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VOL. VIII, NO. 3 MAY, 1930 


Research Bulletin 


OF THE 


National Education Association 
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A Self-survey Plan for State 
School Systems 


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Part II: Handbook 


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PUBLISHED BY THE RESEARCH DIVISION 
OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 


1201 SIXTEENTH STREET NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C 










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Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923. at the Post Office at 
Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for 
mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, 
Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. 





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Research Bulletin of the National Education 
Association 





Published five times each year in January, March, May, September, and November 
by the Research Division of the National Education Association of the United States. 


President, E. RutH Pyrt_e Secretary, J. W. Crasrree 





The payment of the $5 membership fee of the National Education Association 
entitles one to receive the Research Bulletin, the Journal, the Annual Volume of Ad- 
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Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., under 
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 
1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. 





Director of Research: John K. Norton Associate Director: Margaret Alltucker Norton 
Assistant Directors: Frank W. Hubbard, William G. Carr 
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[ 90 ] 





note Rear 8 











CONTENTS 
PAGE 

ES ee 92 

Scope and Purpose of the Handbook.... 9 

Organization of Discussion ....... 

| ae ae 9 

Discussion of Table 1 (Attendance Laws and Their Enforcement).. 94 

Discussion of Table 2 (Child Labor Laws 

Discussion of Table 3 (Pupil Personnel and Adjustment) . 104 

Discussion of Table 4 (Teacher Training and Supervision 

Discussion of Table 5 (Certification of Teachers)... on 113 
Discussion of Table 6 (Employment and Contracts).... 12 

Discussion of Table 7 (State Salary Laws)........ 124 

Discussion of Table 8 (Professional Organizations) . ; , 12¢ 

Discussion of Table 9 (Teacher Retirement Systems 128 
Discussion of Table 10 (Sources of School Revenue)...... baie : 133 
Discussion of Table 11 (Apportionment of State School Funds)... 138 
Discussion of Table 12 (Material and Equipment) .. 142 

Discussion of Table 13 (State Board of Education).... 14¢ 
Discussion of Table 14 (State Department of Education nee eee ere 149 

Discussion of Table 15 (Higher and Adult Education).................... ey 152 
| Bibliography ........... so 156 








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FOREWORD 


HE self-survey plan for state school systems is presented in the Research 

Bulletins for March and May, 1930. The May issue is a handbook for use 
with the checklists contained in the March number. The self-survey has been pre- 
pared in response to many requests received by the Research Division for a method 
of evaluating state school systems. The association of secretaries of state education 
associations made a special request for such a plan. It offers the people of a state 
an opportunity to make a non-technical, continuing, and organized study of their 
state school organization. It can be used by professional groups without extensive 
special preparation and by lay groups with a minimum of expert guidance. The self- 
survey plan does not remove the need for an occasional general appraisal by dis- 
interested experts from without the state. It does provide a means by which the needs 
of the schools may be considered continuously rather than spasmodically. 


This handbook, with its accompanying references, aims to reflect a composite 
judgment of the great majority of American educators. In order to secure material 
for this composite, the Research Division staff has ransacked the extensive literature 
of state school administration, including over one hundred state school surveys and 
a similar number of theses, monographs, and books. From this scrutiny certain criteria 
of an efficient state school system were derived. These were submitted to the criticism 
of scores of school administrators and most of the leading writers on state school 
administration. The suggestions of these emperts were then incorporated in the check- 
lists presented in the March Research Bulletin. 


However, the Research Division is far from suggesting that the self-survey in 
its present form embodies perfection. But it has been brought to the point where it 
needs to be tried in the fire of actual use. It is expected that such use will reveal! 
desirable additions and modifications. Definite suggestions for revision will be wel- 
comed. 


This self-survey plan should find a field of wide usefulness in the work of state 
departments of education, of state education associations, of teachers colleges and 
graduate schools of education, and of lay groups anxious to study and improve their 
state systems of education. 


J. W. Crastres, Secretary, 
National Education Association. 








[92] 





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A Self-survey Plan for State School Systems 


Part Il: Handbook 


HIS HANDBOOK is intended to be used 
the checklists 
contained in the March, 1930, number 


of the Research Bulletin. The checklists and 


in connection with 


the handbook together comprise a self-survey 
plan for evaluating the administrative efh- 
ciency of a state school system. Detailed direc- 
tions for using these two bulletins are pre- 
sented in the March bulletin, pages 57 to 61. 


Scope and Purpose of the Handbook 


handbook 
checklists. 


The discussion presented in the 
parallels the criteria set up in the 
Generally speaking, the handbook separately 
discusses each criterion from these three points 
of view: 

1. The implications of the criterion are analyzed 
This where 
terms 
criteria, special 
terion to given 
further study of the issues involved. 


includes, explanation of 


used, 


necessary, 


indication of relationships to other 


directions for applying the cri- 


situations, and suggestions for 

2. The importance and validity of the criterion 
are established. This often brief 
mary of arguments in favor of the proposed cri- 
terion and excerpts from authoritative 
bearing on the point. It also frequently includes a 


includes a sum- 


sources 


summary of existing conditions with respect to the 
criterion and a summary of progress towards its 
general acceptance in state practice. 

3. A list of references bearing on the criterion 
is given. 

The purpose of this handbook is indicated 
by the above description of what it contains. 
It is intended to explain and to supplement 
the checklists. It will help those who use the 
self-survey to make a discriminating, rather 
than an arbitrary, evaluation of their state 
school system. It points out desirable objectives 
and suggests means by which they may be 
attained. 


Organization of the Discussion 


The organization of the handbook requires 
a short explanation. It is divided into fifteen 
principal units, each unit dealing with the 


1 See March, 1930, Research Bulletin, page 62. 


+] 


Same suvjyect as the corresponding one of the 


17 


fifteen checklists. Thus, the first unit of this 


handbook, dealing with attendance 

their enforcement, parallels the first of 

checklists which deals with the same topic. 
The fifteen chief units of the handbook are 

each further numbered se 


subdivided into 


tions dealing with specific phases of the gen 
eral topic. The numbers of these sections cor 
respond to the numbers of the individual cri 
teria which make up the checklists. ‘Thus, the 
very first section of the handbook deals with 
the school this 


sponds to the first criterion in the first check 


census and discussion corre- 
list which asks, “Is an annual or continuing 
school census on a state-wide basis required 
by law?” 

The numbered sections of the handbook are, 
generally speaking, organized on a uniform 
plan of which the first section is typical. First, 
the issue involved is stated in question form: 
“Why should an annual or continuing school 
census on a state-wide basis be required by 
law?” Second, the meaning and purpose of 
a school census is indicated. Third, the most 
important arguments favoring a school census 
advanced. Fourth, these 


are arguments are 


substantiated by references to authoritative dis- 


] 


cussions and to successful practice. Fifth, the 


extent to which the United States as a whole 
is able to meet this criterion is roughly indi 
cated. Sixth, references to further reading on 
this point are given. Not all of the criteria 
have been discussed in as much detail as the 
one just described and occasionally several 
have been combined and discussed as a single 
unit. In general, however, the organization in- 
dicated above is followed in presenting the 


discussion of each criterion. 


Use of Reference Material 


The series of numbers listed at the end of 
each section of the discussion and the occa- 


sional numbers in parentheses in the body of 


[ 93 ] 








Uf ta ; oe 
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the discussion refer to the numbered bibliog- 
raphy beginning on page 156. Each numbered 
reference consists of two parts. The first. num- 
ber, in heavy black type, refers to the publica- 
tion in the bibliography bearing the same num- 
‘ber. The second number, in ordinary light 
type and separated from the first by a colon, 
is a page reference. To illustrate, the reference 


194: 366 just below in connection with the 


ages to be included in a school census would 
be read: “page 366 of the reference numbered 


194 in the bibliography.” Turning to the bib- 
liography one finds that 194 is the number o/ 
the report of the Oklahoma survey by the 
United States Bureau of Education. On page 
366 of this reference, then, is found a recom- 
mendation concerning the ages to be covered 
by the school census. Other references are + 
be similarly interpreted. 

References cited in the discussion which are 
particularly significant or comprehensive ar 
marked with an asterisk. 


Discussion of Table 1 


Attendance Laws and Their Enforcement 


1. Why should an annual or continuing 
school census on a state-wide basis be required 
by law?—A school census is an orderly count 
of the children of school age in a given area. 
It may well include such items as age, sex, 
race, schooling, health, residence, and nation- 
ality. Information regarding the residence, mi- 
gration, literacy, and nationality of the parents 
is also secured by the school census in some 
states. The school census is a_ business-like 
stock-taking of the numbers and status of our 
most valuable asset—the oncoming genera- 
tion. It is the only sure basis for efficient con- 
trol and enforcement of the attendance and 
child labor laws. 

While there is not absolute agreement upon 
the ages which ought to be covered by the 
school census, the ages 5 to 18 would meet 
with most general approval. This is the age 
range recommended by the surveys of Okla- 
homa (194: 366) 7, Vermont (23: 106), 
Arkansas (183: 105), Virginia (215: 77), 
and New York (225, Vol. 2: 292), as well 
as by Cubberley in his hypothetical Osceola 
School Code (45: 185-187). The United 
States Bureau of Education in its survey of 
South Dakota (190: 48) recommended the 
inclusion of ages 5 to 21 and the tabulation of 
statistics according to the following age 
ranges: 5 to 18, 6 to 21, 8 to 16, 6 to 14, and 
14 to 18. 


Every state school law now includes men- 
tion of a school census. Thirty-nine states re- 
quire an annual school census, five states take 
a school census every two years and three 
states require enumeration of their children 
of school age only at five year intervals. (94: 
14.) 

The fact that thirty-nine states have already 
met this criterion does not necessarily mean 
that the school census laws of each of these 
states are fully adequate, or that their prac- 
tical administration leaves no room for im- 
provement. If a state can check this criterion 
in the “Yes” column, the next step should be 
to examine the school census law and its ad- 
ministration in the light of the discussion of 
this topic found in the citations below. Gen- 
erally speaking, each of the other questions in 
this checklist and in the self-survey as a whole 
could be profitably studied in this way. 


References. 23: 106; 30, Vol. 1: 162; 45: 
185-7; 46: 687-9; 56: 83, 189; 64: 64-5; 
68: 13-18*; 74: 153; 88: 20; 94: 14-15; 
137: 67; 187 18; 189: 111; 190: 48-9; 
194: 295; 190 ‘%0-1; 201: 99; 215: 28-9, 
77; 224, Vol. 1. 3. 


2. Why should 1 ° school units be en- 
couraged to establish ax maintain public kin- 
dergartens?—There is growing recognition of 
the educational importance of the early years 
of childhood. The changing American home 


1 See above for explanation of the system of references used in this handbook. 


[94] 





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and family life, especially in the cities, further 
accentuates the need for attention to pre-school 
education. Many states empower local school 
units to establish kindergartens, though fre- 
quently this permission is restricted by requir- 
ing a petition from the people of the district 

a referendum to a school election, or by 
limiting the permission to cities or other large 
districts. The lower limit of the legal school 
age is fixed at 4 years in 4 states, at 5 years in 
18 states, at 6 years in 23 states, at 7 years in 
| state, and at 8 years in 1 state. (46: 458.) 

Twenty-nine states permit any local district 
to establish and maintain kindergartens. All of 
the remaining 15 states, which recognize kin- 
dergartens by statute, limit the areas in which 
they may be conducted at public expense, eight 
permitting public kindergartens in cities and 
towns only. (68: 5-6.) 

References. 31: 3; 45: 13; 46: 458; 68: 
5-6; 143: 4; 159: 9; 175: 23, 118; 189: 
124-5*; 191: 214: 5-6; 215: 28. 


3. Why should the law require all normal 
children of seven years and over to be enroled 
in school?—This issue lies at the very founda- 
tion of the American Our 
theory of political democracy implies that the 
state is not only obligated, by considerations 
of equity and self-preservation, to provide a 
system of free schools at public expense, but 
also that the state must require the attendance 
of all children at such free public schools or 
their equivalent. On this principle our educa- 
tional institutions have been built up and are 
now maintained and until it is proved falla- 
cious it cannot be abandoned. 


school system. 


With respect to the precise age at which 
the compulsory attendance laws should begin 
to take effect there is very general agreement 
that the sixth year should, as a rule, mark the 
transition from voluntary to *ompulsory at- 
tendance. At the same time, * 
that there are a few areas in almost every 


is recognized 


state where geographic or climatic conditions 
prohibit the regular attendance of six-year- 
olds. Cubberley (46: 689-690) summarizes 
the trend of thought as follows, “The tend- 
ency toward school attendance legislation in 
this country is clearly toward requiring at- 


[ 95 


tendance on the part of all children be- 
tween seven and eight and fifteen to sixteen 
years of age.” 

The lower age limit of compulsory attend- 
ance is 6 years in 2 states, 7 years in 28 states, 
8 years in 18 states, and 9 years in | state. 


(Pet 3}. 

The average minimum age for compulsory 
attendance is 7.36 years. Survey commissions 
in Delaware (64: 64), Alabama (191: 99), 
and Virginia (215: 75) have recommended 
that six years be established as the lower legal 
age limit for compulsory school attendance. 

States in which children may enter Grade I 
at six years of age, but are not required to do 
so until the age of eight, create for themselves 
a difficult educational situation. The great ma- 
jority of eight-year-olds will be found in Grade 
III, but there will be a small group of this 
age who are just beginning their schooling. 
This group, at the normal rate of progress, 
will always remain two years behind the mass 
of their fellow pupils and constitute a serious 
problem in retardation. One of the purposes 
of a good attendance law is to encourage 
homogeneous classes, but where there is a 
wide discrepancy between permissive and man- 
datory entrance ages, the law fails to achieve 
this purpose. (94: 34) 

References. 1: 18; 11: 91-2; 30, Vol. 1: 
20; 43: 241; 45: 190; 46: 689-90; 56: 80-1; 
64: 64; 74: 31-9*; 94: 5, 35*; 114: 84; 137: 


66-7; 167: 45; 169: 41; 175: 23, 118; 180: 
37, 83; 183: 105; 190: 41; 191: 85-99; 194: 
294; 195: 8, 33; 215: 74-6; 224, Vol. 8: 


204, 206. 


4. Why should full-time school attendance 
at least through age 16 be required of all nor- 
mal children?—This criterion involves the 
same fundamental issues as are discussed in 
connection with item 3, above. ‘The plea that 
children may be needed before the age of six- 
teen to help on a full-time basis in the support 
of the family is unsound. The relief of poverty 
is a state function. It is not a responsibility 
which can properly be delegated to children. 
No child should be deprived of a complete 
educational opportunity because of the pov- 


erty of his parents. 


] 








Sixteen is the average maximum age for 
compulsory regular school attendance in the 
United States and this age has been recom- 
mended as the legal school-leaving age in the 
surveys of Indiana (88: 20, 109), Arizona 
(187: 18, 20), South Dakota (190: 41), 
and Utah (201: 167). The criterion of 16 
years as the school-leaving age is therefore en- 
tirely reasonable and below rather than above 
an attainable standard. The compulsory regu- 
lar school age limit is 18 years in 5 states, 
17 years in 5 states, 16 years in 31 states, 15 
years in 3 states, and 14 years in 5 states 
(94: 5-6). 

In addition to, or as a substitute for, age 
limitation most states specify certain educa- 
tional standards, such as: completion of high 
school course (4 states), completion of ele- 
mentary school course (39 states), attendance 
for a specified number of years or ability to 
read and write (7 states). Educational stand- 
ards for leaving school, if clearly defined and 
reasonably stringent, meet with general ap- 
proval from practical school people. In the 
case of an occasional child who graduates from 
high school before age sixteen, the attendance 
requirement would, of course, be waived. 
When a state has progressed to the point where 
good educational minimum standards for 
school-leaving can be enacted, the need for age 
standards is less marked. For the present, a 
combination of age and educational standards 
is generally regarded as best. 


References: 23: 30, 42, 66; 30, Vol. 1: 
20; 43: 241; 45: 190; 46: 689-90; 56: 101-2, 
227; 64: 64, 69; 74: 31-9; 88: 20, 109; 94: 
5-6, 10; 114: 84; 137: 66-7*; 187: 18, 20; 
190: 41; 191: 87-8; 195: 8, 50; 196: 50, 
60-1; 201: 83, 167; 215: 74-8; 224, Vol. 8: 
204, 206; 225, Vol. 2: 55-6. 


5. Why should a system of compulsory con- 
tinuation schools be maintained at least up to 
age 18?—States which require full-time at- 
tendance up to age 18 should record an affirma- 
tive answer to this question. 

The value of continuation schools may fairly 
be said to have been proved by experience. ‘The 
part-time or continuation school is an effective 
method of further adapting the school organ- 


ization to the needs of individuals. It ; 
draws the approval of employers and work. 
because it increases the vocational efficiency o: 
young workers and helps them to become 
oriented in the fields of industry or commer 
It offers an opportunity to give young wor! 
ers citizenship training at a time when the ai- 
justment of the youth to new conditions makes 
such training especially necessary. 

This rather general approval is reflected j; 
the school legislation of many states. The 
establishment of part-time or continuation 
schools is optional with the local district in 
seven states. In all other states the mainte- 
nance of such schools is mandatory on loca! 
districts under certain conditions. Part-time 
or continuation schools are often required by) 
law in districts with more than a certain popu- 
lation or in districts where more than a cer- 
tain number of children of specified ages are 
employed, or in districts where the establish- 
ment of such schools is ordered by the state 
superintendent or by the state board of educa- 
tion. 


References. 43: 245; 46: 689-90*; 58: 35, 
40; 74: 91; 94: 8-9; 98: 21; 135: 94: 
156: 3-4, 122; 159: 11; 167: 45; 175: 23, 118; 
179: 4-5; 182: 22-3; 187: 18-19; 190: 77; 
191: 273; 194: 23; 196: 25; 201: 167; 215: 
77; 224. Vol. 1: 143. 


6. Why should all schools be maintained at 
least eight months?—The fundamental answer 
to this question is the same as that alread) 
given to question 3, above. A _ reasonable 
school term for all children is one important 
element of that equality of opportunity which 
Herbert Hoover asserts is “a fixed ideal oi 
American individualism.” There are still six 
states which require a school term of six 
months or less. A child in a six months schoo! 
is two full years of schooling behind the child 
in an eight months school by the time the latter 
is in the eighth grade. Many teachers, espe- 
cially in rural districts, are being asked to 
achieve the impossible; to teach in from three 
to seven months what is officially acknow!- 
edged to be a fair assignment for eight or 
nine months or more. Eight months is set here 
as a reasonable standard for immediate attain- 


[96] 








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ment in every state. Most states should exceed 


this standard and, in fact, nine states have al- 


jy done so. Many authorities such as the 


reac 
survey staffs in Indiana (10: 210), Ken- 
tucky (11: 87), Maryland (56: 204), 


Delaware (64: 71), Wyoming (117: 41), 
North Carolina (119: 77), and others recom- 
mend a minimum term of nine months. 
[wenty states now meet this standard or ex- 
ceed it. 
seven months; one, of six months; two, of five 


Six states, have a minimum term of 


months; and one each, of four and three 
months respectively. (94: 6.) 


References. 1: 228; 10: 20, 100, 210; 11: 
9 87; 23: 30, 35; 43: 235; 45: 13; 47: 584; 
56: 204, 64: 71; 65: 26-7, 95-103; 88: 
15: G6: Ge-Grs 39: LUT: 41> 119: 77: 120, 
Part 1: 22-3*; 135: 97; 137: 66-7; 139: 114; 
142: 173; 179: 98, 208; 180: 35-81, 118-19, 
197; 182: 158; 183: 9, 103; 187: 43; 189: 109; 
190: 293; 191: 509-11; 194: 200, 364; 195: 
32-3; 201: 100; 215: 27, 64-5*; 224, Vol. 8: 
201-2. 


7. Why should the appointment of an at- 
tendance officer be required by law in each 
school unit?—This question does not mean 
that every loca! administrative unit, however 
small, should have its own special attendance 
officer. It does mean, however, that no area 
in the state should lie outside the territory of 
some field officer for the enforcement of the 
attendance laws, whether such officer be ap- 
pointed on a district, county, state, or other 
basis. The right of the state to require school 
attendance is fully recognized at law. Educa- 
tion is a natural duty owed by parents to 
their children and the enforcement of a com- 
pulsory education law does not invade the nat- 
ural right of the parent to govern and control 
his children. But compulsory education is not 
only a right of the state. It is also a duty which 
the state owes alike to the child and to its own 
preservation and welfare. The best educational 
theory and practice agree that complete ful- 
fillment of this duty requires special officers, 
by whatever name known, to encourage and, 
where necessary, to compel regular attendance. 
Only three or four states now lack legislation 
for the selection of attendance officers. (94: 


16; 102: 702.) 


References. 10: 208; 11: 158, 165; 19: 33; 
30, Vol. 1: 20, 158-9; 45: 195; 46: 691; 56: 
169; 64: 91; 65: 28; 94: 16; 102: 702; 137: 
68; 183: 9; 187: 19, 111; 189: 112; 190: 41; 
196: 61; 215: 77-8; 224, Vol. 8: 43; 225, 
Vol. 2: 155-6. 


8. Why should 


the appointment of attendance officers?—By 


school authorities control 


“school authorities,’ as used in this connection, 
is meant the state, county, or district school 
boards. Good administrative practice requires 
that appointments of all school officers should 
be made by the controling boards upon the 
nominations submitted by its professional ex 
ecutive officer—the district, county, or state 
superintendent. Merely to provide attendance 
officers 
guarantee of proper enforcement of the at- 


(question 7, above) is not sufficient 
tendance laws. It is important to consider by 
whom these officers should be appointed and 
the general nature of the qualifications which 
they should possess (question 9, below). On 
the first of these points, educators general] 
agree that both in practice and in theory the 
educational rights of children are best pro 
tected when all educational functions, includ 
ing the wise enforcement of compulsory at 
tendance, are lodged with educational authori 
ties. Any other practice leads to divided au 
thority and uncoordinated policies. This princi- 
ple of unified control has been recognized in 
the laws concerning the appointment of at- 


(102: 


In the other fifteen states educational 


tendance officers in thirty-three states 
705). 
authorities do not have full control over the 
officers charged with enforcing compulsory at 
tendance laws. 

References. 19: 44, 47; 45: 207; 46: 691; 
56: 199-200; 94: 16; 102: 705; 196: 61, 65. 


9. Why should professional or educational 
qualifications be required of attendance off- 
cers ?—Professional qualifications should be re- 
quired of these workers because they are en- 
trusted with an important professional re- 
sponsibility. The old conception of the job of 
the “hookey-cop” has been changed in progres- 
sive communities to that of an intelligent, 
skilled, and sympathetic social worker with 


professional training and professional outlook. 


[97] 











~ 


A, i aap aie gee Ree? 








~ ie 


AS a 
' 


Progressive school officials now recognize that 
compulsory education is not limited to the 
problems of truancy and non-attendance. The 
root of the difficulty in any particular case may 
lie in the school itself, the home, the commu- 
nity, the attendance laws, or even in the pe- 
culiar personality of the child. (102: 705) In 
many cities and in at least one state the term 
“attendance officer” is seldom used and those 
who enforce the attendance laws are known as 
“visiting teachers” or “home and school visi- 
tors’ whose function is to coordinate the work 
of industry, the home, and the school for the 
better educational adjustment of the children. 

At present only eleven states provide by 
statute any qualifications for persons charged 
with the administration of compulsory educa- 
tion laws. Of these only five set minimum edu- 
cational standards. (102: 702.) 


References. 1: 229; 56: 169; 74: 86-90; 
134: 351, 102: 702, 705.* 


10. Why should the state department of edu- 
cation include a person to whom is assigned 
the supervision of attendance?—In a few of 
the less populous states the work of state at- 
tendance supervision may call for only a por- 
tion of the time of someone in the state office. 
In other states a corps of workers will be 
needed. But in all states it is important that the 
local authorities receive some assistance and 
supervision in the enforcement of attendance. 
Lacking this central supervisor, some commu- 
nities are likely to become lax in the adminis- 
tration of the attendance laws to the detri- 
ment of the children and the state. It is diffi- 
cult in some places for a local attendance officer 
to enforce the law against his neighbors, and 
this difficulty is increased in many states by the 
fact that the local officer is not a profesional 
worker but a political or semipolitical ap- 
pointee, Recommendations for state attendance 
officers are included in many state school sur- 
veys, such as those of Kentucky (1: 228), In- 
diana (10: 195), West Virginia (30: 47), 
Alabama (191: 88), Oklahoma (194: 276), 
Utah (201: 32), and Texas (224, Vol. 8: 
206). 

Recent studies of the personnel of state de- 
partments of education show that special state 


officers with the designated function of 4. 
tendance supervision were found in one state ip 
1890, in three states in 1910, and in eigh; 
states in 1925. (158: 66.) 

References. 1: 228-9; 10: 194-5; 30, Vol, 
1: 46-7; 43: 249; 74: 100-1; 158: 66; 19): 
88; 194: 276; 201: 32; 224, Vol. 8: 200. 


11. Why should there be a uniform state. 
wide system of attendance records and re- 
ports?—Considerations of economy, efficiency, 
and accuracy discourage local diversity in at. 
tendance records and reports. It is generally 
agreed by students of the question that the 
state should set up minimum needs in these 
records, should print the necessary record 
forms, and distribute them to the districts, 
This would make possible complete and com- 
parable reports on school statistics from the 
local units to the state. Furthermore, in set- 
ting up its system of records and reports, the 
state should have in mind the legitimate re- 
quests for information coming from the Fed- 
eral Office of Education and should prepare 
to make the statistical reports to the Federal! 
Office with a maximum of accuracy and a 
minimum of labor. This procedure would not 
restrain the states and the various local com- 
munities from collecting any additional statis- 
tics which their special needs might make de- 
sirable. 


References. 1: 4; 11: 21-2; 23: 41-2, 54, 
30, Vol. 1: 18; 45: 186; 46: 688; 56: 17-18, 
84; 68: 3; 74: 460*; 88: 21; 115: 94-5; 
189: 43; 190: 49; 191: 511; 195: 33; 196: 
65; 201: 99-100; 225, Vol. 2: 287. 


12. Why should non-public schools make 
attendance report to public school officials?— 
Reports from all schools are a necessary ele- 
ment in enforcing compulsory attendance, 
child-welfare, and child labor laws. An accu- 
rate estimate of the state’s educational problem 
and position is impossible without such reports. 
Already the laws of 27 states require reports 
from non-public educational institutions. ‘The 
nature of the required reports vary. They are 
described merely as ‘“‘statistical” in 9 states; 
“enrolment” only is required in 2 states; “at- 
tendance”’ only in 5 states; “enrolment and at- 


[98] 





tendal 
requir 
107-1 

Rej 
64: 1 


13. 
educa 
and ti 
ing te 
educa 
fessi0 
the 1 
ture. 
fore, 
state 
exert 
legis! 

BY 
volve 
state 
schor 
ratec 
tend 
with 
chile 
pers 
8), 
ques 

(Tz 
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of s 
mat 
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7 
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Vol. 
91: 


nm 


0: 





tendance” only in 5 states; and “all reports 
required of public schools” in 5 states. (103: 
107-108.) 

References. 45: 211; 46: 713-5*; 56: 184; 
64: 121; 103, 107; 121: 142; 194: 396. 


13. Why should the state department of 
education maintain a policy of continuous study 
ind improvement of conditions and laws relat- 
ing to attendance?—The state department of 
education should exert the highest type of pro- 
fessional leadership in the state. It represents 
the interest of the schools before the legisla- 
ture. It is of fundamental importance, there- 
fore, that the department be fully aware of 
state meeds in attendance enforcement and 
exert leadership in securing wise attendance 
legislation and effective enforcement. 

The criterion implied in this question in- 
volves the whole question of the relation of the 
state educational authorities to an effective 
school system. This criterion has been incorpo- 
rated, not only in the present discussion of at- 
tendance laws and their enforcement, but also, 
with some modifications, in the checklist for 
child labor laws (Table 2, question 14), pupil 
personnel and adjustment (Table 3, question 
8), teacher training and supervision (‘Table 4, 
question 12), 
(Table 6, question 12), sources of school reve- 
nue (Table 10, question 15), apportionment 
of state school funds (Table 11, question 5), 
material equipment (Table 12, question 9), 
higher and adult education (Table 15, ques- 
tion 12). 

The general administrative principles which 
apply to all of these questions are similar and 
can most conveniently be presented at this 
point. Public education in the United States is 
organized on a state basis. The fundamental 
unit of control is the state. This does not mean 
that in practice the local districts should not 


employment and_ contracts 


exercise a wide measure of autonomy in the 


administration of their schools. The state 
should delegate to the local school districts and 
institutions those functions which can best be 
discharged on a local basis retaining always 
the right to re-allocate functions when chang 
ing conditions demand. The detailed assign 
ment of functions to the local school units and 
to the state varies, and should vary, from state 
to state. But experience in city schools and in 
corporation management clearly indicate cer- 
tain principles of general application. The 
state board of education, acting always 
through its executive officers, should have gen- 
eral inspectorial and _ supervisory duties 
throughout the educational system of the 
state. It should see that the school laws of the 
state are enforced and it should advise the 
legislature of needed changes in these laws. 
Acting on the advice of its professional em 
ployees, the state board of education should co 
ordinate the educational program of the state 
into an effective unit, minimizing duplication 
of effort and extending educational services as 
widely as possible. Such basic matters as cer- 
tificating teachers and establishing minimum 
standards of safety and sanitation for school 
buildings should be subject to the regulations 
of the state board of education. In all of these 
matters, the board should demand and use the 
advice of its professional executive, the state 
superintendent, and his staff. This advice 
should be based upon clear understanding of 
educational principles, a wide acquaintance 
with practice of other states, and an intimate 
and thorough knowledge of conditions in the 
schools. ‘This means that the state department 
of education will be, among other things, a 
fact-gathering and research agency bringing to- 
gether and interpreting the basic data upon 
which a comprehensive educational system may 
be built. 

References. 
101. 


46: 689; 74: 100-101; 201: 


[99] 











Discussion of Table 2 


Child Labor Laws’ 


1. Why should there be a minimum age of 
16 for employment of children?—This cri- 
terion does not apply at times when schools are 
not in session or to domestic and agricultural 
service at home after school hours. Practical 
experience and scientific study have shown the 
injurious effects of the employment of chil- 
dren at early ages. Too early labor results in 
depriving the child of a sufficiently solid edu- 
cational foundation to equip him for maximum 
or even normal productivity in the industrial 
world. As a result he goes through life handi- 
capped not only by lack of the fundamentals of 
a general education, but also by lack of spe- 
cialized training to qualify him for any skilled 
work. Moreover, he is deprived of the oppor- 
tunity for the recreation necessary for proper 
moral and mental development. His normal 
growth may be impeded and his health injured 
in other ways. 


The committee on Physical Standards for 
Working Children, appointed by the U. S. 
Children’s Bureau, recommended that the 
minimum age for the entrance of children into 
industry should be not younger than 16, recog- 
nizing that due to the special demands upon 
the vitality of the growing child during the 
period of pubescence he should be protected 
from the physical and nervous strain which en- 
trance into industry entails. The educative 
value of certain types of work followed under 
competent guidance is fully recognized, but the 
labor in which children are frequently em- 
ployed is far from educational in the best sense 
of the word. The standards suggested in this 
section are not inconsistent with the use of 
work as one aspect of a complete education. 
They do, however, condemn the employment 
of children under conditions where wages and 
production, rather than education, are the 
major objectives. 

