wea. Wi? ss SEP 72 n $6 CREE TEAS OBGOGGGGG66060GG0G0 0S) VOL. VIII, NO. 4 SEPTEMBER, 1930 Research Bulletin OF THE see National Education Association EEUSSEEEEEES Bok SHGEES ES SEHS SSS S5S SHO OSS OSSEED ere * © a a a Investing in Public Education PUBLISHED BY THE RESEARCH DIVISION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201 SIXTEENTH STREET NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C. Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1! at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., une de er Act of August 24, 1 412 Acceptance for mailing at oe Py rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917 , authorize a February 10, 1923. GSSSSeeseoeseeesesso see Sse essessesesessssessss joo ooo oo one oo Sooo ooo oon on 3 a te prolate PSR Fata a aes ee lla ae or - a . Research Bulletin of the National Education Association Published five times each year in January, March, May, September, and November by the Research Division of the National Education Association of the United States President, Wits A. SUTTON Secretary, J. W. Crasrres The payment of the $5 membership fee of the National Education Association entitles one to receive the Research Bulletin, the Journal, the Annual Volume of Ad dresses and Proceedings, and certain other publications of the National Education Asso- ciation for one year. One dollar of each $5 membership fee is for a year’s subscription to the Research Bulletin. The Research Bulletin may be subscribed for separately at a subscription price of $1 per year. Copies may be purchased for 25 cents, and in quantities at a reduced rate. Those entitled to receive the Research Bulletin regularly are asked to report at once any change of address, giving old as well as new address Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Sect 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. Director of Research: John K. Norton Associate Director: Margaret Alltucker Norton Assistant Directors: Frank W. Hubbard, William G. Carr, Richard R. Foster Executive and Editorial Offices - - - 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C How to Secure Additional Copies Additional copies of this issue of the Research Bulletin may be obtained at the following prices, postpaid if remittance accompanies order: Single copies of this issue 25¢ 2 to 9 copies—10% reduction 10 to 99 copies—25% reduction 100 or more copies—33 1/3% reduction. Orders for Research Bulletins not accompanied by remittance are subject to trans- portation charges. Make checks payable to National Education Association. Subscriptions to Research Bulletins The Research Bulletin may be received regularly through a special subscription at $1 per year. Only those holding the $5 membership (see statement at top of this page) receive the Research Bulletin without such subscription. Many of the early issues of the Research Bulletin are already out of print. The special subscription at $1 per year offers an opportunity to maintain a complete file of future Research Bulletins. Reproduction of Material in Research Bulletins Electro-mat-slide service: The National Education Association maintains a special service to aid those reproducing material appearing in its publications. Send orders or requests for further information to the Division of Publications. Tables, charts, and any other material appearing in Research Bulletins may be reproduced for the advancement of education. No authority other than this notice is needed previous to such reproduction. For further information on this subject or others affecting the work of the Division, address the Research Division, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. [ 166 ] CONTENTS Foreword ... The Ability of the United States to Pay for Its Schools How Much of Our Income and Wealth is Invested in Public Education? Current Income and Current School Exp Value of Wealth and of School Property The Facts for Individual States... enditures How Do Expenditures for Public Schools Compare with Certain Other Expendi- _ eA The Cost of Life Insurance... The Bill for Building Construction.... What the States Invest in Life Insurance The Cost of Automobiles Automobile Costs by States Billions for Luxuries The Luxury Bill in Each State What Part of the Nation’s Income is Devoted to the Payment of and Building Construction. . Does the United States Compare with Other Nations on This Item? Income and Taxes in the United States and Other Countries Income, Wealth, and Tax Collections by Wealth and Taxes Collected in the Unit States ed States.. Taxes and How What Part of the Nation’s Taxes is Allotted for the Support of Public Schools? Tax Collections and School Costs in the Various States What is the Trend as to the Percent of Income Represented by Expenditures for Public Schools?... How Does the Increase in Public School Costs Compare with the Increase in Other Important Items?... Good Schools Pay Their Own Way . How Do the Schools Contribute to the Enrichment of . How Do the Schools Promote Patrioti sm and World Human Life? Understanding? ontribute to America’s Development?. . What is the Day-by-Day Contribution of the Schools? . What Will the Schools of Tomorrow Mean to America? 6. How Have the Schools Contributed to Individual Achievement and Happiness? I 2 3. What Did the Schools of Yesterday C 4 5 7. How Have the Schools Contributed Culture? List of Tables, Figures, and Charts to American { 167 ] National Life, Prosperity, and 180 182 183 183 184 186 FOREWORD Why does the comparatively small bill which the public pays for the education of childre attract so much attention, while much larger bills paid for privately purchased items attra so little attention? The return from money expended for education is delayed. Its effect may not be fu! evident for a generation or more. The return from money expended for an automobile is immediate. It secures a shiny new machine at once—often before it is paid for. The school bill is collected under the most unfavorable circumstances. It comes in one lump sum. Even though quarterly payments are permitted the total is impressive. Tax-paymen' time is played up by certain newspapers as a time of awful anguish. How different are the conditions surrounding one’s private expenditures. Billions are spent annually to extol the merits of everything from toothpaste to automobiles and from safety razors to tobacco. Whoeve: heard of a newspaper crying out about the growing sums paid for such articles? Many a man pays more for tobacco than for the education of his children. But he pays his tobacco bills in driblets. He seldom knows the total. His automobile bill may be several times his school taxes but he buys the machine on an “easy payment” plan, and purchases gasoline in ten gallon lots The taxpayer’s contact with the school is not close. He thinks of schooling in terms of the obsolete institution he attended a generation ago. His understanding of the school is too often based on the reports of children or the misrepresentation of a self-seeking politician He suffers no such misunderstanding of his private purchases. When he thinks of a car he thinks of a 1930, not a 1910, model. He drives it himself. He does not have his child drive it and accept an immature verdict as to how it runs. These are but some of the handicaps under which schools, as opposed to most privately supported agencies, work. But they are not insuperable. They can be and have been surmounted The school can rise above them by making known its purposes and accomplishments. Education Week is a time when the importance of interpreting the schools should be empha- sized. But Education Week is only one of fifty-two weeks each year when this work should go on. Have parents visit your schools during Education Week. Disseminate facts concerning the schools, See that their aims are understood, that their weaknesses as well as their strengtlis are discussed. Make known the facts concerning school costs. Do these things during Education Week and every one of the other fifty-one weeks of the year. To the information which each school system will assemble locally may be added the facts given in this issue of the Bulletin. Other sources of information are also suggested. Let al! intelligent school men and women accept their share of the task in order that the people may know their schools. J. W. Crastrez, Secretary, National Education Association. rapid! come reach for p The Ability of the United States to Pay for Its Schools There has been much publicity in recent vears concerning the amount expended for pub- lic schools. We have been told that too large a portion of our wealth and income is invested in the schools; that more money is expended for education than the importance of this pub- lic interest justifies; that the amount of public expenditure, of which school costs are an im- portant item, is larger than the nation can afford ; that public expenditures in general, and school costs in particular, are absorbing a rapidly increasing portion of the national in- come and that we have already, or will shortly reach the limit which can safely be expended for public education. These are but a few of the questions which have been raised concern- ing the cost of the schools. Are such fears and forebodings justified? Are they supported by the facts or are they the products of narrow vision or selfish interest ? It is the purpose of this section of the Bulletin to present the factual material whereby an inter- ested citizen may answer such questions for himself. Every figure given is based upon the most reliable source of information available. These sources are cited briefly. Address the Research Division of the National Education Association for additional information as to the basis of any of the figures given. CHART I Expenditures for all public schools — # 2,448,633, 561 INCOME on4 SCHOOL SUPPORT IN THE UNITED STATES EstimatecL National Income # 89,419,000,000 Research. Division, National Fducation, Assi. of Interior, Office of Education. Sources of data: Income from National Bureau of Economic Research. School costs from various reports of the UL.S. Department, [ 169 ] Sen Pes ee RE SM ye = Current Income and Current School Ex- penditures The answer to the question which heads this section can be obtained by comparing the na- tion’s yearly income with its expenditures for public schools. For practical purposes, we may think of income? as the total amount which the people of the United States receive from sources such as wages, salaries, business profits, interest on investments, and certain other items. The most reliable estimate of the income of the people of the United States is that of the Na- ional Bureau of Economic Research. According to this agency, the incomes of all the people of the United States added together amounted to $89,419,000,000 in 1928, the last year for which there are figures. In the same year, ac- cording to the United States Office of Educa- tion, we expended $2,448,633,561 ? for public schools, that is, tax supported schools, of ele- mentary, secondary, and collegiate grade. Of this sum $2,184,336,638, or 89 percent was expended for public elementary and high schools and the remainder for the public sup- port of colleges. Since we had an income of $89,419,000,000 and expended $2,448,633,561 for public schools, 2.74 percent of our income went for their support. Table 1 gives in somewhat more detail the figures as to expenditures for public schools of all types. This table indicates that for each $100 of income we allot $2.44 for public ele- mentary and secondary schools, and $.30 for How Much of Our Income and Wealth is Invested in Public Education? tax supported colleges and universities, | schools of all types require $2.74 for eac! of income. Value of Wealth and of School Property There is an important difference between the income and the wealth of a nation. The ny ing of income is explained in the paragraphs just above. By wealth is meant the va all tangible property in the United States. Just as we may think of income as the amount 4 man receives during the year we should think of his wealth as the value of the property he owns, including such items as, land, buildings equipment, and of all other physical property. The wealth of the nation is the total value of all tangible property whether owned by indi- viduals or collectively. A portion of the nation’s wealth exists in the form of school property such as school sites, school buildings, and equipment. What part of our wealth is invested jn school property ? This question can be answered by comparing the nation’s total wealth with the value of its school property. The total wealth of the United States in 1928, accord- ing to the National Industrial Conferenc: Board, that is, the value of all forms of tan ble property, such as lands, buildings, equipment, is estimated at $353,520,000,0 In the same year according to the United States Office of Education, the value of the property of public schools of all classes was $6,3 1 For definition of income see: King, Willford, The National income and Its Purchasing Power, National Bureau of E Research; p. 42. ? This figure omits expenditures for public institutions for the blind, deaf, feeble-minded, and delinquent. No exact are available at this time as to the cost of these institutions but it is estimated at something less than $50,000,000. TABLE 1.—YEARLY INCOME AND PUBLIC SCHOOL COSTS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1928 Total national income..... Cost of public schools: Elementary and secondary......... m= Colleges and universities... ... : NE <04detnd Bnmhucdades +>. a ea Percent Amount of income $89 , 419,000,000 100.00 2,184, 336,638 2.44 264 , 296 ,923 30 2,448 633,561 2.74 search, p. 74. Sources: School costs calculated from various reports of the U. S. Department of Interior, Office of Education; in- come figure is that of Willford I. King, The National Income and Its Purchasing Power, National Bureau of Economic Re- [170] cess 7 | i Iperty ED 938.538. Something less than two percent of ur wealth is in the form of school property. lable 2 gives figures in greater detail as to he nation’s total wealth and the value of the oroperty of public schools and colleges. ‘This ah shows that for every $100 of wealth pos- sessed by the nation, $1.55 is invested in the buildings, grounds, and equipment of public elementary and secondary schools and an addi- tional $.24 is invested in the plants of public colleges and universities. The property of pub- lic schools of all types accounts for $1.79 of TABLE 2.—WEALTH AND VALUE OF each $100 of the nation’s wealth. At the be ginning of this secti ym the question Was ask d = H IW Mus h of our in mé a 1 wealth is nvested in pu bli é lui 1f107 ‘he answer 18 ciear. For every $100 ; ss come Wwe ¢ xpe nd $2.74 for pu blii ‘ duc 77ion. One dollar and seventy-nine cents, out of ever $100 of wealth, exists in form of public school property. From whatever angle the question is studied it is clear that a minor fraction of our economic power and capital is invested in pub lic education. SCHOOL PROPERTY IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1928 Percent Item Amount of wealth Wealth (vaiue of all tangible property $353 ,520,000, 000 100.00 Value of property of public schools Elementary and secondary 5. 486,938,599 155 Colleges and universities 846.899 989 j Total 6.333 838 588 179 Sources: Value of school property from various rey the U.S. D nent of Interior, Office of Ed wealtl figure isan estimate of the National Industrial (¢ soard as g n The Conference Board Bulletin 5, 1930 CHART II Value of all Value of all property usec for public ——. school purposes # 6,333, 838,588 WEALTH ond SCHOOL PROPERTY IN THE UNITED STATES | $ 353,520, OOO, €esearch Oro.ston, Aational Fducation Asshi ible — ty OC _— —= Sources of data: Wealth figure is an estimate of the National Industrial Conference Board ; value of public school property calcw- lated. from figures of the tL.S. Department of Interior, Office of Education. —————— [171] The Facts for Individual States To what extent does the conclusion stated just above hold true for individual states? An answer to this question may be obtained {, each state by consulting Tables 3 and 4. 7 3 estimates the yearly income of each state jp 1928 and compares it with the amoun: TABLE 3.—SCHOOL EXPENDITURES AND INCOME BY STATES IN 1928 ex. as to total national income is the estimate of the National Bureau of Economic Research. This total was Pe the states of the union on the bases of the most reliable indices available. Receipts for tax-supported Expended for | universities, Total cost of Index of pubtic colleges; and | public schools, Estimated Percent school | percentage elementary expenditures elementary, income cost is of relationship and secondary | for tax sup- | secondary, and 1928 income of school costs schools ported teacher- collegiate to income training institutions I 2 3 4 5 6 7 United States. ..... $2, 184,336,638) $264,296, 923/$2, 448,633,561) $89,419,000, 000 2.74 100.0 Alabama. . 20,195 ,693 4,344,973 24,540,666 894,190,000 2.74 100.0 cctccccakas 8,308,734 1,862,411 10,171,145 277,198,900 3.67 133.9 Arkansas. 14,147,283 1,799,026 15,946 , 309 625 ,933 ,000 2.55 93.1 California... aa 144, 243,237 13,925,831 158 | 169/068 4,864, 393 ,600 3.25 118.6 Catmade.......... 24,865 ,072 3 2 28,855,704 876,306, 200 3.29 120.1 Connecticut........ 33,081,759 2,099,897 35,181,656 1,430, 704,000 2.46 89.8 pO See 3,278,738 819,933 4,098 ,671 14,605 ,600 1.91 69.7 District of Columbia 11,594,043 346 ,083 11,940,126 670,642,500 1.78 65.0 I tho dsa asi 30, 460, 813 3,040,046 33,500,859 581 ‘223,500 5.76 210.2 acess sownns 17,763,241 3,393,010 21,156,251 1,207, 156,500 1.75 63.9 ee 10,457,109 2,138,496 12,595 ,605 312,966,500 4.02 146.7 Illinois. . 147, 268,954 10,290,224 157,559,178 6,921,030, 600 2.28 83.2 NG od aniie aga 71,108,982 8,958,498 80, , 480 2,038 , 753,200 3.93 143.4 Di Axrhbierwesees 49,812,389 11,633,984 61,446,373 1,609 , 542,000 3.82 139.4 Py he ckeaeses 42,908 , 395 6,423,348 49,331,743 1,162,447, "000 4.24 154.7 Mamta. ...6c00 22,517,495 5,074,438 27,591,933 1,207, 156,500 2.29 83.6 —— rer 21,689,011 3,496,407 25,185,418 965,725,200 2.61 95.3 ess os 5 ks 10, 843 ,613 1,776,520 12,620,133 652,758,700 1.93 70.4 Maryland. 21,672,063 5,607 ,918 27,279,981 1,385 ,994, 500 1.97 71.9 Massachusetts...... ° ,816 3,346,664 86 , 547 ,480 4,685 ,555 ,600 1.85 67.5 ee 109,313,771 18,372,620 127 ,686, 391 3, 254,851,600 3.92 143.1 49,595 ,509 10,643 , 786 60,239,295 1,698 , 961 ,000 3.55 129.6 18,162,198 Hr 22,928, 806 581,223,500 3.94 143.8 52,795,170 5,514,464 58, ,634 2,369 ,603 , 500 2.46 89.38 13,004,923 1,852,141 14,857 ,064 375,559, 800 3.96 144.5 Nebraska........ ’ 26,897,792 4,929,725 31,827,517 804,771,000 3.95 144.2 Se 2,296,534 680, 276 2,976,810 89,419,000: 3.33 121.5 New Hampshire 6,736,965 1,863,103 8,600, 068 402,385, 500 2.14 78.1 New Jersey........ 105 ,018, 108 5,148,025 110, 166, 133 3,442,631, 500 3.20 116.8 New Mexico. ...... 5,283,846 2,004,346 7,288,192 214,605 ,600 3.40 124.1 301,212, 11,034,416 312,246,466) 14,780,960, 700 2.11 77.0 North Carolina... .. 38,990,052 8,057,1 47,047,191 1,073,028 ,000 4.38 159.9 Dakota...... 15,549,062 3,092,1 18,641, 304,624,600 6.13 223.7 Ny 140,139,457 12,759,591 152,899,048 5,007 , 464,000} 3.05 111.3 cahpbaes &% 29,358,677 7,148,947 36,507,624) 1,117,737,500 3.27 119.3 as nica 660.40 19,988,549 4,283,583 24,272,132 733,235,800 3.31 120.8 ine a 177,441,493 10,582,446 188,023,939] 8,530,572,600 2.20 80.3 Rhode Island....... 12,688,611 840,152 13,528,763 715,352,000 1.89 69.0 th Carolina..... 15,812,645 3,700,254 19,512,899 616,991,100 3.16 115.3 South Dakota...... 14,928,546 2,632,671 17,561,217 304,024,600 5.78 210.9 Tennessee. . 22,768,369 4,138, 26,906,480) 1 , 202,300 2.57 93.8 regen. d¢airns-4 sti 65,917,564 12,767, 78,684,784) 3,067,071,700 2.57 93.8 eae 10,678,498 1,543, 12,222,188 312,966, 500 3.91 142.7 Vv 079 ,837 938, ,018,651 268 , 257 ,000 2.24 81.8 Es 6 wes ov secs 22,478,887 8,342, 30,821,350} 1,180,330,800 2.61 95.3 ashington........ 2,546, 6,228, 38,774,376) 1,385,994,500 2.80 102.2 West Virginia...... 