Special Reference to the Question of Raising the Statutory Training Requirements for Admission to the Profession. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio Education Asso- ciation, May, 1929. (Mimeographed) 54 p. The study of elementary school teachers by R. R. Foster and of secondary school teachers by Earl W. Anderson is to be published jointly by the Ohio State University Bureau of Educational Research and the Ohio Education Association. *U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Public Education in Oklahoma. Bulletin, 1923, No. 14, Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1923. 420 p. Spooner, Julia (chairman). Professsional and Financial Status of the Elementary Teacher. Portland, Oregon: Oregon State Teachers Association, January, 1928. (Multigraphed) 44 p. + Huffaker, C. L. Teacher Supply and Demand in Oregon. University of Oregon Publication, Vol. II, No. 5. Education Series. Eugene, Oregon: the University Press, January, 1931. 156 p. * Taylor, W. S. The Development of Professional Education of Teachers in Pennsylvania. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1924. 293 p. 7 King, LeRoy. (director) Report of Commitiee on Appropriations, Subsidies, High Schools, Normal Schools, Rural Schools, and Teachers Institutes. Harrisburg, Pennsyivania: State Department of Public Instruction, 1925. 398 p. § MacDonald, Marion E. Significance of the Various Kinds of Preparation for the City Elementary Sc hool Principalship in Pennsylvania. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1930. 104 p. *Van Houten, L. W. Study to be available about June, 1931 as a Contribution to Education at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. _ Yeager, William A. Siate Certification as a Factor in the Training of Elementary Teachers in Service. Doctor's dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, Kutétown, Pennsylvania: Kutztown Publishing Company, 1929. 350 p. _ 1 Blackburn, J. Albert. A Study of the New Teacher Situation in Public Secondary Schools of Pennsylvania. Doctor's thesis, University of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Westbrook Publishing Company, 1928. 155 p. ? Parkinson, Burney L. The Professional Preparation and Certification of White Elementary and Secondary Public School Teach- ers in South Carolina. Bulletin of the University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina. June, 1926. 270 p. % Reported by Secretary J. P. Coates, South Carolina State Teachers Association, October, 1930. “U, S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. The Educational System of South Da*ota, Bulletin, 1918, No. 31 Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1918. 304 p. is Vance, John Q. ‘‘Contributions of the Teacher-Training Agencies in Tennessee Toward Supplying the Demand for Trained Teachers in the State.” Peabody Journal of Education. 7:272-80; March, 1930. [355] es em oe Texas Works directed a survey which dealt with such topics as the tenure, experience, certifi- cates, and preparation of teachers.* Utah Parratt, secretary of the Utah Education Association, has made frequent studies of teacher turnover in Utah.? The United States Office of Education included sections on teacher tenure and training in its survey report.® Vermont The Carnegie Foundation for the Advance- ment of Teaching collected facts on the tenure, turnover, training, and qualifications of teach- ers.* Steele made a study of teacher training in Vermont during 1925 and 1926.° He included some data on teacher turnover. The state de- partment of education cooperated in supplying information and records. Virginia Inglis directed a state survey including an examination of turnover, tenure, certificates, salaries, and training of teachers.® Ellis of the Richmond Normal School is working upon a plan for making a continuous state survey of teacher demand and supply.’ Washington Koos and Woody surveyed the demand for high school teachers in 1919.° Sections of the investigation of the United State Office of Edu- cation are given to problems of teacher px sonnel.° The state department is making a continuo study of the interchange of teachers with oth states and the teacher supply provided by state institutions.‘° Bolton made a survey of t! training and supply of high school teachers the northwest states in 1928." The state edu cation association has a committee studying thy causes of teacher turnover.'? West Virginia Cavins has directed a state survey, in whic! facts have been collected on the training, ce: tification, and tenure of city and rural teach ers.38 Clark, state supervisor of teacher trainin; summarized some of the facts of teacher train ing in February, 1930.** In 1928 a committee of representatives of the public and private co! leges revised the teacher-training curricula.’* Wisconsin Anderson reported conditions relating to teacher personnel in one-room rural, elemen tary, and secondary schools.*® In 1928 Clarke published a study of teacher tenure, with sp cial reference to Wisconsin.*’ He recommends that state departments accumulate certain data on teacher personnel. Plenzke, assistant state superintendent, has collaborated with the Wis- consin Teachers Association in a report on the training, qualifications, and salaries of rural 1 Works, George A. (director). Educational Survey Reports. Austin, Texas: Educational Survey Commission 1925. 8 Vols ? Each year oe | D. W. Parratt circulated an inquiry blank on tenure and kindred questions among the county sup¢ i intendents. A mimeograp ed report was sent back to all counties. *U. S. Department of the Interior, O‘fice of Education. Survey of Education in Utah. Bulletin, 1926, No. 18. Washingto: D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1926. 510 p. ‘ Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. A Study of Education in Vermont. Bulletin,No. 7, 1914. New Yor) the Foundation, 1914. 241 p. 5 Steele, Robert M. A Siudy of Teacher Training in Vermont. Contributions to Education, No. 243. New York: Bureau Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1926. 111 p. * Inglis, Alexander. (director) Virginia Public Schools. Virginia Education Commission. Education Series, Vol. VIL. Yonkers on-Hudson, New York: World Book Company, 1920. 400 p. 7 Communications with Mr. Ellis show that his study wi!l be presented as a doctor's dissertation at Teachers College, Colum) University, New York City sometime in 1931. * Koos, L. V., and Woody, Clifford. ‘‘The Training of Teachers in the Accredited High Schools of W:shington.”’ Eighteen: Yearbook, Part II. National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1919 p. 213-57. *U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Survey of Educational Institutions of the State of Washington. Bullet 1916, No. 26. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1916. 228 p. %” Typewritten summary of interchange of teachers supplied by W. F. Martin, Deputy Superintendent of Schools, State D partment of Education. Summary of Teacher Surplus in the Washington Education Journal. p. 86. November, 193). " Bolton, Frederick E. “‘ Training and Supply of High School Teachers in the Northwest States.’’ Oregon Education Journ 2:5-6, 28-30; June, 1928. Report of a committee of the Northwest Association of Secondary and Higher Schools. ! Reported by Secretary Arthur L. Marsh in a letter of November 19, 1930. % Cavins, Lorimer V. (director). Survey of Education in West Virginia, Vol. I. Charleston, West Virginia: State Board of Edu cation, 1929. 342 p. uC obert. ‘‘Facts and Problems of Training Public School Teachers in West Virginia.'’ Educational Administration lark, Ri and Supervision 16:116-21; February, 1930. ® Clark, Robert. (chairman) Training and Certification of Teachers in West Virginia. Teacher Training Bulletin, No. 7, 1928 Charleston, West Virginia: State Board of Education, 1928. 85 p. % Anderson, C. J. The Status of Teachers in Wisconsin. Madison, Wisconsin: State Department of Education, 1924. 156 p. i44 " Clarke, Clarence L. Tenure of Teachers in the Profession. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Alumni Press, University of Michigan, 1925 Pp. [ 356] er pe tinuous h othe: y state of the hers in te edu- ing the | which ig, cer- teach- aining, r train- amittee ate col- icula.*® ing to ‘lemen- Clarke th spe- umends in data it state ie Wis- on the f rural | Vols. ty super- hington ow York ureau of Yonkers ‘olum bia ighteenth ly, 1919 Bulletin tate De- ) Journa of Edu- istration 7, 1928 156 p. an, 1928 teachers.2 Another report has been made on the training and work of high school teachers in new positions.” Wyoming A study by the United States Office of Edu- cation includes sections on teacher training and certification.® Summary and Conclusion Certain tentative implications from this chapter are: 1. In 42 states there has been research on phases of teacher demand and supply. A num- ber of these studies owe their genesis to state teachers associations, or to students in institu- tions of higher learning. State departments have frequently assisted investigators by approving inquiry blanks, or by supplying official records. 2. In most states the investigations have omitted details on teacher demand and supply which should be included, if the findings are to be most helpful in teacher-training. 3. Few states have laid plans for a continu- ous study of supply and demand. The studies made up to date have been at irregular intervals and not in terms of long-time policies. 4. Undoubtedly one reason for the rather sporadic tendency of teacher personnel studies is that state departments lack the machinery and the funds to make continuous studies. Statisti- cal bureaus in state offices seem to be heavily taxed in tabulating the present reports of county superintendents. State record forms do not always ask local authorities for full data as to demand. Teacher-training agencies do not always report fully to the state departments of education. 5. The significance of demand and supply studies to the economic welfare of teachers is seldom referred to in the studies to date. Most surveys of the status of teachers have led to rec- ommendations as to the type and length of teacher-training. Few studies to date point out that a training program may be so prolific or so restricted in the number of graduates as to ac- tually damage the morale and the economic welfare of the state’s teaching body. Plenzke, O. H. Teacher Welfare Survey in Rural Schools. (In cooperation with committee of the Wisconsin Teachers’ Associa- tion.) Madison, Wisconsin: Wisconsin Teachers Association Bulletin, No. 6, February, 1930. 11 p. ? Plenzke, O. H., and Doudna, E. G. The Training and Work of High School Teachers in Wisconsin in New Positions. Madison, Wisconsin: State Department of Education, 1930. 16 p. +U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Educational Survey of Wyoming. Bulletin, 1916, No. 29. Washington D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1916. 120 p. ing. pp. 181-82. HE study of the needs of the public schools on the one hand, and of the means of meeting the needs on the other hand, the conscious attempt to make available to all institutions the methods of the most successful few, the analysis of the processes of teacher-training into their essential elements with the rejection of those that are superfluous and the development of those that are vital, the presentation with daylight clearness of the need for more money to do a far greater work than is now possible, and the development of an effective instrumentality for placing graduates and for following them up—these are some of the opportunities that the present situa- tion discloses. Above all, the state must vest authority somewhere for the continuous study of the big problems at the basis of training, placing, and holding a sufficient corps of teachers “of first-rate intellect, morals, and skill’; at the same time giving to this authority the power to put into effect the results of its findings —Buckingham, B. R., Supply and Demand in Teacher-Train- [ 357 ] _ Quem CHAPTER V Procedures in the Study, Management, and Adjustment of Teacher Personnel Problems Preceding chapters have pointed out that the employment of teachers is subject to the law of demand and supply. Briefly: (1) a shortage of teachers places the school administrator (de- mand ) in difficulties, (2) a surplus of teachers works hardship on the teaching group (sup- ply), (3) either condition ultimately does damage to the education of children. Ap- parently, a reasonable balance between demand and supply is best for all concerned." What factors unbalance teacher demand and supply? Can these factors be manipu- lated so as to develop and to maintain an equilibrium? What roles in teacher demand and supply are played by such factors as: (1) the state control of teacher training, (2) cer- tification of teachers, (3) guidance of high- school students, (4) selection of student teach- ers, and (5) records and research of state de- partments of education? The purpose cf this chapter is to throw some light upon the status and future development of these factors.” It cannot be stated too emphatically that teacher demand and supply problems are very intricate. No panacea has been discovered as yet. Meanwhile, there is a need for much painstaking and patient research. The contents of this chapter should be valuable to investiga- tors. The practices in vogue, the experiments under way, and the solutions proposed, should be stimulants to further research. After the fact-gathering should come the necessary re- organization of teacher training, the revision of certification laws, the creation of adminis- trative machinery, and the promulgation of future laws. Adjustment, however, waits upon facts. State Control of Teacher Training Basic philosophy—Education is a state func- tion. Under this principle, state and local 1 It is not posite to say at this time what the exact nature of this equilibrium will be. Our knowledge of the specific « ha’ teristics of teacher demand and supply is too general, and too often obtained only for one or two years. Continuous record-kee personnel should provide the necessary data. * Data for - chapter were obtained largely through personal interviews with officials in 39 state departments. The int view form was filled in — returned by mail by six additional state offices. A total of 45, out of 49 governmental units, cooperat and research in phases whey 2 y. . E. P., State School Administration, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1927. Chapters V, XI, XIII, and XXII. ‘ This Seoitenies omits municipal normal schools. Few of these institutions influence teacher supply beyond the local Also, in a few states a number of persons enter teaching each year on the basis of high school or post-high school tea training courses. Win wool poner enter the rural schools almost exclusively. When rural salaries improve and norma! schools pro ae the need for these high school classes should end. Ohio has abolished the high school tea: training for rural sc training classes since Dr. Buckingham's study in 1923-24. ification on the basis of examination in place of professional courses has diminished to a small point. See Column 6, 7 Cert: 14, Chapter III, [ 358 ] : authorities establish and maintain pul schools. From this it follows that teache: training is a state function, because the stat must insure itself an adequate supply of qu fied teachers.