GGaGGGG5005 VOL. VII, NO. 5 NOVEMBER, 1929 Research Bulletin OF THE National Education Association Goooboo bo Gob oo 6oonu Gono noo GESG6G66E ———___— SS SSaSsesoaaaoaaas SS & ey SSag act 30 1929 The Principal As A Supervisor GEDED SHER EAEAEREREREDEA ED £3 69 SAA 6S EA SHA ER EDS OED EREDAR SS666666666 S66663 ZS Sag e PUBLISHED BY THE RESEARCH DIVISION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201 SIXTEENTH STREET NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C. Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. Adz iia Research Bulletin of the National Education Association Published five times each year in January, March, May, September, and November by the Research Division of the National Education Association of the United States. President, E. Rutu Pyrtie Secretary, J. W. Crasrre: The payment of the $5 membership fee of the National Education Association entitles one to receive the Research Bulletin, the Journal, the Annual Volume of Ad- dresses and Proceedings, and certain other publications of the National Education Asso- ciation for one year. One dollar of each $5 membership fee is for a year’s subscription * to the Research Bulletin. The Research Bulletin may be subscribed for separately at a subscription price of $1 per year. Copies may be purchased for 25 cents, and in quantities at a reduced rate. Those entitled to receive the Research Bulletin regularly are asked to report at once any change of address, giving old as well as new address. Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. Director of Research: John K. 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W., Washington, D. C. CONTENTS Foreword Introduction The Principal in a Program of Supervision. . General Problems in Supervision [he Background for Supervision.... Classroom Visits Individual Conferences Teachers’ Meetings Demonstration Teaching é Pupil Guidance and Adjustment..... LIST OF TABLES Age-grade Status of Stanton School (Table 1) Grade and Progress of Elementary Pupils (Table 2) Causes for Pupil Failure According to Teachers (Table 3). Comparison School Building Scores with Standards (Table 4) Ty Number of Classroom Visits per Week by Supervising Princip: als (T hike | 5) Length in Minutes of Classroom Visits by Supervising Principals (Table 6 Rating of Teachers (Table 7) od Time of Conferences as Reported by Supervising Pulnnivale (T the Average Reading Grade Scores of Second Grade Pupils (Table 9 ; Percent of Each Grade Obtaining Right and Wrong Answers in Mixed Puscdinaatal Test (Table 10) Problems Missed in the Low Fourth Grade (Table 11).. Errors of Pupils in Diagnostic Language Test (Table 12) Tabulation of Spelling Errors (Table 13) LIST OF FIGURES Inventory Form for a Single Classroom (Figure 1).. Report on Work of Teacher (Figure 2) Form for Assembling Teacher Ratings (Figure 3) Record of Minutes of Pupils’ Attention (Figure 4)... Standards for Measuring Instruction (Figure 5) A Rating Scale for Practice Teaching (Figure 6). Self Rating Scale of Teacher Ability (Figure 7)... Detroit Check List in Reading (Figure 8) Words from the Third Grade Spelling List (Figure 9). LIST OF CHARTS Types of Supervision (Chart I) Quantitative and Qualitative Aspects of Supervision (Chart II Types of Supervision (Chart IIT) Arithmetic 290-1 9? 294 FOREWORD | Repay ewe supervision is a characteristic of progressive school systems. Everywhere superintendents are building up efficient supervisory organizations. Principals are turning more and more from routine duties to the challenging problems of instruction. Special supervisors are finding,great opportunities in research and experimentation with teaching methods. Such rapid development of supervision is a fine thing, but it should not overlook two basic principles. (1) Supervision is a cooperative enterprise. Superintendents, principals and supervisors do not supervise in isolated compartments. Many instructional problems require the attention of both line and staff officers. Mutual respect, understanding and a desire to work together are paramount. Only cooperative supervision can unite with the individual teacher’s efforts in making classroom work most effective. (2) The highest form of cooperative supervision is between competent persons. The success of a cooperative project depends on how well each individual carries his share of the responsibility. Incompetents must drop out or have their burdens borne by others. The change in school supervision puts this question squarely up to all princi- pals: Are you qualified to assume your share of the supervisory program? Each princi- pal must answer for himself. This Bulletin will do much in helping principals meet their growing supervisory responsibilities. ‘The citations to current professional literature and the descriptions of practice offer material for group discussion. Perhaps the most valuable contribution of this Bulletin is the appeal that each principal be more critical of his own work. None of us can be easily satisfied when the opportunities for better work are so readily available. J. W. Craptrez, Secretary, National Education Association. Introduction HE conception of the principal as a su- pervisor of instruction is being widely accepted. Superintendents, college teach- ers and principals everywhere are welcoming the opportunity to magnify the principalship.' But general approval of the ideal does not automatically qualify each principal to deal wisely with practical instructional problems. Field observations reveal that there are at least three types of principals: (a) those who are neither willing nor prepared to be supervisors, (b) those who are willing, but poorly equipped to do supervision, and (c) those who are