25,774,628 4,357, 30,132,107 938 ,899 , 500 3.21 117.2 I 5. Shiv dew Wan le 10,737, 59,077,788 002 , 985 ,600 2.95 107.7 _ (SR 6,121,109 968 , 51 7,089 ,619 214,605 ,600 3.30 120.4 rion table thus: In 1928 the income of California is estimated to been $4,864,393,600. Expenditures for public and schools in California in 1928 were oe ee 243, 3237; = —— colleges, etc., California expends $13, 925, 13,925 851; making a total of $158,169,068 expended for all public school ornia, or 3.25 percent of the total income of that state. In the nation as a whole, the corresponding percent was m4 Percy If this last Lag is given the value 100 as in column 7, the percent for California ( (3.25) has the Aas 5 118.6. Similarly interpret fi or other states. Sources of data: Figures of columns 2, 3, and 4 from U. S. of the I eee o Education, Bulletin 1929, By 14 and 38, and be pres 1930, No. 5. The total cost of public education ven in column 4 omits, because of lack of data, expenditures of a. for example, iestivetions for the deaf, ind, and feeble-minded, etc. Also note ae figures representing the collegiate costs are receipts rather than expenditures. ‘In this Bulletin these figures —_ treated as expenditures. [172] tage ship l costg OMe schools pended for public schools. compares the percent of the wealth of the state represented by the value of school property. For example, the total expenditure for all pub- in Alabama 540.666 and its income for the same year is TABLE 4.—VALUE OF PUBLIC SCHOOL in 1928 was Table 4 similarly ~ > 24,- 1928 estimated at $56,673,027, whereas the PROPERTY AND WEALTH BY STATES total income. estimated at $894,190,000. bill in 1928 was, therefore, 2.74 percent of its Table 4 similarly compares the total wealth with school wealth. In Alabama in , the total value of all school property is Alabama's school value of IN 1928 | | | Value of public school Index of percentage property, elementary, | Wealth (value of all | Percent school prop- | relationship of value States | secon ary,andcol- | tangible property) erty is of wealth of school property to | legiate wealth 1 2 3 4 5 United States | $6 333,838,588 | $353,520,000,000! 1.79 100.00 Alabama....... apel 56,673,027 | 3,304,000 ,000 1.72 96.09 Arizona....... 22,819,335 1,568,000 , 000 1.46 | 81.56 \rkansas... ; 35 ,498 ,937 2 , 866 ,000 ,000 1.24 69.27 California...... | 438 785,990 16 973,000,000 2.59 144.69 Colorado..... é | 74,173,036 3,505 ,000, 000 2.12 118.44 Connecticut. ; 92,510,763 | 6,152,000,000 1.50 83.80 Delaware....... 12,554,642 722,000,000 1.74 97.21 District of Columbia 31,254,123 | 1 ,854,000,000 1.69 94.41 UL SR oF | 83,357,083 | 2,887 , 000,000 2.89 161.45 Ga os sdarne. ian xc | 60,490 , 346 4,421,000,000 1.37 76.54 | a 29,588, 468 1,818,000,000 | 1.63 91.06 oe ee : 422,226,464 24,276,000,000 | 1.74 97.21 Indiana........... 114,860,710 9 , 869,000, 000 1.16 } 64.80 = ee 144,742,335 | 11,352,000,000 | 1.28 71.51 oe ee 104,798,310 | 6,771,000,000 | 1.55 | 86. 59 | Kentucky........... 62,746,651 | 3,979 ,000,000 | 1.58 88.27 EMU oe ssi cess 69,927,103 | 3, 847,000,000 1.82 101.68 SS ae 34, 868 , 509 2,303,000,000 | 1.51 84.36 Maryland.. , 75,005,229 | 4,517,000,000 | 1.66 | 92.74 Massachusetts. . 252,996, 240 14,955,000, 000 1.69 94.41 ee 347,603,929 | 13, 223,000,000 | 2.63 146.93 Minnesota.......... 191,823,446 | 9,481,000, 000 2.02 112.85 Mississippi.......... 52,171,541 | 2,464, 000,000 2.12 118.44 Missouri....... bass 173,082,497 11, 261,000,000 1.54 86.03 PO 36,218,029 | 2,547,000,000 | 1.42 79.33 Nebraska........... 95,765,693 | 5,800,000 , 000 | 1.65 92.18 Nevada.. 7,288,244 568,000,000 | 1.28 71.51 New Hampshire. . 23 686,445 1,587,000 ,000 1.49 83.24 New Jersey........ 272'836.431 | 13.514,000,000 | 2.02 112.84 New Mexico........ 14,574,794 959 ,000 ,000 1.52 84.92 | | | a - 790,834,125 | 40,570,000,000 | 1.95 108.94 North Carolina........ 125,670,590 | 5, 396,000,000 | 2.33 130.17 North Dakota....... 51,653,105 | 2,576,000,000 | 2.01 112.29 DM sok 65 6 5.0:5°s 328 ,919 635 21,281,000,000 | 1.55 86.59 Oklahoma.......... 98 092, 103 4,261,000,000 | 2.30 128.49 a vee cecss ri 51,598,133 3,828 ,000 ,000 1.35 75.42 Pennsylivania............ 536, 230,738 32,610,000, 000 1.64 91.62 Rhode Island........... 32,340, 223 2,205 ,000 ,000 1.47 2.12 South Carolina......... 52,042,042 | 2,749 ,000 ,000 1.89 105.59 South Dakota.......... 45 403.767 | 3: 401,000,000 1.34 74.86 Tennessee. . 43,046,029 | 4,930,000,000 | 87 48.60 See 230,183,913 | 10, 898,000,000 | “2.0 117.88 Utah... 32/518.486 | 1:757,000,000 | 1.85 103. 35 , Seep eear 14,985,956 | 943,000,000 | 1.59 88.83 , ee 86,133,843 | 5 637,000,000 | 1.53 | 85.47 Washington............ 98 , 406 041 | 5, 704,000,000 | 1.73 96.65 West Virginia.......... 81,582,866 | 5 , 348 ,000 ,000 1.53 85.47 . NG 178,741,376 | 8,923 ,000 ,000 2.00 111.73 Wyoming... .. 20,527,267 | 1,160,000,000 | 1.77 98.88 | i Read table thus: In 1928 the value of all tangible property in Alabama is estimated to have been $3,304,000,000. The value of public school buildings, elementary, secondary, and collegiate, in Alabama in 1928 was $56,673,027 or 1.72 percent of the value of all tangible property. In the nation as a whole, the corresponding percent was 1.79. If this last percent is given the value 100, as in column 5, then the percent for Alabama (1.72) has the value 96.09. Similarly interpret data for = states. Sources of data: The figures of column 2 are from the U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1929, Nos. 14 and 38, and Bulletin 1930, No. 5. Board as given in The Conference Board Bulletin, February 25, 1930. 1 Excludes $6,542,000,000 which consists of (1) value of ships belonging to the United States Navy, Figures as to wealth are estimates of the National Industrial Conference (2) value of privately-owned waterworks, and (3) value of gold and silver coin and bullion, not distributed by states. [173] all property in the state was $3,304,000,000. For each $100 worth of tangible property in Alabama there is $1.72 invested in public school property. One may conclude, therefore, that a minor fraction of Alabama’s income and wealth is invested in public schools. Tables 3 and 4 offer a basis whereby the in- vestment in education of each state may be viewed in relation to its economic resources. In studying these figures it is well to have in mind that whether a state spends a large or a small percent of its income for schools is of little significance in itself. One cannot condemn with too much vigor the shallow thinking back of the conclusion that a state should be com- mended simply because it spends a small percent or a large percent of its income for education. Clear thinking on this whole problem should begin with the realization that expenditures for education are an investment. When this money is properly invested its effect is, like other good investments, to increase rather than to decrease the income of a community. Those who contend that the effect of school expenditures is to re- duce the total amount of income which we have to expend, have little support for their viewpoint, either in economic theory or reliable facts. A broad vision of the influence of good education suggests that instead of constituting an economic loss, money expended for good schools partakes both of the nature of sound investment and of insurance protection. Such expenditure is an investment in that it lays the intellectual foundation upon which an efficient economic system must be based. I gnor- ant citizens make neither good producers nor good consumers. The economic superiority of the United States and the high standard of liv- ing which we are able to maintain are the re- sult of efficient organization, intelligent co- operation by the rank and file of workers, and the use of labor-saving machinery. Each of these is dependent upon the maintenance of a high general level of social intelligence, which is one of the products of an efficient system of education. Viewed in this light, money spent for educa- tion is an investment of the highest order. Our yearly national income now approaches ninety billion dollars. That this income is ninety bil- lions, rather than fifty or sixty billions, is very largely due to human factors, special capabili- ties possessed by the nation’s citizenry, which [174] are the result of such agencies as good schools. These qualities have not been developed in , day or a decade. To the extent that they are an outcome of schooling, they are the produc of many decades. The creation of a superior culture in any direction is the work of man generations. The nation since its beginning has maintained educational facilities so that an jn- creasing percent of the population might have opportunities to develop its potentialities. ‘| he truit of this devotion to education is now being harvested. Our annual investment in schools is now about two and one-half billion dollars. Due to the special aptitudes which the schools have as- sisted in capitalizing, our income has been in- creased by ten, twenty, or more billions a year. If the schools have had even a small share in discovering and developing these special apti- tudes, the investment made in them has been an exceedingly profitable one. This conceptien of the place of schools and education in our economic system emphasizes the importance of protecting our human assets. It suggests that we look upon expenditures for education as payments to a depreciation or in- uni surance fund which it is the sheerest folly to abl neglect. The special human aptitudes which are is principally responsible for the economic posi- shc tion of the United States are of a perishable cal rather than a permanent quality. This all-im- sal portant asset may be lost in one generation. de Were it not for education, our whole complex So civilization would disappear and we would re- we turn to savagery. To be sure, savagery is not ed the only alternative to our present highly or- ganized civilization. We could return to the level of economic efficiency obtaining before 1900. But most of us would prefer not to do this. We would prefer to maintain recent gains and to advance still further. To do this we must maintain and improve our human as- sets. This can be done only by keeping our edu- cational facilities in first-class condition. It is important, therefore, that the schools of today be not merely good schools, but very good schools. Anything less is likely to mean a de- preciation in those human factors—those hu- man assets—which are the prepotent cause of the advance of the United States to a position of economic leadership. Money expended for good schools by a state, therefore, rather than constituting an economic also men! pro} to | soul stat sho Is € stat im] tior lett tio! Th al loss, represents a most excellent investment. It also represents a replacement or insurance pay- ment, which protects from depreciation our most valuable assets. It is in the light of these considerations that the tables of this Bulletin should be examined. Does an analysis of the figures presented indi- cate that your state looks upon the maintenance of first-rate schools as a matter of major sig- nificance? Or, does the proportion of your state’s income devoted to educational support indicate that this function is considered a minor project ? Has every reasonable effort been made to place the financing of your schools on a sound basis? Or, are some features of your state school system less effective than they should be, due to inadequate financial support ? [s education receiving as large a share of your state’s expenditures for public purposes as its importance justifies? It is in considering ques- tions such as these that the tables of this Bul- letin will be suggestive. The tables are so arranged that a state’s posi- tion may be compared with that of other states. This arrangement does not mean to imply that uniformity among the states is necessarily desir- able in the items with which the tables deal. It is probably highly desirable that some states should invest a higher percent of income in edu- cation than others. This will certainly be neces- sary or some states will offer their children a decidedly inferior Some states have from five to six times as much wealth and income behind each child to be educated as others. This means that the less wealthy states choose between two alternatives : 1. Offer their children educational opportu- nities decidedly inferior to those which some states offer. 2. Allot a higher percent of income to school support—that is, accept relatively high tax rates for schools. It is of increasing importance that the less wealthy states choose the latter course. In our early history a state’s natural resources were the principal factors determining its economic posi- tion. Its supply of natural resources determined its wealth. This is becoming less and less true. Human resources are rapidly replacing natural educational opportunity. must resources as the prepotent factor in determin A state resources can compensate by build- ing a state’s economic status. poor as to natural ing up an efficient citizenry. A state’s natural resources cannot be increased, its human re sources can. And an efficient school system is the agency which can do most to bring about the changes in a state’s citizenry which mean progress. Hence variation in the percent of income de- voted to school support is to be expected. There is no particular amount or percent of income which can be suggested as the desirable one for a state to allot to education. It is of the greatest importance that every state shall constantly examine its school system in order to remove weak spots and to bring it to the highest possible point of efficiency.’ Neither cost nor other obstacles should be al- lowed to prevent achievement of this result. If it can be attained with a low tax rate, well and good. If high tax rates and real sacrifice are necessary they should be accepted. ‘The cost of poor schools in the long run is likely to be far greater than the cost of good schools. The ques- tion should not be: Can we afford good schools? Rather it should be: Can we afford not to have good schools? If a state really believes that education is a function of major importance it will see that early in the process of budgeting its income for various purposes, both public and private, suf- ficient financial support is allotted to schools. This will mean the rebuilding of the fiscal sys- tem in many states. It may be necessary to re- place an obsolete, unfair scheme for raising revenue by one which is up to date and equit- able. But this is not an insuperable thing to ac- complish. It has already been accomplished by some states. If difficulty is encountered in your state in securing the revenue necessary to desirable edu- cational organization, is it due to lack of re- sources to tax, to an obsolete and inefficient method of financing public services, or to a lack of willingness to pay the price? In short, does your state look upon education as a matter of first importance or of minor importance? 1 Norton, John K. Ability of the States to Support Education, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. 4 States will find the following references helpful in this co nection:—"A Self-survey Plan for State School Systems—Part 1:Checklists,”” and “Part II: Handbook". Research Bulletin 8: March and May, 1930. National Education Association, Washing- ton, D.C. [175] A Rt A me ay ee Or = es Sin pe aeons ose FN i COO Se i Oe OE How Do Expenditures for Public Schools Compare with Certain Other Expenditures? A comparison of school expenditures and the value of school property with the amount of in- come and wealth in the United States reveals that a minor fraction of our economic power and capital is invested in education. What are some of the other important bills which the nation is paying annually and how do these compare with the bill for the support of public schools ? This question can be answered by com- paring the nation’s school expenditure with ex- penditures for certain other purposes. The Cost of Life Insurance The nation’s bill for life insurance in 1928 was $3,145,584,000. This figure may be com- pared with $2,448,633,561 expended for public schools of all types—elementary, secondary, and collegiate. The nation’s annual bill for life insurance is, therefore, considerably larger than that paid for public education. Out of every $100 which we have to spend, we pay $2.74 for public schools and $3.52 for life insurance premiums. In making this comparison there thought of depreciating the importance of |ife insurance. Through life insurance we purchase a form of protection that is indispensable + millions of families. It constitutes one of the important forms of saving and invest which many people make. The fact that there were 28,136,515 ordinary life and 85,843,734 industrial life insurance policies in force in 1928, and that these policies protected the lives of the nation’s people to the amount of $°5 205,000,000 calls for optimism. These fig indicate increasing thrift on the part of ¢! nation’s citizens. But however highly we rate the service ren dered to the nation by the life insurance busi- ness, the question may be raised whether it any more important than that rendered by the service of public education. The fact is that we invest considerably more in life insurance than in public education. > CHART III IMPORTANT BILLS PAID ANNUALLY IN THE UNITED STATES Sesearckh Division, National Education Ass'n Calculations based on the followi cation for school costs; the luxuries; F.W. of Commerce and. American A omewei &S Spectator Co. Dodge Corporation for com See, buliding eaneuaenet: ; of Interior, Office of Fdu- Life Insurance ; for [176] | wal DL i tae IB ma. For each $1.00 expended for public schools, we spend $1.28 for life insurance. Does this fact indicate that we invest a larger part of the nation’s income in public schools than their im- portance justifies? The Bill for Building Construction The nation’s expenditures for buildings, homes and other structures in 1928 was $7,- 065,000,000. This is three times the $2,448,- 633,561 expended for public education in the same year. In making this comparison the desire is not to depreciate the importance of substantial in- vestments in building construction. A well-con- structed home, building, or factory is service- able for many years. Expenditures for such structures, when wisely made, constitute an im- portant permanent investment. It would be folly to allow this portion of the nation’s wealth to deteriorate. Such deterioration can be prevented only by making substantial ex- penditures to replace worn-out or out-of-date structures with modern ones. The close rela- tion under our present economic organization of building operations to general prosperity is also recognized. But in accepting these important and easily understood facts, let us not overlook the even more fundamental truth that the value of our human resources far exceeds that of our build- ings. The total value of all buildings in the United States is, at the present time, probably something less than $120,000,000,000. To pro- tect and enhance this investment we are spend- ing something over seven billion dollars a year for building construction. The total value of human resources of the United States has been roughly estimated at $1,500,000,000,000.? To protect and enhance the portion of this asset represented by our intellectual resources we spend $2,500,000,000 for public education. Let us not forget that the resources of a nation which exist in the form of knowledge and in- telligence are extremely perishable. Willford King, the well-known economist, emphasizes this fact as follows: Some of the most expensive and important forms of saving are not tangible but consist of such things as accumulated scientific knowledge and the train- ing of the human mind. Savings of the last-men- tioned variety are extremely perishable, since they are constantly being lost through the death of the persons possessing the education.