® States have not set up public schools as t sole agency for the education of youth. N have states assumed teacher-training work an exclusive right. However, states have sumed enough control of education to insur to each child the minimum of schooling. In the same way, states have a right to assume contr of teacher preparation to the extent of prov ing enough well-trained teachers. For years a number of the states have cor trolled public and private teacher-trainin; agencies through certification powers. That is, a state extended or withheld the right to prepare teachers according to the way teacher-training agencies met certain basic requirements. Such control is largely inspectional and “check rein” in type. Has not the time come for a forward looking, cooperative, and constructive program of teacher training? Will not such a program save both money and human energy, and at the same time prevent the worst effects of an un balanced teacher demand and supply? Administration of teacher-training institu tions—Most states obtain the majority of their public school teachers * from, (1) state teach ers colleges or normal schools, (2) state uni- versities, (3) state agricultural or special schools, and (4) private universities and co! leges. The control of private universities and co! leges usually rests with their own boards of trustees or management. The participation « these institutions in a state teacher-training program, on a voluntary basis, is discussed in the next section of this chapter under statewide conferences on teacher training. cher 1 publi teacher the state of quali- ls as the ith. No; work as have as- to insure g. In the e control f provid- jave con- -training Phat is, a ) prepare -training its. Such ck rein” forward- program program id at the f an un- institu- of their e teach- ate uni- special ind col- ind col- ards of ation of training issed in atewide ic charac- d-keeping The inter- ooperated I. ocal are ol teacher Is provide l teacher- 1 6, Table The control of state institutions of higher education may be classified as three types: (1) separate boards for all types of schools, (2) a single board for normal schools and teachers colleges, and (3) a unified control of all insti- tutions. Table 19 shows the distribution of the 48 states as to the type of control.’ It will be noted in Table 19 that the move- ment toward unified control has made prog- ress. According to Cubberley this movement began with Oregon, lowa, and Montana in 1909.2 By 1921 nine states had some form of unified control. The effort toward centraliza- tion has aimed to eliminate duplication in in- struction, legislative lobbying for appropria- tions, rivalry for students, and community jealousies.* On the more positive side, the uni- fication makes for a consistent, forward-look- ing program of higher education, with each state school sharing a reasonable portion of the responsibility. TABLE 20.—PLACE OF STATE EDUCATIONAL AUTHORITIES IN SINGLE BOARD TYPE OF CONTROL OF HIGHER EDUCATION Type of Control States A. Authority largely under the state board of educa- Idaho tion, state superintendent, New York or state department of education. B. Authority resides with | Florida the state board of admin- | Georgia istration, or other group | lowa New Jersey North Dakota Oregon more or less independent | Kansas South Dakota of the state department of | Montana Wyoming education. Nevada This table gives Type III of Table 19 in greater detail so as to show the authority of state departments of education. Data taken from pages 296-300 of the Ninth Year- boo’, Department of Superintendence, National Edu- cation Association, 1931. Greater detail on the types of unified control is shown in Table 20. Apparently only Idaho and New York centralize full authority for all higher education in the state offices of edu- 1 At least twelve of the state organizations do not lend themselves readily to classifications. Compare Table 19 with the tables in Chapter XV, Ninth Yearbook, Department of Superintendence, 1931, p. 281-301. 2 Cubberley, E. P. State School Administration, p. 346-48. 4 The new Oregon board of higher education is described by M. M. Chambers in ‘State Administration of Education, of Higher Education 1:203-207, April, 1930. Journal TABLE 19.—TYPES OF GENERAL CONTROL OF STATE INSTITUTIONS FOR HIGHER EDUCATION Type of Control I, Separate boards for normal schools teachers colleges, uni- versities and special colleges II. One board for the normal schools and teachers colleges. Separate boards for the universities and special colleges. III. One board for all state institutions of higher education. States Arizona Mississippi! Ohio | Arkansas Missouri? Pennsy! vania | | | Alabama? Maryland Tennessee California Massachusetts Texas | Colorado* Michigan’ Utah® Connecticut Minnesota? Vermont Illinois® Nebraska*® Virginia | Indiana’ New Hampshire West Virginia* Louisiana Oklahoma Wisconsin Maine? Rhode Island‘ Florida Montana Oregon | Georgia? Nevada’ South Dakota | Idaho New Jersey® Wyoming!® lowa New York Kansas North Dakota South Carolina Washington Delaware New Mexico! Kentucky State Department of Education. the training of vocational teachers. supervision of the state board of control. board also. of trustees. | 1° Higher education centered in the state university. Adapted from Chapter XV of the Ninth Yearbook, Department of Superintendence, National Education Association, 1931, ._ Supplemented by records of interviews and an unpublished study by Dr. G. W. Rosenlof, Nebraska 1 A single board controls the universities and special colleges, but the normal schools are under separate boards. ? Missouri has an unofficial conference of representatives of all colleges and universities. In Alabama the state super- | intendent (for the normal schools) and representatives of the universities form a council of education. | 3 The single board is not the state board or state department of education. * Teacher training chiefly centered in one college. State board of education allots money to the agricultural college for 5 Normal school part of the state university. Agricultural college is separate. : * State board has general control of teachers colleges. State university has its own board. Both groups under the fiscal 7 All colleges and normal schools associated with the state university in a single board. Each institution has its own * State normal school is a part of the state university under a single board of regents. * New Jersey state board of regents has charge of publicly supported higher education but Rutgers has its own board [ 359 | cation.' Nevada and Wyoming concentrate authority with the regular board of regents of the state university. Florida, Iowa, Kansas, Montana, New Jersey, North Dakota, Ore- gon, and South Dakota have created more or less independent and unique types of boards to control higher education.* Are all of these types in conformity with the best principles of state school administration? Until there is further research and experimentation we must agree with Cubberley: Many different plans will be tried, many mistakes probably will be made during the experimental period, and no one uniform plan for unified control will finally be decided upon. It is likely to be a trying period for those responsible for the development’ of higher education, but there is little question that the public which supports these institutions is ready and impatient for better working relations between the institutions of the state.’ It may be added, that not only is the ‘‘public impatient,” but the teaching body itself is be- ginning to realize that a haphazard training program is dangerous to the economic welfare of the profession. The training colleges prepare the supply which the public schools demand. If equilibrium is to be brought between these two great forces, a comprehensive state-wide teacher preparation program is a necessity.* Budget procedures and financial suppor: of state teacher-training institutions—The above section has dealt chiefly with the educational and administrative leadership of state teac} training colleges. Important as these admi: trative responsibilities are they may be re tively ineffective without authority. Auth: ity in most matters is closely associated w finances. The hand which holds the pu strings usually controls the development any program. In almost every state the state legislat) provides the money to support the state ins: tutions engaged in teacher training.® State ed cational leadership usually rests with the sta: board of education, and its assistants, the stat: superintendent, and the state department | education. The leadership of the state board of education and its assistants is seriously in paired if the individual institutions have right to go directly to the legislature for bud get requests. In states where the fiscal prob lems are referred to non-educational boards of control before going to the legislature, th: state educational officers can do little to shapx the budget in terms of a state-wide teache: training program. In an effort to make higher education les haphazard several states have tried to unif; not only the educational leadership,® but the budget requests. The types of budget proce dures in vogue at the present time, for insti tutions engaged in teacher training, are shown in Table 21. Column 1 describes the genera! 1 That is, the state board of education, state superintendent, and state department of education. ? The titles of these boards do not help much in maki cation is called the ‘State board of education” although it public schools. *Cubberley, E. P. State Schoot Administration, ‘Some interesting su ns on the topic: candidates esky ovale le to tion Ra Colleges. “tow on can we regulate the supply and at the same time improve the quality enter the public school service as novice teachers?” in the Ninth Yearbook (1930), American Associ classifications. For example, the lowa board in charge of higher ed as little direct contact with the state department of education and ‘ Fiscal Articulation through the Operation of 4 } aaa Systems,” Chapter XVI, Ninth Yearboor, Department perintendence, National Education Association, 1931, p *See Table 19 and previous discussion. TABLE 21.—BUDGET PROCEDURES OF STATE INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN TEACHER TRAINING _Type Examples 1. Presidents of normal schools meet in informal conference on budgets. University’s request Kentucky, Missouri, and sent direct to legislature.’ Washington. Ik. conferences of normal school presidents in which state department represen- | California, Ohio, and West tatives pa pate. University budget sent direct to legislature. Virginia. Budgets of normal schools reviewed by state normal school board. University budget in- pa of this control.! Indiana, Illinois, Nebrz seks a, and Wisconsin. IV. Budgets of all state institutions reviewed and approved by state board of education and commissioner of education before going to legislacure.* Idaho. V. Budgets of all state institutions reviewed by a separate board on higher education before 1 presentation to legislature. Iowa and Oregon. 1 In Types I, III, and V the state superintendent, a board of education, and state department often have little to do with the financial pb mgenede bat may teacher-traini oe. ntendent is a member of : z go> : ucation under the direction of the state e state board of education. The commissioner of education is in te board of education. See state pamphlets on Idaho's [ 360] teach: adminis- be rela- Autho: ted with le purse ment ot vislature ite insti- rate edu- the state the state ment of e board usly im- have i for bud- al prob- yards of ire, the 0 shape teacher ion less oO unify but the proce- r insti- - shown genera! gher edu- n and the quality of 1 Associa rtment of et oe type of budget procedure. It should be kept in mind that often after a budget leaves the vari- ous educational authorities listed in Column 1], it may not go directly to the legislature. Some- times it must be approved by one or all of the following authorities: state budget director, state board of control, governor, and the fi- nance committee of the legislature. Column 2 of Table 21 does not attempt to be exhaustive. The states are listed in this col- umn according to reports given in personal in- terviews to the investigator of this present study. No doubt other types of classifications could be used.* The purpose of this section is not to prove that any particular state budget plan is finan- cially safer than any other plan. No doubt various procedures are equally sound and effective. From the viewpoint of educational leadership one question needs to be kept to the fore: Should not the budget for higher educa- tional institutions represent the unified pro- gram of institutional representatives and state education officials ? State-wide conferences on teacher training— The preceding paragraphs of this chapter de- scribe a movement toward unified control of the state institutions engaged in teacher-train- ing work. Progress along such lines of central- ization requires legislative programs extending over months and often years. Also, the unifica- tion of the state agencies engaged in teacher training does not solve the problem of private colleges. A device, now in use in several states to bring about a unified program, is the state- wide conference on teacher training. The or- ganization of such meetings is often informal and unofficial. Usually, the meeting is called by the state superintendent or the state depart- ment of education. Representation includes both public and private institutions engaged in the work of preparing teachers. The decisions of the conferences are not binding usually upon a particular institution until approved by its own board of trustees. Space limitations make it impossible to de- scribe in detail the various state conferences on In 1915 the Carnegie sur- vey of Missouri? suggested the organization of a teacher-training conference.* Leonard wrote in 1922* of the conference as follows: teacher training. In 1916, an attempt of an entirely different sort from any of those thus far mentioned was made in Missouri in an effort to establish closer working relationships among the institutions in this state. A state educational conference was organized com- posed of representatives from the state department of education, the state university, and the state nor- mal schools. The conference was entirely unofficial, and had no legal status. It was a movement arising out of the necessities of the situation, and supported, at least nominally, by all of the institutions. The problems brought before the conference related to standards for faculties, definitions of units and cred- its, the transfer of students from one school to an- other, and other like questions. While larger ques- tions of institutional policies have not come before this body, at least up to the summer of 1922, it rep- resents a sincere effort on the part of certain officers and instructors in the institutions to foster harmony and cooperation. Indiana has a somewhat different type of teacher-training control in its State Teacher- Training Committee. The organization and authority of this committee were described an interview® as follows: The State Teacher-Training Committee consists of five persons: two presidents of state teachers col- leges, one representative of the private liberal arts colleges, one city superintendent, and one layman. The State Teacher-Training Committee may be called at any time, but meets regularly at least once a month. Calls are issued by the chairman of the Teacher-Training Committee or by the director of teacher training with the approval of the state super- intendent of schools. The director is also responsible for providing this meeting with a program and an agenda. The recommendations of the State Teacher-Train- ing Committee, when approved by the state board of education, are as effective as state law. Failure of any institution to live up to the requirements of the state board of education is sufficient cause for depriving the school of teacher-training rights. How- ever, no attempt has been made up to date to control the output of teachers by means of this state teacher- training committee, except that whenever a consid- erable surplus of teachers has existed the committee has been instrumental in securing an advance in standards of training. 