The minimum age for employment under 
most of our state laws is 14, but there is a 
tendency to raise this age especially for work 
during the school term or during school hours. 


However, at present only two states have 4 
minimum age of 16 and only five have estab- 
lished a minimum age of 15 for work during 
school hours. It should be noted, however, t}2: 
many more children stay in school after the 
age of 14 than would be required to do « 
under the law, and that such a raising of the 
standard as has been put into effect in a few 
states does not appear to be impracticable. [np 
Great Britain the present government pro- 
poses to raise the school leaving age to 15 in 
1931. Local authorities in England alread, 
have the right to raise the age to 15 and some 
cities have done so. 


References. 38: 366-373; 62: 1-33, 45 
120; 110: 350-370; 206: 19-29. 


’ 


2. Why should 18 be the minimum age for 
employment in mines and quarries?—Work 
in mines and quarries has always been recog- 
nized as dangerous and as especially injurious 
to the health of young workers. The abuses 
incident to the employment of very young 
children and women in the coal mines of Eng- 
land and Scotland, shown in the Report of the 
Children’s Employment Commission submit 
ted to Parliament in 1842, resulted in the first 
regulation of the work of children in mining 
in Great Britain. In this country the first 
state laws (Pennsylvania, 1870 and Illinois, 
1872) prohibiting the work of children in 
especially dangerous occupations applied to 
work of very young children in mines. Prac- 
tically all the important mining states now 
have a minimum age of 16. A few have ad- 
vanced the age to 17 or 18, and in view of the 
special dangers of the occupation a minimum 
age of 18 may certainly be regarded as the 
reasonable minimum standard of protection 
which should be sought. 


References. 72: 70-83; 206: 31-2. 
3,4. Why should physical examinations of 


working children be required?—The child go- 
ing to work between 14 and 18 is in need of 


1 Acknowledgments are due the United States Children’s Bureau for cooperating in the preparation of this section. 


{ 100 ] 





special 
turity 1 
body, ft 
develop 
mands 
adjust 
industr 
childre 
jnjurio 
to prev 
in fit ¢ 
tering 
cupatic 
enterir 
standa 
fitness. 
amine 
of his 
fects s 
urged. 
cupati 
tender 

tion. 
Ter 

have 
Physi 
appoll 
Bure 
scient 
of we 
adole: 


Re 
20. 


5, | 
dren 
hours 
dren 
tends 
devel 
healt 
nity 
ation 
ing i 
ment 
The 
strai 
to be 
ous 


rabl 











pecial protection if he is to arrive at full ma- 


s 


tyrity with good health and a well-developed 
body, for in this critical period in his physical 
development he must meet the unusual de- 
mands of rapid growth and physiological re- 
adjustment. Raising the age for entrance into 
industry and prohibiting the employment of 


children in occupations recognized as especially 
injurious give only partial protection. In order 
to prevent the working of children who are not 


in ft condition and to prevent them from en- 


+ 


ering or continuing to work in unsuitable oc- 


cupations, the law should require that before 
entering industry children must meet certain 
standards of normal development and physical 
fitness. Ihe employed child should be reéx- 
amined periodically during the first few years 
of his working life. Remediable physical de- 
fects should be discovered and their correction 
urged. Children should be excluded from oc- 
cupations which might aggravate an existing 
tendency to weakness in any particular direc- 
tion. 

Tentative standards for such examinations 
have been formulated by the Committee on 
Physical Standards for Working Children, 
appointed by the United States Children’s 
Bureau. This committee also urges further 
scientific study of the effect of different kinds 
of work upon the health and physique of the 
adolescent child. 


References. 62: 46-53; 206: 23-4; 211: 1- 


20. 


5,6. Why should the hours of labor of chil- 
dren be limited to 8 hours per day and 44 
hours per week?—The employment of chil- 
dren and adolescents for long hours not only 
tends to be detrimental to normal physical 
development and often definitely injurious to 
health, but also deprives them of the opportu- 
nity for continued education and for the recre- 
ation necessary for developing and perpetuat- 
ing in the individual the fundamental physical, 
mental, moral, and social capacities of the race. 
The growing body is peculiarly liable to over- 
strain, and children are more likely than adults 
to be injuriously affected by the fatigue, nerv- 
ous exhaustion, or physical irritations insepa- 
rable from many kinds of work at which they 


are employed. With an 8-hour day now an ac- 
cepted maximum for adult labor, with a grow- 
ing demand for the 5-day week for grown men 
and women, and with a more or less chronic 
condition of adult unemployment it seems only 
reasonable to demand an even shorter work 
day than 8 hours for adolescents who are cer- 
tainly less able than adults to stand up suc- 
cessfully under the physical and mental strain 
of industrial life. Many states have the 8-hour 
day and a few have a 44-hour week for chil- 
dren under 16, but the regulation of hours 
of work of minors between 16 and 18 years of 
age, also in need of protection from overstrain, 
is far less common. 


References. 38: 242-6; 66: 3-14, 100-120. 


7. Why should children under 18 be re- 
quired to have employment certificates for 
work?—To give real protection to children, 
a child labor law, in addition to setting up cer- 
tain standards of age and of physical and edu- 
cational requirements and limiting the types 
of work that children may do, must also pro- 
vide administrative machinery for its enforce 
ment. The most effective method has been 
found to be through the requirement that a 
child, before he can be legally employed, must 
obtain a permit for the work showing that the 
conditions of the law have been met. In order 
to obtain this permit he should present proof 
that he is of the age required by law and has 
complied with the standards of education and 
physical fitness set up by the law. The person 
authorized to issue certificates is usually the 
local superintendent of schools or some one 
designated by him. In addition, in order to 
make possible a certain degree of supervision 
over the child after he goes to work, this cer- 
tificate should be mailed to the employer, and 
the employer required to keep it on file and 
to return it to the issuing officer as soon as the 
child leaves his employ. When the certificate 
is returned, the issuing officer knows that the 
child is no longer at work and can notify the 
school attendance officer who can then, if 
necessary, see that the child returns to school 
while he is unemployed. Before the child can 


legally go to work for another employer, he 


[ 101 ] 








net Bienen BIER ges one, 


pete NTE 


should return to the issuing office for another 
certificate. 


212: 3-38. 


8. Why should the work of children under 
18 in hazardous employments be prohibited?— 
It is generally recognized that the work of 
minors should be as far as possible restricted 
to the “safe areas of industry” and that in the 
years when they are peculiarly liable to acci- 
dents and susceptible to overstrain and in- 
dustrial poisons, they should not be permitted 
to engage in occupations unusually hazardous 
or especially injurious to their health. Youth 
itself is an industrial hazard and the natural 
heedlessness and the undeveloped muscular 
coordination of boys and girls under 18 sub- 
ject both themselves and their associates to 
undue risks. 


Reference. 


Nearly all the states have some restrictions 
upon the employment of children under 16 
in dangerous industrial occupations. Neverthe- 
less the statistics of accidents to minors in 
states where records are kept show that leg- 
islative protection is insufficient to prevent in- 
jury to thousands of young workers. The ex- 
tension of legislative protection to minors be- 
tween 16 and 18 years of age is far less com- 
mon, but is much needed. This need is demon- 
strated by a study of industrial accidents to 
minors made by the United States Children’s 
Bureau in 3 states (Wisconsin, Massachu- 
setts, and New Jersey) where the laws give 
young workers a considerable degree of pro- 
tection. It was found that there were pro- 
portionately more accidents, and more severe 
injuries, to minors 16 and 17 years of age 
than to those under 16, who were more ade- 
quately protected by the law, or to those of 
18 years or over who had more experience, 
more nearly mature judgment, and better 
powers of muscular coordination. 

References. 38: 515; 62: 53-8; 209: 1-3, 
63-90, 110-19. 


9. Why should there be an 8 year educa- 
tional standard which a child must fulfill be- 
fore receiving a work permit?—The lack of 
education among working children was the 
first evil of child labor to be recognized in the 


United States and the first for which legis), 
tive remedies were sought. Early laws require; 
merely that the employed child should atten; 
school for a certain number of weeks during 
the year. Later a literacy requirement, an) 
still later a grade standard, became conimop 
With the increased recognition of the desira. 
bility of a certain minimum of education! 
opportunity and equipment for all childrep 
the grade standard was felt to be necessary 
particularly because of two large groups of 
children in our industrial population. Firs: 
immigrant children of non-English-speaking 
races, because of the handicap of language, 
reach working age while still in very low 
grades. Second, in certain parts of the coun- 
try children from mountain or other districts 
remote from schools tend to migrate to our 
industrial towns and cities too late to obtain 
a reasonable minimum of education before 
they become eligible for a work permit. Al. 
though these two groups are becoming fewer 
the necessity for stressing the grade require- 
ment is still present. It may be that in the 
future further advances will be sought along 
the line of raising the age as well as the 
grade standard for children going to work. 


References. 38: 377-9; 206: 24-5, 33-5. 


10. Why should the employment of chil- 
dren under 18 at night be prohibited?—The 
serious physical strain and moral danger sur- 
rounding the work of children at night have 
long been recognized. The findings of the 
investigations of the International Associa- 
tion for Labor Legislation, as well as of many 
other organizations, showing the harmful ef- 
fects of such employment upon the health ot 
women, apply with still more force to the 
employment of children. Recovery from fa- 
tigue is obtained chiefly through sleep, and 
sound sleep during the day time is rarely pos- 
sible in the homes of most working people in 
industrial cities. Furthermore, lack of sun- 
light is injurious to health while constant work 
under artificial light increases liability to eye- 
strain and accident. The first of the Interna- 
tional Labor Conferences held in Washing- 
ton in 1919 recommended to its members the 
enactment of laws forbidding the employment 


{ 102 ] 





of child 
number 
and 18. 
of the 1 
found | 
states a: 
ind gir 
ip to tl 
4 reaso 
young ' 

The 
6 a.m.’ 
usual : 
more a 
span 0! 
howeve 
for res 
aid in ¢ 
New ) 
states | 
ment | 
tween 
the pr 
18 yea 
able, t 
in few 


Ref 
11. 


be ree 
in agt 
“helpi 
suited 
and it 
éause 
over, 
scale | 
agricu 
berrie 
childr 
tions 
factul 
emplc 
As ye 
) adequ 
i veys 
| betwe 
sectio 
ing a 
inclu 











a eel ay a a 





of children under 18 at night, with a limited 
number of exceptions for those between 16 
and 18. In the United States the prohibition 
of the work of children under 16 at night is 
found in most state laws but few of our 
states as yet prohibit night work for both boys 
ind girls up to 18 years of age. A prohibition 
ip to this age should be looked upon as merely 
, reasonable standard of protection for these 
young workers. 

The prohibited hours “between 7 p.m. and 
6 a.m.” are suggested because these are the 
usual standards in child labor laws of the 
more advanced states. The lengthening of the 
span of the prohibited hours is to be desired, 
however, not only as providing a longer period 
for rest or recreation but as an administrative 
aid in enforcing the hours of labor restrictions. 
New York has the highest standard of all the 
states in this respect, prohibiting the employ- 
ment of children under 16 in factories be- 
tween 5 p.m. and 8 a.m. The extension of 
the prohibition to both boys and girls up to 
18 years of age is widely recognized as desir- 
able, though at the present time it is found 
in few of our state laws. 


References. 38: 288-94; 66: 259-87. 


11. Why should child labor in agriculture 
be regulated?—The work of many a child 
in agriculture is not limited to “chores” and 
“helping” outside school hours at farm tasks 
suited to his strength. It is often arduous labor 
and in many parts of the country is a potent 
cause of irregular attendance at school. More- 
over, with the development on an extensive 
scale in many communities of commercialized 
agriculture, such as the raising of truck crops, 
berries, sugar beets, etc., large numbers of 
children are working on farms under condi- 
tions similar in many ways to those in manu- 
facturing and other industries in which the 
employment of children is regulated by law. 
As yet few states have child labor laws which 
adequately protect these child workers. Sur- 
veys made by the U. S. Children’s Bureau 
between 1920 and 1924, presenting a cross- 
section of the work of children in typical farm- 
ing areas in different sections of the country, 
included approximately 13,500 children under 


16 years of age doing farm work in 14 states. 
These child workers were employed both on 
home farms and as hired workers. The latter 
group was drawn either from the immediate 
vicinity of the farm, from a near-by city, or 
from the children of migratory workers. ‘These 
and other studies show that the detrimental 
effects of farm work for children under cer- 
tain circumstances include possibilities of phys- 
ical injury, the physical strain of long hours 
at monotonous tasks, bad housing conditions 
of migratory workers, and serious interference 
with schooling. 

In most states the child labor laws do not 
apply effectively to farm work. The adapta- 
tion of a system of legal regulation to this 
kind of employment and its administration 
presents serious difficulties. Sometimes, but not 
often, local school authorities take responsi- 
bility for the attendance at school of children 
in migratory families who come in for a few 
months to work the crops. Strict enforcement 
of adequate school attendance laws, the pre- 
vention of work at too early ages for excessive 


hours and at too arduous tasks, and some 
method of meeting the problems of the school- 
ing and housing of migratory workers are es 
sential elements in any program for protect- 


ing children from harmful agricultural labor. 


Reference. 207: 1-81. 


12. Why is there need for legal regulation 
of child workers in street trades?—Street work 
has been one of the last types of child labor to 
receive consideration and it is still far less ade- 
quately regulated than the work of children 
in factories and stores. A boy does not have to 
leave school in order to sell newspapers, but 
for this very reason papers are sold by many 
young children who ought not to work except 
at tasks that are educationally valuable. The 
average age of all the newspaper sellers in a 
survey made by the U. S. Children’s Bureau in 
7 cities was about 12 years and from one-tenth 
to one-fifth in the different cities were under 
10 years of age. This study, like many other 
surveys of children in street work, revealed 
many children working under extremely un- 
favorable conditions. Although the work of 
delivering newspapers on routes in residential 


{ 103 ] 








districts was found to be relatively unobjec- 
tionable, selling papers on the street, peddling 
goods, and shoeshining were often found to in- 
volve long hours, often late at night, and in 
surroundings distinctly undesirable for imma- 


ture persons. 

The lack of protection afforded these chil- 
dren is due to some extent to the fact that in 
many states the child-labor laws are inter- 
preted to apply only to the child who receives 
wages or other return from an employer. The 
“merchant,” however young, who works “on 
his own” is held to be outside their scope. 
Although New York passed the first state 
law regulating the work of children in the 
street-trades about 25 years ago, at the pres- 
ent time laws applying specifically to children 
engaged on their own account in street work 
are in effect in only 20 states, and some of 
these apply only to the larger communities 
in the state. 

Experience shows that the legal provisions 
essential to even moderately successful control 
of the street-trades problem include: a spe- 
cific law or regulation applying to the street 
worker, a badge system, and placing of re- 
sponsibility for badge-issuing, inspection, and 
enforcement definitely upon a single official. 


Reference: 208: 1-74 


13. Why should the issuance of employment 
certificates be supervised by some state author- 
ity.—An essential feature of the efficient ad- 
ministration of an employment-certificate sys- 
tem is supervision by some competent and 


properly equipped state agency. Without suc 
supervision it is impossible to secure any de 
gree of uniformity in methods or standards o} 
issuing employment certificates by loca! 9; 
ficers in the different communities of a stat 
The law may be well enforced in one coy. 
munity while in another community withjy 
the same state children may be given em 
ployment certificates without having produce) 
adequate evidence of age, of education, or oj 
physical condition. They may be allowed ; 
work without obtaining certificates at all. Ye: 
in theory all employees in the state are », 
quired to meet the same standards. The 4. 
sistance of centralized supervision is needed by 
local issuing officers both in interpreting the 
law and in working out efficient methods 0; 
procedure, and experience has shown that 4 
well organized system of supervision is essen- 
tial to enforcement of state-wide child labo; 
laws. 


References. 204: 32-44; 212: 23-30. 


14. Why should some state agency maintain 
a policy of continuous study and improvement 
of conditions relating to child labor laws?— 
In the absence of Federal regulation of child 
labor conditions, it devolves upon the several 
states to assume this responsibility. The latent 
power in the nation’s children is its most val- 
uable natural resource. To conserve and to 
capitalize this primary natural resource and 
to protect it from all forms of waste and 
exploitation is the most important duty facing 
the officials of any American state. 


Discussion of Table 3 


Pupil Personnel and Adjustment 


1. Why should a state-wide study of age- 
grade progress be made at least biennially ?— 
An age-grade-progress study involves the prep- 
aration of a table or tables comparing the age 
of each pupil with his grade and his grade with 
the number of years he has been in school. 
These age-grade-progress tables are then 
studied and the findings evaluated. (74: 325.) 
Such surveys have proved their usefulness in 
city school administration and are now well 


established in practically all cities as a neces- 
sary routine procedure in child accounting. 
There is every reason to suppose that such 





studies would be equally valuable as a basis | 


for attacking problems of state school admin- 
istration. In some states such studies are now 
made at regular intervals and the results hav- 
been favorably reported. The state-wide age- 
grade study will not supplant the local city or 
county studies but it has a special use of its 


[ 104 ] 











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wn in the comparison of various administra- 
units and various methods of coordinating 
the work of different educational levels. ‘The 
tate-wide study also gives a complete large- 
ile picture of the adjustment of the courses 

f study to the ability of the pupils. 
Where 
remedial measures can be begun; but until the 


maladjustments are discovered, 
location of the difficulty is accurately known 
iny attempt at improvement is bound to be 
clumsy and of doubtful The 


harmful results of avoidable retardation in the 


effectiveness. 


progress of pupils through school are well- 
Retardation 
tional loss to the child, may give rise to un- 


known. causes distinct educa- 
fortunate habits and emotions associated with 
repeated failure, increases the difficulty of in- 
struction, makes the conduct of socialized ac- 
tivites more difficult, encourages a low stand- 
ard for normal and gifted pupils, and by ne- 
cessitating much repetition of schooling, 
weighs heavily on the taxpayer’s pocketbook. 
It seems reasonable, therefore, that the state 
school officials should omit no opportunity to 
alleviate the evils of retardation. A regular 
state-wide age-grade study is an important 
step in this direction. 

References. 1: 14; 30, Vol. 2: 43, 44; 45: 
31; 61: 46*; 74: 325*; 98: 81; 116: 43; 189: 
128; 194: 296-9; 195: 52; 201: 99; 224, 
Vol. 1: 140, 225; 225: Vol. 6: 21; 151-4. 


2. Why is there a need for regulations cov- 
ering maximum and minimum sizes of classes? 
—lIn all state-wide regulations of this type; a 
high degree of flexibility is necessary. But, 
while providing for exceptions to meet un- 
usual special conditions, a state regulation 
which forbids the maintenance of classes above 
or below reasonable limits is desirable. The 
following statements illustrate the 
trend of opinions: an enrolment of more than 
200 pupils per secondary school teacher is con- 
demned in the West Virginia survey (30, 
Vol. 1: 219) ; the Maryland survey suggested 
4) pupils in average daily attendance as the 
maximum number for one elementary school 
teacher (56: 204); an enrolment of more 
than 70 pupils for two teachers has been con- 
demned in Oregon (142: 92); the position 
of Swift and Goldthorpe 


general 


in their study of 


school finance in the South is “that the largest 
number of pupils which one competent and 
well-trained teacher can handle effectively 1s 
from 25 to (180: 2); the Oklahoma 


recommended a maximum of 30 


To 
survey pu- 
pils in average attendance per teacher in city 


schools (194: 291); the 


dation was 35 pupils per room (195: 42); 


Arkansas recommen 


and the ‘Texas survey set a maximum of 40 


pupils, a preferred maximum of 30 pupils, 
and a minimum of 12 pupils per teacher, un- 
less “exceptional conditions such as climate, 
topography, or sparse settlements” warrant a 


(225. Vol. 3: The 


these recommendations 


smaller number 166). 


wide variety among 
indicates that the fixing of exact limits is a 
question best decided in the light of special 
conditions in each state. The important thing 
is that the question be made a subject of care- 
ful study through the state and that there be 


a well-founded state policy in the whole mat 


ter. Any effective method of control is suf 
ficient to justify a “Yes” answer on this 
criterion. 

References. 23: 107; 30, Vel. 1: 219: 


46: 465-6; 56: 204; 74: 128; 135: 171; 142: 
77, 92-3; 164: 6, 51; 171, Vol. 1: 10; 180: 2; 
194: 291; 195: 42; 201: 137-8; 225, Vol. 3: 
164, 166. 


3. Why is there a need for regulations cot 
ering the minimum enrolment of schools? 
This question, like the one which precedes it, 
should be flexibly interpreted. The objections 
usually urged against the very small school 
include: 


1. Very small schools handicap the pupil by fail 
ing to supply the stimuli of cooperation, competi 
tion, and large-group social participation. 

2. Very small schools handicap teachers because 
each teacher is required to handle an unreasonable 
such conditions it is 


diversity of subjects. Under 


almost impossible for the teacher to secure a 
thorough and up-to-date grasp of any one subject 
Furthermore, since inexperienced teachers ordi 
narily begin work in a small school, this burden 
falls on those who are least able to bear it 

3. The very small school finds it impossible to 
meet the 


Libraries, 


curricular needs of its 


and 


diverse pupils 


gymnasia necessarily 


either absent or extremely limited and wide en 


shops, are 


richment of the program of studies is virtually 
impossible. 
4. The very small school is financially uneco 


[105] 








~ Cs At ii in IE = 


nomical. From the state viewpoint, the overhead 
costs are high. 

5. The existence of very small schools often acts 
as a barrier to the establishment of larger and 
more economical units of school administration and 


support. 


Some states meet this problem by a method 
of apportioning state aid which penalizes un- 
necessarily small schools. In others, public 
maintenance of schools with an enrolment be- 
low a certain minimum is forbidden by statute 
or by regulations of the state board. Still an- 
other check on the small school is provided in 
some states by giving some central (state or 
county) educational authority discretionary 
power to establish, suspend, or consolidate dis- 
tricts. Any method of control which is effective 
is sufficient to justify a “Yes” answer on this 
criterion. 


References. 11: 121; 30, Vol. 1: 223; 46: 
466; 56: 218-19; 64: 53, 198; 65: 39, 40; 97: 
4; 98: 41; 123: 68, 69; 179: 183; 180: 160; 
181: 100; 191: 237; 194: 290, 291; 195: 55; 
56; 225, Vol. 3: 164, 166. 


4. Why should the law require local units 
to provide special school facilities, where neces- 
sary, for handicapped children?—This ques- 
tion involves the American principle of equal- 
ity of opportunity,—a principle best repre- 
sented, though imperfectly as yet, in the free 
public school. In the case of handicapped chil- 
dren—those who because of mental or phys- 
ical disability cannot fit into or profit from 
the ordinary school program,-—the state’s duty 
to provide educational opportunity is especially 
clear. Humanitarian, economic, and demo- 
cratic considerations all urge that these chil- 
dren be educated, insofar as possible, for happy, 
self-reliant citizenship. Children with defects 
of vision, hearing, or speech should be given 
special instruction and treatment. Special 
equipment, including transportation, is needed 
for crippled children, and mentally deficient 
children require especially skilled and under- 
standing instruction. 


There are three ways by which the state 
can discharge its obligation to educate the 
handicapped child. 

1. It may require local communities to establish 


special classes wherever a defined need for them 
exists. 


2. It may give special state financial aid or ; 
port for local classes for handicapped children. 

3. It may provide state schools or contracts wit) 
private schools or schools outside the state fo; 
special education of its handicapped children 

Ordinarily, a combination of the three 
methods is used to best advantage. In all such 
undertakings the eductional authorities should 
cooperate closely with state and local boards 
of health, industrial accident commissions, and 
similar bodies. In cities, special classes for 
handicapped children are generally main- 
tained ; smaller communities may need to com- 
bine for the purpose of providing such oppor- 
tunities or, when that is impossible, may care 
for such pupils on an individual basis. 

References. 30, Vol. 1: 158; 43: 344*: 
45: 83; 46: 701*; 64: 201; 74: 41, 430; 92: 
417, 418; 93: 1, 3-13;* 189: 42; 201: 50; 216: 
41-4; 224, Vol. 1: 140; 225, Vol. 2: 293. 


5. Why should the educational work of re- 
form schools be under the direction of th: 
state board or department of education?— 
This recommendation is in line with desirable 
centralization of educational authority as dis- 
cussed in question 8 of table 1, above. It is 
now widely recognized that the basic function 
of the institutions is reformative rather than 
coercive; educational rather than penal. This 
point of view makes it quite logical that edu- 
cational authorities should direct the educa- 
tional work of these schools. 

References. 19: 15; 23: 152; 30, Vol. 1: 
48: 45: 208; 139: 24; 189: 36; 190: 12-3, 22-3 
191: 56; 194: 122, 123; 225, Vol. 2: 287. 


6, 7. Why should the appointment of school 
physicians and nurses, wherever needed, be re- 
quired by law?—Most local school districts 
now recognize that the standards implied in 
these questions are essential to the welfare of 
their children. In rural areas, school nurses 
and school physicians are often employed by 
the county or other comparable school unit. 

Where school nurses are needed and are 
not provided, it ought to be possible for the 
state educational authorities to require their 
employment by law. Such a requirement is an 
aspect of the legitimate activities of the state 
in fixing minimum standards of health, wel- 
fare, and education. 


[ 106 ] 





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ymmt 


almost 


school. 


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survel 
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that 
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215: 
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lhe United States Bureau of Education, in 
rvey of Oklahoma said: 


One of the most helpful 
in the public schools is the 


agents in promoting 


school nurse. 
inspecting the schools frequently she discovers 


nmunicable diseases in their incipient state and 


thus prevents epidemics. . . The school nurse is an 
indispensable factor in a 


(194: 299) 


well-balanced 


almost 


school. 
Concerning medical service, the Virginia 
rvey commission recommended: 


The minimum to be considered should be such 
ovision as would permit the medical inspection 
school children at least once a year by com- 

etent persons. It should be remembered, however, 

that mere medical inspection can produce only in- 
formation and advice. Medical inspection without 
medical supervision and provision for medical care 
always be like a machine without 
195) 


must 


215: 


power. 


In the life of a state as of an individual, 
there is no substitute for health. The impor- 
tance of the early years in laying a basis for 
a successful and healthful life can hardly be 
over-stated. 
has a very definite interest in seeing to it that 
health services are available to all its school 


It seems obvious that the state 


children. 


References. 10: 208, 209; 11: 158, 159; 
19: 89-90; 43: 265; 45: 134; 46: 542-3, 695*: 
56: 200; 64: 153; 88: 110, 111; 92: 418; 93: 
2; 114: 56; 135: 99; 179:147; 191: 318; 192: 
51; 194; 299, 323; 195: 45, 50; 201: 142-3; 
215: 195-6; 221: 6; 222: 26-31*; 224, Vol. 1: 
208-9; 225: Vol. 2: 243, 293. 


Discussion 


3. Ii hy sh 


ucation 


uld the state department of ed 
include a person to whom is assigned 
relating to the 


the supervision of conditions 


health, welfare, and adjustment of pup 
Since schools exist for children, it follows that 


} 


conditions relating to child welfare should 


have first attention from the school officials. 
In every state department of education a pe 
son is needed who is directly responsible for 
studying child health; for exerting leadership 
and offering advice on child adjustment and 
welfare problems; and for enforcing and in- 
terpreting state laws on this topic. This of- 
ficer should work in cooperation with state 
health and labor officials. 

The number of state departments of educa- 
tion which include one or more persons spe- 
cially assigned to the fields child welfare and 
health is increasing. In 1890 there was only 
one state department of education with such 
an official and in 1910, only three. By 192¢ 
however, there were seven state departments 
of education employing a director of attend- 
ance and child welfare and fifteen employing 
a director of physical education and health 
service. (158: 66-67; 45: 311; 46: 

References. 11: 154; 19: 28; 23: 211; 30, 
Vol. 1: 47, 158; 45: 31; 46: 700, 705; 74: 
431; 97: 188*; 114: 34; 116: 60; 139: 24; 
158: 66-7; 181: 50; 191: 318; 192: 51; 201: 
48, 49; 215: 196; 222: 26-7; 224: Vol. 1: 160, 
162; 225, Vol. 2: 243, 255, 284. 


705-15 


of Table 4 


Teacher Training and Supervision 


1. Why. should teacher-training classes in 
connection with high schools be abandoned in 
favor of state normal schools and teachers’ col- 
leges?—The high school training class for 
teachers performed, during the formative pe- 
riod of many state school systems, a very valu- 
able service. But educators now generally 
agree that the preparation received in the 
high school training class is now insufficient 
and that no substantial reason can be found 
for the continuation of this work. As educa- 
tion becomes more complex and more signifi- 


cant a more severe and lengthy preparation is 
necessary. No one today is satisfied with the 
services of a physician with no better than 
high school education. Why should such a 
standard be longer recognized for teachers ? 
Although some of the older state school sur- 
the high 
temporary substitutes for 


veys commended school training 


classes as normal 
schools, recent surveys and writers condemn 
their continuance as a stumbling-block in the 
development of adequate training facilities. 


The North Carolina commission referred to 


[ 107 ] 














oe. 


the teacher-training classes as “a temporary 
and unsatisfactory arrangement’? which 
“should never be permanently endorsed.” 
(120, Part II: 154.) Parkinson reports that 
in South Carolina these classes ‘came into 
existence without a sponsor and passed out of 
existence without an advocate” (133: 84). 
A recent Vermont study characterizes them 
as “expensive to operate and unnecessary” and 
recommends their discontinuance in that state 
(172: 90). Even as early as 1922 the United 
States Office of Education recommended that 
they be immediately abandoned in Oklahoma 
(194: 151). The Virginia Education Com- 
mission made a similar recommendation in 
1920, declaring that the policy of maintaining 
teacher training courses in high schools “is 
thoroughly unsound and should be totally 
abandoned.” (215: 157.) 

The principal objections urged against -high 
school normal classes are: 


1. They do not possess the equipment or staff 
to give training adequate to modern needs. 

2. As makeshifts, they retard the development 
of better types of training institutions. 

3. Since they train rural teachers almost ex- 
clusively they tend to increase the already 
over-numerous cleavages between rural and 
urban America (193: 17). 

4. There is no state in the Union so poverty 
stricken that it cannot afford to abolish the 
high school training class in favor of normal 
schools. 


The chief school officials of the various states 
generally disapprove of such makeshifts for a 
state teacher-training policy as high school 
normal classes and low-grade county normal 
schools. Replies of these officials to a question- 
naire on this subject showed that only two 
chief state school officials unreservedly ap- 
prove high school normal classes and county 
normal schools. Thirty-four expressed disap- 
proval of these institutions and nine approved 
them merely as temporary expedients. (124: 
98-9.) 

Reliance on high schools as teacher training 
institutions is slowly declining among the 
states. The peak of their popularity was 
reached in 1924 when they were recognized 
in the laws of 24 states. (193: 66.) Since 1924 
they have declined in importance. Estimates 
place the number of students now enrolled in 
such classes at not over 30,000. 





References. 11: 185-6; 17: 20; 23: 119. 
20; 37: 75*; 45: 146; 46: 599-600*; 40: x». 
58: 43; 99: 130; 115: 63; 120, Part ||: 
154*; 124: 98-9; 133: 82-4; 172: 90, %@: 
190: 219; 191: 356; 192: 56; 193: 17, 65-0. 
194: 151; 195: 22; 200: 108; 215: 157; 219: 
7; 224, Vol. 8: 244; 225, Vol. 4: 65-94, 197- 
100; 226: 64. 