* Public education is the principal whereby we protect the extremely valuable and highly perishable human assets of the types de- scribed in the foregoing quotation. In the light of these facts the investment of two and one- half billion dollars to protect our intellectual assets seems reasonable when compared with an investment of seven billion dollars a year for the protection of capital existing in the form means of buildings. For every $1.00 we invest in public educa- tion, we invest $2.89 in building construction. Does this fact indicate that the investment in public education is greater than we are able to afford? What the States Invest in Life Insurance and Building Construction The facts in the preceding paragraphs show that the nation as a whole invests considerably larger sums in life insurance and building con- struction than in public education. Facts simi- lar to those presented for the nation as a whole are given for individual states in Table 5. The relation of the investments for life insurance and education varies considerably in different states. For example, the expenditure which Illinois and West Virginia make for public education is but 39 percent as much as these states pay for life insurance. For each $1.00 in- vested for public education in these states, more than $2.50 is invested in life insurance. ‘The sparsely settled states of the west generally show a relationship in the other direction. The situation in these states may be due to the fact that the cost per pupil to educate a child is relatively high in sparsely settled communities, that these states undervalue life insurance, that they protect their future through other means, or to the existence of other special situations. Table 5 also gives figures showing the invest- ment in building construction by states. The ratio of the investment in education to that in building construction again varies widely. States like New York and Illinois spend five times as much annually in the construction of new buildings as is invested in public educa- ! This figure is an estimate of the F. W. Dodge Corporation as given in the Graphic Review, Supplement Fourth Quarter, 1928 January, 1929. * This figure is an estimate by Louis I. Dublin as given in Health and Wealth, p. 6. * Willford I. King," The Net Volume of Saving in the United States,’’ American Statistical Association Journal, 1922, p. 307. [177] ANCE, AND BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IN 1928 (School building expenditures included in building costs) TABLE 5.—THE STATES’ ANNUAL BILLS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LIFE INSuUp. Percent Index of percentag: Cost of public Percent cost of relationship of scho education, cost of schools is expenditures to elementary, Expenditures | schools is} Expenditures | of expen- | _ elitsincmene States secondary, and | for life insur- | ofexpendi-| for building | ditures for collegiate in ance in 1928 tures for construction building | Payments | Expendi- 1928 life insur- construc- for life tures for ance tion imsurance | building construc- I 2 3 4 5 6 7 United States......... $2,448 ,633 ,561/$3, 145,584,000 77.84 |$7,065,000,000 34.66 100.00 SI os Saaiccae 24,540,666 28 939,373 84.80 82, ,400 29.57 108.94 0 er 10,171,145 4,718,376) 215.56 15 ,241,300* 66.73 276.93 ae 15,946, 309 16,042,478 .40 43,164,500 36.94 127.70 OE 158, 169,068 153,819,058; 102.83 249,232 ,600* 63.46 132.10 Rak osc tcaeaen 28,855,704 25,164,672} 114.67 30,439 ,000* 94.80 147.32 Connecticut.......... 35,181,656 51,273,019 68.62 119,124,100 29.53 88.16 Delaware............ 4,098,671 8,807 ,635 46.54 12,128,100 33.79 59.79 District of Columbia 11,940,126 21,075,413 56.65 73,730,300 16.19 72.78 Gs « dvdiet bia via 33,500,859 25,793,789) 129.88 72,261,600 46.36 166. 86 IN x sig.'o ios ood 21,156,251 43,094,501 49.09 76,119,400 27.79 63.07 SS ee 12,595,605 6,291,168) 200.21 15,241 ,300* 82.64 257.21 ca. ay cae x aero 157,559,178 407 ,667 ,686 38.65 843 , 259 ,600 18.68 49.65 RR Lita aco a Sinte uin 80,067 , 480 75,808,574) 105.62 134,931,000 59.34 135.69 EE fic ed'oo ddan Meee 61,446,373 72,662,990 84.56 59,730,400 102.87 108 .63 Te ee oa ou 49,331,743 29,883,048) 165.08 53 ,638 ,300 91.97 212.08 MMC... wccicvcs 27,591,933 40,263,475 68.53 62,916,500 43.85 88.04 SS 25,185,418 28,624,814 87.98 50,993 ,000 49.39 113.03 eR 12,620,133 19,188,062 65.77 23,489,700 53.73 84.49 Gn ove wesc aia 27,279,981 49,700,227 54.89 100,112,200 27.25 70.52 Massachusetts........ 86,547,480 130,541,736 66.30 255 ,838 , 800 33.83 85.17 bee nsaian 127,686,391 101,602,363) 125.67 325 ,587 ,000 39.22 161.45 Minnesota........... 60, 239,295 60,395,213 .74 54,917,600 109.69 128.13 Mississippi........... 22,928 , 806 14,784,245) 155.09 35 ,609 , 700 64.39 199.24 TE 58,309 ,634 91,851,053 63.48 224,026,400 26.03 81.55 anaes «0 tice des 14,857 ,064 9,436,752) 157.44 17,948 ,900* 82.77 202.26 Nebraska............ 31,827,517 21,704,530) 146.64 37,510,500 84.85 188.39 SES RR 2,976,810 1,258,234| 236.59 1,572,200*| 189.34 303.94 + sad Hampshire...... 8,600 ,068 11,324,102 75.94 50,118,300 17.16 97.56 0 110, 166, 133 134,945,554 81.64 65 ,948 ,600 30.10 104.88 iNew exico. 7,288,1 2,831,026) 257.44 7,686, 200* 94.82 330.73 he 312,246,466 393,512,558 79.35 1,523,534,100 20.49 101.94 North Carolina. ...... 47,047,191 44,981,851) 104.59 1,471,300 46.37 134,37 i SRMOED. .. 6 cces 18,641,250 8,493,077| 219.49 10,412,100 179.03 281.98 516 = Sa 152,899 048 296 ,943 , 130) 51.49 5,269,600 33.13 66.15 Oklahoma. . 36,507 ,624 32,084,957) 113.78 100 , 307 , 200 36.40 146.17 Ee SN 24,272,132 20,446,296) 118.71 33,539 ,600* 72.37 152.51 208. Pennsylvania......... 281,215,210 66. 86 602 ,330,300 31.22 85.89 . Rhode Island......... 26,737 ,464 50.60 35,131,600 38.51 65.01 S 20,131,738 96.93 31,929,200 61.11 124.52 8,493,077| 206.77 7,272,700 241.47 265.63 696 ° 69.54 66,377,300 40.54 89.34 53,789,486) 146.28 231,408 , 800 34.00 187.92 7,549,402) 161.90 11,966,000*| 102.14 207.99 294 9,436,752 63.78 11,878,500 50.67 81.94 36 , 803 , 333 83.75 110,287,500 27.95 107.59 38,690,683) 100.22 46,946, 700* 82.59 128.75 238. 77,381 , 366 38.94 39,148,100 76.97 50. 222. 57,564,187) 102.63 163 ,372 ,800 36.16 131.85 : 3,145,584) 225.38 6,900,100*| 102.75 289.54 296. *Estimated Read bee thus: In 1928 there was 24.505 666 paid as life insurance premiums in the state of Alabama. Expendi- oo, for = lic elementary, collegiate schools in Alabama in 1928 were 84.80 percent as much as was paid for li ppctenane in that state. In the nation as a whole, expenditures for public schools were 77.84 percent of the amount — or life premiums. If this last percent is given the value 100, as in column 7, then the percent for (84.80) has the value 7. 94, Sei meneeee 7% for other columns and other states. ta: The of column 2 are from the U phi pn Cade or, Office of Education, Bulletin 1929, Nos. 14 and 38, and n 1930, No. 5. ng collegiate costs are receipts rather than expenditures. tures for these institutions are not availa Flgtres a8 to as - 10 life insurance are from Insurance Yearbook, 1929. The tor Co. of column $ are from The Gra pe see oer Fourth, geomery. 1929. The figures given as to cost of eneomnmnenes the Uni Geel apestepeaoeen al buildings, which is approximately $400,000,000 a 8 vose tee public elementary, and secondary schools. The percent which the cost of public education is of the cost of Iding construction will be slightly Gaeveneed if the cost of school buildings is deducted from construction cost of all pe a pe | — — — [178] on. In all but seven states the amount ex- ments in life insurance, buildin ssire nended for buildings is larger than that ex- and public education indicate that too much ended for schools. ph sis 1s é acead upon th eau { f Do the figures for your state as to invest your children TABLE 6.—THE STATES’ ANNUAL BILLS FOR SCHOOLS AND PASSENGER AUTO- MOBILES IN 1928 Index of percentage Cost of public schools Expenditures Percent cost of schools! relationship of school States elementary, secondary, for passenger is of expenditures for | cost to expenditures and collegiate in 1928 | automobiles in 1928 passenger for passenger automobiles automobiles 1 2 j 4 United States ; $2,448 633,561 $12,500,000, 000 19.59 100.00 \labama.... : 24,540,666 132,769,600 18.48 94.33 \rizona..... es 10,171,145 50,082,500 20.31 103.68 Arkansas... 15,946,309 102,114, 200 15.62 » 73 California... .. ae 158,169,068 949 , 762,800 16.65 84 900 Colorado...... F 28,855,704 150,673,300 19.15 ) Connecticut... 7" 35,181,656 159,953,600 21.99 112.25 Delaware ‘ 4,098 ,671 23,854,300 17.18 8 0 District of Columbia 11,940,126 67,832,500 17.60 89 84 Florida...... iad 33,500,859 171,685,900 19.51 99 59 Georgia..... ee 21,156,251 158,467,400 13.35 68.15 oS Pere ° ‘ 12,595,605 54,695,700 23.03 117.56 Illinois. ... . 157,559,178 783,985,200 20.10 102.60 Indiana..... : aiaes ; 80,067 , 480 407 637,500 19.64 100.26 - ae 61,446,373 379,582,100 16.19 8? 64 Kansas..... — ; ; 49 331,743 268 , 360, 800 18.38 93.82 Kentucky......... 27,591,933 154,768,400 17.83 91.02 Louisiana... .. ed 25,185,418 126,336,600 19.94 101.79 Maine...... ; 12,620,133 81,788,200 15.43 8.76 Maryland... ' ial 27,279,981 160,559, 200 16.99 86.73 Massachusetts........... 86 , 547 ,480 385 ,635 ,100 22.44 114.55 NSS Sov socesncee eed 127,686,391 628 ,963 , 300 20.30 103.62 ee ere 60, 239, 295 333,861,000 18.04 92.09 Mississippi........ ae 22,928,806 119,158,100 19,24 98.21 Missouri...... patach Sal 58, 309 ,634 366,798, 200 15.90 81.16 Montana... Pe Ae dre ol 14,857,064 60, 480, 000 24.57 125.42 Nebraska..... barca « 31,827,517 203,091,600 15.67 99 Nevada..... . 2,976,810 12,844,600 13.18 118.33 New Hampshire 8,600 , 068 51,796,000 16.60 84.74 New Jersey..... _ 110,166,133 384,423,800 8 66 146.30 New Mexico...... 7,288,192 36 , 489 ,600 19.97 101.94 New York . 312,246,466 1,079.320,200 8.93 147.68 North Carolina. 47,047,191 } 236,620,600 19.88 101.48 North Dakota... | 18,641,250 85,613,100 21.77 114.13 SP adeks s 6 o ‘ 152,899,048 846,935, 800 18.05 ‘ 14 Oklahoma..... 36,507,624 | 265,204, 100 13.77 0.29 v7 a SIN, csc cece 24,272,132 130,660,700 18.58 4.84 Pennsylvania.... why 188 023,939 848 540,700 22.16 113.12 Rhode Island ; 13,528,763 64,911,300 0.84 06.38 South Carolina cane 19,512,899 108 , 746, 300 17.94 91.58 South Dakota.. re 17,561,217 96 , 867 , 800 18.13 ' 5 Tennessee. .... : 26,906,480 166,973,500 16.11 8 4 (Se ae , 78,684,784 602,109, 100 13.07 6¢ a ee er ree 12,222,188 48 330,900 5.29 129.10 an a cteate 6,018,651 46 , 839, 800 12.95 65.59 ee ‘ 30,821,350 174,315,700 17.68 90.25 Washington...., ‘ ; 38,774,376 200,933,600 19.30 8 5 Ween WERMMIG. 2... ccc cess 30,132,107 124,780,600 24.15 123.28 Wisconsin 7 — 59,077,788 375,433,800 15.74 a0) 3 Wyoming. : a aN 7,089,619 28.411.300 4.95 { 36 Read table thus: In 1928 the expenditures for passenger automobiles in Alabama are estimated to have been $132,769,600 Expenditures for public schools—elementary, secondary, and collegiate—in Alabama during this same pe 1 were $24,540,666 or 18.48 percent as much as was expended for passenger automobiles. In the nation as a wl { ! ponding percent was 19.59. If this last percent is given the value 100.00 as in column 5, then the percent! (18.48) has the value 94.33. Similarly interpret data for other states Sour ces of data: Figures of column 2 from U. S. Dept. of Interior, Office of Education, Bulletins 1929, Nos, i4 and 38, and Bulletin 1930, No. 5. Figures representing collegiate cost are receipts rather than expenditures. Expenditures for these institutions are not available. Figures as to expenditures for passenger automobiles are estimates based principal on figures from The National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, R. L. Polk and Co. and Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Bulletin 91, August 28, 1929. Figuresinclude the cost of operation and maintenance, a lepreciatior | for all passenger automobiles. {179 ] The Cost of Automobiles Some look upon the automobile as a necessity of life; others cali it a luxury. Both viewpoints are justified in some instances. Much of the money which we spend for passenger automo- biles deserves to be considered as a wise invest- ment. Some of it verges on extravagance, and we would be better off without it. But whatever allocation we may make of automobile expenditures under the heads of necessities or luxuries, who would say that it is more important to make full provision for all possible passenger automobile needs than for our educational needs? Yet we are spending several times more each year for automobiles than for all public schools. In 1928 there were 21,379,125 passenger automobiles in operation in the United States. We own 77 percent of all the automobiles of the world. Excluding motor trucks from consideration, we expended in 1928 approximately $12,500,000,000 for the purchase, operation, and upkeep of passenger automobiles. The public school bill represents an invest- ment of $2.74 out of each $100 of income; the passenger automobile bill claims $13.98 out of each $100 of income. Do these facts indicate that public school expenditures represent an over-valuation of the importance of education? Automobile Costs by States Table 6 gives an approximate estimate by states of the expenditures for passenger auto- mobiles in 1928 in such form that they may be readily compared with the cost of public schools. For example, in 1928 Texas expended $602,109,100 for passenger automobiles. The total amount expended by this state for public education—elementary, secondary, and col- legiate—during this same year was $78,- 684,784. In other words, for every $1.00 spent for public education of all types Texas spends $7.65 for passenger automobiles. The facts show that the various states in the Union are expending from four to seven times as much for passenger automobiles as for pub- lic schools. Do the figures as to the cost of automobiles and the cost of schools in your state indicate that too much money is being spent for edu- cation? Billions for Luxuries Another major national bill is that annual}; paid for luxuries. There is given below an ap- proximate estimate of the expenditures of the nation for five groups of articles in the luxury class. Although the figure given far from rep. resents the total expenditure of the nation for all types of luxuries, the bill is a sizable one. ee ee er re $2,141,220,000 Soft drinks, ice cream, candy, and Silks hepeeesdae neces 1,850,240,000 Theaters, movies, and similar amuse- WN: Sei c ce Si cceeecccsccrccsccces 1,082,790,00 Jewelry, perfumes, and cosmetics.... 827,740,000 Sporting goods, toys, etc............. 499,660,000 ia cdnedin ed ceiwews $6,401,650,000 In presenting these figures, it is not implied that one should limit himself wholly to the necessities of life. Modern economic organiza- tion makes it possible to produce not only an adequate supply of the necessities of life, but also a generous quantity of nonessentials. Only the most austere would decry the consumption of a reasonable amount of nonessentials. Ac- knowledgement of these truths is quite a dif- ferent matter, however, from being willing to give luxuries preference over essentials in the spending of our income. In developing the policy of the nation with reference to the budgeting of its income, who would call it wise to limit the provision made for the education of children in order that we might continue to increase our expenditures for such items as candy, chewing gum, tobacco, and theater at- tendance? Our luxury bill far exceeds that for all pub- lic schools. If we had the total bill for al! articles and amusements in the luxury class, it would probably be not less than four or five times what we expend for public schools. For the limited list of articles and amusements listed above, we expend $6,401,650,000 each year while all public schools are allotted $2,- 448,633,561. For every $1.00 spent for schools, $2.61 is spent for candy, chewing gum, theaters, and similar items. Do these facts indicate that we overvalue education—that we invest more in the education of our children than we can afford? Various criticisms have been made of the [ 180] 6 wereweres iter eK ES ee o!UCUC«w TABLE 7.—THE STATES’ ANNUAL BILL FOR CERTAIN LUXURIES IN 1928 1u | in ar | Index of . | } Percent percent f the ; | : Estimated cost of | relation- he Soft drinks, | Theaters, | Jewelry, Sporting total expendi-| schools | ship of uXury States Tobacco | icecream, | movies, and | perfumes, goods, | turesfor | is of school _— candy, and | similar and toys, etc. | luxuries expendi-| costs to b ) rep- chewing gum | amusements cosmetics | (Columns tures for) cost of | } | 2 to 6 certain certain Nn tor | | luxuries | luxuries ne, — —_—|-—————— | | | : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2() - _—— ’ | United States... $2,141,220,000| $1,850,240,000/$1 ,082,790,000/$827,740,000 $499,660,000'$6,401,650,000' 38.25 |100.00 LO Ajlabama....... 17 , 986, 248) 15,542,016 9,095,436) 6,953,016) 4, 197, 144| 53,773,860) 45.64 |119.32 | Arizona.......- 6, 209 , 538) 5,365 ,696 3,140,091) 2,400,446) 1,449,014) 18,564,785) 54.79 (143.24 | Arkansas....... 13,917,930) 12,026,560 7,038,135) 5,380,310) 3,247,790) 41,610,725 38.32 |100.18 i) California...... 130,186,176} 112,494,592) 65,833,632) 50,326,592) 30,379,328] 389,220,320) 40.64 |106.25 } ’ | Colorado....... 19,270,980) 16,652,160 9,745,110) 7,449,660 4,496, 940) 57,614,850) 50.08 |130.93 ’ { f Connecticut... . 33,831,276 29,233,792 17,108,082) 13,078,292; 7,894,628) 101,146,070) 34.78 | 90.93 0,000 Delaware....... 3,854, 196 3,330,432 1,949,022} 1,489,932| 899,388} 11,522,970) 35.57 | 92.99 ia Dist. of Colum. . 16,701,516 14,431,872 8,445,762) 6,456,372 3,897 , 348) 49 932,870 23.91 62.51 | re 15, 202 ,662 13,136,704 7,687,809) 5,876,954 3,547,586) 45,451,715 73.71 |192.71 ° 0,00 | Georgia. «oo 25,052,274, 21,647,808) 12,668,643} 9,684,558] 5,846,022} 74,899,305) 28.25 | 73.86 pT ee eee 6,851,904 5,920, 768) 3,464,928 2,648, 768) 1.598.912! 20,485,280) 61.49 |160.76 lied HMO. 2 ccs 180,933,090} 156,345,280} 91,495,755) 69,944,030) 42,221,270) 540,939,425) 29.13 | 76.16 | Be ceds ces 51,817,524) 44,775,808 26,203,518) 20,031,308) 12,091,772 154,919,930 51.68 (135.11 the | a SG 47,106,840} 40,705,280) 23,821,380] 18,210,280) 10,992,520) 140,836,300) 43.63 |114.07 > oS ere 27,835 , 860 24,053,120 14,076,270) 10,760,620 6,495, 580) 83,221,450) 59.28 |154.98 11Za- | Kentucky...... 23,767,542 20,537 ,664 12,018,969 9,187,914] 5,546,226 71,058,315) 38.83 |101.52 r an Louisiana....... 22,054,566 19,057,472 11,152,737] 8,525,722} 5,146,498) 65,936,995 38.20 | 99.87 } . wk acess 12,204,954 10,546, 368 6,171,903 4,718,118 2,848 ,062 36,489,405 34.59 90.43 ut | Maryland......| 29,548,836] 25,533,312| 14,942,502] 11,422,812| 6,895,308} 88,342,770) 30.88 | 80.73 nly Massachusetts .. 104,705 ,658 90 , 476,736 52,948,431 on 24,433,374) 313,040,685 27.65 72.29 +i Michigan....... 84,149,946 72,714,432 42,553,647) 32,530,182) 19,636,638) 251,584,845 50.75 |132.68 on Minnesota...... 43,680,888} 37,744,896) 22,088,916] 16,885,896) 10,193,064) 130,593,660) 46.13 |120.60 Ac- Mississippi... . . 11,348, 466 9,806,272 5,738,787| 4,387,022) 2,648,198) 33,928,745| 67.58 |176.68 ary Missouri.......| 62,951,868) 54,397,056| 31,834,026) 24,335,556) 14,690,004) 188,208,510) 30.98 | 80.99 dif- Montana....... tans | 8,141,056 4,764,276 5,642,056) 2,198,504 28,167,260; 52.75 (137.91 r to Nebraska....... 24,838,152! 21,462,784 12,560,364 9,601, 784! 5,796,056 74,259,140) 42.86 |112.05 ' ae 2,141,220) 1,850, 240 1,082,790 827,740) 499 , 660) 6,401,650) 46.50 |121.57 the New Hampshire. 7,708 , 392) 6,660, 864 3,898,044) 2,979,864) 1,798,776 23,045,940) 37.32 | 97.57 New Jersey..... 70,446,138 60,872 , 896 35,623,791] 27,232,646) 16,438,814 210,614,285) 52.31 |136.76 the New Mexico.... 3,640,074) 3,145,408 1,840,743) 1,407,158) 849,422 10,882,805) 66.97 j175 08 | the New York...... 363,793,278) 314,355,776 183 , 966 ,021/140 633,026 84,892, 234/1,087,640,335| 28.71 75.06 os North Carolina . 22,054, 566) 19,057,472 11,152,737| 8,525,722 5,146,498 65 ,936,995 71.35 |186.54 Ise North Dakota .. 8,779,002) 7,585,984 4,439,439) 3,393,734) 2,048,606 26,246,765} 71.02 {185.67 CR ailaks650-< 128,473,200} 111,014,400 64,967,400) 49,664,400) 29,979,600) 384,099,000) 39.81 |104.08 Oklahoma...... 22,696 ,932 19,612,544 11,477,574) 8,774,044) 5,296,396 67,857,490; 53.80 |140.65 } oo o,983. 00! 17,207 , 232 10,069 ,947 7,697 ,982 4,646,838 59,535,345 40.77 |106.59 Pennsylvania. . . 192,067,434) 165,966,528) 97,126,263) 74,248,278) 44,819,502) 574,228,005 32.74 | 85.59 Rhode Island. . . 13,917,930} 12,026,560 7,038,135} 5,380,310) 3,247,790) 41,610,725) 32.51 | 84.99 at- South Carolina. . 13,061,442 11,286,464 6,605,019) 5,049,214 3,047,926 39,050,065) 49.97 (130.64 South Dakota... 10,920, 222 9,436,224 § ,§22,229 4,221,474 2,548, 266 32,648,415 53.79 |140.63 Tennessee...... 23,981, 664| 20,722,688) 12,127,248} 9,270,688 5,596,192 71,698,480) 37.53 | 98.12 | ib- eae 65 , 307 , 210) 56,432,320) 33,025,095) 25,246,070) 15,239,630 195,250,325; 40.30 |105.36 : CO 7,922,514! 6, 845 , 888) 4,006,323) 3,062,638 1,848,742 23,686,105) 51.60 |134.90 il] Vermont....... 4,924, 806 4,255,552) 2,490,417; 1,903,802} 1,149,218] 14,723,795} 40.88 |106.88 , Vs bt scccs 25,694,640 22,202, 880) 12,993, 480} 9,932,880) 5,995,920) 76,819, 800) 40.12 |104,.89 } | | i Washington..... 33,188,910 28, 678,720) 16,783,245| 12,829,970) 7,744,730) 99 ,225,575| 39.08 |102.17 ve West Virginia... 21,840,444) 18,872,448) 11,044,458) 8,442,948 5,096, 532| 65,296,830) 46.15 |120.65 ; Wisconsin. ..... 48,819,816) 42,185,472 24,687,612) 18,872,472| 11,392,248] 145,957,620) 40.48 |105.83 or Wyoming....... 