1 See Chapter XVI of the Ninth Yearbook, Department of Superintendence, National Education Association, 1931, p, 302-309. i Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The Professional Preparation of Teachers for American Public Sc hools, 2 Carnegi (Bulletin No. 14), 1920. p. 62. * Hill, Clyde M. A Decade of Progress in Teacher Training. Contributions to Education, No. 233, Teachers College, University, 1927. p. 149-75. Columbia * Leonard, R. J. The Coordination of State Institutions for Higher Education Through Supplemeniary Curricular Boards. Uni- versity of California, Bureau of Research, Study No. 13, 1923. p. 14-15. 5 From a summary of the interview with H. M. Whisler, Director of Teacher Training, July 7, 1930. Summary on file in the rch Division, National Education Association. [ 361 } \ } : ‘ : { tte — Utah holds informal conferences between the representatives of private and public institu- tions engaged in teacher preparation work. The meetings are called by the state superin- tendent of public instruction. Decisions are binding by mutual agreement, rather than by law. The title “Utah Conference on Teacher Training” is used to designate the group. Minutes and committees of the conference in- dicate an interest in such problems as cur- riculums, units, faculty scholarship, and teacher supply.? Descriptions might be given of the work and organization of teacher-training conferences in other states. Among these states are: Cali- fornia, Illinois, Idaho, Kentucky, Ohio, and West Virginia.? Sufficient for our purposes is the demonstration that private and _ public teacher-training institutions can cooperate on a state-wide program.* This harmony has been brought about in several states by extra-legal 1A copy of the proceedings of several meetings is on file in the Research Division, National Education Association on the work of the conference were obtained in an interview August 13, 1930, with A. C. Matheson, i 3 ; i of a Instruction. conferences which depend upon public opini: and mutual understanding for the enforcemen of decisions. Already several of these unoffici conferences are working upon phases of teach: demand and supply. Certification of Teachers Basic philosophy—State school administr: tion accepts certification as a state function. In this way the state can admit to teaching th: persons who are qualified by age, personality and preparation. However, a survey of the United States does not show that certificatior is an exclusive state function. This condition i due to the fact that, originally, local district determined the qualifications of the teacher employed. The movement, however, is dis tinctly in the direction of centralizing certifica tion powers in the hands of state officers of education. A summary of practices in the United States is shown in Table 22. Deta Assistant State Superintendent In West Virginia a state-wide conference of public and private teachers colleges has recently developed a basic curriculur for all institutions. See Training and Certification of Teachers in West Virginia (Report of State Conference Committee), Teache Training Bulletin, No. 7, 1928, 85 p. West Virginia State Department of Education. 1 For different viewpoints’ on the role of the private college in a state program of teacher training see such references as th: following: Buckingham, B. Monograph, No. 4, March, 1926, Ohio State University, May 29, 1939, p. 238-45; and in the same bulletin ‘‘ Teacher Training in Liberal Arts Colleges Nae and Demand in Teacher Training. Ohio State University Studies, Educational Resear: 161; Tulloss, R. E. ‘‘ The College and Teacher Training.’ Educational Research Bulletin "" by E. E Lewis, p. 247-48; and ‘‘The Arts College as a Teacher Training Institution"’ in the Seventh Yearboot, Department of Superir tendence, National Education Association, 1929, p. 450-64. 4‘ Cubberley, E. P. State School Administration, p. 621-41. TABLE 22.—ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES ISSUING TEACHING CERTIFICATES IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1928! VIIL. State superintendent, state normals, cities, state university, private colleges, state board for vocational education, and county boards of regents. Type of system } States 1 2 I. State superintendent or state board Alabama Maryland Rhode Isl: and | Arizona Minnesota South Carolina Connecticut Montana South Dakota Delaware Nevada Tennessee Florida New Hampshire Texas Georgia New Mexico Virginia Indiana North Carolina Vermont Iowa North Dakota Washington Louisiana Oregon West Virginia Maine Pennsylvania Wyoming II. State superintendent, teachers colleges, and county | Arkansas Idaho Michigan superintendent. Colorado Kansas III. State board and state teachers colleges. Kentucky New Jersey Utah IV. State su tendent and county superintendent Iinois Missouri Oklahoma district superintendent. Mississippi New Y ork Wisconsin V. State, county, city, and village authorities. Ohio VI. County boards of education. California * VII. Local district. Massachusetts? Nebraska 1 Adapted from an ——y of Education. Title: une, tary _ on the basis of county examinations. State issues vocational certificates. blished master’s thesis by Herbert L. Cushing, Director of Certification, Nebraska ‘State De- A Desirable Procedure for the Issuance of Teachers Certificates, University of Nebraska. 2 State issues a credential upon which the counties grant a teaching certificate. County boards may certificate elemen- { 362 } pinion cement officia! reache) nistra ion. In ng the nality, of the ication tion is istricts achers is dis tifica- ers ot n the Details itendent riculum Teacher s as the esearch 3ulletin, y E. E su perin- ies tarot ma teria 2 ttt i How certification is used to control the sup- ply of teachers—States use the certification power to influence the supply of teachers as follows: (1) the existence of any requirement as to age or training acts as a selective factor; (2) the short term certificate with require- ments for renewal tends to select from those who have taught; (3) the gradual lifting of minimum requirements tends to sort out those who can not or will not meet the new stand- ards; and (4) the radical revision or rapid lift- ing of certification standards cuts off certain types of supply. 1. When states first set up definite professional requirements for teaching, the way was closed to many who might want “to teach for awhile.” Yet, in a number of states these minimum requirements are so low that most college graduates can qualify. Furthermore, in spite of high requirements for certifi- cates, a number of states still permit an influx of per- sons with less than the desired training. These per- sons enter teaching on the basis of county examina- tions or on the basis of short-term professional courses. Table 14 gives some indication of the influx of teachers with less than two years of professional training above high school. 2. The short term certificate, with additional re- quirements for renewals, has some selective value. Under such a scheme the state could exercise rather direct control over its supply from year to year. However, the effect of short term licenses is some- what minimized by permanent or life credentials. Such permanent licenses can be obtained in some states solely on the basis of training, and in other states on the basis of professional training plus a few months of teaching. Usually, state departments cannot suspend or revoke a life certificate except for a criminal act. Therefore, those persons with life licenses can leave teaching and return to the supply at will. How can the supply be measured accurately or directed effectively under such conditions? 3. The gradual lifting of requirements for certifi- cates tends to sort out or to “up-grade” those holding teaching positions. Actually, the “up-grading” is lessened in its effectiveness by (1) the existence of life credentials, and (2) the rapid influx of persons with less than the desired training. Yeager’s study in Pennsylvania shows that a gradual lifting of certification requirements does tend to increase the number of high grade certificates. However, he points out that as late as 1927 at least 30 percent of the rural elementary school teachers in Pennsylvania had less than the standard training, because of weak spots in the certification laws.’ 4. The radical revision of certification laws often shuts off large blocks of teacher supply. For example, the abolition of the examination system in lowa would eliminate 3,837 persons from the annual sup- ply according to Column 6 of Table 14. Other radical means for diminishing or increasing supply might be suggested. We often hear the statement: “In times of oversupply lift certification requirements to high levels.” This statement has encouraged states to in- crease the normal school training to four years or to abolish the low grade certificates. ‘The effects of such changes have not been measured, but interviews with state department officials indicate that the reduction of the supply is only temporary. The high standards simply force teachers from the field into teacher-train- ing courses for a short term or hold the stu- dent-teachers back for a year or two; then the supply leaps to new increases.® Seven years after the high requirements of the Edmonds Act* went into effect in Pennsylvania, Yeager asked the question of local school authorities: “What is the present situation in your community re- garding the supply of properly certificated teachers ?”’ The replies to this question in Table 23 show an oversupply of teachers in 1928. 1In Kansas and Nebraska life certificates lapse if not used for a period of three years. 2 Yeager, W. A. State Certification as a Factor in the Training of Elementary Teachers in Service. Doctor's thesis, University of Pennsylvania. Kutztown, Pennsylvania: Kutztown Publishing Company, 1929. p. 261. 3 As long as salaries in urban schools are attractive, particularly during the present economic depression, persons with certificates will do everything to keep the licenses from becoming void. 4 The Qualification and Salary Act (the Edmonds Act) was passed in 1921. Table 23 is based on 1928 data. TABLE 23.—REPLIES OF LOCAL SCHOOL AUTHORITIES AS TO THE STATUS OF SUPPLY OF TEACHERS IN PENNSYLVANIA IN 1928. Scarcity 1 2 Es 5 sas 2.0505 10.4 9.4 Te ne le are 13.7 | a : 11.5 } 274. Type of teacher a Slight surplus Considerable surplus Total ick 2S) alee , 5 39.4 51.2 100 47.7 38.6 100 43.4 45.1 100 J Adapted from Table 69 of Yeager's State Certification as a Factor in the Training of Elementary Teachers in Service, Percent replying era) = § wile Soe . eR I Cm emt ~ Yeager concludes: (1) that over a period of time enough well-trained teachers have met the high standards, and (2) that the over sup- ply was due to the constant infiltration of teachers with “below standard” training. If the certification requirements are to be raised and manipulated in balancing teacher supply, what state agency is to perform this work? Table 22 indicates that the movement is in the direction of making the state depart- ment of education the sole certificating au- thority. If the state department of education has the exclusive right to issue certificates, how spe- cific should the certification law be? That is, should the law describe the types of certifi- cates and the specific requirements of qualifica- tion? Shougd the law merely grant general powers of certification to the state department of education, and leave the details to state board rules? Certainly, the latter procedure allows much more flexibility in the manage- ment of teacher supply. Certification and the special subjects—Dis- cussion up to this point has dealt with certifi- cation laws and their influence upon gross supply. An even more difficult problem is that of placing trained teachers in positions for which they have been prepared. In a number of states “blanket” or general credentials are issued to both elementary and secondary school teachers.‘ Usually, in these states the secondary credential may be used for teaching either in high schools or elementary schools. If there is a shortage of persons with elementary school licenses, superintendents em- ploy those with secondary school certificates to teach elementary school positions. Theoreti- cally, this is wasteful of training, and pedagogi- cally unsound. Have state departments investi- gated the extent and effect of such practices? A second problem is placing people so they may teach subjects for which they are pre- pared. Williams studied the output of the Iowa State Teachers College in 1928. He checked the students in their first teaching positions to determine whether they were in subject fields in which they held college majors and minors. The percent of those teaching subjects for which they were prepared is shown in Table 24. Buckingham found in his study of Ohio TABLE 24.—PERCENT OF STUDENTS TEACH. ING SUBJECTS FOR WHICH THEY WERE PREP. D! | Subjects Percent | es kN te eg ai dn ed big a ele care 100 SS oS ere were 86 Home economics.................... 86 Manual arts........ wiedashe rita 86 rN, oc cksconcocesece 85 EE Perc asokccciccedakadesss 78 tN oie isn, «5 0.0 4k gi Mina Cas 69 Commercial... .... Re ayy 64 EEE ee 64 ne boo. bn knw oe ba ome 61 I IIINES,.. oo ccc c ccc ccnces 45 ES ee ee re ee 72.5 1 Williams, R. C. A Study of the Output of the lowa State Teachers College for 1928. Unpublished master's thesis, University of lowa, Table 37, p. 79. In 1925 Pat- terson found more than 50 percent of the graduates of the Colorado State Teachers College teaching outside of the fields in which they had specialized (Unpublished master's thesis, 1925, Colorado State Teachers College). See references in selected bibliography at end of this study and those in Chapter IV. ———EEEE —_ in 1923-24 that the newly appointed high school teachers frequently do not teach thei: college majors and minors. Table 25 reports only enough of the Ohio findings to illustrate the point above. Table 25 shows that too often students pre pare to teach certain subjects. In other sub jects the supply is larger than the demand. Does this suggest the need for exact surveys as to the annual demand in each subject field ’ Is there a need for more guidance during the teacher-training period? Should the certifica- TABLE 25.—DISTRIBUTION OF NEWLY AP- POINTED SUBJECT TEACHERS WHO WERE COLLEGE GRADUATES ACCORDING TO THEIR MAJOR AND MINOR SUBJECTS | Number Number of Subject with majors | new teachers and minors appointed in each subject 1 2 a 2 Agriculture...........| on a 132 Biclogy....---...... 156 154 Chemistry........ seul 248 95 Commercial subjects. . .| 59 206 Beeerere- ~~) 1,201 975 SEA rg > 3 45 6s : 393 150 History and civics. . . 377 637 2,349 Read table: Whereas 132 persons were appointed to teach agriculture only 66 teachers reported agriculture as their major or minor subject. Twelve hundred and one had studied English, but only 975 were appointed to teach this subject. Adapted from Table 32 of Supply and Demand in Teacher Training by B. R. Buckingham, page 105. 1 Cook, Katherine M. State Laws and Regulations Governing Teachers Certificates. U. S. Office of Education Bulletin, No. 19, [ 364 ] 1927. 296 p. lowa ter's Pat- s of side shed ge). this high thei: eports strate S pre- r sub- mand. Irveys field ? ig the tifica- Y AP- NERE ; TO Ss tion requirements prescribe the definite sub- ject fields and force students to prepare accord- ingly?! What state agency should be responsi- ble for keeping the guidance adjusted to de- mands ? ® Guidance of High-School Students What part should high-school guidance play in the balancing of teacher demand and sup- ply? Is-it possible to guide away from teaching those high-school students who are personally unsuited for careers in education? Is it desir- able to guide certain high-school students to- ward positions in educational fields? What is being done in high-school guidance insofar as teaching is concerned ? Are high-school students interested in teach- ing?—In 1919-20 Book examined approxi- mately 6000 high-school seniors in the second- ary schools of Indiana.