2. Why should high school graduation be 
required for admission to all institutions ac- 
credited by the state for teacher training pur- 
poses?—This criterion is not meant to exclude 
special or mature students whose preparation 
is necessarily irregular or deficient. Nor is jt 
meant to condemn the imposition of more 
stringent standards. But it should be fixed as 
a minimum. The reasons for setting the high 
school graduation standard for admittance 
coincide with the reasons given above for the 
abolition of high schoo! normal classes. Indeed, 
it is chiefly the existence of these classes whic!) 
necessitates setting up the standard at all. ‘Ihe 
fact that there are over four million young peo- 
ple enrolled in high schools makes the stand- 
ard entirely reasonable and practical. Requir- 
ing high school graduation as a minimum pre- 
requisite is now the general practice for al! 
professional training institutions. High schoo! 
graduation insures some intellectual and mora! 
selection. It is not sound economy to spend 
state money giving advanced normal schoo! 
training to those who are not prepared to re- 
ceive it. It is true that normal schools in 
America began as secondary institutions, but 
since 1900 they have steadily assumed col- 
legiate status in accord with the general eleva- 
tion of educational standards. (99: 295). It 
is sometimes feared that higher admission 
standards will reduce registration but experi- 
ence generally shows these fears to be ground- 
less. (184: 278.) Many states have set up in- 
tellectual, moral, and physical requirements 
in addition to high school graduation and there 
is little doubt among educators that all states 
are now ready to move up to the latter stand- 
ard at least. Such a recommendation was ad- 
vanced as the result of state-wide studies of 
teacher preparation in Wisconsin (7: 10), 
Kentucky (49: 89), Vermont (172: 92). 
and other states. 


[ 108 ] 





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591 ; 
14-1 
117: 
278; 


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73 10: 17: 4: 45: 143: 46: 


References. 
591-2, 610; 49: 89; 56: 73-4; 65: 121; 78: 
14-16; 99: 295, 396; 106: 947; 111: 69; 
117: 49; 151: 13-14; 172: 92-3; 184: 270, 


278; 189: 175; 190: 237; 192: 55-6; 199: 
55; 200: 98, 176; 202: 189; 215: 150; 224, 


Vol. 8: 248. 


3. Why should teacher-training institutions 
offer varied curricula leading to specialized 
positions? —Teaching is now recognized as a 
specialized job and a state teacher-training 
program should recognize this fact by differ- 
entiating the preparatory curricula. The spe- 
cialization may be accomplished either be- 
tween institutions or within them, depending 
on the particular needs of the state concerned. 
In each of the differentiated courses there 
will necessarily be found a considerable com- 
mon content. The degree of specialization 
must also be worked out to fit individual cases. 


One of the oldest types of differentiation 
in training is that between secondary and ele- 
teaching. Differentiated 
courses for rural teachers have also undergone 


mentary school 
in interesting development during the last 
twenty-five years. The trend of specialization 
in this field is indicated by the increasing num- 
ber of institutions offering specialized rural 
teachers’ training courses. In 1905, only 3 
institutions in the country reported special 
rural courses. In 1912, 27 institutions out of 
50 studied ; in 1925, 74 institutions out of 139 
studied; and in 1927, 123 institutions out of 
149 studied offered special courses for training 
rural school teachers. (193: 66-68. ) 

Some differentiation of courses is recom- 
mended by all published surveys which deal 
with teacher training and, when adopted, the 
policy of differentiation appears to be success- 
ful. Some complaint arose in Pennsylvania 
after differentiated courses were introduced, 
but an investigating committee, finding that 
the chief complaint came when students pre- 
pared in one specific field were permitted to 
accept appointments in other fields for which 
they lacked preparation, declared that ‘“‘the 
policy of specializing . . . is essentially sound.” 
(134: 224.) This suggests that an adjustment 
between supply and demand, not only in the 
profession as a whole but also in each type of 


service, is a highly desirable accompaniment 
to a difterentiated training program. 

References. 1:230;5:25-6*; 10: 237;11: 
169; 17: 157-8; 46: 612; 56: 57; 64: 39; 
65: 119; 78: 133-4; 99: 392; 101: 65-7*; 
106: 948*; 111: 63-5; 133: 241; 134: 224*. 
151: 22; 165: 40, 43; 177: 120; 184: 270; 
190: 297; 191: 360; 193: 4, 12-13, 19-21, 
52, 66-8; 201: 274; 202: 189; 224, Vol. 6: 
88; 226: 70. 


4. Why is a separate board of control for 
each state normal school or teachers’ college 
undesirable?—A unified policy of teacher- 
training is needed in every state. Such policy 
can be guaranteed only when all public insti 
tutions which exist primarily for training 
teachers are brought under unified control. 
Experience shows that separate boards often 
lead to undesirable competition among the in- 
stitutions for funds and students. The adjust- 
ment of the supply of teachers to the demand, 
the prompt modification of the work of any 
one institution to meet changes in state-wide 
policy; the calculation and comparison of unit 
costs, the formulation of an equitable teacher 
training budget—all these require unified con- 
trol of all teacher-training institutions under 
one central board. The proper kind of unified 
control will encourage local initiative while 
preserving state minimum standards and de- 
veloping a state-wide program of teacher prepa- 
ration. 

The details of organization for this central 
board are not fully agreed upon by educa- 
different 
states probably require different types of con- 


tional authorities. Conditions in 
trol. The normal schools and teachers col- 


leges may be placed under one governing 
board while the other higher institutions re- 
tain their separate boards as was recommended 
in the Oklahoma survey (194: 136). Another 
possibility is the administration of all the 
higher institutions by a single board which, 
however, has no organic connection with the 
state board of education. A third type which 
is recommended more frequently than either of 
the two preceding consists of ‘a state board of 
education which controls elementary, second- 
ary, normal, and higher schools. Surveys made 


in some states have recommended placing con- 


[ 109 ] 








~ 





Ese ee ee 


Sa 


"co eto 





trol of the teacher-training institutions under 
the state board of education. Indiana (10: 
252), West Virginia (30, Vol. 4: 117), and 
Mississippi (114: 354) surveys are examples. 
The extent to which normal schools and 
teachers colleges are under the control of the 
state board of education is indicated below, 
as of 1926 (unpublished questionnaire study, 
reported in part in 106: 944-948). 


State board has full control............. 17 states 
State board controls high school normal 


I hs ocd Hearinted co dnedncwe 6%: 6 states 
State board has interest and control 

through advisory relationships, cer- 

tification rules, or overlapping mem- 

WOE “Ka dvensude er cemisr One etGekua 5 states 
State board has no control .............. 13 states 
Other miscellaneous types of organiza- 

RE at wae St «Peper ER ar 7 states 

References. 7: 9; 10: 252; 11: 188-9; 


17: 179; 19: 15; 30, Vol. 4: 7, 117*; 46: 
610-11*; 56: 215; 65: 125; 78: 155, 183; 
99: 388, 90; 106: 946-7; 114: 354; 117: 
96-7; 124: 119, 124; 133: 254; 134: 234*; 
169: 102; 189: 41, 169; 190: 224, 291; 
191: 362, 509; 192: 9-10; 193: 50; 194: 
136; 195: 20-1; 200: 179; 215: 160; 218: 
123; 224: 343; 226: 11-12, 19. 


5. Why should free placement services be 
available to graduates of state teacher-training 
institutions?—In 1914, Learned and Bagley, 
in their well-known study, The Professional 
Preparation of Teachers for American Public 
Schools, stated the following principle: 

“The [teacher-training] institution’s obli- 
gations are not fully discharged until a prop- 
erly prepared teacher is successfully at work” 
(99: 396). 

Other surveys have made recommendations 
in keeping with this point of view. The edu- 
cational survey of Wyoming made by the U. 
S. Bureau of Education in 1917, pointing out 
that “a state employment bureau is a saving 
to teachers, . . . and enables school authori- 
ties to get impartial accounts of a teacher’s 
efficiency,” recommended the establishment of 
a state teachers’ employment bureau (117: 
97). Approval of such a project was also 
given in studies of teacher preparation in Ohio 
(124: 114; 17: 179). Missouri (78: 40), 
Arizona (189: 162), Colorado (196: 13), 





Utah (201: 48), and Texas (224, Vol. I: 
161). 

That it is the duty of the state to equip irs 
public schools with the necessary teachers is a 
generally accepted principle. If this principle 
is carried to its logical conclusion it will be 
seen that the state must be responsible fo; 
every step in the process, including not on); 
training but selection of candidates and place- 
ment of graduates as well. In discharging the 
last-named function, the state or some state 
institution should provide a method by which 
teachers may find the best field for their sery- 
ices and local officials the best teachers for 
their schools. 


The development of free placement sery- 
ices is comparatively recent. Wisconsin was 
one of the first states to make such services 
available. In 1909 the board of normal schoo! 
regents of that state established a clearing 
house to serve school boards and norma! 
school graduates. In 1925 seven state depart- 
ments of education included teacher place- 
ment among their functions (5: 51), and in 
four of these a member of the staff was defi- 
nitely assigned to the placement service (188: 
66). Many individual training institutions 
have also developed placement and follow-up 
services for their graduates. 

The inclusion of this criterion implies no 
criticism of the placement services provided in 
some states by semi-public agencies, such as 
state education associations. This service is 
of particular value in states where the state 
agencies are not in a position to develop state 
placement service. Even when the state has 
developed placement facilities the presence ot 
both state and private agencies may be of 
mutual benefit. 

While the question in the check list is 
phrased so as to call for entirely free place- 
ment services it should be recognized that 
there is not perfect agreement on this point. 
Some who have studied the question believe 
that a nominally small fee may well be 
charged. In states where state controlled 
placement services are already functioning suc- 
cessfully and are charging a small fee this 
question should be checked in the “yes” co!- 
umn and an appropriate note made in the 
space provided for that purpose. 


[110] 








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S: 30; Si-3*: 37: 179; 433 
174; 99: 396; 117: 95, 97: 


References. 
215; 78: 40, 
124: 114*; 151: 32; 189: 162; 193: 31; 
196: 13; 201: 48*; 224, Vol. 1: 161-3. 


6. Why should tuition be free in public 
teacher-training institutions?—There is some 
dissent from the implication of this question,— 
not so much a matter of principle as of ex- 
pediency. That is, when the funds from pub- 
lic sources are inadequate to maintain the de- 
sirable functions of a teacher-training in- 
stitution, many administrators prefer to sup- 
plement the public funds by tuition or other 
student fees rather than to curtail the effec- 
tiveness of the institution. But, if possible, they 
would prefer to maintain free tuition. The 
argument is sometimes raised that the accept- 
ance of free tuition is degrading to the pro- 
fession, but it is doubtful whether this claim 
is seriously considered by any considerable 
group of educators. A survey of teacher-train- 
ing in Pennsylvania thus summarizes what 
appears to be the more general attitude of 
educators and the public. 


The theory has been’ generally accepted 


throughout the country that the public should sup- 
ply this type of education in view of the funda- 
mental importance of the public school service.... 
On the whole the states that have been most gen- 
erous in this respect are also states in which the 
work accomplished by the public schools has been 
demonstrably superior. (134: 207.) 


The struggle to make the public schools en- 
tirely free runs all through the history of 
education in the United States. Only with 
difficulty were rate-bills abolished from the 
elementary schools. In more recent years the 
principle of free education has been success- 
fully extended to the secondary level. Now 
the struggle centers in the public colleges and 
universities, and in this area, as elsewhere, the 
logical extension of the democratic principle 
of equal opportunity demands that public edu- 
cation shall be entirely free at all levels. This 
is the attitude taken by practically every recent 
state teacher-training study including those of 
Ohio (17: 179), Wisconsin (7: 9), Louisi- 
ana (165: 85), and others. 

It appears doubtful, 
much progress is being made towards secur- 


however, whether 


ing free tuition in teacher-training institutions. 


Speaking of higher education in general, the 
United States Bureau of Education 
that “tuition and other fees have been raised 


(188: 


reports 
everywhere in greater or less degree.”’ 
10. ) 


References. 
85; 188: 10. 


7:9: 17: 179: 134: 207: 165: 


7. Why should the curriculum of teacher- 
training institutions include a definite pro- 
gram of social development?—Social activi- 
ties in modern elementary and_ secondary 
schools have as definite a place in the curricu- 
lum as arithmetic, reading, or writing. Con- 
sequently such activities should be reflected in 
the programs of progressive normal schools 
and teachers colleges. Not only do teachers 
find ability in social activities useful in their 
professional work but they can also be carried 
over into the out-of-school life of the teacher 
(5: 30). Bagley points out that the organiza- 
tion of social training “is especially necessary 
in professional schools, for the teacher’s influ- 
ence as a person profoundly influences large 
numbers of embryo citizens during the most 
impressionable years of life.” (177: 27.) 

The answer to question 7 is doubtless “yes” 
to a greater or less extent in every state. But 
although this question’ is necessarily in some 
degree equivocal, its importance commands 
a place in the checklist on teacher-training. It 
is a subject to which attention can profitably 


be directed and re-directed. 
References. 5: 30; 172: 81-2; 177: 27*; 
194: 158. 


8. Why should there be a uniform, perma- 
nent, and continuous census of teachers and 
their qualifications?—Only when the state 
has available accurate and current statistics in 
regard to its teaching force can it plan intelli- 
gently for its maintenance, replenishment, and 
improvement. State school officials ought not 
to be forced to guess at any important point 
in their work especially when it is a relatively 
simple matter to obtain the facts. 

The problem of teacher supply and demand 
is one of the most serious problems now con- 
fronting the teaching profession. Either an 
undersupply or an oversupply of teachers has 


a harmful effect on the efficiency of a school 


{111 ] 











system. In the former case either teachers 
with inadequate preparation must be hur- 
riedly marshalled into service with consequent 
lowering of standards, or else some schools 
must be closed. In the case of an oversupply 
there is great economic waste both to the state 
and to the trained teacher who is unable to find 
a position. The resulting intense competition 
for positions encourages unethical practices, is 
likely to force salaries downward, and dis- 
courages the most capable and ambitious can- 
didates from undertaking the preparation for 
teaching. A speedy solution to this problem is 
vital to the educational progress of any state. 
An inescapable first step in the solution is the 
maintenance of an accurate teacher census. 
But the problem of supply and demand is only 
one of many which can be studied by such 
a census. 

It is not surprising, therefore, that a dozen 
leading authorities on state school administra- 
tion and many state school surveys, such as 
those of Kentucky (1: 230), Ohio (17: 
179), and California (19: 27), recommend 
a continuing census of teachers. 


References. 1: 230-1; 17: 179*; 19: 27; 
34: 112; 45: 33; 46: 638; 78: 184; 101: 69; 
115: 92;' 124: 114*; 193: 50*; 201: 346. 


9. Why should every teacher in the state 
be directly responsible, for educational work 
performed, to a superintendent, principal, or su- 
pervisor?—The criterion implied in this ques- 
tion cannot be met by a mere requirement that 
all teachers must file a report with a state 
or county official, or by a statute empowering 
some remote official “to visit schools and 
teachers.” A “yes” answer should be given to 
this question only when all rural and town 
teachers receive the benefit of supervisory help 
and guidance just as do the teachers in most 
well-organized cities. The number of super- 
visors needed in a given state will depend 
on a variety of local conditions. Recommenda- 
tions on this point, as given by state school 
surveys, differ considerably. The Indiana and 
Oklahoma surveys recommend one supervi- 
sory assistant for each county (10: 206; 180: 
82), the Maryland survey a minimum of one 
supervisor for every hundred teachers (56: 
168) and the Wyoming, Colorado, Illinois, 





supervisor 


179: 99, 208. 


and Minnesota surveys one 
thirty teachers (117: 99; 
181: 151). 


References. 10: 206; 11: 158; 19: 40. 
23: 62; 30, Vol. 1: 126; 45: 48-9; 46: 678°: 
56: 168; 64: 90; 65: 116; 88: 53-4, 110: 
97: 83; 114: 299; 115: 52, 59; 117: 99, 
120: 138*; 133: 251; 134: 342; 139: 15: 
171, Vol. 1: 79; 179: 99, 208; 180: §2: 
181: 151; 184: 199; 189: 162; 190: 295-6: 
192: 56; 193: 60; 194: 363; 195: 39; 196: 
87; 201: 232; 202: 132; 215: 216; 218: 
125-8*; 224, Vol. 8: 18. 


10. Why should reading circles, demon- 
stration schools, helping teachers, and teach- 
ers’ institutes be used in rural schools if the 
personnel available for direct supervisory work 
is inadequate?—The above question is condi- 
tional. That is, it should not be applied to 
those states which already provide, either by) 
law or by the size and nature of the admin- 
istrative units, a good system of rural school 
supervision. Where a good state supervisor) 
program is in effect, the decision as to the 
particular type of help needed in a given dis- 
trict can be made on an individual basis. Onl) 
where large numbers of teachers throughout 
the state are receiving inadequate supervision 
is it necessary to use reading circles, institutes, 
model schools, and similar devices on a pe: 
manent state-wide basis. 

Where adequate state supervision prevails 
these devices may be employed temporarily or 
in given localities, as needed. Where good 
supervision does not prevail these devices may, 
in part, temporarily take its place. 

The principles outlined above have, in gen- 
eral, been followed in the practices of our 
states. When the state school systems were in 
the formative stage, the use of reading circles 
and institutes was widespread. As the state 
school systems developed those generalized 
methods of supervision were discontinued or 
minimized in their state-wide aspects and took 
their places as phases of a single coherent su- 
pervisory system extended over the state. In 
states with a relatively undeveloped super- 
visory program the generalized methods on a 
uniform state-wide basis still serve a usefu! 


purpose. 


{ 112] 





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References. 5:168;6:45*; 7: 11; 19: 64; 
23: 62; 45: 178, 182-3; 46: 679-80*; 101: 
89: 106: 946, 948; 117: 98; 133: 242; 155: 
228-9: 171, Vol. 2: 14; 184: 213; 189: 182; 
190: 238; 192: 57; 193: 61; 194: 237; 
196: 78; 198: 12, 25, 27*; 200: 104; 202: 
189; 225, Vol. 1: 71. 


11,12. Why should the state teacher-train- 
ing institutions or the state department of ed- 
ucation, or both, have a definite program of 
improvement in teacher-training facilities and 
of continuation training for beginning teach- 
ers?—Volumes have been written to call at- 
tention to the fact that “the teacher makes the 
school” and it is now universally realized that 
improvement of the teaching force depends in 
part on better training before entrance to the 
profession and better in-service training after- 
wards. Plainly, the responsibility for this im- 
portant work rests either with the state de- 
partment of education or the state teacher- 
training schools. 

In some states the two agencies are closely) 
allied in a single program. 


Discussion 


Certification 


1. Why is two years beyond high school a 
minimum desirable for all initial elementary 
school certificates?—State school surveys and 
writers on state school administration are 
practically unanimous in approval of this 
minimum. Says one writer: “No important 
recommendation or proposal regarding train- 
ing requirements for teaching has been made 
within the last ten years which contemplated 
a minimum training of less than two years 
beyond the high school for elementary teach- 
ers” (124:108). Other writers describe the 
two-year training period beyond high school, 
as “standard training,” (175:118) “gener- 
ally conceded” (7: 10) and as “a dominant 
standard” (23:122). A few (101:68) ques- 
tion the validity of setting the minimum 
standard for elementary teachers below that 
of high school teachers. But all agree that two 
years training or more is desirable for even 
the lowest grade of elementary certificate. It 


A recent survey (218: 100-102) of opinion 


among the directors of 138 state normal 


schools and teachers colleges showed that al! 
but one favored the principle of continuation 
training. All but 12 of these schools either had 
or were planning to begin a program of con 
tinuation training for their graduates. The 
offering of in-service training for teachers is 
in line with the general development of adult 
education, a topic which is discussed 


fully in Table 15. 
State departments of education frequently) 


more 


exert considerable influence on the follow-up 
training of teachers in service by means of the 
requirements established for the renewal of 
certificates. A recent study of 38 states shows 
that in 30 of them the state department estab 
lishes training requirements for teachers in 
service as a condition for certificate renewal. 

References. 17: 182*; 19: 27; 30, Vol. 4: 
115-16*; 34: 114; 46: 301; 78: 184; 99: 
390; 124: 82-3, 125; 133: 252; 151: 32, 
34*; 192: 57; 193: 34, 202: 189; 201: 43; 
218: 100-2, 133-4*; 225, Vol. 1: 72 


of Table 5 


of Teachers 


is not generally recommended, however, that 
this standard be instantaneously imposed on a 
low standard state. Rather, the state should 
build up to and beyond this standard over a 
period of years. 

The progress of the states toward this cri 
terion is clear. 

In 1921, only four states required some 
training beyond high school graduation for all 
In 1926, twenty-three 
states had such a requirement. (41:16). In 


elementary certificates. 


many states only a temporary certificate of a 
low grade can now be secured without stand 
ard preparation. 

References. 1: 61; 7: 10; 10: 35-6, 227; 
11: 170-2; 17: 4, 154*; 23: 122; 30, Vol. 1: 
108; 34: 99; 37: 78; 40: 21; 41: 12, 16%; 
46: 637; 47: 585; 49: 66; 52: 36-7; 56: 58; 
64: 39; 99: 131; 101: 68, 109-10; 117: 103; 
120: 132; 124: 108*; 125: 4; 133: 222; 134: 
231; 155: 226; 156: 120; 171, Vol. 1: 54; 


[113] 





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ee 


re: rhe me —_— 
Ee TL NTT, 


ee 








172: 39-40*; 175: 118; 187: 37, 40; 189: 40: 
190: 213, 221; 191: 354, 356; 192: 57, 62; 
194: 283; 195: 18, 24; 196: 23; 197: 131; 
200: 177; 201: 44; 202: 10; 215: 169-70; 
224, Vol. 8: 161; 226: 65. 


2. Why is four years beyond high school a 
desirable minimum for all initial secondary 
school certificates?—Practically unanimous 
agreement exists among students of state 
school problems and among state school of- 
ficials that the minimum training desirable 
for even the lowest grade of high school cer- 
tificate is four years beyond high school. This 
agreement is illustrated by the following quo- 
tations: 


It is commonly understood as the goal to be 
aimed at .. . that high school teachers should 
have passed through college with a certain amount 
of special training in the particular branches they 
are engaged in teaching. (64: 39) 

There seems to be general agreement in prac- 
tice throughout the country as to what constitutes 
minimum standard amounts of training for ele- 
mentary and for secondary teachers. . . . For the 
latter it is graduation from a four-year college 
with some specialization in high school branches. 
(133: 222) 


It is not generally recommended that this 
standard be instantaneously superimposed on 
a low-standard state. State school surveyors 
and others generally recommend a_ gradual 
building up to this standard and even beyond 
over a period of years. (46: 637; 190: 219; 
10: 227-8). 

That this four-year course should include 


some professional training is universally 


agreed, although the exact amount and kind 
of training is seldom described. Practice, as 
well as theory, varies greatly on this point. 
The amount of professional training required 
for the certificate based on college graduation 
varies, among the forty-eight states, from none 
to twenty-four hours. Fifteen hours of pro- 
fessional courses is the average requirement, 
and eighteen hours is the most commonly 
found requirement. (14: 68) 

The degree to which the states are achiev- 
ing the criterion for high school teachers is 
indicated by the fact that in 1927 twelve states 
required four years of college work, and eight- 
een more required two or more years. (9: 


154). 





References. 1: 61; 7: 10; 9: 154: 10: 
227-8; 11: 170; 14: 67-8, 71; 17: 109: j9: 
69-71; 23: 107; 40: 21; 46: 633, 637: 56: 
62; 64: 39; 98: 95; 99: 132; 101: 109-1) 
114: 165; 120: 132; 124: 108-10; 133: 2)? 
134: 159; 155: 226; 156: 120-1; 165: 23 
172: 38; 175: 118; 189: 103; 190: 219: 192: 
62; 194: 394; 195: 18; 196: 74; 215: {73 
224, Vol. 3: 83; 226: 131-2; 227: 9-10. 


3. Why should the state have exclusive au 
thority in certification?—The following argu- 
ments favor unification of certificating author 


ity (28: 221-222.) 


1. Local certificating officials are too much su 
ject to pleas for patronage and other forms 
pelitical and personal pressure. 


2. Local certification hinders the free movement: 
of teachers from community to community. 


3. Local certification is an unsurmountable | 
rier to the development of inter-state reciprocit; 
in certification. 


4. Local certification results in grossly unequa 
teaching staffs in the various local units. 


5. State licensing for lawyers and physicians is 
accepted as desirable. Why not for teachers also 

6. State certification co-ordinates properly with 
state teacher-training, state minimum salaries 
state-wide tenure laws, and state retirement sys 
tems. 

7. State certification is in line with the histor 
ical development of our state school systems 
(46: 622-628; 43: 216-218). 

8. State certification alone makes possible a fa: 
sighted program of adjustment between the sup 
ply of, and the demand for teachers. 


For these reasons, a unified certification pol- 
icy in the hands of state officials is widel) 
recommended. Local school units, however, 
may be encouraged to set up standards of com- 
petency in excess of the general state-wide 
certification requirements. (46: 624.) 

There appears to be good evidence for the 
statement that, “‘at the present rate of develop- 
ment it appears likely that in ten years more 
we shall have almost absolute state contro! of 
certification.” (43: 222-223.) In 1926, 
there were thirty-six states in which no loca! 
certificates were issued while in four others 
the authority of local units in this respect was 
inconsiderable. This is a striking contrast to 
the situation in 1903, when there was state 
control of certificates in only 5° states 


(41: 19). 


{ 114] 





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References. 7: 50-1; 10: 230; 11: 59, 
175: 17: 179; 19: 66; 23: 116; 30, Vol. 1: 
(08. 40: 14; 41: 16-19; 43: 220-2; 45: 149; 
46: 628, 638; 49: 46; 53: 97; 56: 65, 160; 
57: 188; 64: 85; 99: 347; 101: 97-8, 101*; 
114: 287; 115: 63-4; 117: 103; 124: 111- 
13*: 125: 4; 133: 212; 151: 19; 165: 85; 
171, Vol. 2: 8; 172: 93; 174: 38; 189: 40; 
190: 213; 191: 354; 192: 59-60; 194: 285; 
195: 24; 196: 22; 201: 44; 215: 162. 


4. Why should the requirements for cer- 
tifcates be set by the state board of educa- 
tion rather than by statute?—The needs of 
4 state for trained teachers vary from year to 
year. This variation is the result of many con- 
stantly changing factors. The best interests 
of the schools frequently demand prompt ad- 
justment between the supply and demand for 
teachers. Therefore it is unwise for state leg- 
islatures to attempt to formulate into law the 
details of certification requirements. The leg- 
islature may, however, very properly set up 
by law minimum and general standards, leav- 
ing the interpretation, application, and up- 
ward revision of these standards to the State 
Department of Education. Experience shows 
that the special knowledge and careful re- 
search which are necessary bases of sound cer- 
tification requirements are not developed in 
a hurried legislative session. 


The actual practice of the states is indicated 
by the following quotation: 


The school law of Arizona disposes of certifica- 
tion in a brief six lines. That of Wyoming takes 
two pages to assign the control of this function to 
the state department of education. New York’s law 
contains three pages on qualification and certifica- 
tion of teachers. Illinois lengthens it to five and 
others go further still. But even in the most ex- 
treme case the details left for regulation by ad- 
ministrative authorities are very numerous. 
(43: 218.) 


The length of the law governing certifica- 
tion is, however, an imperfect evidence of its 
appropriateness. Generally speaking, the cer- 
tification law ought to do these two things: 
fix minimum standards and empower the 
board of education to interpret these standards 
into rules and regulations and to set higher 
standards when deemed advisable. 


References. 7: 51; 11: 175; 41: 5-6; 43: 
219; 55: 206; 57: 218-20; 99: 347-8; 117: 
103; 125: 4; 133: 214, 165: 85; 172: 92; 
179: 99, 209; 180: 35, 83; 181: 150; 182: 
112; 183: 102; 189: 40; 190: 295; 194: 
393; 195: 24; 196: 22; 201: 45; 224, 
Vol. 8: 21. 


5. Why should there be special certificates 
for administrators and supervisors?—The ad- 
ministration and supervision of schools are 
heavy responsibilities. Persons not fitted by 
training and experience to engage in this work 
should be excluded from it. Although this 
work is guided by the same general principles 
as all education, it calls for types of activity 
somewhat different from those involved in 
classroom teaching. The recent development 
of the various branches of educational science 
increases the demand for specialization. Abil- 
ity to do successful classroom teaching does 
not guarantee ability to serve as administra 
tor, and vice-versa. Authorities agree, there- 
fore that special requirements should be estab- 
lished for the certification of administrators 
and supervisors. 

This question and the two which follow 
raise the whole issue of specialization versus 
simplification in state teacher certification pro- 
grams. While it is true that an extremely dif- 
ferentiated plan of certification may lead to 
undesirable complexities, the varying require- 
ments for different types of educational work 
should be recognized in the certification sys- 
tem. It is not possible to have every educa- 
tional worker fully prepared to discharge the 
duties of every position in the entire field. It 
is necessary to choose a middle ground be- 
tween over-simplification and unnecessary 
complexity of certificates. The two principles 
which must be reconciled are stated by Lewis 
in these terms: 

The number and names of certificates should be 
reduced to a minimum. 

The terminology of the certificate should, so far 


as possible describe the attainments and the rights 
of the holder. (101: 98.) 


A recent survey of certification laws and 
regulation shows that twenty states issue cer- 
tificates for administration and _ supervision. 
The minimum requirements usually include 
completion of a four-year college course. Ten 


[115] 





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states require graduate study for certain ad- 
ministrative or supervisory certificates. (41: 


24.) 


References. 1: 230; 10: 226; 11: 169; 
19: 66; 30, Vol. 1: 107-8; 41: 24; 43: 226; 
45: 163; 46: 633, 637*; 50: 46; 51: 64*; 56: 
55; 57: 41; 64: 179; 101: 98; 115: 92; 120: 
170-1; 125: 4; 133: 102, 134: 159; 165: 
23; 168: 401; 171, Vol. 2: 9-10; 194: 286; 
195: 24; 201: 44-6; 202: 12; 224, Vol. 1: 
80; 225, Vol. 7: 124. 


6. Why should special certificates be re- 
quired for teachers of special subjects and 
classes (e. g., music, art, etc.)?—The recog- 
nized principle of specific training and special 
certificates for specific types of educational 
service applies here just as it does in connec- 
tion with item 5, above. This is especially true 
in those subjects which require special talents 
as well as special training (art, music, etc.). 
The general principle governing such differ- 
entiation has been thus described : 


A sound certification system will provide as 
many kinds of certificates as there are kinds of 
school work calling for specific and prolonged 
preparation. (11: 169.) 


This criterion should not be interpreted as 
favoring lower standards for teachers of spe- 
cial subjects and classes. It means only that 
different but equivalent requirements should 
be set up for different types of educational 
work. The wide recognition of the need for 
special certificates is shown by the fact that in 
1926, 45 states issued one or more special cer- 
tificates. (41: 21.) 


References. 7: 99-100; 10: 225-6; 11: 
169-70; 14: 94; 40: 18; 41: 11, 21*; 43: 226; 
45: 169; 46: 632; 56: 208; 64: 175; 81; 98: 
95-8; 125: 4; 171, Vol. 2: 9-10; 191: 354; 
194: 286; 195: 24-5; 201: 45-6; 202: 12; 
215: 169. 