4,496,562) 3,885 , 504) ® 273,859) 1,738,254) 1,049,286) 13,443,465) 52.74 |137 88 } ts ——— mwa h | Read table thus: In 1928 the expenditure for tobacco in Alabama is estimated to have been $17,986,248; expenditures for ’ soft drinks, ice cream, candy, and chewing gum are estimated to have been $15,542,016; etc. The total expenditures for the above luxuries in Alabama are estimated to have been $53,773,860 in 1928. Expenditures for public schools in Ala- bama were 45.64 percent of this amount. In the nation as a whole, the corresponding percent was 38.25. If this last if percent is given the value of 100.00 as in column 9, then the percent for Alabama (45.64) has the value 119.32. Similarly ] interpret data for other states. Sources of data: The figures given for the United States are estimates based principally on figures of the U. S. Treas- e ury Department. The total national expenditure for these articles was distributed among the states on the basis of an average of the percentage of the national totals of the following items found in each state: Value of tangible wealth, average annual nt income, taxes paid in connection with admission to theaters, and taxes paid in connection with the purchaSe of jewelry. The 7 amounts given for each state should be looked upon as approximations rather than exact estimates. The fact that the taxes collected on luxuries are in many cases paid at the place of manufacture rather than at the place of purchase, makes it im- possible to estimate exactly the amount expended in each state for each item in the luxury list given above. [181 J practice of comparing the nation’s bill for lux- uries with that for public schools. It has been properly pointed out that there is no economic legerdemain whereby humans trained for, and factories built for the production of luxuries, can be overnight converted into teachers and schoolhouses. The presentation of figures com- paring school costs and luxury expenditures represents no rejection of this or other sound principles of economic theory. When one witnesses the tremendous amount of money which is expended for cheap com- mercialized amusement and compares these sums with the amount expended for education, the time has come to raise some question as to the choices the American people are making. It seems pertinent to ask, would it not be a wise decision if the American people during the com- ing decades should spend less than the facts reveal we are spending for wasteful and luxuri- ous purposes, and more for the type of educa- tion which results in the appreciation of the higher, permanent, and frequently less expen- sive forms of pleasure and recreation ? The schools are the most effective means thus far discovered for influencing such a decision. Whether that influence will be weak or power- ful will to a large degree depend upon the financial support received by these schools. An educational system employing cheap teachers with little education and culture, housed in buildings which are an affront to beauty, work- ing with obsolete equipment cannot expect to compete with the glitter of modern commercial- ized recreation. Higher appreciations than those upon which most commercial amusement depends cannot be created by schools which are stupid and uninteresting. Teachers capable of transmitting true refinement cannot be em- ployed for wages comparable to those paid com- mon laborers. School buildings which set an ex- ample of beauty cannot be erected without pay- ing the price for architectural services, labor, and building materials. Yet that is what some of the critics of school costsseem toexpect. In return for financial support measured in cents, they ex- pect the schools to do work which dollars alone will finance. When the impossible is not accom- plished they would cut down even the cents allowed. It cannot be done this way. The in- fluence of the school in promoting social prog- ress will never be what it should until its de- velopment is based upon a far more adequate [ 182] plan for financing public education than tha now in effect. The school’s contribution w;! fall short of what it might be until it is able :, compete in the open market on equal terms with other great national interests for the sery. ices of a fair share of the most capable people as well as for the other prerequisites to the maintenance of modern schools in the best sense of the term. These facts need to be kept in mind by the intelligent voters in every state, by legislators, by boards of education, and by all who influence or determine the financial support received by public schools. If they allow themselves to be swayed by the short-sighted counsel of profes- sional tax reductionists, the result will be ox- cart schools in an aeroplane civilization. ‘lhe schools will lag far behind social progress and will influence its direction little or not at all. If on the other hand, the proper support of pubic education is made a matter of primary concern, there is justification for expecting pub- lic schools to wield a significant influence in determining the tastes of our people and in in- fluencing the trends of our development. [n- calculable are the dividends which come to a nation from investments in the right kind of public schools. But a prerequisite to the right kind of schools is adequate financial support. amo Uni sup] nati how tota larg stat mu: I gen tot 192 are sun 00C mel the The Luxury Bill in Each State Table 7 gives an approximate estimate of the expenditures of each of the states for a number of articles in the luxury class. The ratio be- tween the expenditures for schools and for lux- uries varies in different states, but there is not a state which does not expend more for the five classes of luxuries listed than it does for the education of its children. For example, Cali- fornia expends $389,220,320 for the luxury items listed in Table 7. The total bill for public education in the same state in 1928 was $153,- 169,068. For each $1.00 which California ex- pends for public schools, it expends $2.46 for tobacco, soft drinks, theaters and the other items listed in Table 7. What do similar figures for your state show? Does a comparison of the annual bill for luxuries in your state with that expended for public schools indicate that too large an amount is being invested in the education of your chil- dren? This Item? Some who are inclined to be critical of the amount invested in public education in the United support requires but a minor fraction of the States readily accept the fact that school nation’s wealth and income. They point out, however, that school costs are but a part of the total tax bill and contend that this bill is too large. Continuing from this conclusion, they state that the expenditures for all public service must be reduced, education among them. Before considering the justification of this The tax collections in the United States in general viewpoint, let us look at the facts. total 1928, the last year for which complete figures What Part of the Nation’s Income is Devoted to the Payment of Taxes and How Does the United States Compare with Other Nations on civilization, spend nearly twice as large a per- cent of their income for public purposes as does the United States. While the United States spends approximately 10 percent of its income, Great Britain expends 22 percent; Ge Italy, 18 percent; cent ; or approximately twice that of the United ‘rmany, 20 percent ; France, 17 per- States in each case.? The disparity between the effort required by the United States and by other countries to support their public activities is even greater than these figures indicate. A man with a yearly income of $5,000 is able to pay 5 percent of his with less effort than a man income for taxes . - . . . . 2 tod are available, were $9,289,000,000.2 Of this with an income of $1,000. In the first case the U ~ - . sum the federal government collected $3,194,- tax payment probably requires little personal lary ey . ae ‘ ; ow 000,000 or 34.4 percent; the state govern- sacrifice, that is, reduction in the consumption 1D . r . ein ments, $1,465,000,000 or 15.8 percent; and of necessary food, clothing, and shelter. The on the municipal, county, and various other local payment of such a tax by the man of small in- as TOV ¢. ( 2 —— ‘ “f ° ° ; In- a aa ¥4,630,000,000 he" 49.8 percent. come may involve such sacrifice, since his in- le nation’s inco vas $8° 9 0 i . . to a 1928 F d ‘” _ ae $8 41 000,000 in come is close to the level of subsistence. ; 40. Federal tax collections is 7 mr —_ . . . . 1 of Be ections in this year, The United States in comparison with other therefore, constituted 3.6 percent; state tax ack ws ; ght : countries is in the position of a ri h man. Our collections, 1.6 percent, and local tax collec- Bs al 3 : : ‘ vearly per capita income and our accumulated tions, 5.2 percent of our income. A summation ~ i are ay ‘ ; er countries is in the position of a rich man. Our of these percents indicates that total tax col- T! ly j mae . . Ts . country. The yearly income per person in the lections in the United States in 1928 were 10.4 United i 6 ti F : ve . ° . ‘a /nited States 1: oS times that o sreat the percent of our national income. See Table 8. tig? ; : Pp aed Britain which ranks second. The income per ber I capita in the United States is more than three De- Mi M — a aa — United States times that of such countries as France and Ger- uX- an t 1 rr . . me Samearees many. The per capita wealth, that is, the value 7 No major country in the civilized world, of tangible property in the United States is 7 for which figures are available, spends as smal] | ™ore than twice that of any nation in the world li- a percentage of its income for taxes as does the except Great Britain, and is appreciably larger mt United States. The average percent of income Per capita in the United States than in the lat- lic collected for taxes in the other countries of the ter country. These facts suggest that the effort A - world, for which figures are available, is 18.4 involved in the support of public enterprises a percent. The principal nations of the world in the United States is considerably less than "a comparable to the United States as to level of in other countries. er ee es ‘ Tax collect!ons and public expenditures are used synonymously in this Bulietin. It shold be held in mind, however, that the amount collected in taxes in a given year may differ from the amount expended for public purposes in the same year. This may be due to the fact that more or less money is collected than is expended in the year concerned. It is a frequent practice in calcu- ; lating public expenditures to give gross figures, which results in counting some public expenditures twice, in that expen ditt “s or financed by borrowing are charged ‘whe n they are made and also when bonds or li cams are redeemed. For this reason, tax collec- r tions are preferred to gross expenditures as an indication of the cost of government. wap the war period the large amount of ) borrowing made gross governmental expenditures far exceed tax collections, The twoare now approaching equivalence. In 1927, t gross governmental expenditures by federal, state, and local governments were $12.189.900.000. incituding $1,519 100,000 for debt redemption and $1,470,200,000 for interest. If these latter items are omitted, the net expenditure for all public purposes is reduced ]. to $9,200,500,000, which approximates the total tax collections of the same year, which amounted to $9,059,000,000 * For a discussion of certain f actors involve United States and Other Countries.’ 1 in compiring taxation in different Journal of the National Education Ass [ 183 ] Norton, John K. 195, June, 1928. “ountries see: “Taxes in the ciation 17: Whereas other countries expend approxi- mately 18 cents out of every dollar for the support of public enterprises, the United States votes 10 cents out of every dollar for public purposes. Do these facts indicate that the por- tion of income expended in the United States for public purposes is more than the nation can afford? Income, Wealth, and Tax Collectio States Table 8 gives figures by states as 1 amount of income and taxes collected i: state. The figures indicate a smaller rat tween tax collections and income in pract every state in the Union than is found in civilized countries of the world. In stu CHART IV | United States Great Briteun 122. O77) | Germany ZO), | 72) Norway 120.02, Australia 18.4 7, Italy | 18.2%) Hungary 18.0%) Austria 17.3%) France 17.1 7% PERCENT OF NATIONAL INCOME EXPENDED fer ALL PUBLIC PURPOSES |} ‘ Sesearch Qwision, National Ldiwation Ass | Figures for foreign countries from 2% Gteracy Digest, April 26,1930, plS and the | Annals of the American Academy of Political aad Soctal, Science, November ,1927,p.40; | those for the United. States based on figures of National Industrial Conference board | and, National Bureau of Economic Research. [ 184] —=a5 |® Ons by to the In eact itio be Ctically nN othe udying CHARTS V and VI ESTIMATED INCOME PER CAPITA UNITED STATES 4 OTHER. NATIONS United States KEZE2Z.. OND Great. Britain Belgium Germany | France Italy Japan esearch Qicnsion, National Fdtweation, Assi Calculations based on figures of the National Industrial Conference Board and. the World Almanac. ESTIMATED WEALTH PER CAPITA UNITED STATES 4 OTHER NATIONS | United. States ESTE. 5$€CC Ci yypyyzssysszsSi99 Great Britain France | Belgium Germany | Japan | Italy Research Quiswoa, National. Fducation Assh. Calculations based on figures of the National Industrial Conference Board , National Bureau. of Economic Research, and. the World. Almanac. [ 185] this table it is important that one have in mind the peculiar situation as regards federal taxes in the United States. It is impossible to trace accurately the true incidence of these taxes. For example, many large corporations, doing business in practically every state in the Union, pay their federal taxes in one state, in many instances, New York. Although these taxes are collected in New York, they only in a slight de- gree represent a burden upon the citizens of that state. The taxes collected in New York by the federal government from a _ national corporation are really paid by the people throughout the forty-eight states who purchase the commodities which this corporation dis- tributes. Or let us take another example: In the state of North Carolina the federal gov- ernment collected in 1928 tobacco taxes to the amount of approximately $204,000,000. This amount does not represent a tax burden upon the people of North Carolina. Every time a person buys a package of cigarettes, a box of cigars, or other tobacco products, in any one of the forty-eight states, he pays a part of this tax through the stamp which is attached. In short, the fact that the federal government collects taxes within a state does not mean that the real burden of these taxes rests within that state. This fact needs to be held in mind in study- ing the figures of Table 8 as to the ratio of in- come to taxes collected in the various states. Column 7 showing the ratio of federal taxes collected to income is of little practical value in indicating the tax burden involved in any particular state. For example: Federal taxes are collected in North Carolina to the amount of one-fifth the total income of this state. As pointed out above, however, most of the to- bacco taxes collected in North Carolina are paid by the tobacco consumers throughout the forty-eight states. The figures in column 8 give a better , ture of the ratio of income to taxes col! It should be held in mind, however, tha percentages of column 8 represent an wu: statement of the tax burden in each sta the amount of the federal taxes whic! be properly apportioned to each state. ‘] ‘is at present, however, no reliable method fo; determining just what this apportionment should be. Column 7 of Table § shows that for the nation as a whole federal tax col! tions represent 3.57 percent of income. |: unlikely, however, that this average would ply to each of the states. a} Wealth and Taxes Collected in the United States Table 9 gives figures whereby the taxes col- lected in the various states may be compared with the estimated wealth of these states Wealth as explained earlier in this Bulletin re fers to the value of all tangible property suc! as land, buildings, and other physical property. All taxes collected in the United States in 1928 constituted a sum which was 2.62 percent of the estimated value of the wealth of the nation The estimate of the wealth of the various states given in this table in most cases is con- siderably above the value of “taxable” property in the state. The difference is due to the fact that property is assessed below its real value in many states, that some of it escapes assessment due to faulty taxation machinery, that some forms of property are legally exempted from taxation, and to other causes. It will be of interest to compare the total value of tangible property in your state as given in this table with the total value of all property as assessed for taxation. JN GENERAL, the expansion of the school system is something more than a heap- ing up of costs. It is a growth at once in extension and intensity. The numbers reached at are much larger than before; greatly improved. These factors go far to explain why the public pays for its schools so much more than it did thirty-five years ago.—National Industrial Conference Board, The Conference Board Bulletin, September, 1927, p. 71. the quality of what is offered them has [ 186 ] ne on ee eal he a aa 2 oe one oe es = a a we ae a ry ry aA” TAT eee TABLE 8.—-INCOME AND TAXES COLLECTED IN THE STATES IN 1928 —_ — ———— —— ——— Percent | Percent | Taxes collected in 1928 by taxes taxes | collected! collected Estimated sasiilataiiiiariaiahai ee — is - \ by fed- iby local States income Total eral govt.|and state ‘ Federal State Local | is of jgovt. is | | government government government | income of in ome ma 1 2 3 4 6 § I Cre ted States i$89 419,000, 000'$3, 194,000, 000'$1 , 465,000, 000 $4,629, 845 ,000/$9, 288. 845.000 3.5 6 8? Tor a ee 894,190,000 19,930,560 20, 782, 406 31,317,000 72,029,966 3 5 83 iment Arizona éue 277,198,900 3,928,620 7,958 ,99 15,393,000 7 , 280,61 1.4 8.42 . ites Arkansas : 625 ,933 ,000 12,935,700 16,148,788" 22.080.000 51. 164.488 0 6 11 hae California. . . | 4,864,393,600 150,948,440 81,420,202 304,999 000 537.367.642 3 10 O4 en Colorado... ‘ 876, 306, 200 16,225,520 13,379,693 44,002,000 73,607,213 1.85 6.55 y Connecticut 1,430, 704,000 41,873,340 27,977,484 64,751,000 134,601,824 » 93 6 48 it Is Delaware , 214,605 ,600 21,112,340 7,341.298 5.096 ,000 33,549,638 0 84 5 20 . Dist. of Columbia 670,642,500 18, 844,600 7 , 307 , 000} 46,151,600 » 81 4.07 gd ap Florida.... 581,223,500 28,618,240 20,795 ,290* 8. 202.000 127.615.530 4 9? 17 03 Georgia 1,207 ,156,500 28 ,043,320 20,766,116 39, 809.000 88,618,436 » 32 5 02 Idaho ; 312,966,500 3,545,340 4,845,766 19,523,000 27.914.106 1.13 7.79 [llinois 6,921 ,030,600 244,788,160 70,524,724 307 ,691 ,000 623,003,884 3 54 5 46 h Indiana 2 038,753,200 47,494,780 33,013,333 124,569,000) 205,077,113 » 33 ; e€ lowa 1,609 , 542,000 22,549,640 29,570,654} 98 , 985 , 000} 151,105,294 1.40 7.99 Kansas 1,162,447 ,000 26,765,720 19,776,417 79,858,000 126,400, 137 » 30 8.57 Kentucky | 1,207,156,500 34,495,200 25 026,965 14, 384,000 103,906,165 > 86 5 75 5 co}- Louisiana. . re 965,725,200 22,389,940 22,026,503 47,203,000) 91,619,443 ». 32 7.17 Maine........ ‘awe 652,758,700} 11,690,040 13,851,838* 13,658 , 000} 49,199, 878 1 ) 5.75 Yared Maryland... 1,385,994, 500 37,114,280 16,727,408" 52,005 ,000 105 , 846,688 68 +.96 Massachusetts | 4,685,555,600 119, 806,940 45,120,632 233 , 969 ,000 398 , 896,572 » 56 5 96 tates : Michigan... . | 3,254,851,600 186, 210,200 78,642,774 132,092,000) 496,944,974 5 0 55 im re Minnesota | 1,698,961 ,000) 38, 839,040 42,968 , 390 109,125,000 190 , 932,430 ».29 8.95 1 Mississippi | §81, 223,500) 10,859,600 10,818,460* 46,229,000) 67 ,907 ,060 1.8 9 8? such Missouri 2,369 ,603 , 500) 78,061, 360 34,057 ,036 102,488 , 000} 214,606 , 396 3.29 5.76 erty Montana | 375 ,559 , 800) 6,100,540 6,163,345 24,424,000) 36,687 , 885 1.62 8 14 it | } 1928 POU. 6 ccc sccel 804,771,000) 11,849,740 17,132,22 56, 153,000) 85,134,964 1.47 9 11 - NGWMER. «64-20. 89,419, 000) 1,117,900 2,048,545 4,913,000} 8,079,445) 1.25 7.79 nt of New Hampshire 402 , 385 , $00) 5,908 , 900 7,312,706 18, 262,000} 31,483,606) 1.47 6.36 ' New jersey.... 3,442,631, 500] 117,730,840 74,874,418 226 , 333,000) 418,938,258) 3.42 8.75 | ‘tion New Mexico. . 214,605 , 600! 2,555,200 3,313,920* 7,408 , 000} 13,277,120) 1.19 5.00 | | rious New York we | 14,780,960,700| 769,306,840} 207,738,753) 745,605,000) 1,722,650,593) 5.20 6.45 ; North Carolina | 1,073,028,000 227,764,140 32,152,468 63,732,000} 323,648,608; 21.23 8.94 con- North Dakota.....