* About 60 percent of those students had decided upon a specific life work. Among the ten occupations most fre- quently chosen are those shown in Table 26. Book gave these seniors an extensive series of tests to measure their intelligence. ‘T'wenty- two percent of the 6000 students received rat- ings of A or B. Among the boys who had made occupational choices the highest percents of A’s and B’s were found in journalism, minis- 1 West Virginia has recently adopted 31 teaching combinations for first-class high school certificates. try, and science. Among the girls, journalism, law, and social service had the highest percents of A’s and B’s. These facts are shown in Col- umns 3 and 6 of Table 26. As a result of facts similar to those shown in Table 26, Book concludes: (1) that high schools are unconsciously directing students toward a few lines of work, (2) that the stu- dent’s occupational choices are often made on limited high-school experience, and (3) that occupational choices fail to take into account the student’s mental abilities. He suggests more efficient high-school guidance as one means of meeting the difficulties.‘ What does the whole problem of high-school guidance mean to the teaching profession? Should the brightest students be consciously directed toward teaching careers? Does the person with the high I. Q. make the best teacher? Data upon these and similar questions are still inadequate. What are high schools doing with guidance in relation to teacher training?—The resources were not available to ascertain from each high school its program in high-school guidance; particularly, the special attempts of high schools to influence or to inform students re- garding the opportunities of the teaching pro- fession.® See The Training and Certification of Teachers, Teacher Training Bulletin No. 7, 1928, p. 47-8, West Virginia State Department of Education. 87-132 ? A full discussion of many of these questions is found in Supply and Demand in Teacher Training by B. R. Buckingham, p. 3 Book, W. F. The Intelligence of High School Seniors. Macmillan, 1922. 371 p. * Book, W. F., bid. p. 139-42. 5 See certain general articles on junior and senior high-school guidance programs as related to teacher training in Volume III (1928) and Volume IV (1929) of the Proceedings of the Normal School and Teachers College Section of the New York Society for the Experimental Study of Education. Published by the Brandow Printing Company, Albany, New York. TABLE 26.—THE TEN LIFE CAREERS CHOSEN MOST FREQUENTLY BY HIGH- SCHOOL SENIORS IN INDIANA Boys | Number Percent rated | Occupations of | AorB in cases | intelligence 1 2 3 Engineer............. et ae 30 DS Li's a'b aes « ES oe 16 Mechanic............ 182 } 18 Business. 151 23 as 75 33 SEL, 35S 's'sbos 69 69 32 SE $1 12 Scientist ae ; i 41 | 41 ae hegitt 16 44 eae eee | 12 42 Girls Number Percent rated Occupations of A or B in cases intelligence 4 5 6 Teacher... | 905 24 | Cierical.. | 646 16 | Musician. . 128 } 16 Nurse..... | 101 18 | Physician. . iad 36 | 19 Lawyer. bie ‘ 26 38 | Social worker. - : 22 i 31 | Journalist... 18 44 Entertainer. . . 16 25 Homemaker. . ; 10 | 20 Adapted from Tables XVI and XVIII of The Intelligence of High School Seniors, W. F. Book, p. 123. [ 365 | Se ere ee eee In the personal interviews state officials of education were asked to name high schools in their states which qualified under the para- graph above. Many high schools were named as doing general guidance work, but state school officers were not sure of specific instances where superior high-school students were guided to- ward careers in teaching. Evidently, there are no state programs to set forth the opportunities of teaching to the superior students of Ameri- can secondary schools.' What should the high schools place before their students regarding teaching as a life work? Where can these facts be obtained? How can this vocational information be pre- sented without undue influence or bias? High- school guidance will profit by more facts bear- ing upon such questions. Are state normal schools doing anything to interest high-school students in teaching?—In the personal interviews state officials of educa- tion were asked to report on the guidance ac- tivities of state normal schools in relation to high schools. Practically all states report that normal schools, upon request, send out speak- ers to the secondary schools. Also, state normal schools often have field representatives who re- cruit students and locate teaching vacancies. None of these efforts merit recognition as con- structive and systematic guidance work. Recent reports to a New York conference on teacher training indicate certain practices of apparent value. The Bridgeport City Normal has a normal school adviser who holds confer- ences with high-school seniors.? In Rhode Island each town selects and gives special preparation to the students who are to be rec- ommended to the teacher-training colleges.* The state normal school at Castleton, Ver- mont, sends a personal letter, with normal school literature, to all high-school seniors who show an inclination toward teaching.* How much guidance should the teachers col- lege give to high school seniors ? Should the col- lege give the literature to the high school prin- cipal or directly to the senior student? How can normal schools avoid the charge of re cruiting their enrolments? What information and records can the college expect from the high-school authorities? Is it possible to deter mine in high school the students who will suc ceed in teacher training? What are state education associations doing about high school guidance?—In the opinion of state departments, the state education asso ciations have made no systematic attempt to inform high-school students in regard to teach ing. Studies of tenure, salaries, and othe: phrases of teaching are made by state associa tions, but these reports never reach secondary pupils as a part of any systematic program." Are state departments touching high-school guidance in any systematic way?—A few state departments of education are issuing pamphlets in the general field of guidance.® In 1929-30 the Ohio State Department of Education di rected the testing of approximately 40,000 high-school seniors. A number of students were advised not to attempt higher education on the basis of these tests. The Selection of Student Teachers Before and During Training Is the public-supported teacher-train ng col lege a “public school open to all” or a vocational school with a selected clientele? This question in similar form has been debated from the time state normal schools first came into existence. In 1898 Principal Marion Brown of the New Orleans State Normal School expressed the viewpoint of specialization,’ as follows: The normal school is not, like the elementary or the secondary school, for all who want to come, but it is established by the state for a special purpose, viz., to provide properly equipped teachers for its schools, and its authorities must have the best obtainable ma- terial for making teachers; consequently, the stand- ard they fix will be the preparation to which all applicants for entrance therein will aspire; through the state normal school the state says to the prospec tive teachers: “This is what we demand as employer. Can you fill the bill ?” 1 In 1927 S. C. Clement inquired into the high-school guidance programs in relation to the municipal training colleges in seven of the largest cities of the United States. He reports only sporadic and limited guidance work. Unpublished master's thesis, New York University, 1927. * Reported by W. Warren, Assistant Superintendent of Schools. In Proceedings, Volume III, Normal Schoo! Section, New York Society for the Experimental Study of Education, 1928, p. 63-71. 3 White, Frank E., Proceedings, The Normal School Section of the New York Society for the Experimental Study of Educa- tion, 1928. p. 74-77. ‘ Woodruff, Caroline, /bid, p. 77-83. 5 Studies of tenure, retirement, etc., by state education associations are reported in Chapter IV. * For example, Guidance in Ohio Schools by D. H. Eikenberry, Director of Guidance, State Department, Columbus, Ohio. (930. 31 p. ? Brown, Marion. *‘ The Southern State Normal Schools." Proceedings, National Education Association, 1898, p. 734-35. [ 366 ] How of re- nation n the deter- 1 sue- doing yinion asso- pt to teach- other socia- ndary ram.° chool state vhlets 29-30 n di- ),000 were n the rs r col- ional ‘stion time ence. New | the or the it it is iz., to hools, e ma- tand- th all rough yspec- loyer. seven . New t York duca- Ohio, 5. RR ne cio nha RE Le at an she Rt Nice. The above statement of the specialized pur- pose of the normal school raises many prob- lems. Should high-school seniors be examined for likely teacher-training candidates? Should normal schools select applicants on the basis of intelligence or personality? Can the normal school discover during the training period the students who are most likely to succeed as teachers? May a normal school withhold rec- ommendation or even graduation from the least capable students, even though they have “passed,” in order to take account of market conditions? If all graduates are not to be rec- ommended for certificates, upon what basis should the future teachers be selected? If all graduates are not granted certificates, how can the state justify the expenditure of funds for training? Can the state help to keep a balance between teacher demand and supply by con- trolling the number of students in the teacher training? What state agency should exercise this control over enrolments ? Interviews with state department of educa- tion officials did not reveal much information as to whether state teacher institutions selected their students before or during training. The answers from state departments usually were: (1) that state normals admitted any recom- mended high school graduate from a four-year school, (2) that students who failed academi- cally were dropped during the training period, and (3) that students of peculiar or antisocial personal habits were usually excluded from teacher training. Apparently, we must go di- rectly to the teacher-training agencies for data as to selective devices.* What are the entrance requirements to teacher-training institutions?—McNeil has re- cently made a comparative study of admission requirements to teacher training in ten coun- tries and the United States. The study traces historical practices and summarizes current procedures. Some of the commonest admission requirements are summarized in Table 27. It is sufficient at this point to quote briefly the requirements in the United States, as follows: In 1930 entrance to state teacher-training institu- tions in the United States required for unconditional academic admission a high school diploma or its 1See A Study of Some Problems Arising in the Admission of Students as Candidates for Professional Degrees in Education by equivalent, or passing an entrance examination; or, if the candidates are mature students, they may enter conditionally and work off the entrance requirements before a diploma is granted. The majority of states require specific units or combinations of units in the high school work offered. In age, character, and health, states vary from no requirements to very specific ones. Aptitude and achievement tests are being used in some states; grades must be in the upper half or reach a particular standard in others; personality ratings are being tried in still others. Though the institutions are still groping to find the right entrance requirements, a comparison of present requirements with those of 1910 shows, in general, that candidates to teacher-training institutions are selected on a much higher academic plane.” Among some of the foreign practices sug- gested for study and adoption in America are the following: Another method, which was popular in England, Wales, Scotland, Australia, New Zealand, and Ger- many, was to have the teachers choose the candi- dates at about thirteen years of age, basing their judgment upon the cleverness, physical fitness, and future promise of their pupils. In all countries except Germany, these students became pupil teachers; in Germany, they entered the preparatory teacher- training school.’ With a limitation placed upon the number of can- didates admitted from year to year to the teacher- training institutions, which is a practice in most of the foreign countries, there is the possibility of con- siderable elimination and selection of students. Ap- plications for entrance are made weeks or months in TABLE 27.—SUMMARY OF CERTAIN COMMON ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS TO STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS AND STATE TEACHERS COLLEGES Number Admission Requirement of States Specifying 1 2 1. Graduation from high school or equivalent 48 2. Minimum age of 16 years 21 | 3. Health qualifications....... 26 (a) General..... bas 5 (b) Doctor's certificate. . . 16 (c) Specific defects or standards men- eee ans 7 4. Specific units or combinations of units of high school work........ 31 5. Pledge to teach after graduation 9 6. Mature students admitted, usually over twenty-one years and not high school graduates.. Per eke ; 31 Adapted from Chart II of A Comparative Study of Entrance to Teacher Training Institutions by Melli- cent McNeil, 1930, p. 40-7 and 91-94. Clarence Linton; A Comparative Study of Entrance to Teacher-training Institutions by Mellicent McNeil, and similar references in the selected bibliography at the end of this report. 2? McNeil, Mellicent. A Comparative Study of Entrance to Teacher Training Institutions. Contributions to Education, No. 443, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1930. p. 94. * McNeil, Mellicent. Ibid. p. 96. [ 367 ] advance, so that personal interviews are frequently possible and the candidates who are best fitted, so far as that can be judged, are chosen. Of course, in sparsely settled countries, like parts of Australia and Canada, this condition does not exist.’ The high academic qualification which is required of the candidates of most of the foreign countries is, perhaps, the most important example which the United States could profitably follow. Selection of students on the basis of intelli- gence tests—Recently the state normal schools of Connecticut completed a study of the in- telligence of 2,652 students in comparison with success in the colleges.* Intelligence was meas- ured by Part III of the Thorndike Intelligence Examination for High School Graduates.* Success was taken to mean “academic success” in obtaining good marks, not repeating courses, and completing the required program each year. A summary of the intelligence scores, number of students failing and number of stu- dents graduating is shown in Table 28. On the basis of the data in Table 28, the conclusion is reached that students obtaining an intelligence test score below 59 on the Thorndike Intelligence Examination for High School Graduates, Part III, should be excluded from normal school. Two out of three students, whose scores fall between 60 and 69 in the intelligence test, succeeded in normal school. The recommendations include the following: (1) students receiving intelligence test scores below 59 should be excluded from teacher training; (2) students with high personal qualifications who fall below 59 should be given another form of the same test; (3) stu- dents with scores between 60-69 should be ad- mitted only after rigid examination of previ- ous academic and personal qualifications; (4) intelligence tests should be supplemented by rating scales, aptitude tests, and high-school subject tests, and (5) there is a need for more research so as to isolate more exactly the quali- ties essential to successful teachers.® 1 McNeil, Mellicent, Op. Cit., p. 97. 2 McNeil, Mellicent, Op. Cit., p. 98. TABLE 28.—DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES OF STUDENT ENTRANTS FROM 1925 TO 1928 Intelli- Number Number | ~ Panter — ~~ Com- est tering “ ailing pleting | Score With- | “Work drawing | 1 2 } 3 | 4 | 5 | 20- 29 yl Rea Sers 2 | 2 30- 39 19 | 1 6 12 | 40- 49 43 9 16 18 50- 59 67 15 18 34 | 60- 69 116 | 14 A ae 70- 79 184; 33 39 | 112 80- 89 228 27 34 } 167 90- 99 278 34 37 | 207 100-109 255 | 331 ae 197 110-119 203 17 16 170 120-129 243 | 12 28 203 130-139 179 14 10 155 140-149 136 10 6 | 120 150-159 87 8 2 | 77 160-169 54 5 3 46 170-179 32 1 | Var 30 180-189 27 1 - |] 24 190-199 18 —— Dirig 14 200-209 8 . 0 8 210-219 mK 0 1 220-229 rct 1 1 230-239 o | aphigs. h Wie 0 | 240-249 2 | ee ee ‘| ame Ca | 2 | Total 2,186 234 283 1,669 | Adapted from Table XVI of Siiditeies Test Scores in Relation to Success. Connecticut State Board of Education, p. 28. Table 28 does not include 466 students who entered in 1929 for which only intelli- gence scores are available. Selection by rating scales and aptitude tests—Observation and surveys agree that teacher rating is a common procedure in school administration. Teachers in service, student teachers, and applicants for teacher training are frequently analyzed by rating devices. Re- search has yet to demonstrate that rating scales really isolate and estimate the essential quali- ties of the successful teacher.*® It is not possible to give at this point the development and value of rating scales and similar devices. Rather extensive summaries of this material are readily available in the Eighteenth Yearbook of the National Society of College Teachers of Education." McPhail reported the use of intelligence tests in col- leges up to 1924. Wood has the use of the + Connecticut State Board of Education. Intelligence Test Scores in Relation to Success in the Connecticut State Normal Schools. Special Education Bulletin 1, 1930, 34 p. (Helen W. Bechtel, Assistant in Special Education.) ‘ For an explanation of the basis for using this test see page 6 of the study reported in footnote (2) above. 4 eal rather complete summary of the use of ps of Success in Professional Courses for Teac osinn yen Usiveruity. 1930, p. 7-21. chological tests in predicting academic success in college will be found in Pre- s by Laura B. M. Krieger, Contributions to Education, No. 420, Teachers * Tiegs, Ernest W. An Evaluation of Some Technics of Teacher Selection. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Com pany, 1928. p. 16-35. aaa alt Clifford ). Quantilative Measurement in Institutions of, Higher Learning. Eighteenth Yearbook, Nationa of College Toner of Edu cation. University of Chicage Press, 1930. 253 p. s ay A, H. Intelligence of College Students. Baltimore: Warwick ao York, 1924. 176 p. [ 368 ] ES OF » 1928 mber titude that school udent lining ;». Re- scales quali- t the ; and laries n the ciety Phail . col- f the chools. in Pre- achers Com. itional Thorndike Examination in connection with admissions to Columbia University... The report of the Commonwealth Teacher Training study contains an extensive list of teachers’ traits and trait-actions.* A recent bulletin from the University of Illinois summarizes the more important edu- cational tests for use in institutions of higher learning. The section on education lists ten rating scales and ten aptitude tests of teach- ing ability.* Composite procedures in selecting students or predicting success in professional courses— Practice seems to move in the direction of the use of several types of data in selecting students for teacher training. The study of students in Connecticut normal schools suggested that in- telligence tests should be supplemented by rat- ing scales and achievement tests.‘ Dearborn has summarized the points to be considered in the selection of candidates for teacher training, as follows: (1) mental ca- pacity, (2) scholastic achievement, (3') per- sonal conduct, (4) professional attitudes, (5) school habits, and (6) physical fitness. He proposes that training schools and high school authorities cooperate through such procedures as: (1) summer review courses, (2) develop- ing school habits, (3) guidance, (4) tests, (5) personal rating, and (6) exchange of informa- tion.5 Meader has questioned the reliability of chronological age, personality rating, and high- scheol marks, as bases for predicting success in normal school work.® The experiments of Morris of the Albany State Teachers College with a “trait index” and the comparison of the index with other types of personal data may give some sugges- tions for teacher training.’ The Trait Index consists of an eight-page booklet of problem and “best answer” materials. The five sections of the “‘test’’ attempt to bring out such quali- ties as resourcefulness, insight, tact, positive- ness, and certain emotional attitudes. Morris says that all of these traits are evidence of leadership. The Morris test was given to about 750 per- sons, and of this number 402 were students at the Albany State Teachers College. The rest of the 750 were experienced teachers, princi- pals, and superintendents. Various measures were also used in estimating practice teaching,* intelligence, academic success, and other data. The significant correlations between these vari- ous measures, according to Morris, are those shown in Table 29. TABLE 29.—SIGNIFICANT PARTIAL CORRE- LATIONS REPORTED BY MORRIS : Partial Kinds of Data Correlations i siieiageiaelina * . | 1. Practice teaching and Trait Index | + 463 | 2. Academic average and practice teaching + .429 | 3. Intelligence and practice teaching + .327 | 4. Intelligence and Trait Index. . ot i ‘ Adapted from Personal Traits and Success in Teach- ing by Elizabeth Morris, p, 48-51. After working the multiple R’s for the academic averages, grades in practice teaching, and Trait Index scores Morris concludes: In general, the statistical results seem to justify the conclusion that Trait Index scores are of value in indicating probable success in practice teaching, and measure other than primarily intellectual traits. A combination of academic average, health grade, intelligence score, and Trait Index score would much more nearly give an estimate of an individual student’s whole personality than would any one of the measures alone. Ullman collected data on 166 prospective high-school teachers in professional classes at the University of Michigan. He used such 1 Wood, B. D. Measurement in Higher Education. Yonkers: World Book Co., 1923. 337 p. ‘Charters, W. W. and Waples, Douglas. The Com monwealth Teacher Training Survey. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929, p. 223-303. 3 Kinder, J. S., and Odell, Charles W. Educational Tests for Use in Institutions of Higher Learning. Educational Research Circular, No. 55, University of Illinois, August 5, 1930. p. 21-25. * See preceding section. _. § Dearborn, N. H. ‘‘What Considerations Should Determine the Acceptance of Individual Students.’’ Proceedings, Normal School and Teachers College Section, New York Society for the Experimental Study of Education, 1928, p. 18-27. ® Meader, J. L. ““Summary.” Proceedings, Normal School and Teachers College Section, New York Society for the Experimental Study of Education, 1928, p. 27-32. 1 Morris, Elizabeth H. Personal Traits and Success in Teaching. Contributions to Education, No. 342. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1929. 75 p. _ According to Whitney there is higher correlation between student teaching and teaching success than any other variables. See Journal of Educational Research Monographs, No. 6, 1924, p. 24. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company. * Ullman, Roy R. The Prognostic Value of Certain Factors Related to Teaching Success. (Doctor's dissertation at the University of Michigan) Ashland, Ohio: A. L. Garber Co., 1931. 133 p. [ 369 ] Oe ee EE te = = = 2 nS ol -: peuniindeinieeiilied ) eee te ee + ag et — sources of data as the following: teaching apti- tude tests, intelligence tests, score cards of socio-economic status, self-rating form of per- sonal and social traits, college success, and tests of professional knowledge. His conclu- sions are as follows: 1. When several factors found to be related to teaching success are combined in a regression equa- tion, predictions of teaching success which are quite accurate may be made. 2. Success in practice teaching is the best single measure of teaching success. 3. Factors other than practice teaching which have been shown to have predictive value are: socio-eco- nomic status, academic and professional marks, so- cial intelligence, general intelligence, interest in teaching, and knowledge of principles of teaching. 4. The factors studied are not the only ones con- tributing to teaching success and others must be studied before highly accurate predictions can be made. 5. It is not denied that a certain amount of knowl- edge in the subject taught is essential to success, but after this minimum is attained the mark in the major subject seems to be a constant value. When academic and professional.marks form part of the regression equation, major subject marks have little, if any, predictive value. 6. Personality, health, vitality, and general con ditions existing in the school were found to co tribute to the success or failure of the teacher. Si: these factors were not measured their exact influen is not known. Selection during training by means of curri. ulums, organization, and tests—The norma schools in California have become four-yea teachers colleges. There has been some discus sion of the plan shown in Chart II. The adv: cates suggest that the first two years of the college be organized as a general liberal art training. At the beginning of the junior yea students should be required to select either (| teacher training, (2) vocational instructio: or (3) advanced liberal arts training. Student are to be aided in their vocational choices by an extensive program of guidance and measure ment. Most of the sections given above have im plied that teachers colleges might sort out thei: students from high-school seniors or college freshmen. Chart II proposes postponing the se- lective process until the junior year. Obviously, there are both advantages and weaknesses in 1 Clearly this plan cannot be applied in the usual two-year curriculum. It would seem that in such cases selection, if it is to be effective, must reach back into the secondary school. CHART II.—PROPOSED ORGANIZATION OF STATE TEACHERS COLLEGES IN CALIFORNIA | | | — | 1. Liberal arts | 2. Liberal arts Guidance, tests, vocational information, personal rating, etc. | Two Years | 3. Professional Two Years Vocational | 4 Advanced Liberal Arts (Leading to (Nursing, business, etc. ) | 4. Professional University) [ 370 ] ral con- to con r. Since nfluencs curric- norma! ur-year discus * advo- of the al arts ir year er (1 uction, udents s by an easure ve im- t their college the se- iously, sses in is to be RNIA 3 q i H the plan proposed. Would the teachers college become a typical liberal arts college? Only ex- perimentation and research answer. can supply the Records and Studies by State Depart- ments of Education Are the records and reports of state depart- ments of education possible factors in influenc- ing teacher demand and supply? What data do state departments collect each year as to teacher demand? Do state departments survey the an- nual supply of teachers? Many questions of this type should be raised in considering the possibility of balancing teacher demand with the supply of trained teachers. While this section does not report conditions in every state, it does suggest widespread conditions. Facts collected by state departments—lIn the personal interviews officials of state depart- ments of education were asked whether they had collected certain important facts. The re- plies to four questions on records and studies are given in Table 30. Practically all state departments obtain re- ports as to school population. Are such data used in estimating the annual need for teach- ers? Column 5 shows that little attempt is made to use the data for the pupil census to predict the future demand for teachers. Column 2 of Table 30 shows that most of the states collect data annually as to the names, training, and certification of each teacher em- ployed. Sample blanks obtained from several states show that some details pertinent in a study of teacher demand and supply are col- lected also. On the other hand, the published reports of state superintendents show totals in which the details are often submerged. Table 30 shows that very few states make annual surveys of teacher demand and supply in the local districts. Usually, local superintend- ents report facts on turnover and unemploy- ment only upon request. Another question, not shown in Table 30, is: Do public and private teacher-training insti- tutions report annually the number of persons trained tor teaching? No doubt the best an swer to this question is found in Column 2 of Table 14. Note that many figures reported by state departments for public institutions are esti- it should be noted in Table 14 that state departments lack information as to the number mates, not exact records. Also, of graduates of teacher training in private colleges. Do state departments know how much of the teacher supply comes from other states each vear? Refer to the number of estimates and blank spaces in Column 5 of Table 10. A num- ber of states wrote that they could not even make an estimate of the teachers from the out- side. Do state departments know how many teachers leave each state annually? Where do these teachers go? Why do teachers leave the home state? How many teachers die each year? How many teachers get married and stop teach- ing?? These questions wait for further study in almost every state. Contents of the annual reports of state school officers—Shaw examined the current reports of state superintendents, state departments of education, and state boards of education. Since most of the reports examined were for the vears between 1922-1924, some of the specific conclusions and recommendations are no longe: valid. For our present purposes we can refer to several general weaknesses of state reports which are true even today: (1) reports are not around the problems and _pro- grams of the state office; organized (2) discussions of educational problems are made without refer 3) statistical tables omit important details and are improp- ence to the statistics presented ; erly presented.” Are the state school reports giving sufficient space to problems in teacher demand and sup- ply? Shaw shows that 30 out of the 48 state superintendents’ reports analyzed in his study dealt with “teacher training and certification.” The amount of space given in the 30 reports ranged from two to fifty-seven percent of the whole report.® annual reports show the same amount of variation as to the Recent state ‘The interviews did not disclose any state rules against married teachers, but the practice of not employing married wonien is common in local districts. Few states have any exact idea as to the number of married women actually employed. Does the married woman seriously disturb the teacher demand and supply equilibrium? Few states can give exact answers. Shaw, Frank L. State School Reports. Contributions to Education, No versity, 1926. p. 52-116. * Shaw, Frank L. Jbid., Table 21, p. 73-74 [ 371 242, New York; Teachers College, Columbia Uni- i? ; ; & - - } 4 1 TABLE 30.—DO STATE DEPARTMENTS COLLECT CERTAIN FACTS WHICH CONCERN TEACHER DEMAND AND SUPPLY PROBLEMS? Are local superin- tendents required to report annually the names, train- ing, certificates, Do local superin- tendents report annually as to the status of Does the state (or local dis- tricts) make a pupil census Does the state department make population sur veys or pre- 21. Missouri 25. New Jersey* teacher demand at least once dictions as to in two years? future need etc. of all teach- and supply in for teachers? ers employed? their districts? x > . Alabama . Arkansas . California'* . Colorado . Connecticut* . Delaware . Florida . Georgia . Idaho.. . Illinois* . Indiana* . lowa.. . Kansas . Kentucky . Louisiana . Maine*.. . Maryland* . Massachusetts* . Michigan* . Minnesota* ZZ“ 45 2% o 2. Nebraska. . . Nevada* . New Hampshire . New Mexico . New Vork* . North Carolina . North Dakota* . Ohio*. . Oregon... . Pennsylvania* . Rhode Island* . South Carolina . South Dakota . Tennessee + BORAR. » oi es a0 . Vermont* . Virginia*. . . Washington* . West Virginia. . . Wisconsin* . Wyoming - «© a ¥ Aa i A Ae A MMMM ZZ KR S (ZAK A2ZLZAALZALALAZAMMKALZAZ. = 151. siders some of the fallacies underlying current state practices. YEAGER, WittiAM A. State Certification as a Factor in the Training of Elementary Teachers in Service. Doctor's Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1929. Kutztown, Pa.: Kutz- town Publishing Co., 1929. 