7. Why should secondary certificates be dif- 
ferentiated as to validity among the various 
school subjects?—This is another clear case 
of the principle of special preparation for spe- 
cial work. Competency to teach mathematics 
may not mean competency to teach social 
science and a knowledge of wood-working is 
not a necessary accompaniment of a knowl- 





edge of French. In the ordinary train), 
course no teacher can become familiar 
more than a few of the subject-matter | 
covered by a modern high school progra: 
studies. It is not fair to the pupils or to +) 
teachers to allow a person who is wel 
equipped in one subject to teach another : 
ject in which he may be totally unprepared 
Many authorities recommend that high se})oo! 
certificates be limited in validity to one or tw 
groups of closely related subjects. 

The small high school creates a difficu); 
problem in this connection. The groups of su! 
jects must be arranged so that a teacher ma 
secure proper preparation in them and at thy 
same time so that a degree of specialization 
will not be set up which the small high schoo! 
cannot finance. The proposal to differentiat, 
high school certificates is relatively new but 
it has been cordially received by educators an 
incorporated in the recommendations of 
number of state school surveys. This stat: 
ment from the Mississippi survey report 
typical: “A certificate should be limited to . 
the subject of instruction which the candidat: 
is specially prepared to teach” (114: 287). In 
a state survey of higher education it was d: 
clared that: 


> = 


The high schools of the country are full of co! 
lege graduates who specialized to a certain extent 
in one or more fields of study and were subs: 
quently called upon to teach in another field. Co! 
lege graduation is no adequate guarantee of ability 
to teach any or all subjects in secondary schools 
The requirement of graduation from college . 
normal school or its equivalent should therefore 
be supplemented by a minimum program of prepa 
ration required of each teacher in the several fields 
of high school work (227: 9-10). 


Nineteen states now issue specialized high 
school certificates to college graduates. ‘I his 
number is greater than it was a few years ago 
and other states have declared the adoption of 
this policy to be part of their program fo: 
the immediate future. (14: 90, 94.) 


References. 7: 115; 10: 228; 14: 89-90 
94*; 23: 107; 40: 18; 41: 23; 46: 633; 
56: 69-70; 99: 346; 114: 285-7; 124: 123: 
125: 4; 133: 256; 165: 23-4*; 171, Vol. 2: 
9; 174: 46; 194: 286; 195: 24-5; 201: 
46; 215: 167-8; 226: 132; 227: 9-10. 


[116] 





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8. Why should the validity of life diplomas 
lapse if the holder discontinues educational 
work for a period of years?—States which do 
not issue life diplomas will mark this question 
“does not apply.” 

The world is always changing and with it 
change the schools, their curriculum, their 
philosophy, their methods. For this reason it 
is generally thought desirable to set a limit to 
the validity of the life diploma in case the 
holder retires from active service for an ex- 
tended period. A typical recommendation on 
the point occurs in the Vermont teacher train- 
ing survey: 

The indefinite certificate should be valid as 
long as its holder teaches, but should lapse after 
a period of five years’ inactivity in teaching. After 
having lapsed it should be renewable only on pre- 
senting to the state board of education satisfactory 
evidence of fitness for teaching. Additional profes- 


sional or equivalent training should be required as 
evidence. (172: 94.) 


The question of the ultimate desirability of 
issuing a life diploma at all raises other issues— 
issues on which little agreement at present ex- 
ists among educational leaders. There is evi- 
dent, however, a clear approval of the prac- 
tice of having all certificates validated at inter- 
vals of several years and of requiring evidences 
of professional growth before this validation 
will be made. The life diploma question, like 
so many other educational issues, can no‘ be 
properly considered without due regard to 
other related elements, the chief of which are 
tenure laws, retirement laws, and training and 
supervisory facilities. 

Of the 44 states which issued life diplomas 
in 1926, only six limited the persistence of the 
diploma after the holder retired from teach- 
ing. In two of these states the persistence was 
three years and in four states it was five years. 
(25: 18.) 

References. 14: 94; 25: 18-19; 36: 628; 
106: 948; 46: 629, 638*; 125:4; 172: 94*; 
174: 46; 201: 46. 


9. Why should equivalent training and ex- 
perience secured in other states be recognized 
as a basis for certification?—Some inter-state 
movement of teachers is highly desirable. New 
ideas are thus circulated and broader view- 


points gained. For this reason a state should 
not, under the mistaken policy of “protecting 
home talent,” exclude competent teachers from 
other states by a Chinese wall of certification. 
On the contrary, “The evil effects likely to 
arise from a ‘protected’ teaching profession 
should be counteracted by attracting a small 
percentage of teachers from outside the state.”’ 
(201: 346.) 

Students of this subject and practical state 
school administrators agree that the certificates 
of other states should be recognized at full 
value, but that such reciprocity should never 
involve the lowering of essential standards in 
the receiving state. A simple way to accomplish 
this end is to authorize the state superintendent 
of public instruction to make reciprocal agree 
ments with authorities in other states whereby 
certificates may be issued to applicants who are 
holders of certificates in those states, provided 
that the essential requirements of those states 
are not below the requirements of the receiving 
state. This was recommended by the General 
Education Board in its survey of Maryland 
(56: 206) and Delaware (64: 178). 

The very great variations among states in 
certification terminology as well as in certifica 
tion standards are doubtless important rea 
sons why progress in securing reciprocity has 
been slow. Twenty-eight states now authorize 
recognition of certificates from other states. 
(41: 11.) 

References. 9: 154-5; 41: 10-11, 27*; 43: 
223-4; 45: 150; 46: 634, 638*; 56: 206; 64: 
178; 106: 948; 171, Vol. 2: 10; 190: 239-40; 
201: 346. 


10. Why should there be a minimum age 
of at least 18 years for certification? —In 
states where certification standards are high 
a minimum age requirement is not needed, 
since a reasonable minimum age is practically 
assured by the period of advanced training re- 
quired. It is true that age alone is not a good 
criterion of teaching competency, but it is bet- 
ter than no criterion. In states where low cer- 
tification standards prevail, the minimum age 
requirement serves a useful’ purpose by ex- 
cluding those who lack the maturity and life- 
experience necessary to command the respect 
of their pupils. 


[117] 








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ete 


Sateen te 


‘The importance of a minimum age limit is 
further emphasized by Anderson as follows: 
“Four tenths of the pupils in [Wisconsin] 
rural schools are taught by immature 
teachers not old enough to be given the re- 
sponsibility of suffrage, yet charged with the 
greatest responsibility placed upon any group 
of public servants in our commonwealth” 
(7: 38). A law or regulation fixing a mini- 
mum age must be enforced to be effective. 
Thus, the South Dakota survey in 1918 found 
that in spite of a law fixing 18 as the minimum 
age for certification, questionnaires answered 
by rural teachers contained the names of 29 
teachers under 17 years of age and of 53, who 
were just 17. (190: 210.) 

There is a clearly marked tendency to estab- 
lish a minimum age limit for certification. 
Only twenty-three states had such limits in 
1920, whereas in 1926 thirty-seven states had 
minimum age requirements for all certificates. 
The age most commonly fixed is eighteen 
years, although four states issue certificates to 
persons as young as seventeen years and one 
state sets a minimum age of sixteen. (41: 278- 
279; 40: 241-242.) 

References. 7: 38; 40: 31-2, 242; 41: 
278; 43: 227; 56: 209; 57: 188; 64: 183; 
171, Vol. 1: 54; 172: 104; 174: 38; 190: 
210; 192: 62. 


11. Why should candidates for initial cer- 
tificates be required to give evidence of moral 
character ?—Most states have laws which pro- 
vide for the dismissal and cancellation of cer- 
tificates of teachers convicted of immoral or 
otherwise unprofessional behavior. However, 
much damage may be done before these traits 
are detected and it seems desirable to set up 
moral character as a prerequisite to certifica- 
tion. The chief difficulty of this criterion is 
the problem of defining morality. It is doubt- 
less true that in practice the requirement ex- 
cludes only those with the most serious lapses 
of morality, and yet such should be excluded 
as far as possible. 

Evidence of moral character is now required 
for all certificates in thirty-two states. (41: 
278-279.) 

References. 40: 6; 41: 278-9; 43: 227-8: 
171, Vol. 2: 8; 174: 38. 





12. Why should a health certificate he ;, 
quired for all initial teachers’ certificat 
Authorities believe that this criterion sery, 
a dual purpose. In the first place it protec: 
children from the dangers of coming into dail, 
and intimate contact with teachers who are 
suffering from dangerous communicable dis 
eases. Second, since teaching is a restrictive yo. 
cation which makes distinct demands on thy 
nervous and physical system, a preliminar, 
health examination may prevent the applicant 
from entering a type of work which would be 
detrimental to his health and impair his eff 
ciency. The relation of this criterion to desir- 
able regulations affecting sick-leave and retire 
ment for disability is obvious. 

Fifteen states now have physical require. 
ments for all certificates. The stringency of the 
requirement varies from one general certifi- 
cate of good health to an annual physical ex- 
amination. Contagious diseases 
tuberculosis) and defects of speech, vision, and 
hearing are the chief objects of concern. (43: 


230; 41: 278-279.) 


References. 41: 278-9; 43: 230; 101: 
109; 174: 38. 


(especial; 


13. Why is evidence of training a better 
basis for certification than examination?— 
Teachers’ examinations are of doubtful re- 
liability in predicting teaching success. They 
are often of such a type that they show merel\ 
ability to retain a quantity of factual material 
for a few hours. Furthermore, it has frequent|; 
been demonstrated that examinations are not 
reliably graded. For instance, seven superin- 
tendents were asked to grade, independently, 
a teacher’s examination paper in each of the 
following subjects: history, geography, read 
ing, and arithmetic. The variation in the seven 
grades assigned each paper was from 44 to 9! 
percent in history, from 57 to 88 percent in 
geography, from 57 to 85 percent in reading, 
and from 65 to 88 percent in arithmetic. (41: 
14.) Similar experiments have been conducted 
many times with results which indicate the in 
accuracy of the ordinary type of examinations. 

On the other hand, the practice of issuing 
certificates upon evidence of training results 
in keeping the applicant under the observation 
of the faculty of a teacher-training institution 


[118] 





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for an extended period. Students who show 
little aptitude for teaching can be discouraged 
from entering the profession. Or, if their un- 
fitness for teaching be entirely obvious, they 
may be dismissed from training and started in 
other lines of work where they will have a 
better chance to succeed. Such a policy benefits 
both the candidates and the children in the 
schools. 

The nature of the demand for trained teach- 
ers rather than examined teachers is shown by 
the following facts from one southern state: 


In 1924-25 the graduates of normal schools and 
colleges held 72 percent of the positions in schools 
with six or more teachers, 61 percent of all posi- 
tions in city schools, 46 percent of all positions in 
long-term counties; non-graduates of teacher-train- 
ing institutions held 96 percent of the positions in 
one-teacher schools. (151: 20.) 


In other words the children attending the 
rural scheols were the ones most discriminated 
against by an antiquated state certification 
policy. 

Twelve states have eliminated examinations 
as a method for certificating teachers and sev- 
eral others have perfected plans to do so at an 
early date. In fifteen states some certificates 
may still be obtained on examination alone 
without any requirement of academic or pro- 
fessional qualifications. (192: 61; 151: 20.) 


References. 10: 229; 11: 173-4; 30, Vol. 
1: 107-8; 40: 19; 41: 11-12, 15*; 43: 228-9; 
46: 634, 636*; 49: 45-6; 56: 160; 57: 188; 
58: 43; 64: 85; 99: 269, 363; 101: 98, 103; 
117: 47; 124: 113; 125: 4; 151: 20; 155: 
224; 171, Vol. 1: 50; 174: 42-3*; 184: 224; 
187: 37; 189: 41; 190: 294; 191: 356; 192: 
61; 196: 23; 201: 44; 219: 16. 


14. Why should certification on the basis 
of teacher-training work in high school be dis- 
continued?—The high school training class 
undoubtedly served a useful purpose in. earlier 
days when state control of teacher-training 
was undeveloped and when teaching was still 
largely undifferentiated from schoolkeeping. 
Although the training given in these classes 
was certainly better than no training what- 
ever, the immaturity of the students, the lack 
of materials, the poorly paid and poorly pre- 
pared instructors made them far less satisfac- 


tory than the state normal schools which are 
now found in nearly every state. 

In view of improved transportation and 
communication facilities and of the great in- 
creases in national wealth and income educa- 
tors generally assert that there is no state 
which now needs high school teacher-training 
classes and that all states should abolish these 
classes as soon as possible. This recommenda- 
tion applies both to the training given in a 
regular four-year high school and to the fifth 
or post-graduate year of _ teacher-training 
offered in connection with a high school. 

In 1920, twenty-one states recognized high 
school teacher-training courses as meeting re- 
quirements for one or more certificates. By 
1926, six of these states had discontinued the 
practice. (41: 26; 40: 24.) 

References. 17: 180; 37: 75-9; 40: 24; 
41: 26; 58: 44; 990: 269; 125: 4; 192: 56; 
194: 379. 


Jt bo 


15. Why should all initial certificates be 
valid only for a limited time?—In teaching, 
as in every other vocation, the surest test is 
the test of experience. Neither examination 
nor records in training institutions predict 
continued teaching success with absolute cer- 
tainty. For this reason, authorities agree that 
all initial certificates should be limited in va- 
lidity to a period of a few years. Under a 
proper system of supervision, the small per- 
centage of teachers who are failing badly in 
their work will become known. If their de- 
fects are irremediable they will not be recom- 
mended for renewed certificates and their con- 
nection with the profession will cease when 
the initial certificate expires. If, on the other 
hand, the work of the beginning teacher is suc- 
cessful or can be made so, the supervisor will 
so certify and a new certificate, valid for a 
longer period of time, will be issued. 

Thirty-seven of the forty-eight states com- 
ply with this criterion as far as all elementary 
school certificates are concerned. (25: 18.) 
A few of these, however, issue initial certifi- 
cates for high school teachers which are valid 
for life. 

Among the states which require some ex- 
perience for an indefinite or life certificate, 
there is a wide range in the amount of experi- 


[119] 





2 emt 


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9S OR ET PRRES Same 






ence required. The average minimum teach- 
ing experience required by the 44 states grant- 
ing life diplomas for a life diploma valid in 
elementary schools in 32 months. The range is 
from no experience to 15 years experience. 
(25: 18.) 

References. 25: 18; 41: 28; 43: 226; 45: 
158; 46: 637; 78: 39-40; 99: 349; 101: 98, 
107; 115: 60, 92; 125: 4; 172: 94; 189: 40; 
190: 239-40; 196: 23; 197: 131; 201: 46; 
215, 170. 


16. Why should equivalent minimum cer- 
tification standards be required of rural and 
city teachers?—The principle of* equal educa- 
tional opportunity is involved in this question. 
The rural child has an equal right with the 
city child to a trained teacher. Insofar as cer- 
tification standards can provide for this equal- 
ity, they should do so. This does not mean that 
rural school teachers should receive training 
identical with that of the urban teacher. But 
while differing needs of the two groups can 
and should be recognized all agree that the 
training of neither should be inferior. 

Only five states now issue special certificates 
for rural schools which require an inferior de- 
gree of preparation than is demanded for a 
certificate of state-wide validity. (41: 42-260.) 

References. 30, Vol. 1: 108; 41: 42-260; 
99: 269; 115: 59; 172: 92; 200: 76. 


17. Why should practice teaching or ex- 
perience be required for all certificates?—The 
old theory that “anybody who knows a subject 
can teach it” is no longer acceptable. The field 
of high school certification is its latest strong- 
hold, but it is rapidly being displaced even 
there. Because good teaching is becoming a 
science as well as an art, because it is a pro- 
fession for which training is needed, and be- 





cause the primary interest of all tea 
should b: pupils and not subject-matte: 
introduction of practice teaching into the pr, 
paratory course of all teachers whether « 
mentary or secondary grades, is highly 
able. 

Nineteen states now require practice teach. 
ing for the high school certificate granted to 
college graduates. Four other states recom. 
mend it. In 1925 only seventeen states required 
or recommended practice teaching as a part of 
the training for high school teachers. (14 
70-71.) 

References. 14: 70-71*; 23: 107; 58: 46 
88: 49; 114: 286; 172: 92; 174: 45; 202: 
11; 225, Vol. 4: 99. 


18. Why should teachers in non-public 
schools meet requirements essentially equivalent 
to those required of public school teachers?— 
Trained and competent teachers are undoubt- 
edly the most important aspect of the program 
of education which the state provides. It 
logical, therefore, that in order to protect its 
legitimate interests in the educational welfare 
of children, the state should not permit private 
schools to employ as teachers persons who fail 
to meet reasonable standards. If the private or 
parochial schools wish to go beyond the state 
minimal standards for public school teachers 
they are then fully privileged to do so; the state 
is satisfied if its standards are not undermined. 
Four states require that teachers in non-public 
schools must hold valid certificates and seven 
others have legislation which requires in gen 
eral terms that non-public schools “must be 
taught by a competent teacher.” (103: 107) 

References. 43: 231; 45: 212; 46: 714- 
5*; 57: 268; 103: 107; 171, Vol. 3: 35-6; 
186: 428; 194: 369. 


Discussion of Table 6 


Employment 


1. Why should beginning teachers be em- 
ployed for a try-out period?—lIt is generally 
conceded that, while the best interests of chil- 
dren demand a stable teaching profession, a 
period of try-out is necessary before teachers 
are given an indefinite appointment. During 


and Contracts 


this period the teacher should be under super- 
vision of a constructive type. The factors 
which condition teaching success are so many, 
so varied, and so inter-related that the predic- 
tion of success is necessarily uncertain. Since 
experience must be the final test of teaching 


[120] 





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ability, a try-out period for beginners is neces- 
ary. With respect to the optimum duration 
of the trial period, opinions differ slightly. Va- 
‘ious authorities recommend periods of from 
| to 5 years, with 3 years as the most com- 
monly suggested probationary period. ‘The try- 
out period of service has been recommended 
by school surveys and by the country’s lead- 
ing authorities on school administration. In 
most states a try-out period is required by the 
nature of the certification system, which re- 
quires that all initial certification be valid for 
a limited term. (See also Table 5, question 
15.) 

A state that can answer this question in the 
afirmative should not rest satisfied that there 
is no room for further improvement. Further 
related points that might be considered include: 

1. Are beginning teachers getting a fair chance 
to make good through the right kind of helpful 
supervision ? 

2. Is this supervisory help available for both 
rural and urban teachers? 

3. Are desirable connections made between this 
try-out supervision and the pre-service preparation 
of the teacher? 

Similarly each of the succeeding questions 
might be developed into a series of related in- 
vestigations which, collected together, would 
give a complete picture of the contractual re- 
lationships of teachers and employing boards 
in the state. 

References. 5: 231; 7: 109; 8: 139; 27: 22; 
45: 174; 46: 648; 48: 51-2; 83: 38; 86: 205; 
87: 211*; 91: 142*; 101: 357; 128: 151-2; 
192: 56; 215, Part 1: 147-8. 


2. Why should an indefinite appointment 
be required after a satisfactory period of trial 
service?—An indefinite appointment means 
that each teacher is employed as long as his ef- 
ficiency and value to the schools remain un- 
impaired. Annual applications and re-elections 
are no longer necessary, the presumption be- 
ing that the position will be open to the 
teacher as long as efficient service continues. 
Teachers cannot work at highest efficiency 
when they are compelled to scramble for a 
position every year. The annual election is re- 
quired in few other forms of responsible public 
service. Almack and Lang report that “there 
is more sickness among teachers, and more 


cases of nervous breakdown during the period 
of suspense attending the annual election than 
at any other time during the year.”” (5: 218.) 
The experience of other nations shows that 
the extensive annual migrations of American 
(128: 156-158.) 
There is no evidence that the practice of indet- 


teachers are unnecessary. 
inite appointments tend to retard the devel- 
opment or decrease the efficiency of the teach- 
ing staft. Indeed, the evidence available shows 
that increased security of position has been 
accompanied by higher professional standards 
(86: 206-212). For these reasons, we find 
that leaders in school administration favor an 
indefinite appointment after a successful try- 
out period. In order to avoid the annual elec- 
tion of all teachers it is necessary in most states 
to enact statutes legalizing the indefinite con- 
tract. Unless this is done, the courts have gen- 
erally held that contracts must be on an an- 
nual basis (4: 126). 

References. 4: 125-6; 5: 218, 231; 7: 109; 
8: 139; 45; 174; 46: 648; 48: 52; 83: 37-8; 
86: 205; 87: 211; 91: 143; 101: 356-7; 128: 
151-2, 156; 192: 55; 215, Part 1: 247-8. 


3. Why should continued employment be 
made contingent on a reasonable program of 
study or other forms of improvement?—The 
scientific aspects of education are developing 
rapidly. New methods of teaching are con- 
stantly being devised, new equipment is be- 
ing perfected, new subject matter is being de- 
veloped, and new objectives are being pro- 
posed. Children have a right to the best teach- 
ing available and an out-of-date teacher cannot 
give the most effective service of which he is 
capable. The need for continuous growth is 
no less urgent in teaching than in law or med- 
icine. Educational leaders agree that boards 
of education should, either explicitly or im- 
plicitly, be empowered by law to require their 
employees to make a reasonable effort to keep 
up with educational progress and to make 
continued employment depend on continued 
improvement. Continuity of service is thus 
based on professional growth and efficient 
work. 

References. 5: 231; 7: 109; 46: 648; 86: 
205; 87: 210; 88: 110; 91: 143.* 


{ 121] 








4. Why should it be possible for teachers on 
indefinite appointment to be dismissed for in- 
competency or other good causes?—The only 
sound reason for state legislation governing 
the employment and contracts of teachers is 
better teaching service. There is universal 
agreement, therefore, that under no conditions 
should it be made difficult to discharge a 
teacher whose unfitness for his work can be 
demonstrated. 

In 1924 a survey of opinion among ten 
professional and lay groups as to valid causes 
for dismissal showed that the following causes 
were then generally held to be valid by five 
or more groups (128: 165): 

. Proved lapse of moral character 
. Continued inability to maintain discipline 
. Proved insubordination 


. Manifest or proved physical disability 
. Lack of sympathy with children 


wtrt wh = 


Statutory causes for teacher dismissal which 
were frequently named in state laws in 1926 
include: “inefficiency” in 23 states, “willful 
neglect of duty” in 23 states, “immorality” in 
22 states, “misconduct” in 11 states, “incom- 
petency” in 10 states, “good and sufficient rea- 
sons” in 9 states, and “tuberculosis” in 9 
states. (8: 99) 

References. 4: 64-5; 8: 98-101*, 139-40; 
45: 175; 46: 648*; 48: 52; 83: 38; 86: 206; 
87: 211*; 91: 142-3; 128: 151-2, 159-65; 
215, Part 1: 147-8. 


5. Why should the power to dismiss be in 
the hands of the appointing body?—The board 
of education is responsible to its constituency 
for an efficient school system and must see 
that school executives and teachers work to 
that end. Inefficient teachers should be re- 
moved and their places taken by those who 
are properly qualified. Although in practice 
boards of education wisely delegate large pow- 
ers in the appointment and removal of teach- 
ers to professional executives and act only on 
their recommendation, it is generally conceded 
that final authority to appoint and dismiss 
teachers must rest with the board of education. 
The courts, too, have generally held that the 
power to appoint implies the power to dis- 
miss. (2: 61; 13: 53.) Good schools depend 
on a unitary authoritative control by repre- 





sentatives of the people and their execu: 
To divide administrative authority by delegay. 
ing power to dismiss teachers to any other of. 
ficial is unsound. 


References. 8: 102-3, 139; 45: 174 
648; 48: 53; 83: 38; 86: 205; 87: 211* 
142-4, 

6. Why should the law require a notice 
dismissal?—It is generally agreed that, in 
cases where a teacher appears to have failed 
in his duty, the proper immediate remedy oj 
the board is not immediate dismissal, but sus 
pension with a notice of future dismissal jj 
investigation shows the charges to be well. 
founded. This delay gives an opportunity for 
a dispassionate investigation and is fair to al! 
concerned. The reasons for dismissal should 
be clearly stated in writing. Such procedure 
fully protects the children against undesirable 
teachers on the one hand and capricious or 
political control of their schools on the other, 

The recommended period of notice before 
dismissal varies, but a period of thirty days 
is probably as satisfactory as any. 


References. 5: 231; 8: 103-5, 139; 45: 
174; 46: 649*; 48: 52-3; 83: 38; 86: 206: 
87: 211*; 91: 143. 

7. Why should an appeal to the state edu- 
cational authority be permitted?—The issues 
involved in the dismissal of a teacher some- 
times become intensely personal. Under such 
circumstances, neither of the parties involved 
is capable of assuming an unprejudiced atti- 
tude. In view of this fact authorities general; 
agree that the interests of both the children 
and the teacher should be protected by the 
right of appeal to the state educational author- 
ity. That this appeal should be to a profes- 
sional rather than a judicial body is recog- 
nized not only by educators, but by the courts 
as well. (4: 126.) The right of a teacher to 
appeal to a court of competent jurisdiction on 
a question of law or fact already exists and 
cannot be abridged. But, the dismissal of a 
teacher should be, in most cases, a professional! 
rather than a legal matter. Furthermore, ex- 
perience shows that when an appeal to a pro- 
fessional authority is provided teachers sel- 
dom choose to carry the case before the courts. 
Ordinarily, an appeal to a professional officer 


46: 
91: 


[122] 


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‘< more dignified, more expeditious, less com- 
plicated and more satisfactory than that to a 
court. Thus, of forty-nine appeals involving 
the contractual status of teachers and school 
hoards in New Jersey between 1909 
1929, only five were carried to the courts 
and forty-four to state educational authorities. 

References. 4: 127; 5: 231; 8: 105-9, 111, 
139; 45: 175; 46: 649*; 48: 53; 83: 39*; 86: 
214; 91: 144. 


and 


8. Why should the laws governing teach- 
ers’ employment and contracts be state-wide 
in their application?—Discrimination in legal 
rights between teachers in rural and urban 
communities is one of the undesirable circum- 
stances which tends to drive the best and most 
experienced teachers away from rural schools. 
In those states which have lower certification 
standards for rural schools than for urban 
schools and in those states where faulty ad- 
ministrative machinery deprives rural children 
of the benefits of a constructive supervisory 
program, it may be temporarily inexpedient 
immediately to extend the principle of indefi- 
nite appointment during satisfactory service 
to rural communities. The improvement of 
the contractual status of teachers is so closely 
connected with the improvement of supervi- 
sion, training and certification, (see Tables 4 
and 5) that it is unwise to consider them 
apart from each other. Authorities agree, how- 
ever, that the rights of children in rural com- 
munities to well-trained, experienced teachers 
and progressively supervised schools should be 
respected. State-wide laws to encourage a 
stable teaching profession are one step in this 
direction. 

References. 5: 230; 7:9, 11; 27: 22; 45: 
174; 83: 38; 86: 206; 91: 143; 128: 154; 215, 
Part 1: 147. 


9. Why should the violation of a contract 
by a teacher be accompanied by definite pen- 
alties?>—The relationship between the teacher 
and the employing board is reciprocal. Both 
have certain rights and both have certain du- 
ties which they owe to each other and to the 
children whom they serve. If the teacher may 
expect continuous employment during good 


service, the board ought also to be protected 
against the small percentage of teachers who 
are willing to violate a contract to teach 
during a stated period. The most prevalent 
cause of violated contracts is the custom which 
obtains in some communities of delaying the 
election of teachers until the term is over ot 
even later. This practice results in a confused 
and anxious scramble for position by the teach- 
ers, in hasty and poorly founded judgments 
by employing boards, and in resultant harm 
to the schools and the children. Most of these 
difficulties could be avoided by abolishing the 
annual election of experienced teachers, o1 
when this is impossible, by holding elections 
at a reasonably early date. 

When a teacher asks to be released from 
a contract for good reasons the board should 
make every effort to accede to the request. It 
is now the practice of many boards of educa 
tion willingly to release teachers who have 
greater professional opportunities than they 
can offer. But, if there is not sufficient time 
for the board to secure an acceptable substi- 
tute the teacher should not ask for, and the 
board should not grant, a release. 

Any teacher who violates a contract is act 
ing in an unethical manner. Because of the 
few teachers who are willing to destroy thei: 
professional good name in this way, many 
authorities recommend and state laws some 
times require that the violation of a contract 
be accompanied by definite penalties. Loss of 
status, loss of salary, and revocation of cer- 
tificate are most commonly suggested as pen- 
alties. 


References. 4: 101-06; 8: 140*; 83: 38. 


10. Why should the state department of 
education maintain a policy of continuous 
study and improvement of the factors affect- 
ing the teachers’ contracts and the stability 
of the teaching profession?—A stable teach- 
ing profession means better schools and_ in- 
creased efficiency in teaching. The interest of 
the state in these objectives should be con- 
served through the work of the state depart- 
ment of education. The department should 
know the facts concerning the turnover and 


migration of teachers in the state and should 


{ 123 ] 
























be working towards a program of professional 
stability. For a general consideration of the 
function of the state department of education 
in improving school conditions throughout the 


|. Why should there be state laws or regu- 

lations governing the minimum amount of 
teachers’ salaries?—Educational authorities 
recognize, in state minimum salary laws, one 
means of improving the condition of the small 
rural schools. The low salary of the rural 
school teacher is one of the reasons why rural 
school teaching is done very largely by rela- 
tively untrained, relatively inexperienced, and 
relatively young teachers. A properly con- 
structed and administered state minimum sal- 
ary law helps to remedy, in part, this disad- 
vantageous position. In respect to salaries as 
in other respects the réle of the state should 
be constantly to level up conditions in the less 
progressive districts, to act in an advisory ca- 
pacity in developing new procedures, to se- 
cure, as nearly as may be, an equal (though not 
identical) educational opportunity to every 
child, and to prescribe minimal conditions be- 
low which no local school unit may be allowed 
to fall. 

The Virginia Education Commission and 
Survey Staff pointed out that, although a fixed 
salary schedule for the whole state is imprac- 
tical, a minimum annual salary should be fixed. 
(215: 147) The Kansas School Code Com- 
mission refers to a minimum state salary sched- 
ule as “an important guarantee of an adequate 
minimum program of education.” (171, 
Vol. 2: 41) The Kentucky survey pointed out 
that “while boards of education employing 
teachers holding standard certificates should 
not be permitted to pay them less, they should 
be permitted to pay such teachers more than 
the state minimum.” (11: 176) This last 
point is especially important. Every care should 
be taken in wording the minimum salary law 
and later in enforcing it that there be no 
encouragement given backward districts to 
vonsider the minimum salary as a maximum. 


Discussion of Table 7 


State Salary Laws 


{ 124] 


state see the discussion of question 13 of Tah), 

1, page 99. 
References. 

196: 77. 


The arguments in favor of state minimum 
salary legislation have been summarized }y 
Grimm as follows: 


1. Every teacher worth being in school work 
is worth a compensation based on the level of 
social and economic justice. 

2. The state should see that public servants who 
are carrying out an important function are ade 
quately compensated. 

3. The state must require the payment of ade- 
quate salaries in order to provide effective teach 
ing service for all children; 

4. A minimum salary law is needed to profes- 
sionalize teaching; 

5. Minimum salary legislation has proved su 
cessful elsewhere; 

6. Our State Constitution promises good educa 
tional opportunities for all children (69: 11-13 


The average salary of all teachers is stil! 
considerably below the average salary of al! 
gainfully employed persons. The salaries of 
rural school teachers in particular are far be 
low the average income of other workers 
State minimum salary legislation is one aspect 
of the nation-wide demand for good teachers 
decently paid. 

In some states the method prescribed by lay 
for distributing and expending the state schoo! 
fund is such that, without direct legislation 
on the subject, there is in effect a state min- 
imum salary. Such is the case, for instance, in 
California where all state school funds and 
sixty percent of all county funds must be 
spent for teachers’ salaries. This provision, cou- 
pled with the methods of fixing the amount 
of school revenues and of apportioning state 
and ceunty school funds practically assures 
a minimum salary. 