} 304 ,024 , 600) 3,705 ,040 7,806 , 965 27 , 335,000} 38,847,005} 1.22 11.58 GEOssseas cece. 5,007 , 464, 000) 163,756, 380 35,401,087* 297 522, 000} 496 679,467 3.27 6.65 erty Oklahoma. . ge. cep 30,470,760 22,005 , 032! 68,715,000! 121,190,792) 2.73 8 12 fact a 733,235,800 9,901, 400 18,615,619 44,843,000 73,360,019 1.35 8 65 . Pennsylvania......| 8,530,572,600 279,506,940 120,599 628 328 016,000} 728.122.568| 3.28 5.26 ie in Rhode Island..... . | 715,352,000 17,279,540 9,650,028 23,675,000) 50,604 , 568 2.42 4.66 ae South Carolina. . 616,991,100 12,169;140 16,179,615 27,255,000} 55,603,755) 1.97 7.04 | nent South Dakota. ... 304,024, 600 3,896, 680 10,467,248 31,153,000 45,516,928} 1.28 | 13.69 | ’ | some Tennessee... .. 1,046 , 202, 300) 28 , 394,660 19 084, 848 43,787,000) 91, 266,508 ».71 6.01 from exas fenewns 3,067,071, 700} 69 ,820, 840 58,282,.919* 122,037 ,000} 250,140,759} 2.28 5.88 ; BEES 55 6 006.0 es 312 966 , 500) 5,972,780 8,483,791 14,723,000) 29,179,571 1.91 7.42 Vermont...... ‘ 268 , 257 ,000 3,800, 860 6,511,243 10,307,000} 20,619,103) 1.42 6.27 , | Virginia....... reeeagigees: 91,348, 400) 31,092,151 44,383 — 166,823,551 7.74 6.39 oO al | ; , a Washington. .... 1,385,994, 500} 19,291, 760} 29,873,241 61,804,000) 110,969,001} 1.39 6.61 1ven West Virginia..... 938 , 899 , 500} 22,900,980 18,705,303 49,097 , 000} 90,703,283; 2.44 7.22 Wisconsin....... .| 2,002,985, 600) 59,216,760 34,781,426 124,387,000} 218,385,186] 2.96 7.95 |} erty Wyoming....... RES.658 C0 3,162,060 3,182,303 9,241,000 15,585,363) 1.4 5.79 | * Independently estimated. Read table thus: In 1928 the income of Colorado is estimated to have been $876,206,200. In this state the taxes collected by the federal government during the same year were $16,225,520; by the state government, $13,379,693: by the local governments, $44,002,000; making a total of $73,607,213 taxes collected. The federal taxes in this state con- stitute a sum equal to 1.85 percent of the income of all the people of Colorado; state and local taxes constitute a sum equal to 6.55 percent. Similarly interpret data for other states. ——! Sources of data: Figures as to total national income is an estimate of the National Bureau of Economic Research This total was distributed among the states of the union on the basis of the most reliable indices available rhe total figures for the United States as to amount of taxes collected by the federal, state. and local governments, are those of the National Industrial Conference Board as given in Table 28, p. 64 of Cost of Government in the United States, 1927-28. Total federal taxes were distributed among the states on the basis of the percent of federal taxes collected in each state | as given in Table 38, p. 84-5 of Cost of Government in the United States, 1927-28. Figures as to taxes collected by State | governments in the various states are from United Sates Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census Figures as to amount of taxes collected by local governments in the various states are from Table 35, p. 77, of Cost of Government tn the United States, 1927-28 — : [ 187 ] ’ TABLE 9.—WEALTH AND TAXES COLLECTED IN THE STATES IN 19228 W Percent t Taxes collected in 1928 by: | collected | EE > mam aetna, | States Estimated Total Federal | Stat: Te b wealth govern- jand bs Federal State Local ment | gov: government government governments is of | ment (Vf wealth | is | we se Z ‘ 2 3 4 | 5 6 7 ‘ es U nited States an $353, 520,000,000! $3, 194,000 , 000 $1 465, "000, 000 $4, 629, 845, 000 $9, 288 845 , 000) 90 1 ot | Alabama........ 3,364,000 , 000 19,930,560 20,782,406 31,317,000 72,029,966) 60 1 m Rs ane Pe ae Le a fia Tats ” 7 re x x ] J 19d xe . ey} I } | . N O¢6l 2[[Ng_ pu RE 123s lapey Aq OOM l its } uud 105 }E s i; f ( S IZ t 6 th tt tet ¢ t SF Sl #8 OF wl €¢ 6l 62 6l st se Sst o8 It £9 cs £9 P07 OF I¢ $9 ¢F OL'Ztt RP 6% O8 Zt OL 6 SS RE 61 7 L9 OS®? 60 St 76 tt se O9T t 9% 09 OF 6¢ BL 78 Si 16 1 L9 60 ¢¢ SZ St FI StzZ el O¢ #7 OF 18 6Il 6L OF £6 St Le £6 76 Lt 96°7S et 0s rs tl LO 6F 99 07 et st SL°7¢t 6S OF 6 g Z SJUSUTIUIZAOZ [B90] sjyusuIUI9A03 yuowUIZAO3 pue ‘9}¥}s ‘|elepeg) [B20] pue 9}8IS [eiepeq JO SUOT}IET]OD XB} JO SI S[OOYIS JO 3809 JUIII0g } s I snsua-) jo nesing ‘s0J0ur ) JO JuauTyIedagq s 70M 74) Ut JuamsusaaZory fO {80} 50 S-bB “d ‘BE ZIQE] UI USAIS Se 9Ie}s 10] y Zol pajius) ayj ut quamusaao’) fo 380) 30 $9 “d ‘QZ a[qe] 909 SOX} J 1} SE SIILIS Pius, 2Y} 10} SoindyY [e102 ay] Iq 1% suo ) sa0ino0s J3y30 ) JO aa SI 31 ajqez siqy uy }0U o1e SU Mpusdxy etl SON 676! uoTeonpy jo 2yo weeded “Sf 030d 9AOB [Pe pue 93e18 3943 Aq par 109 r OSI SRE £87 ‘£0! 100 696 Iss ¢78'99T £Ol 619° 072 ILS 6L1° 62 6Sl ‘OFT OSZ 80S 997° 16 876 9IS St ssz‘¢0o's 89S ‘F090 89S '7Z1 '8ZL 610 O9¢ EL Z6L ‘O61 1Z L9Ob 619° 96F $00 Lb8 8 809 ‘SFO ‘EZ €6S‘OS9'ZZL‘T$ 9 JUSWIUIZAOS [eI0] pue ‘9383s ‘[elopeyg 7 2944 ut ut 7 nd 10} sainjipuedxy 996'670'Z $ j0 \ 000° 1#Z°6 zwst¢e 090 Z9I'¢ 000° L8£° FZ1 I8l ‘t¢E 091 9176S 000 ‘ L60° 6% “SOL SI 086 ‘00672 000° #08 ' 19 EL8 62 O9L*16Z' 61 ISt 760 Te €rz7'1tis'9 16L‘€8h'8 #616 ° 7878S 8r8 P80 6I OOF ‘SFE 16 098 ‘008 ‘¢ O8L°ZL6'°S OFS ‘078° 69 099 F6E ‘SZ 000 ' €8e ' FF | 000° L0¢ ‘OT 000° EZL‘ FT | 000° L£0° ZZ | 000° L8L° EF | } 000 EST TE | SbzZ' L9OF ‘OT 089 968 '¢ 000 °SSZ LZ S19 6LT'9T OFT 691 ZI 000 °SL9°€Z 870° 0S9'°6 OFS 6L7 LI 000'910'87¢€ | 879° 66S OZT 066 ' 90S ‘617 000‘ £8 FF 619'°St9'St 00F 106°6 000 *STL* 89 Z7£0 ‘S00 *7Z 09L‘OLF ‘OF 000 ‘77S " L67Z | #L80° 10’ S¢ O8e ‘9S EOI 000 ‘SEE LZ $96' 908° L OFO SOLE 000 °7EL°E9 gor 7ST ‘ze OFT POL LZZ 000‘ S09'SPL$ €SL‘SeL‘Loz7$ OFS‘ 90£ '69L$ § bt | £ yuouTUI9A03 quouTUI9A03 yuaurui9A02 [e207] 3381S | [eiepeg :Aq SZ6I Ul pe}2eT/09 sox¥y UUIN{OD 3 ay *S9}2E3S J9YIO 4 ay 619° 680 'L L10°6S Ot St ose 178 0 1s9‘SI0'9 SSI 7777 PSL F89' SL OS ‘906 ' 97 } LIZ‘ 19S‘ Lt | 668 ZIS 6! e9L'szs et 6£6'€£70' Sst TEL ZLZ bz $79‘ LOS ‘9E SFO 668 7ST OSZ*1#9'SI | 161‘ Lt0'LF 99P ‘OZ ‘Z1E$ | 8Z61 Ul 9}B1B9]]09 | pue ‘Arepuoses i ‘Areyuewela sNqnd jo 3809 | Jep JO S9dINOS Ajit [Mats B {JUSUIUIBAOS [eisapey 3 Aq SeXP} UI Pe Ie [OD 3383S VY} Ul JUBMIUIGAOZ [eapay yi Aq Saxe? YOS'OLG'6I$ SEM 1942 ‘SZGHT UI :SNY3 aIqQe? pray pezewnse Ajjuepued 11 « TOA M IISUOIST AY PIUIBIIA IS2A\ 1oyBUTYyse MA BIUIZITA JUCULIG A yea) ‘sexey vossouue y eORXeG YyINS tuTjOIe-) YINOS pues] spouy BIuUBA[ASUUGd uozIIg ****BpUIOyRTAO . oo "*Bj0ReQ YUON eulore) yVoN WIOA MAN (penurju0>)— 8761 NI SHLVLS AHL NI SLSOD IOOHDS AGNV SNOILDATIOO XVL— Ol HIAVL [191] CHART VII W PERCENT: PUBLIC + SCHQ@DL: COSTS | IN-THE+> VARIOUS: STATES -1S:OF TOTAL: TAX* COLLECTIONS: IN-1928 United, States ISSCREZEK WW Alabama Sr oT] Ari Zona ay4/-B Arkansas aT?) Califor Mia crete Coloraclo Cas Connecticut 7-5 Delaware Sens District, of Columbiz CE er Florida a.) Georgia, is Idaho nae ts Illinois CE Z Se i-xel S lowe. =x *~ | | oe. Be ares @/-A.'-8 ‘ geen | eh. fe) | @/.%.\-3 2.54.'-2 Mississippi hee Missouri raves Montana Cae Nebraska erase Nevada = New Hampshire aiare New Jersey =) em . New Mexico a8 New York North Carolina, North Dakota Ssearch Dinston, National Fducation, Ass in Calculations based. on figuces of the National Industrial Conference Board and the U.S. Department. of Interior , Office of Education. [192] a ear What Is the Trend as to the Percent of Income Represented by Expen- ditures for Public Schools? The answer te this question may be found in Table 1l. The figures in this table are the same as those previously cited except that school costs as given in column 4 include only public ele- mentary and secondary school expenditures. ‘he cost of publicly supported colleges is omit- ted since reliable figures for earlier years are not available on this item. Expenditures of col- leges constitute approximately 11 percent of the total bill for public education. This table re- veals that since 1922 the fraction of income expended for public education has remained practically stationary. It is a practice of some critics of the schools to condemn any increase in school expenditures irrespective of what the cause may be. Such an attitude is indefensible. To make the point plain, let us suppose, for example, that Mr. Ford and Mr. Sloan were confronted with the fact that the national bill for purchasing and operating passenger automobiles increased some fifteen fold between 1913 and 1929, rising from less than a billion in 1913 to twelve bil- lions in 1929. Suppose one were to say to these gentlemen : “This enormous increase is scandal- ous. It is going to bankrupt the nation. The fads and frills of the automobile industry must be done away with. Paint all automobiles black. Stop the unnecessary changes in body styles. Four brakes are an extravagance: two brakes will stop any automobile. The nearer an auto- mobile approximates an engine and four wheels the better. Fire your research men and your high salaried executives and get down to es- What Mr. Sloan say? sentials.”’ would Mr. Ford and They would say that the fifteen-fold increase in automobile costs was justified. They would point out that we had only 1,500,000 passenger automobiles in 1913, as compared with 23,- 000,000 today. They would tell us that steel and other basic industries depend upon the automotive industry for their prosperity. They would expand upon how essential the automo- bile is in modern life, both in business and rec- reation. As for the fads and frills, the body style changes, and all the rest, they would con- tend that these are but steps toward progress in automobile design. They would make no apology for the fact that for every dollar they took from the pockets of the American people in 1913, they now take fifteen dollars. They would conclude by telling of their plans for making the American people spend still more for automobiles in the future. And so let us conclude that a mere increase in the amount spent for a national service is not to be condemned in itself. The importance of the enterprise needs to be considered, the amount of service furnished needs to be known, and the causes of the increase have to be studied. These same principles apply to school costs. The nation’s school bill, like its bill for passen- ger automobiles, and for many other things, has increased since the war. This increase has been in response to legitimate causes. Let us recall that during the war nearly one TABLE 11.—INCOME, TAX COLLECTIONS, AND SCHOOL EXPENDITURES, 1922 TO 1928 ; rag | re | ; : Total tax Expenditures for Percent tax Percent public Percent public Estimated collections public elemen- collections is school expendi- , school expendi- Year national in the tary and second- of national tures is of na- | tures is of tax income United States ary schools | income tional income | collections I 2 3 = : on | i we 5 ‘ ; | 6 7 1922.. $65 925,000,000 | $7,502,000,000 | $1,580,671, 296 | 11.38 2.40 21.07 1923... 74, 337,000,000 7, 234,000,000 1,700, 707 ,616*| 9.73 2.29 23.51 ee 77,135 ,000,000 7, 812,000,000 1,820, 743,936 10.13 2.36 23.31 eee 81,931,000,000 7, 884,000,000 1,946,096,912 | 9.62 2.38 24.68 1926. . 85 ,548 ,000 ,000 8,605 ,000 ,000 2,026, 308,190 10.06 2.37 23.55 rn 88 , 205 ,000 , 000 9,059 ,000 , 000 2,105,322, 414*| 10.27 | 2.39 23.24 | 1928 TTT 89,419,000, 000 9, 289,000 , 000 2,184, 336,638 10.39 | 2.44 23.52 | ! *Estimated. | Willford I. King, The National Income and Its Purchasing Pow Source of data: Figures as to national income are estimates of the National Bureau of Economic Research as given in | of column 3 from Cost of Government in the United States, 1927-28, National Industrial Conference Board, p. 64. | of column 4 from various reports of the U. S. Dept. of Interior, Office of Education. Figures er, National Bureau of Economic Research, p. 74 Figures in every four of our young men was rejected for various physical disabilities, most of which competent physicians state could have been pre- vented by the right kind of health education and medical care. We also remember that a fourth of those called in the draft had had so little schooling that for all practical purposes they were illiterate. Having discovered these facts, the nation resolved to remove the de- ficiencies which the gross neglect of public schools in many communities had brought about, and to realize the solid returns which come from investing in efficient public schools. It has cost more money to be sure. It has cost more money first, because many more children are attending school. The increase in schoo) at- tendance alone justifies a doubling of public school costs over the pre-war level. Second, it has cost more money because the dollar n but 59 percent of its 1913 purchasing Consequently, it takes more dollars to a given amount of schooling, just as more money to buy a pound of meat or of clothes. These two legitimate and pable causes, larger attendance and loss ir chasing power of the dollar, alone accou most of the increase in school costs ove pre-war level. It is sometimes stated or implied that is some inherent merit in the expendit portions of our income for private purposs some peculiar demerit in expending p of this income for public purposes. This tude has no sound basis in economic thx There are two fundamental criteria in the of which should be examined every claim CHART VIII | 9.627) 1926 10.062, 1927 10.227) 1928 | 10.39% PERCENT OF NATIONAL INCOME PAID FOR TAXES Seesearch Division, National. Fducation Assn. Based. on figures of National Industrial, Conference Board and. National Bureaw of Economic Research. [194] * , private, for a share of the total income. [hese are: 1. Does this article or service contribute to increase happiness and general welfare of individuals a ind of the community as a whole? > Ie the cost of this article or service no larger an is necessary for its efficient provision? These tests apply both to private and public tivities. For example, we do not hesitate to forbid private industry to manufacture and dis- tribute for other than medical purposes such harmful drugs as cocaine. The state prohibits or limits the production of any commodity o1 service which is inimical to the public welfare. Likewise, the state does not hesitate to regu- late the amount of money which may be col- lected in connection with the production of a commodity or the furnishing of a service. The 1 amount tl the railroads may charge for the service which they render the Late d. important coun Ihe rates which utilities may ] ‘ : ‘ ] controled. Companies are prevented from charging , stment and more than their inve efficient operation justifies, These principles apply with no less force to public activities. No public activity that cannot justify its worth under the test of contributing lfare should be } h] by taxation. Nor is the obligation of to individual and general we supported efficient operation of public activities any less than holds in the case of private activities Every honest effort to appraise critically the character and worthwhileness of these things which are paid for from the public purse is to be commended. Every constructive effort which is made to increase the efficiency of the opera tion of public enterprises is to be supported. CHART IX 1922 2.407 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 PERCENT OF NATIONAL INCOME EXPENDED for PUBLIC ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHQ@DLS Sesearch. Division, National. Fdtication Assh L_ Based. on figures of UL.S. Department of interior, Office of Education and National Bureau of Economic Research . [195] These principles, however, are either con- sciously or unconsciously rejected in many of the discussions issued by those anxious to starve the schools. We hear talk about reducing the amount of school expenditures in order that more money will be available for “productive” industry. What is really meant is—let us deny children a fair chance in life in order that the next quarterly dividend may be swollen. No industry, public or private, is more productive than an efficient school system. The attitude which looks upon school expenditures as a so- cial loss, and school taxes as a necessary evil, has no justification except when the schools fail to function efficiently. When the latter is the case the remedy is to take the steps, which are open to every voting citizen in order that the situa- tion may be corrected. These considerations are pertinent to a study of the figures of this section. The United is a growing nation. This fact, as well as t ditional consideration that public interes: necessary a re-allotment of income fro: to time, will result in changes in the per income invested for a particular purp these changes occur they need to be ap; in the light of the criteria which hav: stated above. The mere fact that the ; of income expended for schools, for aut biles, for insurance or for any other pu has changed, means nothing in itself. Th tion is, is the increase justified? Does vance the welfare of the people of the | States? Since 1922 the nation’s income and s costs have increased at approximately the rate. Does this fact indicate that we have CHART X 1922 21.07% 1923 25.51 7) 1924 PXISEA I 1925 124.687) 1926 123. 55% 1927 23. 247, 1928 125, 527) PERCENTAGE OF ALL TAX COLLECTIONS INTHE UNITED STATES EXPENDED FOR PUBLIC ELEMENTARY & SECONDARY SCHOOLS Research Dursiwan, National Education Assh Calculations based. on figures of the U.S. Department of Interior, Office of Education and the National Industrial, Conference Board. [ 196 ] TA! placing too high a value on education in the Pp ar decade? How Does the Increase in Public School Costs Compare With the Increase in Other Important Items? Table 12 gives estimates which answer this question. The costs of public elementary and secondary schools have increased 38.2 percent." During the same period national income has increased 35.6 percent. The annual investment in building construction has increased 48.7 pet cent, payments to life insurance companies have increased 86.6 percent, and expenditures for passenger automobiles have increased 80 per cent. Do these facts indicate that the nation is in vesting too much for the education of its chil- dren? Figures are not available as to the increase of collegiate costs during the same period. They have probably been somewhat more rapid than the expenditures for the lower schools. But since the expenditures for higher education constitute but a small fraction of total expenditures for public education, this factor did not greatly affect the figure given as to the percentage increase n school costs. TABLE 12.