350 p. An investigation of the effects, upon the training in service of elementary school teach- ers, of the program for the up-grading of cer- tification requirements, adopted in 1921. State Administrative Policies in Control of 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. Teacher Supply Beicu_ey, Enocn. “Concerning That Over-Sup- ply of Teachers.” Kansas Teacher and Western School Journal 27: 8-9; June-July, 1928. Suggests higher standards for admission to teacher training institutions and greater uni- formity in teacher requirements as means for reducing the existing teacher surplus. Reports an oversupply of 4,000 teachers in Kansas, for the year 1927. BuntTinc, R. L., and McGurrey, VéRNE. “Preparation of Rural Teachers.” Teachers College Record 29: 716-27; May, 1928. Presents findings of a questionnaire study of what public normal schools and teachers col- leges of the United States were doing in 1927 with regard to the preparation of teachers for positions in rural schools. CorrMan, Lorus D. Teacher-Training Depart- ments in Minnesota High Schools. New York: General Education Board, 1920. 92 p. An evaluation of the work of the high school teacher training departments in~ supplying teachers for the rural schools of Minnesota: Cooper, Homer E. Cost of Training Teachers. Baltimore: Warwick & York, Inc., 1924. 112 p. Outlines method by which a state may test the adequacy of its system of teacher training, decide upon a program to fit the needs of the schools, and determine the cost of such a pro- gram. Gostinc, T. W. “Articulation of State Agencies for Teacher-Training with the Field Staffs of Their Service.” Educational Administration and Supervision 15: 689-92; December, 1929. Follows 1929 Yearbook of Department of Superintendence, in pointing out certain wavs in which state teacher training institutions may serve the staffs of their service areas. Selec- tive admissions, guidance of students in train- ing, and supervision are emphasized. Haccerty, M. E. “Whither the Teachers Col- leges in the Academic World?” Proceedings, 1929. Vol. 67, Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1929. p. 849-61. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. [ 390 ] Maintains that increased competition fo: teaching positions due to the stabilizing school enrolments and a consequent reducti: in the demand for teachers will not only imper the welfare of the profession but will result in an increased competition between teachers colleges in the matter of enrolments. cooperative national study of the whole teache: training situation. Urges a Hicsiz, E. C. “A Challenge to State Teachers Colleges.” Peabody Journal of Education 236-40: January, 1930. Favors limitation of enrolment and area of service and a more extended knowledge of the needs of both teachers and schools within the delimited area served. Hitt, Ctype Miron. 4 Decade of Progress in Teacher Training. Contributions to Educa tion, No. 233. New York: Bureau of Publica tions, Teachers College, Columbia Universit, 1927. 219 p. Traces teacher training progress in Missouri during the period from 1915 to 1926. HILLMAN, JAMEs E. “State Program of Train ing Rural Teachers.” Proceedings, 1925. Vol 63. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1925. p. 554-63. The writer argues that not only must the teacher training program in any state be pre faced by policies as to consolidation, supervi sion, and salaries, but the law of supply and demand should also be taken into account and teacher training institutions should be informed concerning the needs of the state with refer- ence to any particular type of teaching service LEARNED, W. S., BacLey, W. C., and others. The Professional Preparation of Teachers fo American Public Schools. Bulletin Number 14 New York: Carnegie Foundation for the Ad vancement of Teaching, 1920. 475 p. A study of the professional preparation of teachers as carried on by the normal schools of Missouri in 1914. The product of the norma! schools, as a part of the teaching personnel of the state, is surveyed. Holds that the teacher training process is fundamentally a state enter- prise which should be administered by a single directing body. LEONARD, Ropert J. The Coordination of Stat Institutions for Higher Education through Sup plementary Curricular Boards. Bureau of Re- search in Education, Department of Education, Study No. 13. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California, 1923. 188 p. The state educational conference of repre- sentatives of state department of education, state university, and state normal schools or- ganized in Missouri in 1916 is described in p 14-15. in- ol. on the vi- nd ind ved er- ice. ers, for Ad- of o0ls mal 1 of ther ter- ngle tate Su p- Re- tion, y of pre- tion, $ Or- in p. eR Rg I ce 163. 164. 165. 166. 168. MEREDITH, ALBERT B. ‘Preparation of Teachers for Rural Schools.” Proceedings, 1928. Vol. 66. Washington, D. C.: National Education Asso- ciation, 1928. p. 481-84. Contends that differentiation in the training of rural teachers is unnecessary but that no teacher is broadly prepared without being fitted for teaching in several types of schools, includ- ing rural schools. MEREDITH, ALBERT B. “The Relation Which the Administration of the Teachers Colleges Shall Have to the Administration of Other Units of Public Education and to the Whole Administra- tion of Public Education in 1950.” Proceedings, 1929. Vol. 67. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1929. p. 922-28. Prophesies centralization of teacher training administration in state departments of educa- tion, the continuous study of facts regarding teacher demand and turnover and control of teachers college enrolments and certification of teachers on the basis of the knowledge thus gained. Meyer, Jacos G. Small Colleges and Teacher Training. Bloomington, II].: Public School Pub- lishing Company, 1928. 162 p. In order to ascertain whether there is a need or a justification for the training of teachers by liberal arts colleges, studies were made ef: the occupational and professional distribution of graduates of small American colleges; the teacher supply and demand situation through- out the country; public obligations of the liberal arts college; professional training for teaching offered by liberal arts colleges. NoyeR, RALPH. “Best Type of a Governing Body for a Teachers College in 1950.” Pro- ceedings, 1929. Vol. 67. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1929. p. 914- 22. Predicts that the tendency toward centraliza- tion now apparent in industrial organization will affect teachers college administration dur- ing the next twenty years and that such cen- tralization under state authority will be neces- sary in order to meet the complex demands of the period. . Rarney, Homer P. “What Is the Future of Pro- fessional and Liberal Education?” School and Society 32: 79-85: July 19, 1930. In refutation of the argument that the four- year liberal arts college is doomed, data are presented indicating that the saturation point is being reached in many fields of professional education. RuTLepce, SAMUEL A. The Dewelopment of Guiding Principles for the Administration of Teachers Colleges and Normal Schools. Con- 169. 170. [ 391] York; Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Co- lumbia University, 1930. 107 p tributions to Education, No. 449. New Presents the results of an evaluation of 96 principles of teachers college administration by a jury of 45 experts in educational adminis- tration. Sets up a list of representative duties of the teachers college president consistent with the evaluated principles. SHAW, FRANK L. State School Reports. Contri- butions to Education, No. 242. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Co- lumbia University, 1926. An analysis of annual and biennial reports issued by state departments of education to de- termine (1) what are the functions of state school reports? (2) how well are the current reports fulfilling these functions ? lrain- 238-45: Tutuoss, R. E. “College and Teacher ing.” Educational Research Bulletin 8: May 29, 1929. Presents pro and con arguments with regard to the right of the state to require liberal arts colleges to meet state standards governing teacher training curriculums. West, Roscoe L. Annual Report of the Director of Teacher Training to the Commissioner of Education, for the Year 1929-1930. Trenton, N. J.: New Jersey State Department of Education, 1930. Mimeographed. 12 p. Describes major activities of the Division of Teacher Training, New Jersey Department of Education, in developing and carrying out the state teacher training program. 72. WiTHERS, JOHN W., chairman. “Articulation in the Field of Teacher Training.’ (Committee Report.) Seventh Yearbook. Part V. Washing- ton, D. C.: Department of Superintendence, National Education Association, 1929. p. 395-465. Sets up principles considered fundamental to the articulation of the units of American edu- cation and applies these principles to the pro- fessional education of teachers WITHERS, JoHN W., chairman. “Teacher De- mand and Supply.” (In Report of Committee on the Relation of General to Professional Education of Teachers.) Ninth Yearbook. Part III. Washington, D. C.: Department of Super- intendence, National 1931. p. 254-67. Education A ssociation, Emphasizes the need for more facts concern- ing the teacher supply and demand situation and reports plans for the study of this problem on a nation-wide basis. - = } ; tr bre mn ee State Interview Blank - Teacher Supply and Demand State Department of Education Date ‘Name of person interviewed Official position I. State control of teacher training A. Which of the following authorities administers the state normal schools: 1. State board of education 3. Local boards for each school _ 2. State normal school board 4. (Other) _ Can the above authority restrict the state normel schools es to the number of students they many enrol? Or as to the number of graduates? ; Has this been done? _ Does the authority mentioned in (A) above prepare or review the budget of the state normal schools? _ Does the state authority have the right to limit the enrolment or the nun- ber of graduates of city and county normal schools? Has it ever done so? ; Are city and county normal schools required to report their enrolments and graduates to the state department of education? _ Do they report voluntarily? Does the state authority mentioned in Question A (or the state department of education) have the power to limit the enrolment and number of gradu- ates of the teacher training departments in the state university and other public liberal arts colleges? Has this power been used? Has any state authority ( ) the power to limit the enrolment and number of graduates of teacher training depart- ments in private or parochial liberal arts colleges? In private normal schools? - Has this power been used? [ 392 } ols: get of le nul- its and rtment radu- i to art- il Eis H. (public ) liberal arts college report (voluntasily) the number of (private) ( by lew } Do the persons prepared for teaching each year Are conferences called each year between state teachers college officials and the state department of education for the purpose of making a state teacher training program? Are the private and state universities invited in on these conferences? State normal schools and teachers colleges A. B. Cc. D. E. F. How many schools of this type? How long is the training for elementery and secondary school teachers? Are the normal schools required to admit sll high school graduates who apply for admission? Or, are there certain specifications as to high school standards and train- ing? (Get copy) Do the state normal schools have the authority to select by examination the applicants for admission even though they meet the specified high school training? bo any schools use such examinations now? Do the state normal schools systematically eliminate during training students who are personally unqualified to become teachers? What tests are used? Do all graduates of state teachers colleges automatically receive a cre- dential or license to teach’ Do the state normal schools maintain placement bureaus or is this work done by a central state bureau or official? G. Do the state normal schools follow-up their graduates for one or two years? [ 393 ] : : . : Ill. IV. High School guidance A. Does the state department of education (or the normal school board) s bulletins or representatives into the high schools to inform the student as to the needs, the training, and the opportunities of teaching? end " Do the individual normal schools do any high school guidance work’ B. Do the high schvols systematically guide the superior students into tee ing? C. Does the state teachers association do anything to influence the number and the quality of the students entering the teachers colleges from the high schools? Certification A. Have the certification requirements for elementary and secondary school teachers been raised since 1926 because of evidence or belief that there was any oversupply of teachers in this state? B. Has the step taken in (A) reduced: 1. The number of state teachers college graduates? 2. The number applying for state credentials? 3. The number entering from other states? 