References. 1: 239-40; 5: 243-4; 10: 46-9. 
225, 231-2; 11: 60, 175-6; 30, Vol. 1: 108; 
46: 654-5; 49: 88-9; 53: 188-9; 56: 211; 57: 
196; 64: 186-9; 69: 11-13; 114: 108; 119: 
79; 120: 12; 133: 257; 171, Supplement, 


34: 104; 115: 92; 195: 28. 


































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Vol. 2: 41; 172: 95; 179: 99, 207; 180: 35, 
76; 182: 107; 190: 294; 191: 516; 192: 55; 
194, 394; 287; 195: 24-5; 201: 341, 202: 181; 
215, Part 1: 147. 

2. Why should state minimum salary reg- 
ulations prescribe salaries which increase with 


experience?—Authorities agree that the best 


type of state salary regulations goes beyond the 


statement of a flat minimal requirement. ‘here 
should be in addition, a graduated schedule 
which will encourage experienced teachers to 
remain in their work. Experience is a valu- 
able asset in teaching. Every time an ex- 
perienced teacher leaves the profession the 
state and the nation lose the investment in 
training and the value of the experience em- 
bodied in that teacher. It is the part of wis- 
dom for a state to conserve these values 
through properly devised state salary regula- 
tions. 

Evenden in presenting the essential features 
of a state salary law, states that there are nine 
elements “which are generally enough ac- 
cepted to be called principles.’’ The second of 
these principles is stated thus; 


The more successful experience a teacher has 
had in the particular field in which he is working, 
other things being equal, the more salary he should 
(53: 188) 


receive. 


Practically every state school survey which 
deals with state salary laws recognizes spe- 
cifically the correctness of the principle of sal- 
ary recognition for successful experience. 

References. 5: 245*; 7: 12; 10: 49, 231; 
11: 60, 177; 46: 656; 53: 188-90*; 56: 211; 
57: 196; 64: 185-7; 101: 290; 114: 320; 171, 
Supplement, Vol. 2: 41; 179: 99, 209; 180: 
35; 192: 56; 194: 287; 195: 25; 201: 341; 
215, Part 1: 147. 


3. Why should state minimum salary reg- 
ulations prescribe salaries which increase with 
training?—Where different grades of certifi- 
cates represent different amounts of training 
and experience, the state minimum salary 
schedule may be graduated according to the 
certificate held, and the state with such regula- 
tion would answer “Yes” to this question. 

Other things being equal, a well-trained 
teacher works more efficiently, and therefore 


is worth more, than an untrained or poorly 
The 
demands that teachers be encouraged to secure 
the best training available. Authorities uni 
formly agree that a state minimum salary law, 


trained teacher. welfare of the schools 


graduated according to training as well as 
experience, is one means of encouraging teach 
ers to undergo proper training for their work 
before entering the profession and to continue 
their training in service. The Kansas School 
Code Commission refers to a minimum salary 
law prescribing training and experience in- 
crements as “an essential for recruiting and 
maintaining an adequate teaching staff.” (171: 
Supplement, Vol. 2: 41.) Evenden in- 
cludes salary increments for training as the 
first of nine generally accepted principles of 
state salary schedules (53: 188). 

References. 1: 240; 5: 244; 10: 58; 11: 
175; 30: 99, 107-8; 46: 636, 656-7; 49: 89; 
53: 188-90*; 56: 211; 57: 196; 64: 185-7; 
69: 12; 99: 269; 101: 293; 114: 108; 133: 
257; 171, Supplement, Vol. 2: 41; 172: 
94; 179: 99, 209; 180: 35, 76; 181: 144; 
182: 107; 190: 294; 191: 516; 192: 55; 194: 
287; 195: 25; 201: 341; 202: 181; 215, 
Part 1; 147. 


4. Why should apportionments from state 
funds be made to enable local units to comply 
with the state minimum salary laws?—It is 
of little value to have state minimum salary 
regulations if local conditions make their en- 
forcement impracticable. The setting up of 
an effective minimum salary schedule by state 
authority implies that the state will help to 
carry it out by granting the necessary aid. 
The state has a right to set minimum stand- 
ards, but it should adopt a mode of enforcing 
these standards which will be fair to all com- 
munities. Authorities agree that when a min- 
imum salary law is enacted, the state’s con- 
tribution to the local school units should be 
set at an amount large enough so that when 
added to a reasonable local tax it will meet 
the cost of these minimal salaries. In Penn- 
sylvania, for instance, the state pays a certain 
percent of the state minimum salary schedule. 
California meets the situation in another man- 
ner by requiring that all state apportionments 
and 60 percent of all county apportionments 


[125] 








must be used for the payment of teachers’ 


salaries. 

This criterion is widely accepted by stu- 
dents of state school finance and administra- 
tion. Evenden in listing the essential features 
of a state salary law declared: 


The state should assume a much larger propor- 
tion of the maintenance cost of the public schools 
than has been customary. Since teachers’ salaries 
form by far the largest item in the cost of mainten- 
ance of a school system, and since it is also the item 
through which the greatest influence for bettering 
the schools may be exerted; it would seem that the 
state might well start a program of increased 
financial support in connection with a _ state- 
adopted (minimum) salary schedule. (53: 194). 


Grimm, writing of conditions in Illinois, 
states that: 


State minimum salary regulation accompanied by 
more financial aid from the state seem prerequi- 
site to the fulfillment of the constitutional promise 
of efficient schools for all of our children in IIli- 
nois (69: 11). 

References. 1: 237-9; 5: 244; 30, Vol. 1: 
325; 31: 91; 46: 654-5*; 47: 585; 52: 72; 
53: 194*; 57: 165, 175-6; 69: 11;°114: 320; 
119: 85; 120: 5; 121: 78; 123: 41-2; 134: 
145; 135: 171-3; 143: 47; 164: 51; 169: 60-1; 
171, Supplement, Vol. 2: 41; 179: 100, 209; 
180: 35, 83; 181: 152, 177, 188; 182: 107; 
201: 491; 225, Vol. 3: 144. 


5. Why should local districts be authorized 
to grant sabbatical leave with part or full pay? 
—A sabbatical leave is a permit to be absent 
from duty for a stated period (usually one year ) 
with some salary and following an extended 
period (usually seven to ten years) of faithful 
and satisfactory service. Many institutions 
granting sabbatical leave specify in some de- 


Discussion 


tail what the recipient is expected to do du ing 
the year. Travel, study, research, and writing 
are frequently specified. 

Three advantages which the schools receiv. 
from such leaves of absence are: (1) a longe; 
period of service is encouraged, (2) bette; 
service is rendered because of the recreation 
and new viewpoints obtained, and (3) more 
desirable working conditions attract more ap 
plicants for teaching positions, with a wide; 
range of selection and consequent improve 
ment in the staff. 

Authorities agree that more effective teach 
ing will result when local school systems grant 
leaves of absence for travel, study, and other 
forms of professional improvement. Whereve: 
necessary the state laws should be amended 
to make sabbatical leaves of absences on ful! 
or part pay legal. 

References. 1: 67; 5: 285; 30, Vol. 1: 
54-6; 129: 4-5*. 


6. Why should local units be authorized to 
grant sick leave with pay?—Advantages which 
the children in schools receive from the pol 
icy of granting sick leave with pay are both 
direct and indirect. Directly, the granting 
of sick leave with pay removes children from 
the handicap of being taught by teachers with 
lowered vitality and decreases the danger ot 
contagion from teacher to pupil. Indirectly, 
more desirable working conditions attract 
more applicants for teaching positions, giving 
a wider range of selection and consequent im- 
provement in the staff. Wherever necessary 
the state laws should be amended so as to 
make the granting of sick leave on pay legal. 

References. 5: 283-4; 28: 72-3; 52: 74. 


of Table 8 


Professional Organizations 


1, 2. Why is a high percent of membership 
in state and national education associations one 
indication of a progressive state school system? 
Membership in voluntary professional organ- 
izations on the part of an individual teacher 
indicates a strong probability that: 


1. The teacher regards his work as a worthwhile 
professional undertaking. 


2. The teacher plans to continue in the profes 
sion. 

3. The teacher will receive professional publi 
cations and other broadening contacts which are 
not available to non-members. 

Each of these characteristics,—professiona| 
outlook, continuous service, and professiona! 
reading and contacts distinguish a superio: 
teacher. Furthermore, the presence in the state 


{ 126 ] 





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of a strong, well-organized professional group 
in itself facilitates a program of study and 
improvement of the schools. It is fair to con- 
clude therefore, that membership in_profes- 
sional organizations is a significant factor in 
determining states school efficiency. 

The percentages specified in questions | and 
? of this checklist are more or less arbitrarily 
fixed. [hey do not represent a final ideal but 
are chosen as convenient points along the way 
for comparative purposes. Fifty percent mem- 
bership or better in the National Education 
Association was achieved by five states during 
1929, while 90 percent membership or better 
in the state education association was attained 
by ten states. This is in striking contrast to 
the situation which existed less than a decade 
ago when there was only one state which could 
meet either of these criteria. 


References. 67: 2-4; 70: 88; 71: 98; 82: 


28-9, 


3. Why should a state education association 
employ a full-time secretary?—A full-time ex- 
ecutive secretary makes possible a vigorous, 
continuous, unified and progressive policy for 
the association. A full-time secretary enables 
the association to render many services which 
would otherwise be impossible. Volunteer and 
part-time service while better than none, is far 
less desirable. This does not mean that all 
states are ready to take immediately the pro- 
gressive step of employing a full-time secretary. 
But it should be an ultimate objective for all 
states. This office has experienced a remarkable 
growth. In 1911 only one state education as- 
sociation employed a full-time secretary. By 
1915 the number had increased to 4, by 1920 
to 7, by 1925 to 30, and by 1930 to 36 states. 
(82: 24-25 ; 67: 14) 

References. 5: 82-3; 67: 14; 82: 42. 


4. Why should a state education association 
adopt a code of ethics for the teaching profes- 
sion of the state?—The possession of a code of 
ethics is specified by many authorities as one of 
the criteria by which a profession is differen- 
tiated from non-professional vocations. There 
is general agreement that formulation of a 
code of ethics is an important activity of edu- 
cation associations. Granrud found that this 
problem was given second place in importance 


by a body of competent judges among fifty-four 
problems with which state education associa- 
tions were concerned. (67: 57-58) The prob- 
lem which received first place was a general 
statement concerning the internal organization 
and administration of the association. ‘he high 
importance thus attached to the code of ethics 


justifies its inclusion here. 


Reference. 67: 57-8. 


5. Why should a state association publish 
a journal?—A journal is the most effective 
means through which state education associa- 
tions may reach their memberships. ‘Through 
this agency they may unify the profession, in- 
troduce new teaching methods and materials, 
incline public opinion more favorably to de- 
sirable school legislation, develop morale, in- 
terpret the schools to the people, and in general 
give a tangible expression of the service of the 
association to every member. Recognition of 
the value of the journal is widespread among 
oficers of state education 
journal is now published by every state associa- 
tion employing a full-time paid secretary and 


associations and a 


by three other states. Only nine state associa 
tions now fail to publish a journal and in four 
of these states a journal issued by the state 
department of education caries some education 
association news and announcements, 

References. 5: 82-3; 67: 39-40; 82: 42, 
123; 184: 249. 


6, 7, 8. Why is the work of committees of 
state associations important?—In many states 
the work of committees sponsored by the state 
education association is an important means of 
improving schools. The continuous work of 
an important committee comes in time to have 
a great cumulative effect. In addition, the stim- 
ulus of membership in a group which is actively 
at work on its professional problems is felt 
throughout the educational system. ‘he prob- 
lems on which state education 
should work through committees and other- 
wise are classified as those which deal with 
teaching problems (e. g. guidance, curriculum 
revision, character education), those which di- 
rectly concern teacher welfare (e. g. retirement, 
salaries, teaching load), and those which are 
concerned with state school finance and ad- 
ministration (e. g. school finance, units of 
school administration ). These three main fields 


associations 


[127] 





rhea 


f study are well represented in the work of 
practically all of the state education associa- 
tions. 


References. 5: 82-3; 67:15. 


9. Why should a state education association 
hold an annual convention, either state-wide 
or by districts?—The annual convention of 
teachers, either state-wide or by districts, is 


1. Why should a state-wide teacher retire- 
ment system be established?—A sound retire- 
ment law protects children from teachers 
rendered incompetent by disability or advanced 
age. It sets up a business-like plan for the auto- 
matic retirement of such teachers. It frees 
school boards from the obligation which they 
frequently feel to continue the employment of 
teachers after advanced age has reduced their 
efficiency in the classroom. Such benefits are of 
vital significance to the public welfare. 

On the other hand, a retirement system 
makes it unnecessary for teachers to continue 
working beyond their time. It provides them 
with a reasonable competence in old age which 
they may accept without apology. The allow- 
ance paid a retired teacher is in no sense a 
gratuity or a matter of charity as many of the 
“pension” plans of the past have been. It is as 
much the teacher’s as the salary he receives 
during his actual service. He has fully earned 
it and he may accept it without question. 

A sound teacher retirement law tends to at- 
tract capable young people into the teaching 
profession. It better compensates them for the 
relatively low remuneration which teachers 
generally receive. It offers a better guarantee 
of promotion within the profession since it sets 
up a practical means whereby school executives 
of advanced age may be regularly retired. It 
raises the tone of the whole profession by free- 
ing its ranks of those incapacitated by old age. 

A sound teacher retirement system tends to 
retain capable teachers in the service. It makes 
it unnecessary for them to seek other employ- 
ment than teaching to provide for old age. It 





Discussion of Table 9 


Teacher Retirement Systems 






{ 128] 


an important factor in a progressive 
school system for almost the same reasons , 
given for the state education journal. (See 
question 5, above.) In addition, the values , 
personal contact with fellow-workers, o} 
spiration derived from group meetings 

of transacting the business of the asso 

are important. 


References. 67: 36-9; 82: 15-16. 


makes each year of teaching service a step to 
ward independence in old age. 

A sound teacher retirement system increases 
the efficiency of teachers while they are’in ser\ 
ice. It tends to lengthen the period of the 
teacher’s efficiency by relieving his mind of the 
fear of destitution in old age. It makes it pos 
sible to invest in study, travel, and other things 
which are an essential part of teacher’s equip 
ment, without endangering the provision made 
for the later years. 

A sound teacher retirement system means a 
saving to the public in the long run. It protects 
the public from the waste of school plants 


manned by superannuated teachers. It makes 
unnecessary the enactment of ill advised and 
costly “pension” laws which are frequently the 
alternative. All of these valuable returns are 
furnished to the public at a minimum cest 
The modern joint-contributory retirement sys- 
tems, organized on the actuarial reserve plan, 
require only one-fourth as much in public ap 
propriations as did the “pension’”’ systems of the 
past. (126: 160) 

The adoption of a sound teacher retirement 
system is in accord with the best thought of the 
day. Hundreds of the country’s best known 
and most efficient business concerns are adopt 
ing retirement plans which embody principles 
essentially the same as those advocated fo: 
teacher retirement systems. As the National 
Industrial! Conference Board states : 


Many of the largest industrial enterprises, in 
cluding commercial and financial institutions, rail- 
way and other public utility corporations, have 
established systems of service pensions for thei: 
superannuated employees. The list of such con- 























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cerns, already long, is constantly growing. 126: 
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Workers in all types of public service are 
being brought under provisions of retire 
ment systems. 

\ teacher retirement system is essentially a 
plan through which the public insures its chil- 
dren against the evils which result when such 
a plan does not exist. In short, a sound teacher 
retirement law is a straight business proposi- 
tion in which two interested groups share the 
cost of supporting an enterprise which brings 
valuable returns to both. 

References. 5: 257*; 22: 122; 35: 52; 
46: 660; 54: 209; 76: 20; 77: 12; 84: 284; 
100: 14-16; 112: 21-2; 126: 158-62; 


152: 20-1; 153: 9-10; 161: 16; 217: 606. 


2. Why should membership be required of 
new teachers?—A retirement system is pri- 
marily an efficiency measure. Its full advantage 
to the schools will be partly lost if only a por- 
tion of the teachers become members. ‘The sys- 
tem should be open to the older teachers and 
they should be encouraged to join. Member- 
ship should be compulsory for new teachers, 
those who begin their teaching after the retire- 
ment system is put into effect. Under such an 
arrangement all teachers employed in a state 
will eventually be members of the retirement 
system. Entrance into the system of all new 
teachers at the time they begin their teaching 
is desirable for ‘a number of reasons. Such. a 
provision tends to stabilize the teaching pro- 
fession, to give the new teacher a professional 
point of view, to lengthen the period of time 
over which deposits are made and thereby to 
increase the retirement benefits, to establish 
habits of thrift, and to build up an adequate 
reserve in the retirement fund. (126: 153) 

References. 35: 53; 63: 48-9; 84: 284; 
112: 23; 126: 153*; 132: 19, 48*; 217: 606, 
608. 


3. Why should both teachers and public 
contribute to the support of the retirement 
system?—The benefits of a sound teacher re- 
tirement system accrue both to the public and 
to the teachers. Because of this common inter- 
est a joint-contributory plan of support; that 


is, a plan whereby both teachers and the state 
make regular deposits in the retirement fund 
is appropriate. The joint financial interest of 
both the public and the teacher in a retirement 
system tends to produce a spirit of business 
like cooperation between the public and the 
teachers in developing the plan. The outcomes 
are likely to be more satisfactory than when 
the cost is borne solely by the state or by the 
teachers. Seventeen of the twenty-two state 
wide teacher retirement systems now in opera 
tion are financed jointly by the teachers and 
the public. I'wo are free pension systems; that 
is, they are entirely paid for from public funds, 
and three are supported by the teachers alone. 
(77: 17). In recent years the trend in the de- 
velopment of teacher retirement systems has 
been in the direction of the joint-contributory 


plan. 


References. 5: 266-7 « 22: 123°: SS: 141: 
63: 5-6; 77: 17; 112: 22: 
GS": 161: 17+ 126: 154-59". 


$31; 132: 


4+. Why should the retirement law state the 
method of determining the deposits to be made 
by the teachers and the payments to be made by 
the public? 
teacher and the payments to be made by the 


The deposits to be made by the 


public, should be specified in the act creating 
the retirement system, and should continue as 
stated until changed by the retirement board 
on the basis of actuarial investigation. “loo 
often in the past the deposits to be made by the 
teacher have been specified, while the amount 
of the public’s payments has been left indefi 
nite. Ihe method of determining such pay- 
ments should not be left to chance but should 
be definitely described. ‘The state itself should 
then obey the requirements of the retirement 
law. The mutual nature of the benefits of a 
teacher retirement system imply that both par 
ties should feel responsibility for its mainte 
nance on a sound basis. The state requires 
banks, insurance companies, and similar insti- 
tutions to obey laws concerning the financial 
reserves they must carry. It should similarly 
enact and obey the laws necessary to the sol- 
vency of the teacher retirement system. 

When these provisions are followed it is 
possible for both the teachers and the state to 
know the amount of each year’s deposit or pay 


[129 ] 








(aS. Gk a 8 aaa ele 





9 ee a 
ET 


Ss 


me 





payee 


a ee 


ment and to budget these items along with 
other known expenditures. The retirement 
system is thus able to anticipate and to meet 
its financial obligations. The required amounts 
will be available at the time a teacher retires. 

In order to meet this criterion it is not es- 
sential that the organic act should inflexibly 
fix in detail the method of determining the 
teacher's deposits and the state’s payments. A 
general description of the method may be pref- 
erable, thus leaving the retirement board free 
to make necessary adjustments on the basis of 
actuarial advice. (21: 147; 126: 154.) 

Fifteen of the twenty state-wide teacher re- 
tirement systems which are wholly or partially 
supported from teachers’ deposits state the 
amount to be deposited by the teacher. Many 
of these, however, are sufficiently flexible so 
that necessary adjustments may be made by the 
retirement board. Among the nineteen state- 
wide teacher retirement systems receiving sup- 
port from public funds, sine state the amounts 
to be received from this source, allowance be- 
ing made for adjustments that may later be 
necessary. Seven describe the method of de- 
termining the amounts to be received from 
public funds. In three states such payments are 
not definitely prescribed. 


54: 147; 126: 154; 127.* 


5. Why should the retirement system be or- 
ganized on the reserve basis so that the moneys 
necessary to meet all obligations will be regu- 
larly accumulated without the necessity of re- 
curring legislation?—A retirement system may 
be financed according to either of two plans. 
One may be called the reserve plan. Under this 
method the amounts necessary to purchase the 
retirement allowances guaranteed are care- 
fully built up concurrently curing the period 
of teaching service. The cost of retirement has 
been provided for at the time the teacher re- 
tires. Under the second, or cash disbursement 
plan, no financial provision is made for the re- 
tirement of the teacher until the time for his 
retirement arrives. The cost of the retirement 
allowance promised is paid from appropria- 
tions, usually from public funds, made from 
time to time during the teacher’s period of re- 
tirement. ’ 


References. 





Both the reserve plan and the cash disburse 
ment plan have their respective advantage 
and disadvantages. However, the weight 
authority at present clearly points to the re 
serve plan as the safest and as more closely jp 
accord with sound administrative principles. 
In proposing the criterion of a retirement . 
tem based on the reserve plan it is recognized 
that there are in operation a few illustrations 
of the cash disbursement policy. Whethe; 
these examples of the cash disbursement retire 
ment system will be permanently success{,! 
yet remains to be seen. As concerns future r 
tirement legislation the weight of theory as 
well as of recent retirement legislation favo: 
the reserve plan. 

This plan is favored because it appears 
offer the surest guarantee of the payment o! 
the promised allowance. Under the reserve 
plan, the money to pay the retirement allow 
ance is available when the teacher 
Under the cash disbursement plan it must a! 
be obtained through public appropriation 
made from time to time after the 
retires, 

In a retirement system nothing takes the 
place of security. A plan which has the neces 
sary funds on hand at the time the teacher re 
tires, seems to meet this crucial test better than 
one which, after the teacher retires must se 
cure the money needed through special appr 
priation. 


retires 


teache 


References. 5: 269*; 21:.145; 113: 336 


436; 126: 155; 132: 13-15*. 


6. Why should teachers be permitted t 
withdraw their deposits if they leave servic: 
prior to retirement?—Each teacher's deposits 
should be considered his personal property and 
should be at his disposal, together with interest 
accumulations, if he withdraws from teaching 
service. His deposits should be considered 
savings account until the amount is transferred 
into the retirement fund at the time of retir 
ment upon an annuity. 

The number of retirement systems whic!) 
incorporate this principle has increased during 
the last decade. (132: 44.) Eleven of the 
twenty state-wide teacher retirement systems 
supported partly or wholly by teachers’ de- 
posits provide for the return of such deposits 


[ 130] 





ce ee aed 












UTSe- 


t 
tages 


VY In 
iples, 
t sys 
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tions 
ether 
etire 


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it of 
serve 
low 
tires, 
t all 
tions 


cher 


the 
eces- 
rre 
than 
t se 


pro 


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ai rT e 
osits 
and 
rest 
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“d a 
rred 


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the 
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de- 


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PLOW chen ees amram 


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Scale 


#3 
a 


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upon withdrawal» trom teaching service. 
127.) 

References. 5: 269; 21: 142; 22: 125; 
46: 662; 113: 221-32*; 126: 155; 127*; 132: 


44. 49; 161: 18. 


7. Why should a teacher's deposits be pay- 
able to his heirs or estate in case of death prior 
to retirement?—In case of death the deduc- 
tions from the teacher’s salary which have 
been deposited in the retirement system should, 
together with the interest accumulated, be pay- 
able either to his designated beneficiary or to 
his estate. These deposits should be looked 
upon as a trust fund which belongs to the 
teacher and as a means whereby every teacher 
is able to build up an estate. Under no circum- 
stances should a teacher forfeit his rights in 
this fund. 

There has been a steady trend during the 
last twenty-five years towards the acceptance 
of this principle in practice. A majority of the 
state-wide teacher retirement systems which 
are supported entirely or in part by teacher’s 
deposits now provide for the payment of the 
accumulated deposits with interest to his heirs 
or estate in case of death prior to retirement. 
(127; 132: 45.) 

References. 22: 125; 46: 662; 84: 285; 
126: 155; 127*; 132: 45, 49*; 161: 18. 


8. Why should an age for compulsory re- 
tirement be fixed?—A considerable proportion 
ot the recently enacted retirement laws specify 
seventy as the compulsory age for the retire- 
ment of all teachers. The weight of retirement 
theory, and to a growing extent that of prac- 
tice, argues that a retirement system is more 
likely to promote general school efficiency and 
the welfare of children if the law specifies an 
age beyond which teachers may not remain in 
service. Without such a provision the retire- 
ment system may fail to accomplish its pur- 
poses in an appreciable number of cases. Some 
teachers may wish to remain in service too 
long, with the result that the paths of promo- 
tion are blocked and the efficiency of the serv- 
ice is lowered. It is doubtless true that the fix- 
ing of the compulsory retirement age may in 
exceptional instances, cause the retirement of 
teachers or school executives who, in spite of 
advanced age, are still wholly competent. The 


benefits which may come from allowing such 
exceptional teachers to continue in service will 
probably be more than offset by the far larger 
numbers who are likely to continue in service 
too long if a compulsory age for retirement is 
not stated. This is particularly true if some 
advanced age such as seventy is fixed. The 
number of teachers and school executives who 
are able properly to discharge the exacting 
duties of the classroom or the school execu- 
tive’s office after seventy is probably not large. 

References. 21: 146; 113: 394-6; 126: 
154; 127*; 149: 84; 150: 128; 161: 18; 176: 
63*. 


9. Why should a periodic actuarial investi- 
gation of the retirement system be made?— 
The amounts to be paid into a retirement sys- 
tem in order to guarantee the benefits prom- 
ised, are based upon careful actuarial calcula- 
tions. These calculations, based upon past ex- 
perience and exact facts, constitute the best 
prediction which can be made as to what 
amounts and rates should be fixed. From time 
to time it may be necessary to revise these esti- 
mates in order to preserve the financial sound- 
ness of the system. Such revisions usually in- 
small the 
amounts and rates paid. In order that these 


volve comparatively changes in 
small but important revisions may be made 
from time to time periodic actuarial investiga- 
tions are necessary. Nine of the state-wide 
teacher retirement laws now in effect provide 
for such investigations at from three to five 
year periods. These accountings are essential to 
guarantee the financial solvency of retirement 
systems organized on the actuarial reserve 
basis. 

References. 16: 12-13*; 84: 286; 113: 
353; 126: 155; 127*; 132: 17, 48; 157: 43. 

10. Why should provision be made for re- 
tirement disability ?—The 
classrooms of teachers whose effectiveness has 


for presence in 
been seriously lowered by physical disability is 
bound to have a detrimental effect upon the 
children involved. Such a possibility is guarded 
against when a retirement system provides for 
a disability allowance for all teachers who be- 
come disabled after a reasonable period of 
service. The provision of such an allowance 
makes it practical for school boards to retire 


[131] 








promptly teachers who become disabled. It 
makes it unnecessary for such teachers to con- 
tinue to work under a serious physical handi- 
cap. 

Most of the retirement systems established 
during the last decade provide retirement for 
disability. (132: 40.) Practically all of the 
twenty-two state-wide teacher retirement sys- 
tems now include such a provision. The better 
organized systems usually provide that teach- 
ers who become disabled after a reasonable pe- 
riod of service receive: (1) an annuity repre- 
senting the actuarial equivalent of the teacher’s 
accumulated deposits; and (2) a pension from 
the state which increases the total disability 
allowance up to an adequate amount, usually 
somewhat proportionate to length of service, 
but somewhat less than the allowance the 
teacher would have received had he continued 
in service sufficiently long to qualify for regu- 
lar retirement. 

Certain safe-guards are necessary to protect 
the disability allowance feature from abuse. 
Proper physical standards should be enforced 
at the time of entrance into the profession. 
Practically all of the sound retirement systems 
require a minimum period of service, usually 
from ten to fifteen years, before a teacher may 
qualify for disability retirement. (127.) On 
the other hand, it is recognized that school 
efficiency demands that the number of obstruc- 
tions placed in the way of retiring disabled 
teachers should be kept to the minimum. (22: 
126; 21: 142-3, 46: 662; 84: 285; 113: 
189). During the last decade there has been a 
tendency to reduce the number of years of 
service required before a teacher may be re- 
tired for disability. (132: 41.) 

References. 5: 266; 20: 94; 24: 143; 46: 
662; 63: 10-11; 113: 172, 174*; 126: 155; 
127*; 132: 40, 49; 157: 35; 161: 18; 176: 78, 
81*. 

11. Why should public funds be used to pay 
for prior-service benefits?—It is usually im- 
practical to enact a retirement system without 
making some provision for teachers who have 
already rendered extended service and for 
whom no provision has been made for retire- 
ment. It is also impractical for these teachers, 
many of whom have probably received rela- 
tively low incomes during their service, to meet 


the cost of paying for such service allowance 
as may be granted because of service rendered 
previous to the enactment of the retiremen; 
system. 

The alternative is for the state to assu; 
the obligation of financing such prior servic, 
allowances as are provided for these olde; 
teachers. The amount of this obligation is usy- 
ally large when considered as a total. When 
its cost is spread over a period of thirty years 
or more, however, the requirement in any one 
year is not excessive. 

The retirement system which neglects this 
problem or which pays the cost of prior ser 
ice allowances out of the deposits of teachers 
without prior service is on the road to bank. 
ruptcy. This problem of providing for prior 
service should be frankly faced at the time the 
retirement system is put into effect. 

A majority of recently enacted teacher re- 
tirement systems pay for the prior service re- 
tirement allowance from public funds. When 
to this is added the allowance regularly due on 
the basis of service following the enactment of 
the retirement system, not only are the older 
teachers provided reasonable protection, but 
the retirement system is kept on a sound finan- 
cial basis. A majority of the retirement sys- 
tems enacted during the last ten years have 
provided for the financing of prior service 
benefits along the general lines suggested 
above. (132: 17.) 

References. 63: 9; 96: 15-16*; 113: 443; 
126: 156; 127*; 132: 17, 48*; 176: 129-30. 


12. Why should provision be made for co- 
operative or reciprocal relations with other 
sound teacher retirement systems?—The eff- 
ciency of the schools demands that nothing 
should prevent the free exchange of teachers 
between different states. Such an interchange 
of administrative and teaching personnel pro- 
vides a desirable commerce of progressive ideas 
and educational practices. It should be pos- 
sible for a properly qualified teacher to render 
service in any state of the United States or its 
territories, without being penalized by a re- 
duced retirement allowance due to change of 
service from one jurisdiction to another. Com- 
plete application of this principle must await 
the enactment of sound retirement legislation 


[ 132] 





be 1 
pre: 
stat 
hov 
mov 
of « 
teri 
mo¢ 
as i 
and 
I 
179 
462 


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NCES 
ered 


nent 


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rvice 
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sery- 
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ank- 
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nt of 
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but 
inan- 


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ested 


443; 
)-30), 


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efh- 
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ange 
pro- 
ideas 
pos- 
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r its 
. re- 
re of 
Yom- 
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ition 


is whom haar antaing 


ow wendy 


in all states. It is, of course, impossible to in- 
clude states with unsound systems or with no 
retirement systems in any reciprocal arrange- 
ments worked out. Every sound retirement sys- 
tem, however, should provide for cooperation 


with other sound systems and should look for- 
ward to the time when all states will have 
such systems. 