—AMOUNT AND PERCENT OF INCREASE OF CERTAIN ITEMS IN THE UNITED STATES—1922-1928 Items Percent increase 1 Public school costs (elementary and secondary) National income....... Life insurance yearly premiums ; ; $1,580,671,296 | $2,184,336 65 925,000,000 | 89,419,000 ,686,000,000 | 3,145,584 ,638 ,000 64 ,000 57 000 74 19 , 750,000,000 7,065 ,000 Expenditures for building construction. ... | .950,000,000 | 12,500,000 Purchase and operation of passenger automobiles ,000 The figures given in this table are based upon the most reliable sources of information available, as cited i: tables in this Bulletin. PERCENT INCREASE IN SCHQ@DL COSTS AND OTHER IMPORTANT ITEMS, 19221928 Public School Costs Passenger Automobiles 19.862 Sescarch Dives AMNatoonal Lut Calculations based. on the most reliable sources of information available [ 197] a a Etgtee ae a we ade se Dee-. ritllallln dvds wre St Si ey LPNS oe gers appre eee er ane peng” Good Schools Pay Their Own Way The purpose of this Bulletin is to provide material for answering two questions concern- ing current expenditures for education. First, can the nation afford to pay the price of good schools? Second, are the results obtained through education worth the money expended ? The first of these questions was considered in the preceding section. The facts presented in- dicate that the United States can afford to offer every child a first-class educational opportu- nity. Granted, then, the economic ability to pro- vide good schools, the question is whether edu- cation is worth its price. How, and to what ex- tent, does education pay back the investments made in it? What place in its scale of values should a great nation assign to the education of its children? Of what value is the public school to America? In attacking such a problem as this it is necessary to recognize at the outset that the most important contributions of education are intangible and as yet not subject to objective and statistical demonstration. To illustrate, the public high school in Rochester, Minnesota, about half a century ago gave four years of general training to Charles Horace Mayo. At public expense Charles Mayo was prepared to enter college and to bring his unusual talents to their fruition in medical school. Today he is chief of the staff of one of the most famous hospitals in the world. His skill, both directly and indirectly, has prolonged thousands of human lives, relieved suffering, and substituted useful and productive life for tragic less and waste. It probably cost the State of Minnesota and the city of Rochester about $500 to give four years of high-school training to Charles Mayo. Has the investment yielded one hundred, five hun- dred, or a thousand times its original amount? No one can say, because the services of the skilled physician are not measurable in terms of dollars and cents. Suppose Charles Mayo had not been given high-school education ; sup- pose that he had never entered medical school nor taken up the practice of medicine, what would be the loss to the people of the nation? Again, no one can predict what might have happened. But everyone will certainly agree that money thus invested brings in dividends which are none the less real and important be- cause they extend beyond mere arith: calculation. If the entire public school had to be operated merely to educate hundred great leaders in science, art, and manship, it would be worth its cost. T! way to be sure that the contributions of great mind are not lost to the world f of education is to offer educational op; nity to everyone. This is what the American free public school system attempts to do. Public schools are not, however, maintained solely to educate a few great leaders, altho the work of the schools could well be . nomically justified on this score alone. Schools serve everyone. The butcher, the baker, the , liceman, the street car conductor, the farmer the day laborer are all in large part a product of their education. Through these people, ea rendering his own small service to the commu nity, the schools contribute to the welfare of us all just as surely as through the more spe tacular achievements of some great statesmar scientist, philosopher, or teacher. What does it profit a man to live in an educated and literate community ? What price shall we set on our thousand daily contacts with decent, cleanly, literate, responsible people? No one can esti- mate the worth of these things, but life itself would certainly be worth but little without them. General education has done much, even in a few generations, to lift the level of human relationships and to accelerate cultural prog ress. Without an educated public to work with, even the more brilliant and highly-trained leaders are relatively helpless. Charles Mayo could not have rendered his great services to the people of the thirteenth century even had he possessed twentieth century skill. Herbert Hoover expressed the contribution of educa- tion to civilized life in these words: “If we were to suppress our educational system for a single generation the equipment would decay, the most of our people would die of starvation, and intellectually and spiritually we would slip back four thousand years in human prog- ress.” America perceives that maximum advan tage comes from educating not merely the few great minds but the great mass of her people as well. The answer to the question as to whether education is worth its price, therefore, must [ 198 ] ymmu- are < spec sman loes It terate Nn our panly, 1 esti- itself thout even uman prog- with, ained avo es to had rbert luca- f we for a cay, tion, ould rog- van- few Oop le ther nust ight in large part in terms of imponder ible values. Various approaches to the ques tion might be used. In this bulletin the prob lem will be considered in terms which closely parallel the themes to be used in the observance American Education Week, November 10- 16. 1930. We shall approach the question of how good schools pay their own way in con- tributions to American life by considering these seven questions : 1. How do the schools contribute to the enrichment of human life? How do the schools promote patriotism and world understanding ? What did the schools of yesterday contribute to America’s development? +. What is the schools? What will the schools of tomorrow mean to day-by-day contribution of the America? How have the schools contributed to individual achievement and happiness? How have the schools contributed to American national life, prosperity, and culture? 1. How Do the Schools Contribute to the Enrichment of Human Life? The gift of the machine age to America is a degree of leisure time which has never been en- joyed by any nation or people before. The growth of the five-day week is but one of the striking indications of the spread of leisure. Table 13 shows the spread of this idea between 1926 and 1928. Both capital and labor predict its extensive adoption in this country by 1940. Clapp, Frank L., Chase, Wayland J., and Merriman, Curtis 45-6. Those wh attempt to interpret the (Amer! scene may take either one of two characteristic views of this and other evidences of the increase in leisure. Those with a pessimistic outlook re gard the extra hours as a threat. They assert that the great mass of relatively uneducated men and women do not understand how they can wisely utilize their spare time. It is de- clared that the mob falls prey to various forms of undesirable and commercialized entertain- ment and that therefore the general standard of culture is lowered. The remedy proposed is the limiting of cultural opportunities to the few who, it is said, are ready to appreciate them. This is no new viewpoint. Such pessimism is the philosophical descendant of Governor Berk eley of colonial Virginia. In 1671 Berkeley was asked by the English government concern After stating that each man instructed his own chil ing the education of the Virginia people. dren “according to his own ability,’ the Gov ernor concluded: But I thank God there are no free schools and printing, and I hope we shall not have them these hundred years, for learning has brought disobedi- ence and heresy and sects into this world, and print ing has divulged them and libels against the best government. God keep us from both.’ The spirit of the gloomy Governor is still abroad in the twentieth century. Others adopt a far more hopeful view. They point, for instance, to the circulation statistics of public libraries, statistics of enrolment in night schools, and the vast ramifications of the Introduction to Education. Ginn and ¢ Bost TABLE 13.—PREVALENCE OF 5-DAY WEEK IN CERTAIN INDUSTRIES IN 1926 AND 1928’ Industry 1926 > Men's clothing 49 Percent of establishments operating on 5-day week Automobile No data Organized building trades No data Granite and stone trades No data Iron and steel No data Foundries and machine shops 3.8 1 United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Review, June, 1929; and “Prevalence of the Five Day Week.” 21925 figure. § Important extensions of the five-day week in the building have been reported. 4 Part of year only. Percent of employees working 5 days a week 1928 1928 Progress of the 5-Day Week Monthly Labor Ibid, December, 1926. trades, since May 15, 1928, when these data were collected adult education movement as conclusive evi- dence that the extra hours are not a threat but a promise. Will the machine enslave us or make us free? ‘The outcome of this controversy must be left for time to decide. The decision on this issue is being profoundly influenced by what the schools are doing to train youths and adults in the wise use of their leisure time. The schools are making a major contribution to the enrich- ment of human life by teaching how the added hours of leisure time may be used for activities which are creative and cultural rather than destructive and enervating. The schools teach how to make use of library facilities. The schools teach how to find enjoyment in whole- CHART XII some games and sports. hey make t! dents dissatisfied with a meager inte life. They help students to grow in ay tion of nature, of art, music, and lit The school building serves as a commur ter for a wide variety of adult activitic schools are the greatest single force in A: interested primarily in the enrichment O man life. It may well be that the schoo prove to be the deciding factor in the « now being waged between materialisr idealism for the control of the extra hou The effect of the schools in teaching to use leisure time cannot be directly me - There are, however, certain facts whic! flect the accomplishments of education ir {olf 1913 {915 {917 1919 SO. 74 | 1922 1S 1.09) {925 1927 PER. CAPITA EXPENDITURES | FOR RECREATION 1911~1927 | Cities over 30,000 in Population — ol esearch DQOuwiswn, National Lilucation Assir Source of data: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureain of the Census. Prrancial Statistics of Cities, 1927 [ 200 } [hat our people are learning an appre in of the value of recreation is shown by the ‘increasing expenditures for recreation in the r cities. Chart XII shows that per capita ic expenditures for recreation purposes in rT cities with populations of 30,000 and over in- creased from $0.65 in 1911 to $1.40 in 1927. Other factors have contributed to this increase but the work of the schools in teaching the value and necessity of wholesome recreation has been of major importance. Another ihdirect index of the effect of edu- cation in the enrichment of human life is found in the statistics of library [hese are shown in Chart XIII. It should be remembered, too, that the circulation of library books represents less than 2 our national reading. There are 7,200 magazines published in the United States and Canada. Twenty-five of these magazines have over a vearly circulation. percent ot million circulation with a combined circulation for the twenty-five of 846,252,000 copies.? Enrolment in night schools is a third in- Keator, A. D., '‘ The Popularity of American Magazines." th dication of the way in which the creating a desire to continue learning : providing a means for satistying this desire l‘able 14 shows for 31 states the enrolment and cost of instruction in public night schools. [he actual kn to 833,054 ] 1] iy Well Ove! wn enrolment in 31 states amounted persons in 1927-28. It is cer tain a million at the present The modern night school is no longet illiterates or near-illi stitution merely for rae ; é terates, nor is it solely a vocational training school. The typical night school offers a wide variety of cultural subjects along with its voca tional and elementary courses. Thus reorgan ized it offers help to everyone in the enrich ment of his life through effective use of leisure time. While the library and the evening school are among the most important of the educa tional agencies sponsoring a better utilization of leisure time, they by no means complete the list. tension classes, women’s clubs, parents’ study Correspondence schools, university ex groups, workers’ study clubs, and museums are Library Journal 55:499-501; June 1, 1930 CHART XIII [ PITA CA BL 1928 #222 IC LIBRARY BOO 1876-1928 CIRCULATION KS ion figure is independently estimated, Source of data: fopulation figuces used in calculating the above per capitas were those of the U.S. Census Bureau. Figures as to public library circulation, for 1876 and 1923 are from U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Education, 1926, No.9. The 1925 ure is from. American Library Association, Library Extension, 1926. The 1928 circu wine = —_ — anata tata tn - es ree tna ae - te i dine agencies ait Ta | 11 | ae only a few of the many other educational enterprises actively at work in the field of voluntary adult education. This Bulletin does no more than name these agencies and to point out that they constitute powerful allies in the vast and widely ramified program for the con- tinued enrichment of human life through edu- cation. TABLE 14.—ENROLMENT AND COST INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC NIGHT SCHOOLS, 1927-28, IN 31 STATES RE- PORTING | | State Enrolment Cost of | instruction 1 2 3 Alabama 4,033 $73,992 | California .| 245,037 a pan ENE ae, Colorado 12,209 ; aes | Connecticut ; 20,643 267 ,626 Delaware ~ 1,683 49, 369 | District of Columbia 10,749 91,697 | | Georgia rin 9,458 22,142 | Idaho. 1,211 3,542 | Illinois 56,000 573,634 | Indiana 10,632 52,430 Kansas 7,291 36,117 | Louisiana : 10,281 62,676 Maine.. 3,729 39,696 | Maryland... 12,717 126,693 | Massachusetts | 85,759 533.781 | Minnesota. , 7,747 41,220 Nevada.... ile well ‘6 1,578 New Hampshire ‘ 2,507 20,644 New Jersey.... 43,745 684,459 New York..... ‘ 155,064 1,897,625 CE . 6 2s ucitvenewdiakes 39,627 North Dakota ; 626 2,012 ae ‘ 50, 838 439,072 Oklahoma A ee oe 68,324 | Rhode Island ‘ 12,138 106,720 | South Carolina ; : 9,775 30,316 SP ; jaca shaliads 36 , 803 Virginia. . p 7,332 66,798 Washington ee ere Wisconsin . 36,214 452,844 Wyoming e De Reaweviescadatac Total for states reporting.| 833,054 $5,821,497 Source of data: U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Statistics of State School Systems, 1927-1928. Bulletin 1930, No. 5, p. 29. 2. How Do the Schools Promote Patriot- ism and World Understanding? From the earliest days schools have been recognized as a basic factor in civic life. James Madison represented the views of the founders of the nation when he asserted, “A popular government without popular information or the means of acquiring it is but a prologue to a farce or a tragedy.”” Such quotations could be multiplied indefinitely. Every great American statesman has favored wide extension of edu- cational opportunities. Today every citizen is faced with problems of the most complex and searching n How can wise laws be secured and enf. How can public revenues be equitably What relations should America ma with the other nations? What is the ; relationship of the government to bu In a democracy the ultimate decision on questions as these rests with the elect: Obviously an uneducated people is appal|i: unfit to make such decisions. In fact telligent citizenship now demands not n mastery of reading, writing, antl arithmet but a grasp of the social sciences,—his political science, and economics—and, all, the ability and willingness to interpret to solve national problems in the light of son. The problems of democracy thus be the opportunities of the school. By buil up an educated citizenship the schools are re: dering an unique service to the preservatio democratic ideals. In 1929, 307,255 aliens landed in the Un States and took up their residence. The sch will help these people to becoine Ame citizens. The schools will teach the child of these people American ideals and cust The preparation of aliens for citizenshi; only one of a number of important civic fu: tions of the public school system. Never: less it constitutes a most significant contri tion of the schools to citizenship training. The integration of civic life and thou which makes it possible for 120,000,000 peo; scattered over 3,000,000 square miles of t: tory to feel and to act as a single nation is th joint product of modern means of communica tion and transportation plus general citizen ship training. In other nations a state chu: may help to perform the integrating function but America has no state church and he: people adhere to some 50 major religions and to some 200 minor religious sects. In man) the European countries compulsory militar) training for all young men makes a definit: contribution to certain aspects of natio! solidarity but such training has never bee: accepted in America and it is unlikely that will be. The American school is the only extensive integrating agency in which ci\ service and the integration of national li‘c is the major purpose. The school, therefor: bears the brunt of the responsibility for edu cating the alien and his children in American [ 202 ] il and social ideals and customs, for ng unity and coherence to American life, providing the information and_ habits d by all good citizens, and for giving in the application of these habits in life. In order to do this work successfully the schools have made many changes in their pro lures. They have radically revised the cur- im in the social studies, substituting ac practice in the attitudes and skills of good nship for routine learning of unrelated facts concerning the machinery of government. The objectives of citizenship training have en appraised. Modern schools teach the im- portance of factual material when attacking social and political issues, the necessity of tolerance, the value of cooperation, and the wider aspects of patriotism which visualize the nation in its relation to all humanity. Such services entitle the schools to rank in the first line of national defense. \luch remains to be done before this potent defense and preservation agency can attain its maximum effectiveness. The present crisis in law enforcement demands that the duties of citizenship be brought home more effectively than ever before. The obligations imposed by iniversal suffrage must be realized more keenly. It is not enough to carry on campaigns to “get out the vote.” ‘The number of per sons who actually go to the polls and cast a ballot may doubtless be increased by eftective propaganda methods. insure that when the ballot is cast it repre- But only education can sents an intelligent decision on the issues in- volved. Washington’s statement, in his fare well address, that “In proportion as the struc- ture of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion be enlightened,” is even more cogent under the complex civic and social conditions of the twentieth century. 3. What Did the Schools of Yesterday Contribute to America’s Development? The’ most obvious and perhaps the most tundamental difference between the America of 1774 and the America of 1930 is one of geography. The nation began as little more than a series of small settlements scattered along a narrow strip of the Atlantic seaboard. [ 203 ] fates (he total area of the thirteen original state is 326,378 square miles; in 1930 the entire United States covered 3,026,789 square miles of territo: involved the winning of a continent and a ten This great national development fold expansion of area in less than a century and a half. As the nation expanded westward, the dis trict school followed the pioneer’s homestead. Judged by modern standards these frontier schools left something to be desired hey were poorly housed, open for short periods, and taught by untrained teachers. ‘UVhey were, however, the natural outgrowth of trontiet conditions, serving well the people of theit day and standing as a visible symbol of thei faith in education. Education was not only an accompaniment of westward expansion; it was also a factor in it. The young men who left the farms of New England for the Western prairies or the gold mines of the Pacific coast had received instruc tion’ at least in the essentials of citizenship and learning in their district schools. Many, too, were academy ot college trained. ‘his educa tional background led to the immediate estab lishment of popular government wherever they went and greatly facilitated the development of the new territories and states. Ihe pioneers transplanted to their new homes the political and social institutions which their schools had taught them to understand and to admire That the be both an accompaniment and a condition of the winning of the West was to be expected. ideal of public education should The vigorous democratic spirit of the West, which in 1828 swept Andrew Jackson into the hitherto aristocratic presidential office, em phasized in no uncertain way the rht of every man to make the most of his powers The democratic revolution which culminated in the elevation of Jackson was predicated upon the extension of the suffrage to all white men. The educational significance of this en franchisement was profound. It meant, even tually, the end of the laissez-faire attitude of the states towards education. General educa tion for all in the elements of citizenship and the tools of wider learning became a duty which the state owed to its own preservation. This new attitude was reflected by the con stitutions of the new states and by revisions in the laws of the older commonwealths. The a fis ae gee = webabeengaliannsaiinns ne a ea cn ea whe OS a, ae Se _— ean a pee & tas spirit of the frontier and the rise of new social problems in the growing Eastern cities thus combined to awaken the nation as a whole to its need for public education.' Once founded in the West, the ideal of free public education itself began to aid in the ma- terial and cultural development of the newly- won territory. The isolated district schools, later coordinated into county, township, and state systems of education, placed at least the tools of learning in the hands of every boy and girl who attended them. Later, the col- leges of agriculture, mechanic arts, mining, and commerce made their contributions to the development of the new states by encouraging the use of scientific methods and by training young people in the use of these methods. At the same time the secondary schools and the liberal arts colleges were laying the founda- tions of a national culture. A further relationship between national ex- pansion and public education is found in the land grants for public education which began with the admission of Ohio in 1802 and continued through the admission of Arizona, the 48th state, in 1912. These grants were at first accepted by the new states as a com- promise to their demand for the right to tax federal public lands. That the states were willing to accept this compromise and to de- vote the income of the grants to education shows the value placed on schools by the frontier. This great endowment for public education amounted to some 73,000,000 acres.