4. The apparent oversupply? C. Are graduates of teacher training institutions required to serve a proba- tionary year before receiving a regular certificate or license to teach? What is the usual term of the first certificate granted to normal school graduates? - The renewals? Does the state department have the power to revoke any permanent or life certificates now in use? ts ° [ 394] na nts ere | ‘oba- ich? : 1001 life | vy Ye Records end surveys A. Are city end county superintendents required to report each year to the (new) tea rs em- (old) “a tate department the number, names, and training of all 4 loyed? BR. Do local superintendents report each year to the state depertment the status of teacher supply and demand in their districts? __ C. Does the state department make and maintain a state-wide pupil census? How often? D. Does the state department make population surveys and growth predictions from time to time? E. Lo you make other studies or collect data which would bear on the problem of teacher supply and demand? Migration of teachers between states A. Do you have any state rules or state certification requirements designed in part to restrict the influx of teechers from other states? B. Do the local board rules or practices discourage the employment of teachers from other states? C. From which states does much of your influx come? Any reason for this? D. Do you lose many teachers or graduates to other states? which states? Why? E. Wheat steps, if any, has this state taken in preventing losses of teachers end graduates to other states? [ 395 } : i VII. Miscellaneous A. Is the married teacher an important problem in supply end demand in this state? Any studies been made? B. Have local boards or state board made any rules to restrict the employment of married teachers? C. Is one of your outstanding supply and demand problems concerned with get- ting persons to train for teaching in specific subjects in proportion to the demand? D. Do you have a problem of geographical distribution in supply and demand - that is, an oversupply of teachers in one part of the state and a shortage in other districts? E. Are you doing anything in this state to adjust or study teacher supply end demand which has not been touched upon in the above questions? [ 396 } tage and THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C. May, 1930 Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher B. R. Buckingham, Chairman To State Departments of Education: In the subsequent pages of this blank The Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher of the National Education Association requests certain information relative to teacher supply and demand in your state. The Committee is attempt- ing to meet a national demand for a study of this problem. Some states will have no difficulty in supplying the data asked for herein. Other states have not collected the information requested. The blank has been constructed so that this second group of states may give approximate estimates based upon such records and general knowledge as are available. Please give particular attention to the columns of page 3 of this blank. Here each state department can check to show whether each answer is an exact re- port or an approximate estimate of the facts. Please give estimates in all cases where exact reports cannot be made. Summaries of these data will be made available within a reasonable period. The Committee will appreciate your interest and cooperation. Very sincerely yours, pa K. Norton, Director, Research Division. Return one copy of this leaflet to the Research Division, National Education As- sociation, 1201 Sixteenth St. N. W., Washington, D. C. The extra copy of this blank is for your files. [ 397 ] Explanation of Questions Question 1 asks for the total number of teaching positions in 1929-30 in public day, elementary, and secondary schoo! Include positions held by school superintendents, supervisors, principals, etc., as well as classroom teachers. Ple include positions in kindergartens, elementary schools, junior, senior, and continuation high schools, and s tax-supported schools of less than college grade. Please do not include positions in might schools of any type Do not include positions in special state institutions such as those for the blind those in junior colleges. delinquents, etc. Question 2 asks for the total number of different persons employed during 1929-30 to fill the positions reported in.Q tion 1. This number will be somewhat larger than the actual number of positions. For example: If Miss resigns her position in the middle of the year and Miss B is employed to complete the year then feo persons | been required to fill the one position during 1929-30. Question 3 asks for an estimate of the average number of years taught by public clementary and seconda: . . . - . ' teachers' in your state before withdrawing or retiring from teaching. ; Question 4%asks for the number of vacancies in the day elementary and secondary schools at the end of the first tern the school year 1929-30, This total includes all unfilled positions in both urban and rural schools. Question 5 asks for the number of persons employed to teach in your state in 1929-30 who were not holding posit fm your state in 1928-29. This total includes all beginning teachers, all those returning to teaching afte absence of one year or more, and all those entering your state from other states. Question 6 asks you to segregate the total reported in Question 5 into divisions based on experience. Inexperien teachers' are those with no teaching experience, or with practice teaching only, previous to 1929-30; experience teachers mean those who have held regular teaching positions in your state or elsewhere previous to 1929-30 Question 7 asks you to report the number of elementary and secondary school teachers' in your state in 1929-30 were employed in or residents in other states in 1928-29. In other words, how many teachers did you get { ; other states in 1929-30? ; ; Question 8 asks for the total number of persons who completed preparation in 1928-29 for elementary and seconda school teaching positions’ by means of teacher training courses in high schools, normal schools, teacher colley: * liberal arts colleges, universities and so forth. Include only those who could have accepted teaching positions 7 accordance with the certification laws of your state without further training or special examination. Ordinari the total number reported on Question 8 would exceed the number who actually applicd for and received teach credentials. - : Question 9 asks you to segregate the total reported in Question 8 on the basis of the amount of training received sin high school graduation. Question 10 asks for the number of persons who obtained teaching credentials (licenses to teach) in 1928-29 in y state through examinations (state, county, or city) taken in place of a regular teacher training course. For e) ample, in some states any high school graduate who passes a county teachers’ examination may receive credentia to teach. Stich persons and others licensed to teach through examinations given in lieu of a regular teacher trai ing course should be reported in Question 10. Ke “¥Peachers or teaching positions in every case should be defined as in Question 1. RIT nto ett one een ete veers [ 398 | itl nda llege ons naril ach ential tral Questions and Data an approximate estimate of the situation in your state. Please give an estimate in cannot be given. The questions on this page have been stated briefly For fuller sult page 2 opposite. deh nit Note: Whenever possible please answer the questions on this page on the basis of exact re \\ do not exist give your best estimate based on such records or such knowledge of the situation a in have. Pl a check in either column 3 or + after each question to indicate whether your answer is based on exact records o: Check below to indicate whether answer in column , Recor wers ir 2 is based on Questions ecord answers in is ed o this column : Exact Approximate records estimates 1 ; 1. What was the total number of teaching positions in public day schools of your state in 1929-30? 2. What was the total number of different persons employed in 1929-30 to fill the positions reported in Question | above? we On the average how long do teachers remain in service in your state? 4. How many teaching positions were unfilled in your state at the end of the first term of the school year 1929-30? 5. How many regular full-time teachers were appointed to public day school positions in 1929-30 who did not serve as public school teachers in your state in 1928-29? 6. Hlow many of the total reported in Question 5 could be classified in each of the following groups? (a) Inexperienced (b) Experienced 7. low many of the total reported in Question § were from other states than your own? 8. What was the total number of persons completing teacher training courses in your state in 1928-29 which prepared them for teaching in your state? 9. How many of the total reported in Question 8 could be clas- sified under each of the following groups? (a) Less than two years of training beyond high school graduation (b) Two, but less than four years beyond high school graduation (c) Four, or more years of training beyond high school graduation 10. In 1928-29 how many individuals obtained teaching creden- tials in your state on the basis of state, county, or city ex- amination taken in place of the completion of a regular teacher training course? [ 399 ] Other Sources of Data We have listed below the studies reported to us which bear upon teacher supply and demand in your state. Are there other important sources of data concerning the situation in your state, which should be known to us? Comment and Explanation This space may be used for suggestions which may be helpful to the committee in its study of teacher supply and demand. Dare GE Ciene SCOR is 656.50 60:0 0.00506. 00065.5020 ss 0 ces 056006 KSeANes eet TKS caeew sas LMibie cerns tek eeae : Or er ve rrek Letina) £22 Pe PP eeTT PRET Ce oe Ce K ST PA Ee eee EE ere State .. [ 400 ] NY st ep ney Research Bulletin OF THE National Education Association VOLUME IX January to November, 1931 Bulletin is issued | the Research Division, a section « his div The Research ou DY S onal I cation Association l the headquarters staff of the Nati sion was created in February, 1922, for the purpose of conducting scien tific studies of special interest to members of the teaching professiot Bulletin One was issued by the Research Division in June, 19 al Bulletin Two, in November, 1922 The first number of the Kesear Bulletin is Volume I Ne 1, January, 1923, entitled Facts on State Educational Needs. With Volume I, No. 1, the Research Bulletin became a regular publication, issued five times each year—January, March, May September, and November The Research Bulletins composing Volumes I, II, II, IV, V, VI, VII. VIII, and IX are listed on the inside back cover of the November, 1931, Bulletin RESEARCH DIVISION THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1201 Sixteenth Street Northwest, Washington, D. C 1931 ae tnt me tak TRB et Ae eto INDEX TO VOLUME IX Administration, the principal's, 110; efficient rural units of, 238 Cowen, Philip A., and Coxe, Warren W., x present conditions in rural schools, 238; proposed remedies Coxe, Warren fe and Cowen, Philip A., q »s for rural schools, 238; selected references, 244 Crabtree, J. W., foreword, 6, 98, 166 3%. 309 Administrative officers, salaries paid school supervising and Credit due for pe vements and for assistance received 1930-31, 204. ethics of, 49 Administrative policies, state, in control of teacher supply Criteria, in selecting ethical standards, 28 bibliography, 390. Criticism of associates, ethics of, 51 Affiliation with professional associations, ethics of, 58 Cubberley, Ellwood P., quoted, 136, 244 Albany Law School, catalog quoted, 17. Current practices, in teaching et! Allen, Ira Madison, quoted, 33, 64. fessions, 10 American Association of Schools and departments of journal- Curriculum construction principles, et ism, constitution and standards, quoted, 15 Cc a a living and growing, 256 American Association of Teachers Colleges, study cited, 350 mproving rural school, 257; select American Bar Association, canons of professional ethics, quoted f rural school, 256 33, 40, 43, 52, 57, 59, 60; canons of judicial ethics, quoted Cutter, Irving S., quoted, 18 44, 52, 70; report quoted, 17 American Educational Research Association, study cited Danbury, Connecticut State Normal School, 347, 350. Demand and supply, agencies t i el American Medical Association, council of medical educati: facts as to, of teachers. 315: factors in t ‘ ft and hospitals, principles of medical ethics, quoted, 52, 57 bibli graphy, 384; general implicatior 1 conclus 58, 59, 60, 65, 70; report quoted, 19, 40, 49 meaning of law of, 311, 312; na 315 Analysis of practice in the schools of each profession, the teach- studies of teacher, 317; progres ing of ethics, 14. problems in various states, 350; su c Anderson, Earl William, quoted, 64. bibliography, 380; summary of, 348: t tate Applications, ethic principle sin See awing, 63 elementary and secondary schools, 338: t r at Applying for a position, ethics of, 61. 1929-30, 338; technics in the study of t Appointment or promotion, merit the sole basis for, 64 377; the profession and problems Articulation between units of the school system, the principal Democratic government, rural educatior 3 and, 138. Departments of ocus ation, should diss Assisting associates to secure promotions, ethics of, 49 jemand, 315: records 1 studies state, 3 Assisting in the formulation and execution of policies, ethics program for, 374. of, 45. aay , Department of ETE Nat I Rencemtee, criticism of, 51; standards of conduct in relations tion, study cited, 282, 299. 313. 314. 359. 360, 361 with, 45; support of, 48. Dewey, John, quoted, . 42, 104 hasouneieu, the principal and general educational, 144 Differences among sesaiie professional et Attendance, facts concerning rural school, 251; how to improve Dishonorable practices, ethics of report t t 1, 59 in rural schools, 252; selected references, 255 Disparaging the community, ethics of, 44 Attitudes and traits, ethics and general, 34. Dowrie, George, quoted, 16 Draper, Edgar M., quoted, 101 Bagley, William C., and Kyte, George C., quoted, 262. Dresslar, Fletcher B., and Pruett, Haskell, 4 Baker, Frank E., quoted, 21. Dunn, Fannie H., quoted, 265 Bibliographies, professional ethics for teachers, 74; professional ethics in other fields, 78; principalship, 108, 133, 142, 153 East Carolina Teachers College, ta 154; problems in rural education, 244, 249, 255, 261, 264 Economic and social conditions, ethi 271, 277, 284, 294, 300; teacher demand and supply, 377 ment of. 58 Bolton, Euri B., quoted, 128. Economic status of the teacher, committ t 310 Bradford, Mrs. Hugh D., quoted, 271. form, 397 Briggs, Thomas H., quoted, 160. Educational associations, general, 144 Brim, Orville G., quoted, 257. Eikenberry, Dan H., quoted, 96 Brubacher, A. R., quoted, 21, 41, 70. Elementary and secondary schools, s Brown, Marion, quoted, 366. ind supply in, 338 Buckingham, B. R., quoted, 316, 357. Employees, ‘salaries paid certain 1930-31, 1¢ Buildings and equipment, how to improve rural, 287; rural 180, 188, 194, 199, school, 286; selected references, 294. Employment , standards of conduct Bulletin No, 4, purposes and scope, 236; how to use, 237. ing, 61 Bulletin No. 5, introduction, 310; purposes of the study, specific, Entrance, ethical attitude toward profes 310; selected bibliography, 377; sources of information and Ethical instruction, general status of, 11 methods of investigating, 310; summary and conclusions, 376 Ethics, teachers codes of, 27; violations Butterfield, E. W., quoted, 21. Evenden, E. S., quoted, 24, 25 Cabot, Richard C., quoted, 8, 18, 24. Factions, ethical conduct toward polit $ Causes of wide differences in practice, the teaching of ethics, Faubel, Arthur S., quoted, 311. . Ferriss, Emery N., quoted, 283, 285 Cavins, Lorimer V., quoted, 280. Finance, improving rural school, 247 Certification of teachers, 362; bibliography, 389 Financial support of rural schools, present stat f, 245 Chambers, George Gailey, quoted, 8. Financing, adequate rural school, 245; selected reference {9 Chambers, MM. quoted, 24. Forms used in collecting specific violations of ethics among Charters, we w., and Waples, Douglas, quoted, 373. teachers, 86. Child welfare, ethics and, 37; rural education and, 234 Foster, Herbert H., quoted, 101. Clerical functions, the principal's, 129. Fulfilling contracts, ethics of, 66 Code of ethics of the National Education Association, 88. Code of ethics, teachers, 27. Galpin, C. J., quoted, 236 Cody, Frank, quoted, 144. Garver, F. B., and Hansen, A. H., qu Cohen, Julius Henry, quoted, 17. Gaumnitz, W. H., quoted, 254, 275, 283 Community, ethics of disparaging the, 44; the principal and General attitudes and traits, ethics and, 34 his, 114, 140. General Curricular Revision Committee, report of the, to I Community life, ethics of participation in, 42. of Normal School Presidents (Pennsylvania juoted, 21 Conclusions and recommendations, professional ethics, 71; General principles of conduct for teachers, 32 teacher supply and demand, 374. General proprieties, violations by teachers of, 34 Conduct, general principles of, 32; standards of, in relation to General status of ethical instruction, 11 the profession, 55; standards of, in relation with pupils, George Washington University, catalog i, 18 parents, and community, 37; standards of, in relations with Giving constructive advice - helpful 8 cent t {, 48 associates, 45. Graves, Frank P., quoted, Confidential information, ethics of, 40, 50. Greenwood, J. M., soos Ny 100 Contracts, ethics of fulfilling, 66 Group research, principals’ problems for, 148 Cook, Katherine M., quoted, 254. Growth in service, ethical attitude toward, 5 Coombs, Whitney, quoted, 246. Guidance of high-school students, the su Cooperation with parents, ethics of, 41. 