References. 20:97*; 96: 12-13; 140: 591- 
2*; 161: 20-21; 176: 58-9. 


Discussion of Table 10 


Sources of School Revenue 


|. Why should the state board of education 
control the investment of the permanent school 
fund?—Two issues are involved in this ques- 
tion: first, whether permanent school funds 
should be controlled by state authorities; and 
second, if state control is in effect, whether the 
state board of education is the proper agency 
for handling the fund. The majority of school 
finance experts assume an affirmative position 
on both of these issues. With respect to state 
versus local control, experience clearly favors 
the former. State control is the safer and more 
economical procedure. When the public school 
endowments were first created the control of 
all school lands and their proceeds was, in 
many states, vested exclusively in local, county, 
or township jurisdictions. But so unsatisfac- 
tory and wasteful was this arrangement that 
it has been avoided, modified, or abandoned in 
all but one state. However, in fourteen states 
small portions of the permanent school funds 
are still locally administered. (43: 295.) In 
some states a constitutional amendment is nec- 
essary before this criterion can be met. 

Since both theory and practice point to state 
control of the permanent school fund, it seems 
logical that the agency to which the care and 
investment of these funds is committed should 
be the agency which is most interested in their 
preservation. This would in most cases be the 
state board of education. It should be added, 
however, that this criterion may need to be 
modified in those states where the state board 
of education is but poorly developed. The cri- 
terion applies most clearly in states with a 
modern type of state school organization such 
as is outlined in the discussion of Tables 13 


and 14 below. 


References. 43: 295; 46: 411; 178: 120*; 
179: 241*; 180: 39; 182: 129; 191: 496; 201: 
462. 


2. Why should the investment of the per- 


manent school fund in bonds of the state be 
prohibited?—Largely because this and similar 
safeguards have been neglected, the permanent 
school funds in many states have dwindled to 
an insignificant fraction of their former poten- 
tial value. Swift, who has written the stand- 
ard history of these funds summarizes thus: 


The permanent funds and the proceeds which 
should have been added to them have been cared 
for so carelessly, diverted, squandered, wasted, and 
embezzled so shamefully that what ought to be 
a magnificent endowment, whose income would 
today be yielding an appreciable relief from tax 
ation, has dwindled to an almost negligible sum, 
or exists as a permanent State debt on which in- 
terest is paid out of taxes levied on the present 
(178: 11). 

It may be too late to take steps to regain the 
losses from the state permanent school funds, 
but if so the obligation to safeguard the frac- 
tion which remains is all the more heavy. Ex- 
perience shows that one way in which the 
state school funds have been lost has been 
through lending them to the state itself in re- 
turn for state bonds or other obligations. 
When this has been done the money has fre- 
quently never been returned to the funds and 
constitutes in many states, a fictitious perma- 
nent school fund, uncollectible, unredeemable, 
and unnegotiable, and in reality nothing more 
than an additional source of taxation (136: 


339). For these reasons the permanent school 


generation. 


fund should not be used to purchase bonds of 
the state itself or, for that matter, diverted 
from its original purpose in any other way. 

References. 43: 296-7; 46: 411; 167: 
68-9*; 178: 156*; 179: 98-9, 208-9; 180: 39; 
181: 150-2; 183: 41-2;* 191: 496; 201: 
462; 224, Vol. 2: 74. 

3. Why should all losses from the perma- 
nent school fund be made good from income 
or special appropriations?—This is merely an- 
other method of safeguarding what is left of 


[133 ] 








for Be 


Bh gy li 





the public school endowments and of fulfill- 
ing the obvious intention of the laws which 
created these funds. Even with the most care- 
ful management losses from the funds are pos- 
sible and in the rare cases where losses occur 
they should be at once replaced in actual cash 
or negotiable securities so that the funds suf- 
fer no further diminution. This procedure was 
recommended in the survey of Alabama (191: 
496) and is in effect in several states, includ- 
ing New York (178: 349). 


References. 46: 411; 178: 128, 349*; 
191: 496. 


4. Why should a unified state education 
budget be prepared?—The preparation of an 
education budget is required by board rules in 
some states, by statute in others, and by custom 
in others. Whatever method is used the budget 
should be carefully evolved as a financial 
expression of the whole educational program 
of the state. It should recognize the needs of 
all parts of the school system, should antici- 
pate revenues, and show clearly how much 
money is needed and for what purposes. An 
educational budget is one of the recommenda- 
tions frequently made by state school surveys. 
The survey of Arkansas by the United States 
Bureau of Education points out that “the im- 
portance of having and living up to a budget 
is no less in educational affairs than in the con- 
duct of other public or private business. Fur- 
thermore, the preparation of a budget fur- 
nishes an additional reason for a unified state 
system of education.” (195: 13.) Experience 
indicates that failure to prepare a co-ordinated 
education budget opens the way for probable 
conflicts among school interests and that the 
result of such conflicts in the long run is an 
inevitable loss of public confidence in the state 
educational leaders and their policies. 


References. 11:201; 17: 180; 23: 150; 
56: 185; 64: 93, 122; 134: 126, 138; 177: 
16; 180: 124-5*; 181: 2, 195; 182: 126; 183: 
69; 194: 365; 195: 12-13. 


5. Why should the total amount of state 
school aid be determined in such a way that 
it increases with increased attendance or other 
similar measures of educational need ?—School 
attendance is probably one of the best measures 
of educational need but if a state adjusts the 
amount of state aid in accordance with any 





other measure of needs it should be classe! 4. 
meeting this criterion. The amount of m 
available for education should vary with +}, 
need. California is a satisfactory illustrarion 
of what is meant by this statement. In : 
state the amount of state school aid fo: 
given year is fixed at $30.00 for each uni: 
average daily attendance in the year pre ed 
ing. This amount is determined by the S: ate 
Superintendent of Public Instruction and : 
then be transferred from the general fund 
the state to the school funds. An arrangement 
of this type obviates the necessity of organiziny 
a campaign for state school support every tine 
the legislature meets. It helps to form a con 
tinuous educational policy because the sclivoo! 
aid can be accurately predicted and depended 
upon. It also protects the schools from short 
sighted and politically motivated “econon 
campaigns. 

What happens when the state school aid is 
fixed rather than flexible is well described }, 
Swift: 

The law provides no assurance that the state 
will furnish a sum adequate to pay the subsidies 
called for in the provisions of the act. On the « 
trary, the law specifically provides that in case 
the state fund is not sufficient . . . the state grants 
shall be reduced proportionately . 
are promised aid for certain projects, they under- 
take these projects, the moneys promised by | 
state are not forthcoming, and state aid is pro 
rated ... Such uncertainty directly and immed 
ately affect the stability and continuity of schoo! 
policies and school standards. (179: 62, 198 


Practically all school finance authorities agree 


with this point of view and assert that a fle, 
ible state school fund which increases with 
school needs is an important element in pr 
viding good schocls. 


References. 46: 432-3; 119: 55; 117: 6/7; 
123: 29; 135: 61*; 136: 279-80; 143: 4/7; 
164: 45; 169: 126; 171, Supplement, Vol. 
2: 35; 179: 62, 198; 180: 77-9, 126; 181: 
34-5, 195; 182: 108; 187: 83-4; 194: 69; 


215: 284. 


6. Why are constitutional maximal limit: 
tions on local or state school taxes undesi: 


able?—A constitutional provision is always di!- 
ficult to change, especially when this involves 
possible increases in public expenditures. \» 


matter how essential the need may be, the 1: 
ertia of a constitutional provision may delay ad 


{ 134 ] 


. « The schools 





me 





Ss ot 


lent 
fing 

ime 
-on- 
100! 
ded 
ort 


ny’ 


HY; 














‘stments for years. No one can see far enough 
‘nto the future to set arbitrary and permanent 
limits to the development of public education. 
It follows that constitutional school tax limita- 
tions are unwise. 

In many states, the constitutionally imposed 
school tax limits are themselves in direct con- 
fict with another section of the constitution 
which orders the legislature to provide a sys- 
tem of public schools “free and equally open 
to all.” In many states the local school districts 
are not only being called upon to bear a larger 
and larger share of total school costs but 
through constitutional tax limitations it is im- 
possible for any but the largest and wealthiest 
districts to maintain good schools. These limi- 
tations, often fixed years ago when schools 
were undeveloped and pioneer conditions pre- 
vailed, hamper the development of a state 
school system adequate for modern conditions 
of life. 

References. 1:231; 43: 311; 89: 259%; 
136: 359*; 167: 57; 179: 98, 129; 180: 35, 81, 
127; 182: 39; 183: 54-5; 194: 364; 195: 8; 
215: 278. 


7, 8. Why should the general property tax 
be supplemented by state, personal, and busi- 
ness income taxes?—This question embodies 
the major recommendations made by a com- 
mittee of the National Tax Association ap- 
pointed to prepare a plan for a model system 
of state and local taxation (130: 400-700). 
The general principles involved in the model 
plan have been widely approved by economists 
and taxation experts. It is safe to say that 
the plan represents a consensus of the best 
modern theory and practice in taxation. 

With respect to the personal income tax, 
the committee declared : 


This tax is better fitted than any other to carry 
out the principle that every person having taxable 
ability shall make a reasonable contribution to the 
support of the government under which he lives. 
It is as fair in principle as any tax can be. Under 
proper conditions it can be well administered by 
an American state. . . It is a form of taxation 
which meets with popular favor at present. (130: 
437). 


Again, with respect to the business income 
tax, the committee said: 


- we are convinced that a properly constituted 


business tax must be included in our proposed sys 
tem of taxation. . . The committee is not recom 
mending anything novel to American experience, 
but is merely proposing to reorganize upon a ra- 
tional and equal basis a form of taxation that is 


now prevalent. .. It may be well to add that... 


there are precedents in the legislation of other 
countries. (130: 452). 


Sweeping condemnations of the practice of 
relying principally on the general property tax 
have been made by many noted tax specialists 
and no well-known student of taxation gives 
the general property tax unqualified approval. 
Seligman for instance declares that “the gen- 
eral property tax in the United States is a dis- 
mal failure’ (160: 31), and that “the gen- 
eral property tax as actually administered is 
beyond all doubt one of the worst taxes known 
in the civilized wer!d.” (160: 62.) Quota- 
tions to a similar effect might be multiplied al- 
most indefinitely. It therefore seems logical to 
suggest that a supplementary tax on income 
is the next step in advance over taxation of 
property exclusively. 

Improved methods of taxation have a definite 
relation to an effective state school system. 
Good schools cannot be created merely by the 
application of faith, hope, and charity. Finan- 
cial support is also necessary and, since public 
funds are derived almost entirely from taxa- 
tion, the schools can never be adequately fi- 
nanced if the methods of taxation are ineffec- 
tive. Accordingly we find in practically all 
state school surveys some reference to the fi- 
nancing of education and many of these sur- 
veys, such as those of Kentucky (1: 251, 
49: 82) and Indiana (88: 111) recommend 
the enactment of an income tax law. 

References. 1: 251-5; 30, Vol. 1: 320; 
31: 81; 46: 425-7; 49: 82-4: 57: 150; 88: 111; 
89: 256; 344, 379-81; 114: 322; 115: 41; 119: 
59; 121: 80; 130: 429-66*; 136: 351; 142: 
79; 143: 20, 47; 147: 124, 149; 156: 160-1; 
160: 649*; 164:50; 166: 161-2; 167: 76-7; 
171, Vol. 1: 32-5; 175: 157-9*; 179: 98-9, 
207-8; 180: 32-3, 79, 194-5; 181: 147-8; 
182: 209; 183: 100; 191: 506; 194: 69; 195: 
10; 201: 497-8; 224, Vol. 2: 69. 


9. Why should there be a permanent state 
tax commission or tax commissioner?—A state 
tax commission is a central authority which 
assesses, levies, and co!lects all state taxes, (in- 


[135] 





hs 
a ee ee 








i TA ™ ~~ - 4 
= a er 
a oo ae are 








cluding income, inheritance, property, and 
other taxes) and which has general supervisory 
powers over the assessment of all property sub- 
ject to local taxation. The criterion implied in 
this question is not met by a state with a nomi- 
nal or ex-officio tax commission or commissioner 
the activities of which are limited to perfunc- 
tory annual approval of local assessment rolls. 
Before answering this question in the affirma- 
tive one should consider whether there is a 
state tax commission which really conserves 
the interest of the state in a just and effective 
tax system. 


The desirability of a permanent tax com- 
mission in every state is no longer a matter 
for argument among recognized authorities on 
public finance. It is universally accepted. For 
instance, committees of the National Tax As- 
sociation have repeatedly urged the creation 
of such bodies with resources and authority to 
enable them to do effective work. (130: 463, 
104: 363-376.) The committee on a model 
system of taxation mentioned above states that 
no system of taxation ‘“‘can be expected to give 
satisfactory results in states which refuse to 
place in the hands of some permanent central 
authority the administration of taxes upon in- 
comes and inheritances, the original assessment 
of certain classes of property, and general su- 
pervisory power over the assessment of all 
property subject to local taxation.” (130: 
463.) 

In 1921 state tax commissions were nomi- 
nally organized in states (160: 610), but it 
is said that in over half of these the board is 
merely a perfunctory approving body and in 
only a half dozen states are the commissions 
adequately paid, efficiently selected, or en- 
dowed with any real power (89: 245). 

References. 89: 245; 97: 3; 104: 363-76; 
120: 10; 130: 463*; 135: 24-5, 101-2; 136: 
356; 156: 161-2; 160: 610*; 169: 86; 175: 
157; 179: 98-9; 180: 127; 191: 506; 225, 
Vol. 3: 71. 


10. Why should all local school units be re- 
quired to levy a school tax?—This question 
need not be applied to the smallest states which 
present a special problem because of their lim- 
ited areas (e. g. Rhode Island, Delaware). 
Other states, whether or not they have a large 
amount of state school aid, should be able to 





answer this question in the affirmative. |; th. 
amount of state aid is small the local dist;; 
should be required to levy a tax sufficient +, 
maintain a reasonable educational program. |; 
the amount of state aid is relatively large, the 
local districts should still be required to ley, 
a tax at some fixed legal minimum rate in or- 
der to maintain local public interest in the 
school. This does not mean that the minimum 
rate should become a maximum (See question 
6, above). Nor does it mean that small |oca! 
school districts represent ideal units for schoo! 
taxation. Experience shows, however, that if 
the local unit (district, county, town, or town- 
ship) does not contribute to school support 
there is grave danger of public apathy towards 
public education. State school aid should not 
be regarded as a benevolence which the com 
munity needs only to accept and then forget. 
Whether the amount of state school aid be 
large or small a minimum local tax is gen 
erally thought desirable. Thus in Kentuck; 
the mandatory local school tax law of 1920 
was described ‘“‘as a landmark in the educa 
tional history of the state” (11: 142) and such 
a law has been recommended by numerous au- 
thorities. 

References. 11: 142; 43: 311; 179: 128-9; 
180: 35-6, 58, 127; 181: 192; 182: 36-9; 
183: 52; 194: 364; 195: 9; 224, Vol. 2: 124. 


- 
s 


11. Why should school boards of all tax 
levying school units be fiscally independent’ 
Fiscal independence, as applied for instance to 
a city school district, means that the schoo! 
board independently determines the city schoo! 
budget and levies or orders levied a tax sufh 
cient to meet the educational needs of the city 
as expressed in the budget. When a schoo! 
board is fiscally independent there is no dange: 
of arbitrary alterations in the school budget by 
a town council, mayor, city finance committee 
or any other non-educational board or person. 
The board of education is directly responsible 
to the public which it serves. Fiscal independ 
ence is right in principle for it recognizes that 
the school is not a municipal or county depart 
ment but a separate unit of the state. 

The principle of fiscal independence has not 
yet been universally accepted but it “‘has been 
urged generally by those who may be regarded 
as authorities in educational administration and 


{ 136] 








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finance.” (46: 440.) Their conclusions are 
hased upon experience and upon comparative 
studies of city school costs. Frasier compared 
schools in 71 cities having fiscally dependent 
school systems with 91 cities having fiscally in- 
dependent school systems. He found that, while 
there was considerable overlapping, “a fiscally 
independent school system has a better chance 
to achieve success than one in which the 
finances are in the hands of the city govern- 
ment.” (60: 81.) McGaughy studied school 
costs in 178 fiscally independent and 97 fis- 
cally dependent city school systems. He found 
that the costs to the community of the schools 
administered under the two forms of organiza- 
tion were approximately equal. (108: 55-56.) 
Other studies have yielded similar conclusions. 
That is, there is no evidence that fiscal inde- 
pendence leads to extravagance while there is 
evidence that it makes for better schools. 

Theory, experience, and scientific investiga- 
tions combine in favoring fiscal independence 
for city, county, and district school boards. 
Most of the arguments advanced against fiscal 
independence erroneously assume that schools 
are municipal or local activities whereas it is 
an established principle that education in the 
United States is a state responsibility. 

References. 10: 203; 30, Vol. 1: 129; 
46: 439; 56: 163-4; 60: 83-7*; 64: 88-9; 
108: 46, 55-6; 114: 35; 136: 181, 193; 175: 
181-2*; 180: 193; 182: 192-3; 190: 35-7; 
194: 88-9; 215: 262. 


12. Why should non-public schools, not con- 
ducted for profit, be exempted from taxation 
on building and grounds used for instructional 
purposes?—The justification of this criterion 
rests on the fact that private and parochial 
schools relieve the state and local districts of 
considerable public expense. Of course, edu- 
cational institutions which are conducted for 
profit should not be exempted from taxation. 
Nor is it reasonable to exempt all the property 
of an educational institution with many other 
non-educational activities merely because a part 
of that property is used for non-profit educa- 
tional purposes. But if the state department of 
education or other state authority can be shown 
that the property in question is really used for 
educational purposes and that no person or 
corporation derives profit from its use it is fair 


to exempt it from taxation. Such general ex- 
emption, however, will not extend to assess- 
ments for local improvements. (186: 265.) 
Provisions to this general effect are incor- 
porated in the Constitutions of 32 states. (103: 
102.) 
References. 
102; 186: 265. 


45: 212; 46: 714, 717*; 103: 


13. Why should the law prohibit bonding 
for current operating expenses?—lt is mani- 
festly unjust to incur an indebtedness on the 
future for the everyday expenses of the pres- 
ent. School bonds should be issued only for 
purposes of major capital outlays. Bonds are 
devices for spreading the cost of large-scale 
and permanent improvements over a long pe- 
riod of time, so that the wealth of the future 
may contribute to the payment for improve 
ments which are valuable not only today but 
also in the future. If bonds are issued to pay 
current expenses on a long-term basis they 
represent an unjust extortion of money from 
future citizens. If bonds are issued for a short 
term they are disadvantageous because they 
must soon be paid back and the interest charges 
represent a clear loss. Hence, bonds issued for 
the payment of current expenses are either un- 
just to the future or unwise for the present. 
such should be pro 


Issuance for purposes 


hibited. 

This statement does not condemn the occa- 
sional practice, where it is necessary, of short 
term borrowing by school boards. Nor should 
this question or the preceding discussion be in- 
terpreted as questioning the issuance of school 
bonds for purchasing sites, or for erecting, re- 
pairing, furhishing, expanding, improving, o1 
insuring school buildings, or (in cases of un 
usual necessity) for refunding outstanding in- 
debtedness. 

The laws of nearly all states forbid bond- 
ing for current expenditures. However, in 
1921, 13 states permitted school districts to 
use the money raised by bonds for general 
maintenance of schools and 4 states permitted 
bond money to be used to pay teachers’ salaries. 
(59: 22.) These practices were condemned 
by the surveys of Oklahoma (194: 112), IIli- 
nois (220: 47), and Florida (57: 97). 

References. 43: 311; 57: 97; 59: 16*; 
64: 139; 136: 153*; 194: 112; 220: 47. 


[ 137] 














14. Why should school district bonds be of 
the serial type?—Bonds are classified, accord- 
ing to the way in which the principal matures, 
as term and serial. A term bond issue is pay- 
able only at maturity. If a district borrows, 
say, $20,000 for twenty years by issuing term 
bonds the entire principal and interest will 
fall due twenty years from date of sale and 
must be paid then and not before. To meet this 
obligation the district ordinarily levies a spe- 
cial tax each year, the proceeds of which are 
placed in a sinking fund. If the sinking fund 
is invested it should be sufficient, with inter- 
est, to pay the debt. 

Serial bonds, on the other hand, mature 
over a period of time; that is, a certain num- 
ber of bonds are redeemed each year. Both term 
and serial bonds ordinarily require a special 
tax to redeem them, but only the term bonds 
require a sinking fund. With serial bonds the 
special tax collected each year is immediately 
used to redeem the portion of the total bond 
issue which falls due at that time. With term 
bonds the interest charge is constant; with se- 
rial bonds the interest charge is constantly de- 
creasing. (46: 531, 59: 78, 136: 163.) 

State school finance surveys including those 
of New York (175: 190) Illinois, (179: 99) 
and others universally recommend the serial 
type of bond issue. Fowlkes (59: 78-84) has 
summarized the advantage of serial bond is- 
sues. Theoretically, the total payments should 
be the same under either the serial or sinking- 





fund plan. But actually serial bonds are 
economical because they command a 
market than term bonds. The dangers 0: 
mismanagement, or actual misuse of the «ink 
ing fund used to redeem term bonds mak 
latter a poorer investment for the buye 
consequently more expensive for the dis: 
issuing them. Furthermore, serial type 

are administratively and politically advan: 
geous. Among the states which have enacted 
laws requiring that school bond issues |. 
tired on a serial basis are Massachusetts, \e\ 
Jersey, North Carolina, Wisconsin, and ()})\ 
(59: 83.) 

References. 46: 531; 47: 590; 57: iW: 
59: 78-84*; 64: 139-40; 88: 64; 89: 47). 
515*; 136: 163,5*; 159: 191; 175: 190; 178: 
79, 83*; 179: 99; 180: 196-7; 182: 44; 183: 
56-7; 187: 109; 194: 115; 201: 445; 220: 3) 


15. Why should the state department o| 
ucation maintain a policy of continuous stud) 
of the most effective and equitable method: «| 
securing revenue for schools?—Proper fiscal 
policies are fundamental to a successful state 
school system. For this reason the chief state 
school official and his staff should take a det- 
nite interest in the matter of school revenues 
in particular and public revenues in genera. 
The general functions of a state board and de- 
partment of education are more fully 
scribed and additional references are given 
the discussion of question 13 of Table | 
page 99. 


Discussion of Table 11 


Apportionment of State School Funds 


1. Why should a minimum local school tax- 
rate be fixed?—This question has been an- 
swered from the revenue point of view in the 
discussion of item 9, Table 10, above. The 
minimum local school tax has significance and 
value also from the point of view of apportion- 
ment of the state school funds. The purposes 
for which a state school fund may be created 
and distributed are three: 


(a) To participate in the support of education 
by tapping large-scale sources of revenue which 
are not readily available to the local units. 

(b) To stimulate local units to provide good 


schools by making the state aid a reward |! 
effort. 

(c) To equalize the burdens and benefits 
education among the local units. 


Most of the systems for the apportionment 
of state school funds which are now in 


combine all three of these purposes. Howe\«', 
the general trend, both in theory and practice. 
is to emphasize the principles of participation 
and equalization and to minimize the purp:< 


of stimulation. 
Whether the system of apportionment ¢ 


phasizes participation, stimulation, or equa. 


{138 ] 











LOO: 
472. 
- 178: 
- 183: 


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or ed 
study 
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a allaliteali alam Simebagats 


vation, however, a fixed minimum local school 
tax is a necessary element in the whole scheme 
of state school finance. If the purpose of the 
-tate fund is to participate in local school sup- 
port it must have some local support as a ba- 
sis. Again, if its purpose is to stimulate local 
school units through rewards for good condi- 
tions the state fund will be apportioned, in 
veneral, to the units with the higher school 
tax-rates. Finally if the principle of equaliza- 
tion be accepted the fixing of a minimum lo- 
cal school tax-rate is a necessary first step in 
arranging for a minimum program of equality 
in educational opportunity. It appears entirely 
reasonable to ask every local unit to make a 
certain minimum effort to support education 
and then for the state as a whole to make up 
whatever more is needed to carry out the mini- 
mum program (30, Vol. 1: 241). 


References. 10: 182; 11: 197; 30, Vol. 1: 
237, 341; 39: 709-10; 47: 570; 56: 175; 57: 
180; 114: 320; 117: 73; 119: 55; 120: 12; 
122: 96; 123: 17*; 135: 5; 164: 40; 169: 
155-6; 175: 174; 179: 98, 208; 180: 38, 80; 
181: 151; 182: 111; 183: 65; 194: 364; 195: 
9; 201: 481; 223: 338; 225, Vol. 1: 240. 


2. Why should there be an equalizing ap- 
portionment which recognizes differences in lo- 
cal financial ability to support schools?—In- 
vestigations have repeatedly shown that locali- 
ties differ enormously in their ability to buy 
education for their children. For instance, the 
recent survey of Utah showed that in order to 
raise a sum of approximately $70.00 per child, 
one district would need to levy a tax on the 
true valuation of its property of only 4.35 mills 
while another district could raise this amount 
only by a tax of 25.39 mills. When inequalities 
in assessments were added to these estimates the 
differences were even more striking (201: 
435). Similar illustrations for other states 
may be drawn from almost any one of the state 
school surveys which touch on school finance 
problems. it has become quite evident that 
the only way to equalize these inequalities is to 
apportion the state school aid, or part of it, so 
that the wealthier communities receive propor- 
tionately less and the poorer communities re- 
ceive proportionately more from the state. 

Out of these conditions there has gradually 
been evolved the principle of equalized educa- 


tional opportunity. The equalization principle 
as applied to education means that every child 
must be offered a reasonable educational oppor- 
tunity and that no community shall bankrupt 
itself to provide this opportunity. Putting this 
principle into practice necessitates expert ad 
Reduced 


however, the operation of the equalization prin- 


vice and direction. to its essentials 
ciple involves: (a) the fixing of a minimum 
educational program to be provided throughout 
the state, (b) estimating of the cost of this 
minimum program, (c) fixing a minimum lo- 
cal tax-rate, (d) discovering the amount 
needed in each local unit which, when added 
to the amount raised by the minimum local tax, 
will provide the minimum educational pro- 
gram. 

‘There are few points on which more unani 
mous agreement among educators is evidenced 
than on the essential justice and wisdom of the 
equalization principle. It is this principle which 
lies back of the slogan, “The wealth of the 
state must educate the children of the state. 
The equalization principle has been incorpor- 
ated in the recommendations of one state-survey 
after another and it has been adopted in prac- 
tice, at least to a limited degree, by all but 
three states (13: 23). 

Although practically every state can meet 
the criterion implied in this question, it does 
not follow that conditions in these states wita 
respect to the state school fund apportionment 
are perfect. In many states the total amounts 
of the state school funds are so small! as to 
have a negligible effect in equalizing educa- 
tional opportunity throughout the state. In 
others, large portions of the state school moneys 
are still apportioned on antiquated and thor- 
oughly discredited bases. This criterion there- 
fore should bring into the self-survey the 
whole question of the adequacy and eftective- 
ness of the state aid provided for educational 
purposes. ‘The other questions in the check- 
list may similarly become the starting point for 
more extensive investigations. 

References. 1: 241; 10: 181-2; 11: 140-1; 
13: 23, 63, 208; 23: 145; 30, Vol. 1:324-5;31: 
91; 39: 705; 43: 303-5; 44: 252; 46: 472-84; 
47: 570; 56: 175; 57: 153; 88: 93, 113; 97: 
44; 114: 318; 119: 55; 120: 13; 121: 39; 122: 
90, 93-4; 123: 16*; 134: 13, 121; 135: 8, 33; 
136: 302-3; 139: 25; 143: 21-2; 156: 163; 


[139 ] 











159: 264; 164: 37; 167: 52; 169: 25; 171, 
Supplement, Vol. 2: 6; 175: 174; 179: 78, 
207, 285; 180: 18, 65, 130, 183; 181: 152, 
181; 182: 82, 158, 204; 183: 107; 187: 94; 
192: 41; 194: 43; 195: 10; 201: 473-4; 215: 
280; 225, Vol. 3: 110-18*. 

3. Why should the state apportionment 
amount to at least 20 percent of the operating 
cost of public schools?—The proportionate 
participation of the state in school support is a 
question upon which various opinions exist. 
Pittinger points out that up to 1920 the 
United States Bureau of Education, in its state 
school surveys, usually recommended that the 
State should provide about one-third of the 
total expenditures for school maintenance. 
(136: 278) More recent studies, however, 
have reached the conclusion that the proper 
share of costs to be assumed by the state could 
not be determined arbitrarily and uniformly. 
Swift, however, after pointing out the neces- 
sity for making a special study of each State, 
concludes that “upon the basis of present con- 
ditions it seems safe to say that the proportion 
of the total expenditure to be borne by the 
state would range far beyond the suggested 
one-third perhaps leaving little more than one- 
third to be borne by the local unit.” (181: 
191) Cubberley states that most students of 
educational finance would agree that under 
modern conditions of wealth distribution from 
40 to 60 percent of the maintenance cost for 
elementary and secondary education ought to 
come from state sources. (46: 436) While 
the necessity of avoiding sweeping generaliza- 
tions is recognized, it appears entirely safe to 
assert that no state should contribute less than 
20 percent of the total cost of education ; states 
should contribute a far greater proportion of 
the total cost. 


Determination of the amount which a given 
state should contribute to public education is a 
task for which expert technical assistance is 
necessary. However, assuming complete ac- 
ceptance of the equalization principle, the essen- 
tial factors in fixing the amount of financial 
support needed from the state are two in num- 
ber. First, other things being equal, the higher 
minimum state-wide educational program is 
fixed the larger will need to be the amount of 
the state equalization fund. Second, other 
things being equal, the greater the differences 


which exist among local school units wit! re. 
spect to their ability to pay for schools th, 
greater the state equalization fund wil! 

to be. 

Recent state schoo! finance studies dis: 
guish two methods of distributing state aid 
The “small fund” method awards poorer cy 
munities more than wealthy communities. ‘| he 
“large fund” method which is at presen; 
used by most of the states gives financial aid » 
local units according to their educational need 
The ability of the local district to pay for ' 
support of schools is not considered. The effec- 
tiveness of the large fund method increases 
with the proportionate amount of the state 
school fund. If the state assumed the entire 
support of public education, the large fund 
method would completely equalize the mini 
mum educational program in all parts of the 
state. As long as the large fund method is 
used, therefore, the larger the percentage ot 
state aid, the better degree of equalization. 
(123: 25). 

The states differ widely among themselves 
in the proportion of total school revenue which 
they contribute. In the United States as a 


whole in 1925-26 only 15 percent came from 


state sources. In Delaware 81.5 percent was 
the state’s contribution ; in Kansas, 0.2 percent. 
Three states contributed less than 1 percent, 
twelve states contributed less than 5 percent, 
35 states contributed less than 25 percent, only 
one state contributed over 40 percent. Pra 
tically all authorities on school agree that, 
under present conditions and considering the 
nation as a whole, state contributions to pub- 
lic schools are not yet sufficient in amount to 
provide children with an educational oppor- 
tunity fully adequate to modern needs. 

References. 1: 233; 10: 184-5; 11: 143-4; 
23: 144; 30, Vol. 1: 319-22, 325; 46: 436°; 
57: 153; 117: 102; 120: 28; 135: 18; 136:279- 
80*; 143: 24; 167: 47; 169: 112; 171, Sup- 
plement, Vol. 2: 5; 175: 175; 179: 87, 
99, 209; 180: 29, 77, 192; 181: 146. 191*; 
182: 107; 183: 89; 187: 90; 189: 63; 190: 
56; 194: 67; 196: 45; 202: 126; 225, Vol. |: 
239. 