* Sales of part of it have already yielded well over a hundred million dollars, and unsold lands worth approximately four times as much still remain.* The area of land granted for education (not including that for colleges and charitable institutions) is about as large as the states of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois com- bined. Though the endowment has too often been badly managed and lost for the schools,° yet the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 and the acts admitting the new states since that date ! For a more extended evaluation of the influence of the frontier on the history of American public education, see: stand as concrete evidence of the re relationship between the schools and panding nation. ‘The developing nati: tered education and this force in sponded by accelerating the rate of n development. 4. What is the Day-by-Day Contrib of the Schools? No institution has higher purposes o1 with greater faithfulness for their ful! than the American public school. Thi the objectives toward which 832,000 school teachers are striving daily as the) with the nation’s 25,000,000 children: Sound health, (2) worthy home membe: (3) mastery of the tools of learning, (4) citizenship, (5) vocational efficiency, (6 use of leisure, (7) ethical character. How the schools promote health. Healt the foundation of national welfare and pe sonal happiness. The contribution of the sc} is fundamental to solid progress in hy work. Health as a rule is a purchasable con modity and the initial price is education. New physiological and medical discoveries are o! little value until education incorporates thie: in the lives of the people through health habit: and attitudes. The modern school teaches th child only the essential facts of anatomy physiology but devotes much time to encoura ing him in the practice of health habits during twenty-four hours of each day. The importance of health and physical edu cation is one of the lessons brought home t us by the World War. A recent study shows an increase of about 50 percent, between 19/4 and 1926, in the amount of time allotted t physical training in the elementary grades.’ Figure 1 shows some of the ways in which the schools are contributing to the greate' physical effectiveness of our future citizens How the schools train for worthy hom membership. The home and the school Cubber Ellwood P. Public Education in the United States. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1919. p. 71-81, 110-12. See also kK Edgar W. 2 Ibid, p. 59-60. 3 Swift, Fletcher Harper. Federal Aid to Public Schools. Education in the United States. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1929. p. 182-8. United poet, ee artment of the Interior, Bureau of Edu Bulletin 1922, No. 47. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. p. 1 a Ellwood P., and Elliott, Edward C. State and County Ae Administration. Macmillan Co., New ‘ 1915. p. 71- 5 Swift, Fletcher Harper. A History of the Public Permanent Common School Funds in the United States, 1795-1905. Holt and Co., New York. 1911. 493 p. * Mann, Carleton Hunter. How Schools Use Their Time. New York City. 1929. p. 115. H Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Uni [ 204 ] wo great social institutions which jointly - responsibility for the protection and de pment of childhood. These two institu- bear reciprocal relations; each should to build up and magnify the othe: at is the typical American home of ind what will it be in the future? The ls are seeking to develop within the child, means of home economics courses and in ways, an appreciation of the famil\ ip and a better understanding of the h he must play as a member of that grou while the proportion of ome-making ideals are to be maintained. three R n the elementary schy Parent and teacher, also, are learning each from 91 percent in 1826 to 51 per ppreciate and understand the other’s point three-fourths of this decrease took | 1ew. The erowth of the movement for 1866. \ccording to the same st yperation between school and home is shown apparently lost by the three R ] | > increase in membership of the National than made up by the increased ’ ‘ DPD Tk ( | 1 1 Congress of Parents and Teachers. In 1920 term on the one hand and the 190,183 persons were enroled as members; in of school life per pupil on 1925, 875,240; and in 1930, 1,481,105. curriculum of today is changin Figure 2 shows some of the ways in whi concern itself not only with actu tne schools are training children for more ing but also can look to the fut worthy home membership. tempt to educate for a changing What schools are doing to encourage learn Effective methods used by the ing and thinking. The schools transmit to each encouraging learning and thinking new generation a command of the fundamental marized in Figure 3. processes. They teach the basic skills of life: How schools develop vocational effi: the interpretation of written and spoken Jan Education is essential to vocational effe: p. 42, 50 Op cu., | FIGURE 1 How Schools Promote Health What the Schools Do 1. Cooperate with parents to have every beginner enter school free from remediable defects. 2. Provide clean comfortable beautiful buildings and playfields. 3. Provide a wholesome and happy atmosphere and routine. 4. Train in health habits. 5. Teach facts of personal and public health. 6. Provide health examinations. 7. Provide special facilities for handicapped children. For helpful references bearing on any on¢ \ssociation, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., W ness. The schools not only teach the basic of rhetoric about “the dangers of over- technics of various trades and professions but _ tion,” should be allowed to obscure the fa also by emphasizing the joy and dignity of ignorance is a menace to republican in work and the necessity for intelligent planning tions. The contributions of the schools to ¢i: an in every occupation help to discover new and zenship are so important that a separate s 'd improved methods and to develop right at- tion of this Bulletin is devoted to them.’ BR < titudes toward work. way of summary, some of the ways in y ie Ways in which the schools promote voca- the schools prepare for faithful citizenshi seen tional effectiveness are shown in Figure 4. indicated in Figure 5. How the schools prepare for faithful citizen- How the schools train for the wise use o; : : ship. The success of democratic government leisure. This topic is also of such great in depends implicitly on education. No amount tance that it has been selected for separat: 1 See, ‘How do the Schools Promote Patriotism and World Understanding?” p. 202. FIGURE 2 | How Schools Improve Homes What the Schools Do Make the school a worthy example of cleanliness, order, and beauty. 1. 2. Maintain an atmosphere of cooperation among children. 3. Teach home-management, home-skills, and home-budgeting. 4. Provide model kitchens, dining rooms, and sleeping rooms in the schools. Ss. Bring school and home together in organized cooperation. ee ioe esiiesiesiadii i | | | For helpful references bearing on any one of the above contributions of the schools, write to the National Educati Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C, J FIGURE 3 tal — iia ensteaialnetiigetineen 4 1h | How Schools Encourage Learning and Thinking Pte —E_— 0 : al }). | What the Schools Do i | : . i: | 1. Provide skilled and well-trained teachers. } | 2. Revise curriculums constantly to fit modern needs. ; ' | 3. Use psychologically effective teaching methods. 1 e | 4. Provide laboratories, libraries, and other equipment to facilitate learning. | : | 5. Lay the basis for lifelong learning. . } t | For helpful references bearing on any one of the above contributions of the schools, write to the National Education 7: i Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. | Ah = : : = | ¥ [ 206 ] rention in another section of this Bulletin.’ At the effect of the example of teachers whose this point a summary of some ways in which ey eryday life is a character lesson for the schools train for creative use of leisure is pupils. No one can teach more than he is. The ziven in Figure 6. . a high type of membership in the teaching pro How the schools build character. Theschools ae : ‘ . tession is one of the most potent factors in t build character in two ways—by instruction ind by example. The teaching of honesty, thrift, respect for property, appreciation of beauty and other desirable characteristics is a lefinite part of the program in the schools. Fully as important as the direct instruction is Education Association in 1924 that: development of worthy ideals of conduct. The effect of the example of the teacher in building character has been noted by the last two presidents. Mr. Coolidge told the National 1 See, ‘‘How do the Schools Contribute to the Enrichment of Human Lif 199 FIGURE 4 How Schools Develop Vocational Efficiency What the Schools Do 1. Discover each child’s special interests and capacities. 2. Provide exploratory courses which reveal vocational aptitudes. 3. Give specific vocational training. 4. Offer advice and guidance in choice of a vocation. 5 . Render placement and follow-up services to graduates. For helpful references bearing on any one of the above contributions of the schools, write to the National Ed Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. thei: FIGURE 5 How Schools Prepare for Citizenship What the Schools Do 1. Make school administration a democratic example. 2. Provide increasing opportunities to learn self-government. 3. Teach the facts about voting and other civic duties. 4. Show how to approach civic problems objectively. 5. Help young people to grow in goodwill and appreciation of international rela- tionships. Develop an appreciation of American ideals of democratic government. an For helpful references bearing on any one of the above contributions of the schools, write to the National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. [ 207] animes es A Aaa NR a a te ae ae ee a The main factor of every school is the teacher. Teaching is one of the noblest of professions. It re- quires an adequate preparation and training, patience, devotion, and a deep sense of responsi- bility. Those who mold the human mind have wrought not for time, but for eternity. The obliga- tion which we all owe to those devoted men and women who have given of their lives to the educa- tion of the youth of our country that they might have freedom through coming into a knowledge of the truth, is one which can never be discharged. They are entitled not only to adequate rewards for their service, but to the veneration and honor of a grate- he spoke before the Department of Sups dence of the National Education Associat 1926. The teaching of ideals is by its naturé ous and unstudied. And it has to be sin public school teacher cannot live apart; he« separate his teaching from his daily walk ar versation. He lives among his pupils during hours, and among them and their parents time. He is peculiarly a public character und most searching scrutiny of watchful and « eyes. His life is an open book. His habits are | to all. His office, like that of a minister of r: d i demands of him an exceptional standard of co: President Hoover made the same point most And how rarely does a teacher fall below effectively when, as Secretary of Commerce, standard! How seldom does a teacher figur: ful people.’ 1 Coolidge, Calvin. ‘‘Address."" Proceedings 62:218; 1924. National Education Association, Washington, D. ( FIGURE 6 How Schools Train for Wise Use of Leisure What the Schools Do Teach use of books and libraries. Provide good books for recreational reading. Teach values in wholesome sports and games. 1. 2. 3. 4. Cultivate a love for the outdoors. 5. Encourage development of creative social contacts. 6. Serve as a center for a worthwhile community life. For helpful references bearing on any one of the above contributions of the schools, write to the National Educat Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. FIGURE 7 How the Schools Build Character What the Schools Do . Make ethical character the ultimate goal of all education. — 2. Teach highest ideals of health, home, learning, citizenship, work, and play. 3. Surround children with teachers who themselves possess high character qualities. For helpful references bearing on any one of the above contributions of the schools, write to the National Educatior Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D [ 208 } onal headline in a newspaper! It is t1 le, I think, that so vast an army of pe simately eight hundred thousand—so meets its obligations, so effectively does its so decently behaves itself, as to be almost ut nconspicuous in a sensation-loving country. It wealth of character, of atience sa tact, of p et competence, to achieve such a record as Some of the things the schools dé haracter are listed in Figure 7. 5. What Will the Schools of Tomorrow Mean to America? We have recorded what the schools of yes terday did to foster the development of a new nation and we have briefly passed in review some of the contributions of the schools of today. What of the future? All indications point to the increased development of the school of to morrow. [hese are some of the characteristics which will mark the school oft tomorrow: 'Hoover, Herbert. ‘‘Educ Washington, D. C. and nurser) receiving ttention. Ps) show that the first six are ot it import poses hools ot | aown these early years of ating with the home in establishin and emotional patterns which underlie a happy and useful life. The rapid growth of the nu prekindergarten idea is shown in 1929-30 the ere schoc Or Chart XIV. Office ol trom In United States Education secured enrolment statis tics 146 of those schools which showed total of 2,995 children in them. b. The doors schools of tomorrou will pen longer. Many of them wi The dis rural child which, through open for service all year round rimination against the short terms, often forces him to attempt to accom plish eight years’ work in six years or less will 64:729-30; 1926 National Ed CHART XIV NUMBE IN THE UNITED R. OF esearch United States Office of Both public data Artes Sources of Ge fre Uniled * Fight schools which did not late rer NURSE STATES Fducatior private mit of establs RY SCHOOLS 1918 ~1929° be abolished. Chart XV shows how theaverage handicap of the children of certa length of school term has increased from 130.3 Mississippi children have to go to days in 1880 to 171.5 days in 1928. But it years to get as much schooling as should not be forgotten that this chart deals age child in the United States gets with averages. There are still states and com- years. Children in New Jersey hay munities which are still in the nineteenth cen- much schooling in nine years as those tury as far as length of school term is con- Carolina get in eleven and one hal{ cerned. Table 15 shows the wide contrast be- Similar interesting comparisons may tween states in this respect. By comparing for any state from a study of Chart X Chart XV and Table 15 it is possible to de- Table 15. termine the development of this aspect of the c. The schools of tomorrow will pr states’ educational programs. Thus, for ex- entire period of childhood. Children wi ample, New Jersey with a yearly session of 188 schools until they are better prepared f days stands at the top, Vermont is a little above life. The nation will look back with the 1925 level, Arkansas is about at the level ment and with perhaps a little tolerant of 1900, Mississippi has not yet reached the a generation which is permitting serious twentieth century average. Study of Table ployment and child labor to exist side b 15 further shows the extent of the average Just what the statistical relationship CHART XV NUMBER # DAYS SCH@LS WERE = SESSION 1880-1928 Source of data: U.S Department of the Interior, cation, Bulletin, 1930, No.5. mployment and child labor is at the present cannot be accurately determined. How- r, it is certain that the unemployment situa- is seriously aggravated by present child- conditions. The President’s committee on nt economic changes estimated the average ‘nimum volume of unemployment in the nited States in 1927 at 2,055,000 persons.! statistics or estimates as recent as this are iilable on child labor conditions. The 1920 nsus revealed 1,060,858 children between 10 1 15 years, inclusive, employed in gainful upations.* The present number of employed ildren is almost certainly in excess of a mil- lion. In 1927-28 the number of children 5-17 ears of age, inclusive, was estimated by the United States Office of Education at 30,887,- 167. Of these children 25,179,696 were re- ported as enroled in public elementary and sec- ondary schools and 2,576,157 in private schools of sub-collegiate grade.* This leaves approxi- mately three million children unaccounted for. 1 Report of the Committee on Recent Economic Change 2 United States Children’s Bureau, Publication 197, p. 194. 3 Statistics of State School Systems, 1927-1928. U.S. \ small number of these are attending insti a few are receiving inst! tions, home, a few are confined to hospitals, a few + ' Te ' are located in isolated places where school tendance impossible. However, when every allowance is made for such exceptions as th still children not in school. It Is cert un th it a great there must remain well over 2.000.000 proportion of these are gainfully employed. It seems reasonable to suppose that the enactment and enforcement of adequate child labor legis lation in every state would go far towards mitigating the condition of chronic unemploy- ment which menaces the country. d. The schools of tomorrow will lift the teaching profession to a new plane of recogni tion. The training of teachers will become more scientific and standards for their selection more rigid. Salaries will be higher and the teaching will be made attractive profession more through greater social recognition, through greater security of tenure, through old age re in the United State Office of Educati TABLE 15.—NUMBER OF DAYS SCHOOLS WERE IN SESSION BY STATES, 1928 Average number Rank of days schools in col. | were in session 2 States I | ; United States Alabama... Arizona.... Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia. . Idaho. . Illinois. . . Indiana lowa Kansas. “sons ~ z Kentucky Louisiana. Maine...... Maryland. . Massachusetts — it et ee he axnnwe Aw Oo ~I Ww ~2100 COOMA D Aen n Michigan. . Minnesota . Mississippi. . Missouri. . — a ee ee | Oklahoma i} Rhode Island | South Dakota Tennessee | Texas i West Virginia Source of data: Figures as to average number of days schools were in session are from U. S. Departme terior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1930, No. 5, Table 8, p. 23, column 11. Rank in col. Average number of days schools were in session States Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hamps! New Jersey New Mexicc New York North Carolina North Dak Ohio Oregon Pennsylvani South Carolin Utah Vermont Virginia Washington Wisconsin Wyoming nt of the In- [ 211] tirement, through sabbatical leaves for travel chines to do routine work so as to | and other forms of intellectual refreshment, and through the provision of clerks and ma- teacher free to concentrate on the prof aspects of his calling. Certain statistics « ! For summauries of recent laws affecting the teacher's “State School Legislation, 1929 udies in Stale iministration, No. 1, Research Division, National Educatior ssociation, Washington, D. C., Decem 1929, M William G. Carr, “‘Recent Laws That Affect the icher Directly."" Nation's Schools 5:53-5; May, 1930 ecker, ‘Review of Educational Legislation, 1926-28 United States Office of Education, Bulletin, 1929, N f the Tenure Committee of One Hundred, National Education Association, 1928. 12 p. Report of the Committee on illowances, National Education Association, 1929. 