365. Cooperation with supervisors, the principal and, 137. Guidance and placement, in rural schools, 236; | gt Cooper, Hermann, and Cooper, Richard Watson, quoted, 255. 387. Cooper, William John, quoted, 250. Corrupt and dishonorable practices, ethics of reporting, 59. Hammond, Frank C., quoted, 18 Course in professional ethics, in what year of training to give, Harley, Herbert, quoted, 13. 4. Heermance, Edgar L., study quoted, 8; quoted, 36, 69 Courses in professional ethics, elective or required, 13. High schools, subject supply and demand grap 380 Courtesy, ethics of sympathy and, +9. See: Secondary education [ 403 ] High-school students, guidance of, 365. Hill, Andrew P., quoted, 287. Hillman, James E. -» quoted, 22. Hoag, Emil F. Fy quoted, 235. Holmgren, compilations quoted, Hotchkiss, W. quoted, 16. Hoover, Herbert, quoted, 33, Hogg, Alexander, quoted, 317. Howard, Clara, quoted, 128. Hyde, Grant M., quoted, 16. Hyde, William D. -» Quoted, 104 Impartiality, ethical standards of, 39. Imposing religious or political views upon pupils, ethics of, 41. mngeeve economic and social conditions, ethics of striving to, Individual differences among pupils, ethical conduct in rela- tion to, Interfering in another’s affairs, ethics of, 50. Interpretation of tables of salary distributions, 204. Interpreting the schools to rural people, need for, 266; success- ful plans for, 267; selected references, 271. Interview blank, teacher supply and demand, 392. Instruction, improving quality of, in rural schools, 263. ye Henry W., quoted, 13, 17. ournal of the “National Education Association, editorial quoted, 26, Kelly, E. L., study gested. 132. King, Clyde L., quoted, 8 Koos, Leo V., quoted, 27, 95, 109. Kyte, George C., quoted, 124. Kyte, George C., and Bagley, William C., quoted, 262. Landis, Benson Young, quoted, 8. Law School Faculty o' ‘Columbia University, study quoted, paatem, opinions of, regarding ethical instruction, 24. dwin, quoted, 41. Soonesi R. J., quoted, 361. = Toland edical College, catalog, quoted, 18. L. C., quoted, 21. Madden, J. T., quoted, 16. Mansy. B. quoted, 235. Marsh, J. Frank quoted, 33, 34. Massachusetts State De Department of Education Bulletin No. 2, 1923, quoted, 22. Median, meaning of, 170. Memberships in professional associations, a reasonable allow- ance for, 146. Meredith, A. B., quoted, 22. Merit the sole basis for appointment or promotion,, ethical attitude fomaes. 64 Con ot, te Normal Co ose, ce quot 19, Mesto oy Setter B., quoted, 1 Morgan, Thomas J., quoted, ion Muir, Sarah T., chairman, See National Education Associa- tion, Committee on Ethics of the Profession. National Education Association, code of ethics of the, 88; committee on ethics of the profession, report quoted, 8; 28, 29, 60, 61; department of superintendence, Seventh Yearbook, quoted, 138, Ninth Yearbook, quoted, 142; Research Bulletin, September, 1929, quoted, 41; Schools and Business, quoted, 140; statement by officers of, 228; teacher supply and demand and, 310, 375. — — for the Study of Education, study cited, 256, ot 4 Society of College Teachers of Education, study cit National Tax Associatior study cited, 247. National welfare, rural education and, 235. Nepotism, ethics of, 64. New Haven. Conn., State Normal School quoted, 19. New York State Department of . > cardinal objectives in elementary education, cited, 103 termination of Notification regarding employment, ethics of, 67. Offer elsewhere, ethics of seeking an, 66. Office of Education. See United States Office of Education, Olsen, } ne Danger C., quoted, 53. teaching ethics, 24. } an ade principals, 146. Organizing data for successor, ethics of, 54. Oversupply and waste of individual energy, teacher training, 314. Parents, ethical principles of cooperation with, 41. Parkinson, B. L., quoted, 22. Participation in community life, ethical principles for, 42; by principal, 140. , Webster H., quoted, 22. problems, procedures in study, management, and adjustment of teacher, 358. of education, the principal's, 102. Philosophy of life, the principal's, 104 Placement, guidance and, bibliography, 387. Policies, ethics of assisting in the formulation and ex« 0 Political views, ethics of imposing upon pupils, 41. Politics and factions, ethical principles regarding, 43. Position, ethics of applying for a, 61. Pound, Roscoe, quoted, 17. Powers, J: Orin, quoted, 69. Precautions as to comparisons between 1928-29 and 1930-31 me surveys, 163. Se ogy nay for the principalship, the necessary, 104. e in the profession, ethics of, 55. Princioal, as an active participant ina professional group, the 144; as a person, the, 101; as head of a single school unit, the 110; as a worker in a school system, the, 136; in rural schools 99. Principals’ Organizations, 146. Principals, rating scale for, 107; salaries paid, 1930-31, 167, 174, 178, 186, 192, 198. Principles of conduct, general, 32. Principles of curriculum construction, 25; with reference to rural schools, 257. Proctor, William M., quoted, 283. Professional associations, ethics of affiliation with, 58. Professional conduct among teachers, standards of, 27. Professional ethics, elective and required courses, 13; viola- tions of, 29. Professional status of teachers in rural schools, the percent with training, 272. Professional study, the principal's, 131. Profession and problems in demand and supply, the, 311. Profession, pride in, the, 55; standards of conduct in relation to the, 55. Promotion, merit the sole basis for appointment or, 64. Proprieties, violations by teachers of general, 34. Providing articulation between units of the school system, 138. Public day elementary and eouatny schools, demand for teachers in, 338; supply of teachers tor, 343. Public relations, the principal's activities in, 140; in rural schools, 266. Publications of principals’ organizations, 151. Publishing and school supply houses, standards of conduct in connection with, 69. Pupils, ethical conduct in relation to individual differences among, 37. Pye, Charles F., quoted, 145. ualifications, how the principal can take stock of his, 105 estionnaires, on ethics of various professions, 84; on ethics requirements of state departments of education, 85; for salary survey in city schools, 220-225; for survey of teacher demand and supply, 397-400. Ranger, Walter E., quoted, 21. Rating scale for principals, 106. » professional ethics, 71; teacher demand and supply, 374, 376. Reeder, Ward G., quoted, 137. Relations with associates, standards of conduct in, 45 Relationship with the superintendent, principal's, 136. Religious or political views, ethics of imposing upon pupils, 41. Reporting corrupt and dishonorable practices, ethics of, 59. Research Bulletin, practises affecting teacher personnel, quoted, 183; Vol. VIII, No. 4, quoted, 208 Research Bulletins now available, 407. Research Division, National Education Association, study cited, 247, 248, 293, 338, 361, 374. 4 Research, problems of the elementary principalship for group, 148. Responsibility, ethics of shifting, 48. Reynolds, Annie, quoted, 299. Reynolds, Rallo G., quoted, 140. Roberts, Alexander C., quoted, 101. Rural boys and girls, how secondary schools can reach the ae of, 283. ural children, secondary school opportunities for, 279. mee education, child welfare and, 234; democratic govern- ment and, 236; first national conference on, quoted, 304; national welfare and, 235; scope of the problem of, 234. Rural school buildings and equipment, 286; how to improve,287. Rural schoo! curriculum, status of, 256; principles and practices improving, 257. Rural schooi interpretation, 266. Rural school supervision, status of, 295. Rural schools better teaching in, 262; present professional status of teachers in, 272; present quality of teaching in, 262; present status of financial support of, 245; trained teachers for, 272. Rural secondary education, present status of, 279. Rural supervisory service, how to improve, 298. Rural teachers and helpful supervision, 295. Russell, James E., quoted, 73. Salary data, for individual cities, 168; form used in collecting, 220; for rural schools, 274. [ 404 ] — Oo rr or - Salaries , in cities 2500 to 5000 in population, 197, 218 cities 5000 to 10,000 in population, 191, 215; in citi 10,000 ¢ 30,000 in population, 184, 214; in cities 30,000 to 100,000 in population, 176, 208; in cities over 100,000 in populati 171, 208; paid school administrative and ervising officers 1930-31, 204; paid teachers, principals 1 certain other school employees, 1930-31, 167 Salary surveys, precaution as to compar veer 1928-29 and 1930-31, 163 Salary tabulations, 1930-31, 226 Schools for teachers, 19. Secondary education, present status of Secondary school opportunities for rur at Cc rn Rete 79: selecte references, 284. Secondary schools, how to reach needs of rur boys ar girls, 283; status of teacher demand and sup; elementary and, 338. Securing and terminating employment, st lards in, 61, Seeking an offer elsewhere, ethics of, 66 Selecting ethical standards, criteria employed in, 28 Selection of student teachers before and during training, the, 366. Self-advertising, ethics of, 65 Seligman, Edwin R. A., quoted, 41 Sherrod, Charles C., quoted, 278 Shifting responsibility, ethics of, 48 Single school unit, the principal as head of 110 Smith, Margaret, study quoted, 112 Staff workers, how principal can utilize the various, 139 Standards, criteria employed in se lecting ethical, 28; of cor duct in connection with teachers’ agencies, publishing ar school supply houses, 69; of conduct in relation to the pr fession, 55; of conduct in relations with associates re conduct in relations with pupils, parents, and community 37; of conduct in securing and terminating employment, 61 of entrance, ethical attitude toward, 55 t profession conduct among teachers, 27. State departments of education, teacher demand and supply studies by, 371 State program on teacher supply Ig demand, a suggested, 374 Stearns, M. M., study quoted, Strayer, George D., and Enpstbardt, N. L., quoted, 238 Student teachers, selection of, before and during trait ing, 366 Study, professional, principal's, 131. Studies of teacher demand and supply in several states, 317 Subject supply and demand in high schools, bibliography, 380 Successor, ethics of organizing data for, 54 Summary of practice in teaching ethics in various professions, 23. Superintendent, principal's relationship to the, 136 Supervision, principal's, 117; rural teachers i helpful, 295 status of rural school, 295 Supervisory a, salaries paid school administrative and 1930-31, b Pn ont Sitiiahaat $ cooperation with, 13 Supervisory service, rural, how to improve, 298 Supply and demand teacher, interview blank, 392. See Demand and supply. Supply of teachers for public day elementary and secondary schools, 34 ; Support of associates, ethics of, 48 Swift, Fletcher Harper, quoted, 238 Sympathy and courtesy, ethics of, 39 Tawney, R. H., q Taylor, Charles W., qu Teachers’ agencies, st oY Teachers’ attitudes toward ce rtain pri actices Te acher, committe ‘ i 3907 Resainanns ertificati ft, bibliog 389; s 30-31, 167, 171, 176, 184, 191, 19 Te: acher personnel, pract iffect R 1928, quoted, 183 Te acher personnel problems, | ind adjustment Te: ro wel supply, st ‘= idministr b graphy, 3% Teachers and helpful supervision, 300 of, 358: sumnu Teachers’ codes of ethics, I ‘ luct, etc Teachers in rural schools, present pr tat Teachers, tenure, turnover and f 382, Teacher training, for rural s yntrol of, 358 Teacher training, possibl wast 314 Teaching duties, prin ipal’s, 12 Teaching, | resent quality of 1 rural schools 264 Tenure, turnover, and general status of teachers, | 382 Termination of employment, t 6 standards of conduct in se rit l Thomas, Maurice J., quoted, 64 Transaction of business thru proper channels, Trumper, May, quoted, Tufts College, medical school, catalog quot 18 Tutoring pupils of his own class, et f, 4 United States Office of Education, 59. 260, 262, 263, 272, 274, 296, 300, 313, 339 0 351, 355, 356, 357 Underbidding, ethics of, 66 University of Colorado, school of n t g, quot 18 University of Louisville, medical s t 18 University of Oklahoma, catalog, quot i8 Updegraff, Harlan, quoted, 354 Utilize the various staff workers, t Valentine, P. F., quoted, 118 Vincent, W. D., quoted, 21 Violations of general proprieties, teacher, 34 Violation of professional ethics, exam Walsh, Matthew J., quoted, 43 Ward, Mary A., study quoted, 112 Washington Post, editorial quoted, 9 Welfare of the child, an ethical standard 3 und, 234. White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, quoted, 236; study cited, 253. Whitney, Frederick L. , Study qu rt 132; quote 33 Winters, F. Howard, quoted Withdrawing applications, ethics of Works, George A., quoted, 241, 254 oneNe rs Research Bulletins Now Available The Problem of Teacher Tenure. Vol. Il, No. 5, November, 1924. 40) p. Price per copy 25 cents. Public School Salaries in 1924-1925. Vol. Ill, Nos. 1 and 2, January and March, 1925. 2 p Price per copy, 50 cents. The Ability of the States to Support Education. Vol. 1V, Nos. 1 and 2, January and March 1926. 96 p. Price per copy, 50 cents. Efficient Teaching and Retirement Legislation. Vol. iV, No. 3, May, 1926. 72 p. Price pe copy, 25 cents. Vajor Issues in School Finance—Part I. Vol. 1V, No. 5, November, 1926. 32 p. Price per cops 25 cents. Vajor Issues in School Finance—Part Il. Vol. V, No. 1, January, 1927. 64 p. Price per copy 25 cents. Salaries in City School Systems, 1926-27. Vol. V, No. 2, March, 1927. 64 p. Price per copy 25 cents. The Scheduling of Teachers’ Salaries. Vol. V, No. 3, May, 1927. 64 p. Price per copy 25 cents. a The Advance of the American School System. Vol. V, No. 4, September, 1927 per copy, 25 cents. p. Price School Records and Reports. Vol. V, No. 5, November, 1927. 132 p. Price per copy, 50 cents Creating a Curriculum for Adolescent Youth. Vol. V1, No. 1, January, 1928. 80 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. The Advance of the Teacher Retirement Movement. Vol. VI, No. 3, May, 1928. 56 p. Pri per copy, 25 cents. Practices Affecting Teacher Personnel. Vol. VI, No. 4, September, 1928. 52 p. Price pe copy, 25 cents. Can the Nation Afford to Educate Its Children? Vol. VI, No. 5, November, 1928 1S p Price per copy, 25 cents. Can the States Afford to Educate Their Children? Vol. VU, No. 1, January, 1929. 44 p. Pri per copy, 25 cents. The Principal and Progressive Movements in Education. Vol. VII, No. 2, March, 1929. 60 p Price per copy, 25 cents. Salary Scales in City School Systems, 1928-29. Vol. VII, No. 3, May, 1929. Price per copy 25 cents. Vitalizing the High-School Curriculum. Vol. VII, No. 4, September, 1929. 104 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. The Questionnaire. Vol. VIII, No. 1, January, 1930. 52 p. Price per copy, 25 cents { Self-survey Plan for State School Systems—Part 1: Checklists. Vol. VIII, No. 2, March, 1930 36 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. 1 Self-survey Plan for State School Systems—Part 11: Handbook. Vol. VII, No. 3. May. 1930 76 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Investing in Public Education. Vol. VIII, No. 4, September, 1930. 56 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Ethics in the Teaching Profession. Vol. 1X, No. 1, January, 1931, 92 p. Price per copy 25 cents The Principal at Work on His Problems. Vol. 1X. No. 2, March, 1931, 64 p. Price per copy 25 cents Salaries in City School Systems, 1930-31. Vol. IX, No. 3, May, 1931, 64 p. Price per copy 25 cents The Outlook for Rural Education. Vol. 1X, No. 4, September, 1931, 76 p. Price per copy 25 cents Teacher Demand and Supply. Vol. 1X, No. 5, November, 1931, 102 p. Price per copy 25 cents [ 407 T HE EDUCATION AND 4 training of teachers, their examination and certifica- tion, the suspension or rev- ocation of certificates tor cause, the salary schedules provided, the supervision of instruction, the success teachers attain in their work,and the final retirement and pensioning of the teacher are al] parts of one great state problem.—-E//wood P. Cubberley, State School Administra- tion, p. 030.