4. Why should census or enrolment statistic: 
as bases for apportionment be avoided ?—Cub 
berley in his pioneer study of state aid pointed 
out nearly a quarter of a century ago that ap 


{ 140] 











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portionment of state school funds in terms of 
school census or enrolment statistics repre- 
sented a primitive step in the development of 
state school finance. (44: 250.) Census data 
are of little value in determining the need of 
local units for education largely because vary- 
ing density of population brings about great 
disparity in the cost of education per child. 
The census basis is equally unsatisfactory from 
the point of view of stimulating local effort. 
It offers no incentive to any community to do 
anything beyond getting every possible child 
enumerated so that the state aid may be 
greater. Once the children are on the census 
rolls, a short-sighted and penurious commu- 
nity may neglect to educate them. Adminis- 
tratively, too, the plan has its disadvantages. 
Private and parochial school children for 
whom the community makes no provision 
whatever at public expense are counted in the 
census. Furthermore falsifications of the census 
returns are likely to be made and when made 
are dificult to detect. Most of the objections 
to the use of school census data apply with 
equal force to the use of the enrolment basis 
for apportioning state school funds. 

With these and other considerations in mind 
the use of school census and enrolment data 
for apportionment purposes has been severely 
condemned by many school surveys and other 
authoritative statements. After studying Wis- 
consin conditions, Superintendent Callahan 
concluded that “the school enrolment as a basis 
for the distribution of state school funds would 
fail dismally to provide equality of educational 
opportunity.” (18: 29.) The Maryland sur- 
vey of 1916 concluded that “apportionment 
on the basis of population aggravates in- 
equalities instead of mitigating them.” (56: 
135.) Singleton, in his study of Georgia school 
finance, states that the census basis of appor- 
tionment, “although one of the most commonly 





employed in the United States, is no longer de- 
fended even by those states which employ it.” 
(164: 6.) Sowers condemns the census basis 
as “inequitable and unscientific’ (167: 71). 
Swift and Goldthorpe in their studies of edu- 
cational finance in the South describe the school 
population basis as “ineffective, unjust, anti- 
quated, and disastrous” (180: 128). Pittinge: 
states that the effect of the census basis of ap- 
portionment has been “‘to stimulate non-at 
tendance, cheap teaching, and local inertia.” 
(136: 329.) 

However, these antiquated methods of ap- 
portionment are in many cases fixed in the state 
constitution and are therefore difficult to abol- 
ish in spite of their general condemnation. 
Baldwin in 1927 reported that the ‘“‘enumera 
tion” basis was in use in some degree in 30 
states. 

References. Be Zone 86: 179-. 32: E37 
13: 21-2; 19: 89; 23: 145-6; 30, Vol. 1: 325; 
31: 91; 39: 707*; 43: 301; 44: 250-1*; 46: 
483-4; 47: 584-5; 56: 175-6; 64: 75; 88: 94*; 
97: 46; 114: 320; 117: 101; 122: 92; 123: 
14*; 135: 38-40; 136: 329; 139: 28; 164: 6; 
167: 71-2; 169: 27; 171, Supplement, Vol. 
2: 12; 179: 76; 147, 284; 180: 18, 65, 
128, 197; 181: 118, 193; 182: 111, 204; 183: 
105; 187: 83; 189: 63; 190: 56; 191: 499; 
192: 38; 194: 364; 195: 10; 196: 46; 201: 
471; 202: 128; 215: 282; 223: 338-9; 225, 
Vol. 3: 110-11. 


5. Why should the state department of edu- 
tion conduct a systematic and continuous study 
of the effect of the system of state apportion 
ments on the welfare of the schools?—See dis 
cussion of item 13, Table 1, page 99, for con- 
sideration of the general principle implied in 
this question. 

References. 23: 146; 120: 13; 180: 77: 


181: 192. 





2 enacts: yet 


date antes aa 








Ds ae ome ty ae 








Discussion of Table 12 


Material and Equipment 


1. Why should the state department of edu- 
cation include a division of schoolhousing or a 
school architect?—Financial, sanitary, and 
educational considerations justify the assump- 
tion of some degree of state leadership and 
control in the matter of schoolhouse construc- 
tion. The present value of school property in 
the United States is estimated at $6,000,- 
000,000. School buildings represent a large 
and increasing investment of public money and 
it is definitely to the interest of the state that 
this investment be wisely made. King and 
Updegraff estimated that in seven years the 
School Buildings Bureau of Pennsylvania had 
saved the state over $700,000 while the ex- 
pense of the Bureau was only $75,000. 
(97: 188.) 


The best investment in school plants also 
means the provision of the safest, most health- 
ful school buildings and equipment and the 
best adaptation of the buildings to the needs 
of children as formulated by a progressive 
educational outlook. In order to assume the 
proper measure of leadership and control over 
school buildings the state should provide for 
the inclusion of a division of schoolhousing in 
its department of education. The precise func- 
tion of such a division will vary from state to 
state. The purposes of the Division of School 
Buildings and Grounds in Arkansas are illus- 
trative (79: 94): 

1. To prepare plans of school ground develop- 
ment. 

2. To furnish generalized building plans to 
rural and village school officials. 

3. To furnish preliminary sketches of floor 
plans for larger buildings which present spe- 
cial problems. 

4. To check architects’ plans for school build- 
ings on request. 

5. To advise school officials as to plans for 
remodeling, repairing, and altering school 
buildings and as to interior arrangement, 
furniture, and equipment. 

6. To advise teachers and superintendents as 
to interior arrangement, furniture, and 
equipment. 

A well devised and executed program of 
state leadership in school building matters will 
not result in curtailing local initiative in de- 
sirable directions. The larger school districts 


remain free to develop their own plans 
cordance with their needs and facilities. |), 
state will merely assert its right to fix 
mum standards of safety, sanitation, and ¢<), 
cational adequacy and will stand ready + 4<. 
sist and advise the local authorities and 
tects in going beyond these minima and 
veloping new types of building constr 

States which have a division of schoo 
ing or a school architect in the state d: 
ment of education will answer question { 
Table 12 in the affirmative. This answe 
should not be interpreted as proof that cond 
tions are perfect with respect to state contro! 
of school buildings. This question natura! 
leads one to inquire how the division is : 
tioning, whether it receives adequate fina: 
support for its important work, whether i: 
good working relations with related state 
partments and with other divisions in 
state department of education, and wheth. 
the personnel of the division is adequat: 
numbers and training. The other questions 
Table 12 may also be analyzed in a sin 
fashion. 

Practically all general state school sur\e\s 
include a reference to the desirability of pr 
viding for state leadership in school building 
matters. The recommendations of the 1°26 
survey of Utah by the United States Offic« 
Education are typical : 

The next decade will be a critical one so {a 
as building is concerned, and an 
building department in the office of the star 


superintendent will undoubtedly pay fo: 
self many times over. (201: 393.) 


adeq ate 


Complete or partial administration of 1! 
state regulations governing school building: 
is not always delegated to the state board 0: 
education, but the trend is clearly in that (i- 
rection. The arguments in favor of giving con- 
trol in matters of school buildings to the state 
board of education rather than to any othe: 
state authority are: 


1. All state school matters should be centralized 
in one body—the state board of education. 

2. State educational authorities are compa:a- 
tively free from political complications. 

3. Other state authorities consider the schoo! 
as only one, and perhaps a minor, aspect |! 


[ 142] 


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| 


| 


\ 


4 
3 
: 


> 
. 


: 


a 
. 











ized 


Hon. 
ara- 


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their work; the school official thinks prima- 
rily in terms of the school. He is free to 
devote entire attention to its needs. 


In 1910 state school building control was 
vested, completely or partially, in the state 
board of education in only 13 states ; in 1915, 
20 states; in 1920, in 36 states. Not all of 
these 36 states, however, have recognized the 
importance of this work by creating a sepa- 
division or appointing a director of 


in 


rate 
schoolhouse planning. 

The number of specialists in school build- 
ings in state departments of education has 
steadily increased from none in 1910 (158: 
66), to seven in 1924 (192: 22), eleven in 
1925 (192: 16), twelve in 1926 (158: 66), 
and fourteen in 1929, 

References. 10: 96, 195; 11: 23; 19: 
27; 30: 338*; 43: 260; 46: 524*; 57: 56; 
64: 54; 75: 50; 79: 94; 97: 188; 114: 34; 
171, Vol. 3: 64; 177: 17; 180: 37, 82; 
181: 151; 183: 104; 189: 45; 190: 68; 
191: 61-2; 192: 67; 194: 366; 195: 17; 
196: 15; 201: 393; 215: 237; 225, Vol. 
S: 187, 

2. Why should the state board or state de- 
partment of education set minimum standards 
for school buildings?—This activity of the 
state educational authorities may be considered 
as one aspect of the general principles of elevat- 
ing and equalizing educational standards. 
Good schools are maintained with difficulty 
in poor buildings and even the best schools 
may be improved by better buildings and 
equipment. Either by statute or regulations 
the state should require that every building 
erected for school purposes be structurally 
sound and safe and that the lighting, ventila- 
tion, heating, sanitation, water supply, and 
tire protection be conducive to health, safety, 
and educational efficiency. The state should 
not, of course, exert control over the style, 
design, special facilities, and cost of school 
buildings. It is not the proper function of the 
state to suppress originality or to impose a dead 
monotony on the school buildings. But it is a 
very proper function for it to see that all 
school buildings reach a reasonable minimum 
of adequacy and safety. (46: 523-4.) 

This criterion has been widely endorsed by 
state school surveys, by writers on school ad- 
ministration, and by the general trend of state 


practice. Frequent revision of state school 
building codes and liberal and intelligent in 
terpretation of them are equally desirable. 
References. 10: 210; 11: 80; 19: 15; 23: 
151; 30, Vol. 1: 126; 46: 523*; 47: 585; 
56: 160; 57: 120; 64: 86; 75: 50; 97: 15-17: 
A177: 35; 136: 358; 135: 95; 1390: 119; 
169: 89; 171, Vol. 3: 64; 177: 17; 179: 
258-9; 180: 38, 130; 183: 65; 191: 122; 
192: 67; 194: 398; 201: 394*; 224, Vol. 1: 


210; 225, Vol. 5: 121. 


3. Why should there be a state school- 
housing code?—The answer to this question is 
implied in the discussion under questions | and 
2, above. The advantages of having a school- 
housing code are fairly obvious. It makes read 
ily available to local school boards and archi- 
tects the standards, regulations, and laws to 
which their buildings must conform, It will 
also supply an abundance of reference and 
suggestive material to help in planning 
buildings or in remodeling old ones. 

57: 37; 46: 522*; 80: 118 
4, 5. Why should free textbooks be sup- 


plied in elementary and secondary schools?— 


new 


References. 


The provision of free textbooks is now gen- 
erally accepted by educational experts as one 
criterion of the administrative efficiency of a 
school system. These are the chief arguments 
advanced in favor of free texts: 


1. Free textbooks represent only another aspect 
of the provision of free schools. In a system 
of public schools a child should not be re- 
quired to furnish textbooks any more than 
he should be required to pay a share of 
the teachers’ salaries or the fuel bill. The 
textbook, the plant, the teacher are essential 
parts of our American free schools. If one 
questions the use of public funds for text- 
books he logically must question the whole 
structure of American public education. 

2. Free textbooks encourage efficient teaching 
and a prompt beginning of each term’s work. 
There is no need to wait for pay-day or 
until the child can get to the bookstore, or 
until a shipment of new books arrive. The 
free books can be distributed on the open- 
ing day and school work can be started at 
once. The delay due to unavailability of 
textbooks is most serious in the rural schools 
where bookstores are hard to reach and 
where short terms and irregular attendance 
make a prompt beginning of school work 
especially desirable. 

3. A large variety of supplementary books is 
more easily secured under the free plan. The 


[ 143 ] 








ral at 6 


eS ee eee 
a es ~ 


»* 








best school work cannot be done where only 
one book is available, and yet it is difficult 
to persuade parents to purchase more than 
one book for each subject. To furnish both 
textbooks and supplementary books at public 
expense obviates the entire difficulty. 

4. Closely related to the above argument is the 
assertion that it is generally easier to change 
free textbooks than those supplied by par- 
ents. Continuous developments in teaching 
methods and a broadened and enriched cur- 
riculum cannot be easily secured if anti- 
quated textbooks are used. And yet unless 
the books are furnished free, parents who 
do not understand the educational issues in- 
volved, are likely to declare that “the old 
books are good enough until the children 
know everything that is in them.” The whole 
difficulty is transcended when textbooks are 
free. 


5. When textbooks are furnished free to all 
children, the difficult problem of dealing 
with indigent children is entirely avoided. 
It is unfair to stigmatize certain children as 
“charity pupils,” and yet unless books are 
supplied to all at public expense the un- 
pleasant distinction is bound to be made. 
The practice of furnishing textbooks free 
only to children whose parents claim indig- 
ence is a relic of the old charity school con- 
cept of colonial days. It penalizes pride and 
rewards mendacity. 

6. Compulsory school attendance and free text- 
books naturally go together. Compulsory at- 
tendance implies the provision of the neces- 
sary educational machinery. All children of 
specified ages must attend school and neither 
they nor their parents have any choice in 
the matter. In view of these facts it is only 
common justice to furnish the child with the 
tools of education. Attendance is practically 
valueless unless books are available. 

7. Other arguments advanced in favor of free 
textbooks are that they are necessary for 
the child whose parents are of the migratory 
laborer type, that they are easier to keep 
clean, that buying in large quantities saves 
money, that they encourage regular attend- 
ance and regular preparation, that they are 
kept in better condition than most second- 
hand books, and that they furnish a splendid 
opportunity to teach respect for public 
property. 

Among the arguments advanced against the 
principle of free textbooks are the following: 
that it discourages home libraries and pride of 
ownership, that it is unsanitary, that it denies 
pupils an opportunity to study during vaca- 
tions, that it encourages carelessness, that it in- 
creases taxes and diverts money from teachers’ 
salaries, that it imposes unpleasant custodial 





duties on teachers and interferes with ins 
tion, that it represents undesirable state p, 
ternalism, and that free clothing is the loyica) 
sequel to free textbooks. It will be seen ¢h,; 
most of these contentions are reall) 
ments against improper administration of {re 
textbooks rather than against the provision , 
such. 

The provision of free textbooks on a sta: 
wide permissive basis dates back to 1878: on , 
mandatory basis to 1884 (46: 572). The cir 
of Philadelphia first provided free texthooks 
in 1818 (46: 570). Since these early steps the 
free textbook plan has made sure and stead) 
headway. (185: 6.) By 1896 there were nin: 
states with mandatory free textbook laws and 
twelve states with laws permitting local dis 
tricts to supply textbooks at public expense. 
decade later there were twelve mandatory |aws 
and sixteen permissive laws on this subject. 
By 1916 there were fifteen mandatory and 
seventeen permissive states, by 1926, twenty 
mandatory and twenty-three permissive states. 


References. 30,Vol. 1: 114; 46: 571*; 
56: 173; 57: 269; 64: 165; 81: 2*; 135: 97: 
171, Vol. 3: 14; 179: 100, 209, 285; 180: 76: 
181: 193; 182: 113; 185: 23-5, 192: 64; 194: 
366; 196: 15;215: 111; 224, Vol. 1: 303; 225, 
Vol. 2: 404. 


6. If the adoption of textbooks is on a stat 
wide basis, why should the state board or stat: 
department of education be the adopting au 
thority?—The evaluation and selection of 
textbooks is a professional undertaking. What- 
ever lay body, state or local, adopts textbooks 
should base its actions on the advice of com 
petent professional workers. If professional 
advice is secured and followed there is no need 
for a special and separate textbook commis 
sion, since all that such a commission should do 
can be done more effectively by the state board 
of education and its expert advisors in the 
state department. There is no apparent reason 
why textbooks should be controlled by a sepa 
rate board any more than the certification ot 
teachers or the establishment of building stand 
ards. This, of course, presupposes an effective 
state department of education, exercising pro 


fessional functions, recommending legislative 


action to the state board of education and in 
close touch with educational needs of ever) 


i 144) 








on 


scl 


sol 


pu 
mi 








f Tree 


On of 


State 
On a 
city 
00ks 
s the 
ready 


nine 


ate 
late 

au 
ot 
hat- 
Oks 
om- 
nal 
eed 

nis 
do 
ard 
the 


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4 nee A It 


2 Samant ed 


part of the state. In states which lack such or- 
canization it may be better temporarily to 
iawn a special textbook commission (see dis- 
cussion of Tables 13-14 on state board and 
state department of education). 

Of the twenty-five states having state-adop- 
tion of textbooks eleven designate the state 
board as the adopting authority; eleven have 
special textbook commissions; and three em- 
ploy other agencies. (185: 15.) The tendency 
to charge the state board of education with 
the function of selecting textbooks where state- 
wide adoption prevails seems to be growing in 


tavor. 

References. 30, Vol. 1: 113; 46: 559*; 
57: 269; 171, Vol. 3: 10; 185: 16-18, 35*; 
189: 50; 192: 63; 195: 13; 201: 19. 


7. Why should state textbook adoptions be 
on a multiple list basis?—The prescription of 
a single list of textbooks for all pupils and 
schools in any large area is educationally un- 
sound. A single list fails to provide for dif- 
ferences in the needs, abilities, and interests of 
pupils, for differences in the training and 
methods of teachers, for differences in local 
needs and conditions, and for differences in 
types of school organization. All of these im- 
portant differences are provided for by the 
multiple list plan which gives approval to a 
number of generally satisfactory books for 
each grade and subject and then leaves the 
local unit to choose from among the approved 
books. The general principle governing this 
matter has been well set forth in several state 
school surveys. Thus, the United States Bu- 
reau of Education in its survey of Alabama 
stated that “in order that the list of textbooks 
may be as helpful as possible, it should not 
only provide for uniformity but it should also 
leave room for flexibility.” (191: 263) One 
of the most recent surveys, that of Florida, in- 
dicated as one of the immediately needed items 
of school legislation a ‘change in the textbook 
selection law, allowing a selective group of 
books on each subject rather than an exclusive 
selection.” (57: 56.) 

The multiple list principle has been adopted 
in 8 states. (185: 12-13.) 

References. 11: 16; 43: 286; 57: 56; 
64: 89; 185: 18-19, 64*; 191: 263; 192: 
64; 215, 102. 


8. Why should small local units be com- 
bined for the purpose of purchasing standard 
school supplies?—The individual purchase of 
school supplies by small districts is generally 
both economically and educationally wasteful. 
Buying in large lots saves money because the 
lower and because the 


purchase price is 


amount of clerical work is reduced. A cen- 
tralized purchasing agency is also in a good 
position to evaluate the competing materials 
and equipment available, to choose wisely, to 
check up on delivery, quality, and quantity, 
and to protect the school funds from the raids 
of irresponsible firms and agents. Ordinarily 
the county or other comparable unit is the best 
agency for handling the purchasing of school 


supplies. 
46: 574; 57: 


References. 273; Os 17; 


88: 104. 


9. Why should the state department of ed- 
ucation act in an advisory capacity in connec- 
tion with the purchase of school supplies ?- 
Anyone who will glance through the advertis- 
ing sections of some of the education journals 
(e.g. The American School Board Journal o1 
The Nation’s School) will be struck at once 
with the range and complexity of choices in- 
volved in the purchase of school equipment. 
Rural, village, and town school officials need 
help in evaluating, testing, and purchasing 
equipment. Even in large cities, the officer in 
charge of purchasing school supplies might 
often profit by advice and information which 
the state could best supply. An efficient school 
equipment advisor in state departments of ed- 
ucation would doubtless save thousands of dol- 
lars every year which are now wastefully ex- 
pended for useless or inappropriate equipment. 
Recommendations to this effect have been in- 
corporated in many state school surveys. The 
Florida survey specifically commended the 
work of the department of education in that 
state in issuing suggested lists of laboratory 
equipment and urged the extension of this 
practice to school supplies for other subjects. 
(57: 273.) 

References. 57: 272; 134: 
285; 180: 38; 181: 193; 183: 65. 


109; 179: 


[145] 





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Sine. 





. ed 


an aes 





ee ee 


co” 


J iE I cay ee 


j 
; 


Discussion 


|. Why should the state board of education 
be predominantly a lay body representing the 
state at large?—Experience in city school ad- 
ministration clearly indicates that boards of 
education should be non-professional. They 
should represent the broad aspects of public 
educational policies and should delegate the 
professional execution of these policies to their 
paid professional executives. It is not the 
proper function of the state board to supervise 
instruction, evaluate textbooks, accredit schools, 
prepare courses of study, or approve building 
plans. These are duties which require the full- 
time attention of a professional executive and 
his staff. An additional danger in a professional 
board is that the members will come to repre- 
sent their own educational interests to the ex- 
clusion of all others. This involves the pos- 
sibility of contention and special pleading in 
the work of the board. If special professional 
interests need to be consulted the chief state 
school officer can readily obtain their opinions 
and transmit them to the board. 

According to Tupper, “Recent state surveys 
conducted by the General Education Board, 
the U. S. Bureau of Education, and special 
commissions of educational experts concur in 
recommending . the lay board.” (187: 
8.) The recommendation of the West Vir- 
ginia survey on this point which is typical of 
many others is as follows: “It is recommended 
that the board of education be made up wholly 
or largely of lay members distinguished for 
their civic leadership and spirit of public serv- 
ice. The practice of assuming that any certain 
part of the membership of the state board 
should be engaged in educational work is not 
to be commended.” (30: 48.) 

References. 10: 163, 190; 11: 151; 19: 
12; 23: 149; 30, Vol. 1: 27, 48*; 43: 151; 46: 
290; 56: 10; 64: 14, 18, 83; 90: 4; 99: 68; 
107: 186; 117: 83; 139: 18; 158: 150; 162: 
29; 171, Vol. 3: 7; 187: 8; 189: 158; 190: 
23; 191: 56; 192: 9; 195: xiii; 196: 12; 
201: 10-11, 15; 215, Part 1: 242-4; 224, 
Vol. 1: 155; 225, Vol. 2: 264. 

2. Why should the state board of education 
contain no ex-officio members?—The time of 
members of an ex-officio board is necessarily 


State Board of Education 


of Table 13 


taken up with their primary official d 
Their interest in the state school syst: 
necessarily only a secondary one. Ther: 
two types of ex-officio membership: |a, 
professional. Both are undesirable. The ¢ 
advantages of professional membership 
been pointed out in the discussion of the 
ceding question. Ex-officio lay membership |i, 
the additional disadvantage that the incum)e,: 
is likely to be changed at any state election 
The Indiana survey report declares that 
matter of common experience, ex-officio board, 
do not command public confidence.” (10: 162 
The Texas survey report asserts that ex-officio 
boards of education “are now becoming obs 
lete and will some day be held as archaic 
they are crude and primitive in form.” (224 
Vol. 1: 154.) These statements are typical of 
the attitude of educators generally. 

References. 10: 162; 11: 11, 149; 19: 12. 
14; 23: 149; 30, Vol. 1: 27, 48; 43: 149-50. 
46: 287*; 56: 156; 57: 29-30; 64: 14; 90: 4. 
107: 186; 114: 12-13; 117: 83; 139: 17; 145: 
43; 158: 8, 22; 162: 29; 187: 9; 192: 8; 196: 
12; 201: 10-11; 215, Part 1: 243; 224, Vol: 
1: 154-5. 

3. Why should the board of education con 
sist of more than 4 and less than 10 mem- 
bers?—There may be efficient state boards ot 
education which do not meet this criterion but 
such boards are efficient in spite of the handi- 
cap involved in too large or too small member- 
ship. The principle of a board of education ot 
more than 4 and less than 10 members is ad- 
ministratively sound. Recommendations to t!iis 
effect occur in practically every state schoo! 
survey which deals with the topic at all. ‘he 
recent survey of Utah by the United States 
Bureau of Education is typical in stating that 
“present practice in the United States, as we!! 
as accepted theory, favors state boards of edu 
cation composed of from five to nine mem 
bers.” (201: 12.) Boards with three or four 
members are exposed to the danger of domin: 


tion by one man—either within or outside t!v 


board. Boards with more than nine membe: 
tend to be too large to secure the most exp: 


ditious action. The argument for large boari. 


is generally based on the mistaken idea that t!~ 


[ 146 ] 





) 











dt 





ip has 
ImMbent 
ection 

‘as a 
boards 

162.) 
-officio 
' obso- 
Jac as 

(224, 


ical ot 


Z. 
9-50; 
D0: 4: 
e145: 
; 196: 
, Vol: 


9: 
1 


ao ho 


eae 
mem- 
rds of 
in. but 
landi- 
mber- 
ion of 
is ad- 
o this 
chool 
The 
States 
that, 
; well 
| edu- 
mem- 
four 
mina- 
e the 
nbers 
expe- 
pards 
t the 





ideaeahictalgin. 















larver the board the more special interests can 
be represented. However, it is not a legitimate 
ourpose of the board to “represent” special in- 
rerests in this way. For all proper purposes a 
few members can represent the general public 
interest in education quite as well as many. In 
1890 the median membership of 29 state boards 
of education was 5 members; in 1910 the 
median membership of 32 boards was 6.5 mem- 
bers: in 1925 the median membership of 41 
hoards was 7 members. Thus, the trend in 
size of state boards of education is clearly to- 
wards boards of seven members. About two- 
thirds of the states can meet this criterion. 
(158: 9.) 

References. 10: 190; 11: 152; 19: 12; 
23: 149; 30, Vol. 1: 28, 48; 43: 149; 46: 291; 
57: 30;90: 4; 99: 67; 107: 186; 114: 32; 117: 
84: 139: 29; 158: 23, 150; 162: 29; 187: 9; 
189: 158; 190: 23; 191: 56; 192: 8; 194: 389; 
196: 12; 201: 12; 215, Part 1: 245; 224, 
Vol. 1: 155. 

4,5. Why should terms of office overlap and 
be at least 5 years?—These requirements re- 
duce the possibility of political interference 
and lead to continuity of policy. At the same 
time, they are flexible enough to allow for con- 
servative alterations in policy as need arises. 
A term of office five or more years in length 
is recognized as desirable by all authorities. 
Learned and Bagley describe the board of from 
five to seven members appointed or elected at 
large for long terms as “the most successful 
form of educational control yet devised for a 
democratic community.” (99: 67.) The actual 
length of term recommended varies from state 
to state. A five-year term was recommended 
for Vermont (23: 152), a six-year term for 
Indiana (10: 191), and West Virginia (30, 
Vol. 1: 29), a seven-year term for California 
(19: 12), and Maryland (56: 156), an eiglit- 
year term for Arizona (189: 158) and South 
Dakota (190: 23), a nine-year term for Utah 
(201: 19) and Texas (124: Vol. 1: 155) 
and a twelve-year term for Alabama (191: 
56). A term of less than five years, however, 
has never been recommended in any of the 
standard literature of state school administra- 
tion, 

Closely related to the long term of office is 
the desirability of having members’ terms 
overlap one another. The best experience indi- 
cates definitely that changes in the member- 


ship of a state board of education “should be 
so arranged that a majority of the board re- 
‘nains retiring each 
year or two or three each alternate year... 
Frequent changes on a state board of educa- 
tion, especially changes affecting a majority of 
the board, are particularly unfortunate. There 


constant, one member 


should always be a sufficient number of hold- 
over board members to orient new ones and to 
insure continuing educational policies.” (201: 
12.) Recommendation for overlapping terms 
for state board members occur also in the sur- 
veys of Colorado (196: 12), Arizona (187: 
10), Washington (139: 18) and many other 
states. At present the term of office of elective 
or ex-officio state board members is usually 
either 2 or 4 years. Not counting thirteen state 
boards which are ex-officio in character, the 
usual term of office of members is 5 or 6 years. 
The term of office is less than five years in 
about a dozen states and is more than six years 
in about six states. (158: 12; 90: 10.) 

References. 10: 191; 11: 150, 152; 19: 12; 
23: 149, 152; 30, Vol. 1, 29; 43: 49-50; 
46: 291; 56: 156; 57: 30; 73: 54; 90: 4; 99: 
67; 107: 186; 114: 13, 32; 117: 84; 139: 
18; 158: 12-13, 23, 150; 162: 29; 187: 8-10; 
189: 158; 190: 23; 191: 56; 192: 8; 194: 
389; 196: 12; 201: 12, 13, 17-19; 215, 
Part 1, 244; 224, Vol. 1: 155. 


6. Why should members of the state board 
of education be removed during their term of 
office only on proved charges of malfeasance or 
other specified derelictions?—This standard 
has the same purpose as the preceding ones; 
viz: the prevention of arbitrary removal from 
office and insuring reasonable continuity of 
policy. This requirement also gives members 
a feeling of responsible freedom which is neces- 
sary for the best service to the state. If the 
proper type of citizens are selected for state 
board membership, malfeasance and incom- 
petency in office will be extremely remote con- 
tingencies. Removals for political or personal 
reasons are contrary to the welfare of the 
schools and should be made impossible by the 
statute or constitutional provision creating the 
state board of education. 

References. 19: 12; 23: 150; 43: 150; 
46: 291; 90: 5. 

7. Why should service on the state board of 
be without salary ?—If 


education regular 


{ 147 } 





er REE 


. 
Sa MRE! i a ce 





= 
ne Te eg igh ian - 
COO A Tl RE Di ee Cy 














members are paid travelling expenses, or a 
small per diemr for a fixed maximum number of 
days, or an annual honorarium of less than 
$500 the answer to this question is “Yes.” This 
question does not apply to ex-officio members 
of the board, if any. 

Service on a state board of education ought 
to be regarded as a public honor rather than 
as a salaried position. The disadvantages of 
paying regular salaries to board members are 
evident from a study of parallel experience 
in city school administration. A high salary 
c@nstitutes a temptation for a board of educa- 
tion to attempt work which it ought to dele- 
gate to its paid professional executive. A small 
salary, on the other hand, exerts little attrac- 
tion for the best type of member and exerts a 
very strong attraction for petty politicians and 
office-seekers. All the work which a state board 
of education ought to perform can be done in 
less than a dozen meetings a year. There is no 
need for a full-time salary for such service. 

Endorsement of the principle of non-salaried 
board members is found repeatedly in state 
school surveys and in authoritative treatises 
on state school administration. The following 
pronouncement of the West Virginia survey 
is typical of many others: 

_ Most of the states follow the plan of allowing 
expenses and a small per diem payment, the max- 
imum number of days for which such per diem may 
be paid being fixed by law. Neither authorities in 
school administration nor practice in progressive 
states sanctions the payment of salaries to. mem- 
bers of the state board of education. The objection 
raised to compensating the board with a regular 
salary in addition to necessary expenses .. . are 
that the office may be sought by inefficient and un- 
scrupulous persons with neither the desire nor 
the ability to render service, and that the office 
may be used in payment of political debts to candi- 
dates seeking a salary or social and political pres- 
tige. The service of public-spirited citizens cannot 
be evaluated in terms of compensation, and the 
payment of a salary above a reasonable per diem 


and necessary expenses is not justified by theory or 
practice. (30; 30). 


School surveys in Delaware (64: 84), Mis- 
sissippi (114: 32), Wyoming (117: 84) and 
many other states reiterate this viewpoint. 

Only two states fail to meet the standard 
of an unsalaried state board of education 
(158: 16) but a misguided movement to place 
the state board on a salaried basis is occa- 
sionally begun in other states. 