24 p. Report of the Committee on Sabbatical Leaves for Teacher Education Association, 1927. /p } CHART XVI Oe DEVELOPING PROFESSION OF EDUCATION Teachers’ Salaries Summer School Attendance Members‘ of National Education Association. Teachers’ College Enrolment Number of Teachers’ Colleges 1920 1928 —————— Source of data: UL.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Fdication, and from. National Editcation Association. * Estimated. | the developing status of the teaching pro on are shown in Chart XVI. e The schools of tomorrow will offer tunity for all the nation’s children. ‘Lhat rica offers an equal educational opport +) for all is one of the comfortable supe: ns of the present age. The rural child, gen lly speaking, has a shorter school term, a } strained teacher, an incomparably more wer school equipment than the city child. Some communities make excellent provision fo1 the education of their children; others unwill- ingly meet the bare legal minimum require ments. Some communities can provide good schools with a tax which is hardly felt; othe: peyond en The schools of tomorrow will be administered and } nese communities tax themselves almost durance to provide inferior facilities. financed in such a way as to eradicate t differences in opportunity. The accidents of birth and residence will not be permitted to handicap the life of a child from the start. In- dividual communities will be encouraged to de- velop their educational offerings to as high a point as they can but the minimum acceptable conditions will be raised far beyond present standards. This means that school revenues will be collected over larger units and that these revenues will be apportioned to the local units so as to minimize or eliminate differences in educational opportunity. 6. How Have the Schools Contributed to Individual Achievement and Happiness? Children nowadays tact has been discovered by near] | l k eto got the nation except the newspaper who still choose to picture the unwilling } | } 1 oy plodding mournfully along to sch summer vacation comes to an end I very who has visited a modern school or who any contact with the children who knows that the children look forward to the time when school opens. Good schools help to make children and healthful. If they did nothing m« remove children from the city streets, would be abundantly worth the price for them. Let anyone who doubts this ment visit the less-favored areas of anv large city on a Saturday morning. Some of the values of school attendance are outlined in poster torn in Figure 8. Probably the greatest single contribution of the schools to individual achievement and hap piness is increased physical effectiveness. As nation we are slowly increasing our expendi tures for health and sanitation and a large por tion of this increased public recognition of the value of health doubtless arises from the health Chart XVII shows instruction in schools. FIGURE 8 A Child in School is Under the influence of trained and capable advisers and teachers. Safe from traffic hazards. Guarded against infection and ill health. Gaining respect for the law. Acquiring habits of industry and punc- tuality. What School Attendance Means to Children A Child on the Streets is Under the influence of the knock- abouts of the streets—-generally un- desirable. In danger of injury. Exposed to probable unsanitary con- ditions. Tempted to disobey the law. and Acquiring habits of idleness shiftlessness. how the per capita expenditures for health in the death vate and raised the life ex; cities of over 30,000 population have increased of the American people. They have sa from $1.21 in 1903 to $4.31 in 1927. Have lions of dollars which would otherw these additional expenditures, the schools’ per- been lost through lives cut short and i: sistent teaching of health values, and instruc- efficiency. Chart XVIII shows two of t! tion in how to keep well been productive of of this emphasis on health. The sch results? They have. These factors combined responsible for much of the gain s! with increased medical skill have pushed down _ this chart (p. 215). CHART XVII == PER CAPITA EXPENDITURES fe HEALTH e¢ SANITATION, 1911 ~1927 Cities over 30,000 in Population 1911 Lived 1913 17S) 1915 Fi 8S) 1917 1S 1 OS) 1919 FA 1922 5 25) 1924 FSS 1926 1S IO 1027 [a Ts} Stesearch. Dwiston, National Education. Assi Source of data: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Dwanctal Statistiias of Cities, 1927. 7, How Have the Schools Contributed superiority of the United States and the ot! to American National Life, Pros- ing nations of the world, or equally the « perity, and Culture? inferiority of such nations as China and India, is without d t largely to be ascribed to diffe: Education has been a powerful stimulus to _ in education istrial productivity. Economic theory recog- Conversely, it is pointed out by Carver s that the educated man produces more, “we have to charge ignorance with a consumes more. Professors Fairchild, Fur- waste of human talent. that is. of talent which and Buck declare, in their textbook on goes to waste because it is imperfectly em nomics, that: ployed.” ? [he economic effects of public education are Reliable estimates place the present annual ircely capable of exaggeration. As producers and income of the United States at about 90 bil imants of their respective shares of the product Jinn dollars. This total income is increasing nd as consumers of wealth, the whole character of 1} lily j a te . J as ste: -rease rer ¢ *Tr1i0d , people is governed by the degree and the nature _— la ldily increased Over a i0ong perio the education which it enjoys. The economic of years. [hat all of this increase is due t | Fairchild, F. R., Furniss, E. S., and Buck, N.S. Elementé ?Carver, Thomas Nixon. The Economy of Human Energ CHART XVIII DECREASING MORTALITY RATES AND INCREASING LIFE EXPECTANCIES 1900=100 r ; sm=-Jife expectancy mee- Death rate per 1000 ; | i 1900 1910 1920 LASCOLCH (SCO Nation — — Calculated from heures of’ the (L.S Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census L the greater effectiveness of the educated worker would be claimed by few; that it is due in considerable part to such effectiveness few will deny. Other items, especially the development of natural resources, have undoubtedly been im- portant factors in developing American eco- nomic power and industrial productivity. It is obviously impossible at present to evaluate in an objective or statistical way the interre- lated effects of each of the many factors con- tributing to America’s economic leadership. The scattering evidence available, however, agrees in attaching great significance to the value of education. After a statistical study of wealth, income, and illiteracy in the several states as compared with school expenditures, the United States Bureau of Education con- cluded that: Notwithstanding obvious difficulties of preving such matters statistically, it seems clear that properly applied expenditure for education is profitable to the state because it tends to increase income and wealth, aids in the decrease of illiteracy, and gives to the individual better opportunities for self-de- velopment and achievements, as well as a higher standard of living.’ Such statistical evidence as is available is amply reinforced by the mature opinion of men of wide economic and social vision. Charles M. Schwab, Chairman of the Bethle- hem Steel Corporation, recently declared that “The national assets which I believe insure for us continued prosperity are in a sense im- ponderables. That is to say, I cannot put a value upon them or record them in terms of dollars or barrels or tons.” ? Mr. Schwab then lists, as one of five imponderables, “the most extensive free school system in the world, and the most general desire for education.” He goes on to point out that the schools have given us a public capable of recognizing the new economic code, ready to make its opera- tion effective, and qualified to furnish leader- ship for its further development.’ Mr. Schwab concludes that, while the contribution of edu- cation cannot be measured by ordinary book- keeping methods, it “would have to be esti- mated as worth several billions of dollars.” 1 Education Pays the State. 2 San Francisco Examiner. 3 Ibid, p. 23. *U. S. Department of Commerce, Commerce Yearbook, December 2, 1928. p. 1. President Hoover, writing as Secret Commerce in the 1928 Commerce Year said: The fact that national output per capita ha: been greater in the United States than in most countries is in some measure owing to the a! of agricultural land in proportion to the po; and the abundance and variety of mineral res During the earlier history of the country its ress was in considerable part owing to the « up of new resources. The increase in output recent decades, however, cannot be attributed ¢ cause. There have been new minerals, notably of petroleum, but these co: tions have been offset by the partial using other resources and by the necessity, with the ¢ of population, of extending cultivation to som: inferior lands. The principal factors in the increase in productivity are, therefore, hum distinguished from natural factors. Among these factors is the advance in edu and scientific research. Taking account both \ proportion of the children in school and of the amount of ele: some discov age duration of attendance, *he tary and secondary instruction given in 192¢ person of school age, was 151 percent greate: in 1870, and 90 percent greater than in 189 1890 about 5% percent of the children between ages of 14 and 17 years were in high schools academies; in 1926 over 384 percent. Of pers 18 to 21 years of age about 1% percent were in leges and universities in 1890, and nearly 9 cent in 1924. Meantime instruction has become m better in quality and especially more practical more conducive to thinking power and to prod tive capacity.‘ The effects of education on productivity both direct and indirect. ‘he direct effect trained workers is only one way in wh the schools have increased industrial produ tion. The indirect effect which arises from t! presence of an educated class of consumers equally significant. The ignorant savage satisfied with food and warmth. Educated mer and women demand the finer things of li! Mary’s mother, uneducated and conser‘ tive, is content to clean her rugs with a carpet beater. Mary studies home-making at the hi school and uses a vacuum cleaner when s starts her own home. The beater cost 50 cent the cleaner 50 dollars. If Mary and Mary friends had not studied home-making th: would be satisfied with the carpet-beater. Since: modern industry, generally speaking, is n U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 1925, No. 33, p. 27. lucing to meet an existing demand, but vacuum iting demands in order to abscrb its rapid other pr duction, Mary’s purchase of a vacuum ingly imp ner acts to stimulate the production of © stimulat production. I? IS NOT merely by increasing productiveness that education contributes to making the state a better place in which to make a living. Education of the consumer increases demands and thus furnishes work for others. Many shortsighted economists in their enthusiasm for the development of foreign markets for our goods lose sight of the fact that the best market, and ultimately the only one that can continue to pay for what it buys without disturbing exchange, is here at home.—Thomas H. Briggs. The Great Investment—Secondary Education in a Democracy. The Inglis Lecture, 1930, p. 47. RACIAL PROGRESS marches upon the feet of healthy and instructed children. There should be no child in America that is not born and does not live under sound conditions of health; that does not have full opportunity of education from the beginning to the end of our institutions; that is nct free from injurious labor; that does not have every stimulation to accomplish the fullest of its capacities.— Herbert Hoover. LIST OF TABLES Page Yearly Income and Public School Costs in the United States in 1928 (Table Eee 170 Wealth and Value of School Property in the United States in 1928 (Table 2)........ 171 School Expenditures and Income by States in 1928 (Table 3)................... 172 Value of Public School Property and Wealth by States in 1928 (Table 4)............. 173 The States’ Annual Bills for Public Schools, Life Insurance, and Building Construction in IEEE BE I hee a 178 The States’ Annual Bills for Schools and Passenger Automobiles in 1928 (Table 6 179 The States’ Annual Bill for Certain Luxuries in 1928 (Table 7)................ 181 Income and Taxes Collected in the States in 1928 (Table 8)................... 187 Wealth and Taxes Collected in the States in 1928 (Table 9)................... 188 Tax Collections and School Costs in the States in 1928 (Table 10)............. 190 Income, Tax Collections, and School Expenditures, 1922 to 1928 (Table 11)............... 193 Amount and Percent of Increase of Certain Items in the United States—1922-28 (Table 12) 197 Prevalence of 5-Day Week in Certain Industries in 1926 and 1928 (Table 13)............. 199 Enrolment and Cost of Instruction in Public Night Schools, 1927-28, in 31 States Reporting CU a La phen Sun eh saa see uiwles Vokes dune ee saluelinutiwes acs nde< case 202 Number of Days Schools Were in Session by States, 1928 (Table 15)............ 211 LIST OF FIGURES Se Cy ye I NT Ba cing ook cc ccc ccoshscseneecvcacveasecencs . 205 ee ee ss oak asc beeen e Wa aeea er 6nib 40.8 od 64 cbisvedee soe 206 How Schools Encourage Learning and Thinking (Figure 3)..................... .. 206 How Schools Develop Vocational Efficiency (Figure 4).....................045- . 207 How Schools Prepare for Citimemeim (Pimare $) «2... 6 ccc ccccccscc ccc cccccccccccccces 207 How Schools Train for Wise Use of Leisure (Figure 6)..................00e0eeee .. 208 What Schools Do to Build Character (Figure 7)..........ccccccscccccccccces . 208 What School Attendance Means to Children (Figure 8)................-.0005- . 213 LIST OF CHARTS Income and School Support in the United States (Chart I)......... 66... e ee eee eens 169 Wealth and School Property in the United States (Chart II).................... 171 Important Bills Paid Annually in the United States (Chart III)................. 176 Percent of National Income Expended for All Public Purposes (Chart 1V)............ 184 Estimated Income Per Capita United States and Other Nations (Chart V)......... 185 Estimated Wealth Per Capita United States and Other Nations (Chart VI)............... 185 Percent Public School Costs in the Various States is of Total Tax Collections in 1928 NY ee a ee vo ck bEUS Noes CLEEDS CERO SPERET SC Cope cegocs 192 Percent of National Income Paid for Taxes (Chart VIII) .............-ce cece ce ececccees 194 Percent of National Income Expended for Public Elementary and Secondary Schools a a cl ls Ee Ie ok nk Deine ins ob Cos I MUERTRRER SR CAL CARER EPR OOo coon’ 195 Percentage of All Tax Collections in the United States Expended for Public Elementary Sn CR CE CE Gin dines i bck ci bein din ven etheeissdacepassescecscces 196 Percent Increase in School Costs and Other Important Items, 1922-28 (Chart XI).. 197 Per Capita Expenditures for Recreation, 1911-27 (Chart XII)................000-5- 200 Per Capita Circulation of Public Library Books, 1876-1928 (Chart XIII).......... 201 Number of Nursery Schools in the United States, 1918-29 (Chart XIV)............ 209 Number of Days Schools Were in Session, 1880-1928 (Chart XV)............000005. 210 The Developing Profession of Education (Chart XVI) ...........cccce cece eee e eee e eens 212 Per Capita Expenditures for Health and Sanitation, 1911-27 (Chart XVII)....... 214 215 Decreasing Mortality Rates and Increasing Life Expectancy (Chart XVIII)...... [ 218 ] = — ~ Research Bulletins Now Available Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Trends in 1923. Vol. 1, No. 3, May, 1923. 116 p. Price per single copy, $1.00. The Problem of Teacher Tenure. Vol. Il, No. 5, November, 1924. 40 p. Price per cops 25 cents. Public School Salaries in 1924-1925. Vol. III, Nos. 1 and 2, January and March, 1925. 72 p Price per copy, 50 cents. The Ability of the States to Support Education. Vol. 1V, Nos. 1 and 2, January and March, 1926. 96 p. Price per copy, 50 cents. Efficient Teaching and Retirement Legislation. Vol. 1V, No. 3, May, 1926. 72 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Major Issues in School Finance—Part I. Vol. 1V, No. 5, November, 1926. 32 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Major Issues in School Finance—Part I]. Vol. V, No. 1, January, 1927, 64 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Salaries in City School Systems, 1926-27. Vol. V, No. 2, March, 1927. 64 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. The Scheduling of Teachers’ Salaries. Vol. V, No. 3, May, 1927. 64 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. The Advance of the American School System. Vol. V, No. 4, September, 1927. 32 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. School Records and Reports. Vol. V, No. 5, November, 1927. 132 p. Price per copy, 50 cents Creating a Curriculum for Adolescent Youth. Vol. V1, No. 1, January, 1928. 80 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. The Advance of the Teacher Retirement Movement. Vol. VI, No. 3, May, 1928. 56 p. Price I per copy, 25 cents. Practices Affecting Teacher Personnel. Vol. VI, No. 4, September, 1928. 52 p. Price per I) p I copy, 25 cents. Can the Nation Afford to Educate Its Children? Vol. VI, No. 5, November, 1928. 48 p Price per copy, 25 cents. Can the States Afford to Educate Their Children? Vol. VU, No. 1, January, 1929. 44 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. The Principal and Progressive Movements in Education. Vol. VII, No. 2, March, 1929. 60 p Price per copy, 25 cents. Salary Scales in City School Systems, 1928-29. Vol. VII, No. 3, May, 1929. Price per copy, 25 cents. Vitalizing the High-School Curriculum. Vol. VII, No. 4, September, 1929. 104 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. The Principal as a Supervisor. Vol. VII, No. 5, November, 1929. 84 p. Price per copy, 25 cents The Questionnaire. Vol. VIII, No. 1, January, 1930. 52 p. Price per copy, 25 cents A Self-survey Plan for State School Systems—Part 1: Checklists. Vol. VUI, No. 2, March, 1930 36 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. A Self-survey Plan for State School Systems—Part I]: Handbook. Vol. VIII, No. 3, May, 1930. 76 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. [219] HELPS FOR AMERICAN EDUCATION WEEK NOVEMBER 10-16, 1930 Posters for Your Classrooms: Attractive posters on art paper are now available for American Education Week. These posters are excellent for classroom bulletin boards, for school exhibits, as outlines for ad- dresses and essays, and for other special occasions. Send $1 for a set of fourteen posters to the Division of Publications, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street North- west, Washington, D. C. Leaflets to Send to Parents and Teachers: rhe National Congress of Parents and Teachers has developed several leaflets which are excellent to send to parents during American Education Week. The titles are: Educating for Seven Point Lives (The seven cardinal objectives of education) ; Educating for Worthy Home Membership; The School of Tomorrow; Educating for Leisure. Order from the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, 1201 Sixteenth Street Northwest, Washington, D.C. Prices: 1 copy 10¢; 20 copies $1; 100 copies $4; 1000 copies $30. Research Bulletins for Facts on Education: Investing in Public Education, September 1930 A Self-survey Plan for State School Systems, Parts I and I], March and May 1930 Can the Nation Afford to Educate Its Children? November 1928 Can the States Afferd to Educate Their Children? January 1929 These bulletins can be etained for 25¢ each from the Research Division of the National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street Northwest, Washington, D. C. Things to Do American Education Week: A 61-page mimeographed booklet of practical helps for the program day by day. Price $1. Division of Publications, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Northwest. Washington, D. C. The School Home of Your Child: A leaflet of four pages especially good for distribution to parents in school districts where new school buildings or grounds are contemplated. Price: 100 copies $1.25; 500 copies $5; 1000 copies $9; 5000 copies $39. For several years the JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION has published a wealth of materials which can be used in interpreting the schools. Use your files for reference. PROGRESS IN EDUCATION WAITS UPON THE APPRECIATION OF THE PUBLIC