References. 19: 12; 23: 149; 30, Vol. 1: 
30*; 46: 292*; 57: 30; 64: 84; 90: 5; 990: 67; 
107> 186; 114: 32; 117: 84; 158: 150; 171, 





Vol. 1: 71, Vol. 3: 7; 189: 158; 190: 23: jo). 
56; 192: 9; 196: 17; 201: 19; 224, Vol.s:> 

8. Why should the board hold at lea 
fixed meetings a year?—There are a few 
boards of education of the older “ex-off 
type which have no fixed meetings. In cne sc’) 
nor, the secretary of state, and the state 
intendent the latter wrote in 1924, ‘| 
been in the office of superintendent of py 
instruction for eleven years. ‘Thus far | | 
not had a meeting of the state board of « 
tion.” (158: 109.) While such a polic: 
temporarily work out satisfactorily it | 
ministratively unsound and sooner or lat. 
sure to lead to difficulties. A dormant 
is not the only alternative to an over-| 
board. A professional autocracy may 
harmful to the schools in the long run as |.) 
interference in educational administration. 
The state board should have fixed meetings «: 
such intervals as will enable it to represent the 
people of the state in formulating a genera! 
educational policy, in selecting executives, e\ 
amining and approving budgets, and in re 
ceiving reports of progress. 

Reference. 90: 5. 

9, 10, 11. Why should the board appoint 
remove, and fix the salary of the chief stat 
school officer?—Here again we can turn to th 
abundant corroborative experience of most cit) 
school systems and of certain state scho 
systems for justification of the criteria pro 
posed. Three methods of securing a chic: 
state school officer are in use: (1) election } 
popular vote, (2) appointment by the go\ 
ernor, (3) appointment by the state board ot 
education. The latter is by far the best method. 
Election by popular vote necessitates politica! 
campaigning; makes for a short term of office; 
fixes a salary, usually inadequate, by law; 
limits the field of choice to state, community, 
or party lines; and makes the office itself a sey 
ment of the party machine. None of these con 
ditions are desirable in a professional office. Ap 
pointment by the governor is open to simila: 
objections, since it subjects the state schoo! 
state where the board consisted of the gove: 
officers to the possibility of political dictation 
and places too much power in the hands of « 
busy individual. The chief state school office: 
ought to be appointed by the agency to whic) 
he is responsible, the board of education. ‘I! 
arguments in favor of state board appointment 


, 


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do not imply any reflection upon the many able 
state superintendents who have come into of- 
fice by popular election or gubernatorial ap- 
pointment. General experience however clearly 
favors the method of state-board appointment. 

[he opinion of educators is almost unani- 
mous in favor of the state board of education 
appointing the chief state school official. In 
1921 a study revealed that the appointive 
method was securing state superintendents with 
longer training, longer educational experience, 
and higher salaries than the elective method. 
(15: 35, 61, 89.) In 1923, MacCracken found 
that 18 important state school surveys unani- 
mously favored this method. (107: 187.) In 
1925 opinions of 41 state school officials and 
35 experts in school administration were col- 
lected. This study showed that of 17 possible 
types of state school organization overwhelm- 
ing approval was given to the type consisting 
of a state board of education without ex-officio 
members and a chief executive school officer ap- 
pointed by the state board. (158: 89-103.) 

Popular election is still the most commonly 
used method of selecting the state superintend- 
ent, although appointment is gaining in favor. 
About one-fourth of the states now select their 
chief state school official by state board ap- 
pointment. Twelve states changed their meth- 
ods of securing a state school official between 
1890 and 1925. Of these, seven adopted the 
method of state board appointment (158: 
26-28; 90: 23). 

References. 10: 192; 19: 14; 23: 150; 
30, Vol. 1: 34, 50; 43: 142, 148; 46: 281, 
292, 296*; 56: 158, 159; 64: 16-18, 83-84; 


73: 55; 90: 5; 99: 65; 107: 186-7; 114: 32; 
117: 86; 139: 18, 29; 144: 24, 29; 145: 43*; 
158: 27, 38, 151*; 162: 29; 171, Vol. 1: 
57-9; 180: 37, 82, 197; 187: 10-11; 189: 
159; 190: 23; 191: 56; 192: 8-9; 194: 389; 
195: 16; 196: 19-25; 201: 19-20; 215, 
Part 1: 245, 248; 224, Vol. 1: 158. 


iz. Why should the state board of educa- 
tion act as a board for vocational and agricul- 
tural education in the Federal program?— 
Vocational and agricultural education should 
not be isolated and independent aspects of the 
state educational program. The simplest way 
to secure a unified policy with respect to these 
activities is to place them under the direction 
of the state board of education rather than un- 
der a separate and independent board. ‘There 
may well be a division of vocational education 
within the state department of education, but 
it should be definitely a part of the state sys- 
tem of education. The unified plan is used by 
most of the states which have accepted the pro- 
visions of the various acts of Congress grant- 
ing Federal subsidies for vocational and agri- 
cultural education. The general principle gov- 
erning the matter is that special boards for 
special aspects of the state program of educa- 
tion are undesirable because they create rivalry 
for funds, cause a scattering of effort, and are 
likely to lead to duplication of expenditures. 
(158: 24.) 

References. 10: 118, 120, 191; 11: 12, 
150; 19: 14, 26; 23: 151; 30, Vol. 1: 32; 
46: 294; 73: 54; 90: 5; 114: 32; 158: 24, 
150; 190: 13, 22; 191: 56; 224, Vol. 7: 111; 
225, Vol. 8: 266. 


Discussion of Table 14 
State Department of Education 


1. Why should the state superintendency be 
open to all without regard to residence ?—Resi- 
dence qualifications are vestiges of the political 
history of the state superintendency. They are 
seldom imposed in states where the position is 
filled by appointmnt by the state board. The 
chief state school officer should be selected on 
merit from the country at large. This has long 
been the practice in choosing city school super- 
intendents and presidents of colleges and uni- 
versities. The fact that this policy is impossible 
under the popular election method is one of 
the strongest arguments against the use of that 
method for choosing the chief state school of- 


ficer. The people of the state are entitled to 
the best educational leadership their money 
will buy and this cannot always be secured 
when residence requirements interfere. The 
protection of “home interests” is no part of a 
sound state educational policy. This need not 
mean that professionally qualified residents of 
the state are excluded from consideration, but 
it should always be possible to select from out- 
side the state if the best interests of the schools 
demand. 

Endorsement of this principle is found re- 
peatedly in the literature of state school ad- 
ministration. The Arkansas survey recommen- 


[ 149 ] 





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a es 





dations are typical : 


In the appointment of the commissioner of edu- 
cation the state board of education should canvass 
the entire United States and endeavor to select a 
man of successful experience in large enterprises 
and of broad vision in educational affairs, who is 
capable of assuming a position of leadership which 
will carry the citizens and the teachers of the state 
unitedly to the consummation of the great task 
ahead. (195: 16.) 

The recommendations of the surveys of 
Colorado (196: 19), Utah (201: 27), and 
Virginia (215, Part 1: 247) are to a similar 
effect. 

References. 23: 150; 30, Vol. 1: 36; 43: 
148; 46: 292; 57: 30; 90: 4; 107: 187; 114: 
18*; 117: 86; 139: 20; 145: 150; 158: 151; 
162: 29; 171, Vol. 2: 10; 180: 197; 187: 
10-11; 189: 159; 190: 24; 191: 57; 192: 11; 
194: 374; 197: 16; 201: 23, 27; 215, Part 
1: 247. 


2. Why should the term of office of the state 
superintendent be either indefinite or for at 
least 4 years with opportunity for re-appoint- 
ment ?—States in which the chief school officer 
is appointed for an indefinite term should an- 
swer “Yes” to this question. Desirable practice 
in respect to term of office is thus summarized 
by former U. S. Commissioner of Education 
J. J. Tigert (90: 5). 

The term of office should have no reference to 
the change of officers connected with the partisan 
government of the state. It should be indefinite or 
for a period of years long enough to make possible 
the consistent development of administrative poli- 
cies. 

The weight of competent opinion, as shown 
in the recommendations of state school surveys 
and elsewhere, agrees almost unanimously as to 
the need for longer or indefinite terms for state 
superintendents. “The typical state superin- 
tendent barely comes to the climax of his per- 
sonal touch with the field by the conclusion of 
his term,” says Cook (43: 143). “The term 
of office should be either indefinite or of a 
sufficient number of years to make possible 
the consistent and unhampered development of 
a constructive educational program,” states 
Reeder (145: 43). Similar statements could 
be reproduced from the recommendations of 
surveys in Indiana (10: 164), West Virginia 
(30: 36) and many other states. 

There is a trend toward longer or indefinite 
terms for state superintendents. The term of 
less than four years which in 1890 prevailed 
in 27 states is now the exception. Indefinite ap- 





pointments are now the rule in + states nq 
over half the states use a term of four yea, 
or more for their chief state school offi 
(144: 28; 158: 29; 171: 63). 

The actual tenure of office from 189% +, 
1923 has been studied by Reeder. He rep 
that the 48 states had 257 state superintendent, 
in a period of 27 years. The average tenure {o; 
the United States as a whole then is approx: 
mately 5 years. The individual states \a,, 
widely from this average. One state secured 
an average tenure for its chief school officers 
of only 2.7 years. Only four states reported an 
average tenure of over ten years. (145: 43 


References. 10: 164; 11: 20; 23: 150: 
30, Vol. 1: 36, 50; 43: 143*; 46: 292: 64: 
123; 90: 5; 99: 65; 117: 85-86; 145: 43*. 
144: 29; 158: 32, 151;171:61, 63; 187: 10-11. 
189: 159; 190: 17; 191: 57; 201: 22; 215, 
Part 1: 248. 


3. Is the salary of the chief state school of 
ficial adequate?—Other things being equal, a 
state is likely to secure the kind of educationa! 
leadership it is willing to pay for. The pro 
fessional insight, skill, and executive ability de 
manded of a state school officer are not com 
mon enough to be purchased cheaply. The ca- 
pable state superintendents in the country who 
are giving themselves to their office at a finan 
cial sacrifice are the exceptions which prove the 
rule. Most of our chief state school officers are 
decidedly underpaid. In many states the state 
superintendent is paid less than dozens of high 
school principals and scores of city superin 
tendents within the state and nominally unde: 
his leadership. The increased demands of the 
office and the general advance of other educa- 
tional work to a more adequate remunerative 
basis justifies emphasis on this criterion. 

What constitutes an adequate salary for the 
chief state school official will depend to some 
degree on special conditions existing in the va 
rious states. It is impossible and undesirable 
to name an amount which would apply to the 
United States as a whole. A rough estimate of 
what such salary should be in any state maj 
be derived from consideration of salaries ac- 
tually paid to the superintendents of the large: 
cities in the state and to the heads of the state 
institutions of higher learning. The salary sta 
tus of the chief state school officer ought not 
to suffer by comparison with such positions. |' 
ought to be commensurate with the dignity and 


importance of his office. This represents true 


{ 150] 


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economy. Money spent for competent admin- 
istration is money saved. 

The median salary of state school superin- 
tendents was $2050 in 1890, $3000 in 1910, 
and $4750 in 1925. The lowest salary paid in 
1925 was $1800 and the highest $15,000. The 
trend of salaries for the state school officer is 
clearly upward but in most states the salary is 
still insufficient. (158: 32) 

References. 10: 193; 11: 20; 23: 151; 30, 
Vol. 1: 37*; 43: 145; 46: 275; 90: 6; 145: 
43; 158: 47, 151; 162: 30; 171, Vol. 1: 63; 
180: 37, 82, 197; 183: 104; 187: 10; 190: 17; 
191:57; 194: 374; 195: 15; 201: 24, 28*; 215: 
Part 1: 247. 


4. Why should the state superintendent be 
required by law to be a professional educator ?— 
Where the state superintendent is appointed by 
the state board of education this requirement 
may generally be taken for granted. But since 
the elective method of selecting the state super- 
intendent is still widely used it seems desirable 
to set some standard of fitness for the office. 
The principal functions of the office should be 
control and leadership. Since the state school 
officer is placed in a position of direct author- 
ity over local school officials he should be a per- 
son of professional training and experience. 

A superintendent with a professional back- 
ground can best supply the type of democratic 
leadership needed in a state school system. 
Summarizing the situation in 1925, Reeder 
states, “It has been all too true that almost 
anyone who could run the political gauntlet 
and get elected might hold the office . .. an 
office which admittedly has greater potentiali- 
ties than any other educational office in the 
state and which therefore should have for its 
incumbents the most eminent educational lead- 
ers.” (145: 43.) A number of states have 
adopted legal qualifications for eligibility to 
the state superintendency. A study reported in 
1924 (144: 23) gives professional require- 
ments as then in effect for elected state super- 
intendents. These included school experience 
only in 2 states; either college graduation or 
school experience only in 3 states; college 
graduation, school experience, and a valid 
teaching certificate only in 2 states; college 
graduation and school experience only in 4 
states; and other miscellaneous qualifications 
in 7 states. 


References. 11: 19;23: 150; 30, Vol. 1: 36; 
43: 144*; 46: 280; 57: 30; 139: 18-19*; 145: 
43; 158: 40-1*; 171, Vol. 2: 10; 196: 20, 93; 
201: 79; 215, Part 1: 246. 

5. Why should the state department of edu- 
cation provide for suggested courses of study 
and similar helps for schools?—This criterion 
does not imply that state departments of edu- 
cation should promulgate an inflexible state 
course of study for all schools in the state. Nor 
is it intended to restrict in any manner the ac- 
tivities of local school units in preparing and 
revising courses of study and similar material. 
However, there will for a long time to come be 
much service of a suggestive, coordinating and 
advisory nature which a modern well-equipped 
state department of education can render in 
connection with course of study making. Par- 
ticularly in the rural districts of most states, 
the help and guidance of the state department 
is useful. The generally accepted ideal for the 
state’s participation in course of study control 
is thus stated by Cubberley (46: 319-320) : 

There are large opportunities for state guidance 
through a state study of conditions and needs. 
Careful studies made in a state might easily reveal 
conditions that ought to be changed or improved. 
... The remedy for any such undesirable conditions 
lies first in a clear statement as to the facts, and 
then in the formulation, in conjunction with the 
school superintendents of the state, of standardized 
core curricula, and the issuance of these for trial 


use. . . Insofar as a state department of education 
can give leadership of this type it will prove 
both useful and helpful... A slow but progressive 


uniformity in main essentials, with large liberty 
as to details, is probably the line along which we 
can travel with greatest safety and effectiveness. 


References. 19: 28; 23: 152; 30: Vol. 1: 
46-7; 56: 161; 189: 162; 194: 90; 27; 158: 
151; 202: 189; 224, Vol. 8: 142-3. 


6. Why should the state department of edu- 
cation prepare a uniform system of recording 
receipts and expenditures for use by local 
units?—Effective modern state school adminis- 
tration is based as far as possible on objective 
facts. Pure guesswork is reduced to as small 
a minimum as possible and where judgments 
must be rendered they are made in the light 
of the best statistical data available. A uniform 
state-wide accounting system is an important 
phase of the fact-securing activities of a state 
department of education. It alone makes pos- 
sible reliable comparative studies between com- 


{151 ] 





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munities, detects waste or misuse of school 
funds, provides a basis for trustworthy budget 
estimates, and enables the state to make proper 
reports to the Federal Office of Education. 


References. 19: 26; 23: 151; 30, Vol. 1: 
46; 46: 298; 56: 17; 57: 84; 120: 12; 121: 
106; 147: 89; 156: 164; 158: 150; 159: 130; 
164: 51, 58; 173: 113; 179: 99, 209; 180: 
83; 182: 112; 187: 12, 93; 190: 23; 191: 59; 
194: 369; 224, Vol. 2: 132. 

7. Why should the state department of 
education include personnel sufficient to dis- 
charge all generally recognized educational 
functions?—Among the functions which, in 
most states, should be performed by a state de- 
partment of education are: the application and 
general interpretation of the school laws, gen- 
eral supervision of the various branches of edu- 
cation, enforcement of accepted standards of 
school hygiene and safety, certification of 
teachers, interpretation of the schools to the 
public, collection and dissemination of perti- 
nent statistics, apportionment of the state 
school fund in accordance with the law, and 
conducting of original investigations in educa- 
tion on a state-wide basis. All states in fact do 
something along most of these lines but, in an- 
swering question 7 of table 14, one should 
consider whether what his state does is merely 
in the nature of superficial routine or repre- 
sents a real attack on the problems involved. 
Only in the latter case should a “Yes” answer 
be given to this question. 

The matter of personnel of a state depart- 
ment of education has been investigated by 
many state school surveys and special investiga- 
tions. In general, these studies have found that 
most state departments are far from complete 
in the members, differentiation, qualifications, 
and salaries of their staff. The number of 
staff members needed may vary greatly from 





state to state. The important point is that | 
should be enough capable workers to carr) 
the purposes for which the state departmen: , 
education exists. 

The median size of staff of all state de 
ments of education is increasing steadil) 
1890 the median staff had only two mem! 
in 1900, three members; in 1910, five n 
bers; and in 1925, twenty-three mem 
(158: 52-53) Not only have state depart 
ments grown in size, but they have also in 
creased in proportion to the number of pupils 
served. In 1890 the average state had near|; 
100,000 elementary and secondary pupils fv: 
each member of the staffs of state department 
In 1910 there were only 33,000 pupils and i; 
1925 only 12,000 pupils per staff membe: 
(158: 57) Furthermore, the functions of +! 
increased personnel have been enlarged. Amony 
the functional designations found in state 
partments of education in 1925 which we: 
unknown in 1910 are: teacher-placement se: 
ice, retirement service, school building inspe 
tion, visiting teacher service, Americanization 
research, health service, and a wide variety 0! 
functions in the various phases of vocation:! 


education. (158: 66-67) 


All of the foregoing facts and consideration; 
justify the conclusion that the trend is clear!, 
towards more adequately staffed state depart 
ments of education. A state which wishes to 
be abreast of progress in this respect will do 
well to consider whether its state department 
has a staff sufficient in numbers to carry out 
its important work. 

References. 10: 193-5; 11: 153; 19: 20: 
23: 150; 30, Vol. 1: 45; 56: 161; 64: 18: 
73: 56; 90: 6; 114: 19; 139: 29; 158: 148°. 
162: 30; 171, Vol. 2: 10; 187: 11; 190: 19 
25; 191: 58; 192: 14; 194: 374-5; 195: 15, 
16; 196: 21; 201: 33; 224, Vol. 1: 160. 


] 
in 


Discussion of Table 15 
Higher and Adult Education 


The first seven criteria in Table 15 parallel 
rather closely the first seven questions in Table 
13, which deals with the state board of educa- 
tion. Most of the statements there made apply 
also to the board or boards for higher institu- 
tions. The repetition of these standards in con- 
nection with this table does not have reference 
to the issue whether state control of elementary 


and secondary education and of higher educa 
tion should be exerted by separate boards. Ex 
perience with unified control of public educa 
tion at all levels is as yet too limited to permit 
extensive generalizations. Whether the state 
board of education should have jurisdiction 
over the higher institutions as well as over the 
elementary and secondary schools of the state 


{ 152] 











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‘. still an open question. In most states, how- 
ever, control of higher education is at present 
vested in a separate board or boards. For this 
-eason the inclusion in the self-survey of cer- 
tain criteria for these boards appears desirable. 
These criteria are given in questions 1 to 6, in- 
clusive, of Table 15. They should be applied 
only where the higher institutions and the ele- 
mentary-secondary schools are under different 
hoards. They are discussed here only briefly. 
For a more complete discussion refer to pages 
146 to 149. 

|. Why should the term of office of mem- 
hers of the controlling board or boards of state 
higher institutions be at least seven years?—lf 
the term of office of all members of all con- 
trolling boards of state higher educational in- 
stitutions is seven years or more or for an in- 
definite period of time this question should be 
answered in the affirmative. The chief value of 
the long term of office is that it provides for 
continuity of policy and avoids political en- 
tanglements. Members should also be eligible 
for reappointment. 

The survey of Alabama stated that long 
terms “lend dignity to the office, resulting gen- 
erally in attracting better men to fill vacan- 
cies” (191: 433). Terms of seven to nine 
years were recommended by the surveys of 
West Virginia (30, Vol. 4: 8), Kansas 
(226: 29) and Florida (57: 418). Eight 
years was recommended in the surveys of the 
Universities of Nevada (197: 28) and Ari- 
zona (203: 4). Nine years was recommended 
in Utah (201: 264) and Texas (224, Vol. 
6: 344). None of the recognized authorities 
on the subject favor a term of less than seven 
years. For further discussion and references, 
see page 147, 

References. 30, Vol. 4: 8; 45: 100; 57: 
415; 418; 191: 433; 197: 28; 201: 264; 203: 
4; 224, Vol. 6: 344; 226: 29. 

2. Why should there be at most ten mem- 
bers on the controlling board or on each of 
the controlling boards of state higher institu- 
tions?—The theory underlying this criterion 
is discussed under question 3 of Table 13. It 
was there pointed out that a relatively small 
board can transact the public business most ex- 
peditiously. The only argument for an ex- 
tremely large board is the plea that it is more 
representative of special interests in the state. 
But the representation of special interests in 


this way is not one of the proper functions of 
a state board. The members should each rep 
resent the state as a whole in shaping the policy 
of its higher educational institutions. For fur- 
ther discussion and references see page 146. 

References. 30, Vol. 4: 8; 45: 100; 46: 
348; 57: 383; 124: 127; 191: 433; 197: 14, 
24; 201: 264; 224, Vol. 6: 344; 226: 23, 29. 

3. Why should members of the controlling 
board or boards of the state higher educa- 
tional institutions be selected from the state at 
large?—The institutions which the state en- 
trusts with the conduct of higher education 
are not local institutions. They discharge a 
function of importance to the whole state and 
their control should therefore be vested in a 
board selected from the state at large. Eligi- 
bility based on residence in a particular section 
of the state should not be considered. (57: 
383) “Personal fitness for the position,” (45: 
100) should be the sole requirement for eligi- 
bility to membership in the controlling board 
of an educational institution. Considerations 
of sex, residence, or political and religious af- 
filiation are not appropriate bases of selection. 

References. 45: 100; 46: 348; 57: 383; 
189; 41. 

4. Why should the terms of members of the 
‘The ad 
visability of overlapping terms has been pointed 
out in the discussion of item 5 of Table 13. 
The overlapping term insures a sufficient num- 
ber of holdover board members to orient new 


controlling board or boards overlap? 


ones and to stabilize policies. This practice also 
renders it difficult for any single state admin- 
istration to appoint a controlling faction. Over- 
lapping terms for members of boards of con- 
trol for higher educational institutions have 
been recommended in surveys in Alabama 
(433), Nevada (28), Utah (263) and other 
states. For further discussion and references 
see page 147. 

References. 45: 100; 46: 348; 191: 433; 
197: 14, 28; 201: 264; 203: 4; 224, Vol. 6: 
344, 

5. De members of the controlling board or 
boards serve without regular salary?—lIf rea- 
sonable travel expenses and a per diem for a 
limited number of days are paid, or if an hon- 
orarium of not over $500 a year is paid this 
question should be answered in the affirmative. 
It does not apply to ex-officio members, if any. 
The discussion of item 7, Table 13 has stated 


[153] 





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: 
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7 











the reasons why service on a state board of 
education ought to be regarded as a public 
honor rather than as a salaried position. These 
reasons apply equally well to service on a 
board for higher educational institutions. For 
further discussion and references see pages 
147-8. 

6. May members of the controlling board 
or boards be removed during their term of of- 
fice only on proved charges of malfeasance and 
other specified derelictions?—The purpose of 
this standard is to prevent arbitrary removal 
of board members during their term of office. 
It gives members a sense of responsible free- 
dom which is necessary to the best service to 
the state. For references and further discussion 
of this point as it applies to state boards of 
education see page 147. 

7. Why should the state board of educa- 
tion have the power to control degree-selling 
or otherwise irresponsible educational institu- 
tions?—This is part of the legitimate and nec- 
essary control of the state over private enter- 
prise in education. To maintain proper stand- 
ards, especially in connection with the grant- 
ing of professional degrees, is a duty which the- 
state owes to its constituents. In carrying out 
this duty the state board of education is the 
logical agency. As Cubberley points out, many 
states have enacted “blue-sky” laws to protect 
the buyers of stocks and bonds and it is en- 
tirely proper to apply the same idea to the buy- 
ers of the external evidences of an education. 
(46: 353) Such control will tend to protect 
legitimate private higher education from un- 
fair competition, protect national and foreign 
students from fraud, and safeguard the edu- 
cational standards of the state. Such control 
is frequently recommended by state school sur- 
vey commissions and other authorities. In ten 
states the state board of education must ap- 
prove the articles of incorporation for private 
higher institutions and in seven states the 
board is empowered to visit and inspect these 
institutions after their establishment and to 
revoke the license to confer degrees if pre- 
scribed standards are not complied with. (12: 
39, 51) 

References. 12:58; 46: 353; 95: 19; 196: 
17-18; 202: 62; 215, Part 1: 51. 

8. Why should it be legal to expend public 
funds for public junior colleges?—Although 
there is some disagreement as to the exact form 





it should take and the position it ought : 
cupy, the junior college is now regard 
most authorities as a desirable school unit A. 
such, it is entitled to financial recognition. A) 
though lack of funds prevents the estab)ish. 
ment of junior colleges in many districts. jr \< 
not implied that in such districts junior ¢o)- 
leges should be established to the financia! de. 
riment of the elementary and high schools. 
The necessity of considering the state schoo! 
program as a whole is clearly indicated by the 


following recommendation from the ‘Texas 
survey: 
“The logic of the situation would lead one 


to the conclusion that the cost of junior college 
should be borne in part by the community and 
in part by the state. This recommendation 
however, would be made only on condition 
that adequate provision is made by the stat: 
for the support of state educational institu- 
tions already in existence.” (224, Vol. 3: 79) 
The principle of local initiative would imp) 
that there should be nothing in the law to pre- 
vent a community with adequate school re. 
sources from establishing a junior college in 
addition to elementary and secondary schoo! 
opportunities and maintaining it out of public 
funds. 


References. 
95: 12; 98: 120; 171, Supplement, 
31; 181: 2, 115; 224, Vol. 3: 79. 

9. Why should the law which provides {or 
the establishment of local junior colleges fx 
minimum prerequisites in terms of financial re 
sources or enrolment?—This criterion is ; 
corollary to the preceding one. Local enthu- 
siasm for a “college” should not be permitted 
to hamper the established program of ele- 
mentary and secondary schools. Nor should i 
be permissible to establish a junior college 
where the need for such an institution is ver 
limited. For these reasons it has been found 
advisable to include in the law providing fo: 
junior colleges definite minimum requirements 
in terms of financial ability and future enro!- 
ment. 

The general form and extent of these mini- 
mum requirements should probably vary from 
state to state. The Texas survey recommended 
a minimum property valuation of $10,000,000 
and a minimum high school enrolment of 40) 
pupils. (224, Vol. 3: 79) The law now in e!- 
fect in California requires a minimum equa’ 


iv 
19: 72; 43: 338; 46: 351": 
Vol. 2: 


{ 154] 











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ized assessment of $25,000,000 and an average 
daily attendance of 1000 high school pupils 
for the formation of new junior college dis- 
That this criterion is generally accepted is 
‘ndicated by the tendency of state legislatures 
to restrict the establishment of junior colleges 
to districts which can adequately support such 
institutions. (95: 13) 

References. 43: 338; 95: 13; 98: 119; 
224, Vol. 3: 79. 


10. Why should the state enact legislation 
to encourage adult classes in English and citi- 
zenship?—Civic efficiency, upon which demo- 
cratic government depends, requires that every 
adult should be literate in the English lan- 
guage and should be somewhat familiar with 
the principles of his government. No state is 
safe for democracy as long as illiteracy and 
gross civic ignorance is found within its bor- 
ders. Such conditions are not local problems 
but are of vital concern to the welfare of the 
state as a whole. The adult education pro- 
grams of many states are already projected far 
beyond universal literacy and the Americani- 
zation of aliens. The adult education move- 
ment as a whole is attempting to meet some of 
the problems created by increased leisure and 
is worthy of state encouragement and support. 
But the provision of adult classes in English 
and citizenship wherever needed are essential 
to any state educational program which serves 
a fundamental social objective. The ways in 
which such classes may be encouraged and 
helped by the state are many and no special 
method is suggested in this criterion. A state 
may answer the criterion in the affirmative if 
it really recognizes the importance of the prob- 
lem and is taking definite action to meet it. 

The general attitude of educational leaders 
on this subject is shown by the following joint 
recommendations by the Department of Adult 
Education of the National Education Asso- 
ciation and the National Council of State 
Superintendents in July, 1929: 

The creation in all state departments of educa- 
tion of a division of adult education. . . The enact- 
ment of legislation making adult education an in- 
tegral part of the public school program of each 
state and . . . providing adequate financial sup- 
port therefor. 

References. 2: 4; 43: 355; 46: 367*; 95: 
13; 148: 328; 201: 357; 213: 265*. 


11. Why should the law authorize boards 
of school trustees to permit the use of school 
buildings as community centers?—The wider 
use of the school plant is favored by educa- 
tional authorities because: 

1. It creates community interest in the schools 
and makes for a friendly attitude. 

2. It enables the 
service to a group which cannot be reached during 


schools to render additional 
regular school hours. 

3. it officials to 
community background of their pupils. 

4. It secures the greatest return on the public's 
investment in buildings and 
Public school buildings belong to the public and 


enables school understand the 


school equipment 
so long as the educational program is not ham- 
pered the public should be able to use the schools 
and their equipment. 

5. It raises the moral, 
level of the community. 


intellectual, and_ social 

For these reasons the law should permit 
local school boards to allow the use of the 
buildings under their control for community 
centers. The report of the National Education 
Association’s Committee on Community Rela 
tions illustrates the typical attitude of leading 
educators concerning the use of the school 
buildings for public purposes: 

Therefore, be it resolved, that it is the sense of 
this body, (1) that all public school 
boards should formulate a definite, fact-based com 
munity-use policy and make adequate provision for 
its practical realization, however modest the be 


governing 


ginning in any school system may of necessity be, 
(2) that the community-use department of public 
school systems be staffed by persons having the 
qualifications their 
(3) that all regular services and activities in the 
field of community relations be adequately bud- 
geted at the same time and in connection 
the annual budgeting of other activities, 
and that a special appropriation be made to pro- 
vide, so far as can be anticipated, for new com 
munity activities which may 
standardized during the fiscal year. . 


required for special duties, 


with 
school 


arise and become 


« (20 294). 


References. 29: 234; 148: 329; 189: 86%. 


12. Why should the state department of 
education or some other competent official body 
maintain a policy of systematic study and im- 
provement of higher and adult education?— 
This question has been partly answered in 
the discussion of item 10, above. The genera! 
function of the state in education is presented 
in the discussion and references of item 13. 
Table 1, page 99. 


References. 30, Vol. 4: 115. 


[155] 








i 
| 
ii 
! 




















10. 


12. 


13. 


14. 


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pe 


a Petts He PR 








NTIL within a recent period 
educational programs evolved 
through force of circumstances 
and along lines of least resistance 
rather than through the intelligent de- 
velopment of preconceived plans. Now 
they are deliberately formulated, pro- 
jected, and executed. Program making 
has come to be an essential feature of 
educational administration. The new- 
est, best approved, and most effective 
method of formulating a program is 
through a survey that discloses condi- 
tions, reveals tendencies, points out de- 
ficiencies, indicates needs, and suggests 
remedies.—John W. Abercrombie. 








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