both anxious and trained to do supervisory work. All three of the above types could profit from some form of professional study. Even the best prepared need to experiment, to eval- uate and to be self-critical in such a rapidly developing field as supervision. It is for these students of their own professional problems that this Bulletin has been prepared. How the Bulletin was prepared—The fol- lowing chapters comprise a summary of re- search, theory and current practices in school supervision. Material has been gathered from a number of sources, including current pro- fessional magazines, educational books, theses and field observations. Perhaps the most fruitful source of infor- mation has been the publications of the De- partment of Elementary School Principals of the National Education Association. For more than seven years this Department has done pioneer work in establishing the “‘super- visory function” as a prerogative of the prin- cipalship. The publications of this Depart- ment are rich in practical and inspiring sug- gestions. A second source of information has been the accumulated experience of the Research Division. Each year this division receives inquiries from principals asking for help on specific problems. In meeting these requests the Division has developed many bibliographies and in turn has received much valuable ex- perience. In cooperation with the Depart- ment of Elementary School Principals the Re- search Division has sent a research worker to 1 The 1930 Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence will be devoted to problems in school supervision make observations in outstanding school sys- tems. ‘The data from these observations have proven to be unusually suggestive of best practices. Data from recent research studies have been taken from publications. Many of the cur- rent professional magazines have been searched for articles written by successful principals. Several useful books on education have fur- nished valuable material. All such sources of information have received due recognition in the footnotes and lists of selected references. Drafts of the Bulletin were submitted to a number of practical workers for critical re views. Many practical suggestions were se- cured in this way and incorporated in the final revisions. While many of the merits of this Bulletin are due to the volunteer helpers, the responsibility for the final form belongs to the Research Division. Careful attention was given to large sec- tions of the original manuscript by George C. Kyte, University of Michigan, and John Thomas, Clippert School, Detroit, Michigan. 1. Jewell Simpson, Assistant State Superintendent of Maryland; Leonard Power, Assistant Supe: intendent, Dallas, Texas; Helen B. Shove, Longfellow School, Minneapolis, Minnesota; W. Q. Brown, Kennedy School, Cincinnati, Ohio; Agnes W. Carroll, Fitzgerald School, Detroit, Michigan; F. H. Duffy, Harding School, Steubenville, Ohio; Nathaniel G. West, Andrews School, Rochester, New York; C. E. Stephens, Shaw School, Saint Louis, Missouri; George Taylor, Anthony School, Rochester, New York; John Spargo, Ashland School, East Orange, New Jersey; and W. T. Longshore, Greenwood School, Kansas City, Missouri. The Research Division gratefully acknowl- edges the sincere criticisms and constructive suggestions made by these co-workers. What this Bulletin emphasizes pervision is a cooperative activity. Single chapters were reviewed by: First, su- All super- intendents, principals and special supervisors have responsibilities in the supervisory pro- gram. Each must do his own work wel!. But This volume may be obtained in February, 1930, by writing to the Department of Superintendence, 1201 Sixteenth St. N. W., Washington, D.C . [ 281] it is equally important for each to coordinate his activities with those of his fellow super- visors. Without cooperation, supervision tends to exert a disorganized and confusing influence upon the classroom. Second, specific supervisory technics are only means to ends. Rating teachers, observ- ing classes and holding teachers’ meetings are not activities which automatically improve in- struction. ‘They are merely fact-finding and preparatory steps. More important, are the follow-up measures which bring about con- structive changes in classroom practices. It takes a capable principal to follow through in supervision. Need for recording results—There are at least 20,000 assistant, teaching and supervis- ing principals in city school systems.’ Few of the many talented persons in this large group have adopted this suggestion: Principals should not become so absorbed in routine activities as to fail to set down in writing the procedures and results of research. The necessity of describing experiments in concise and understandable statements is excel- lent personal training and tends to clarify thinking.” There is a demand now for much clear- thinking on the use and value of specific te is posed mpoa figures reported in ‘‘Salary Scales in City School Systems in 1928-29.’ 405-72; Ma 1929, National tion Associatio: ; y,1 a’ ucation tion, approximateiy 50,000 principals. supervisory technics. Who can study and re- port the problems of the principalship bet: than the principals themselves? How to use the Bulletin—lIt is hoped tha: this Bulletin will prove useful in profession; meetings of principals. Some groups will fin it stimulating to make critical reviews of eac! chapter. But most good will come if such critical discussions materialize into group ex perimentation. Individual principals will find great value in checking their supervisory practices agains: this Bulletin.* Sometimes this self-survey wi! be illuminating. Many will not be satisfied until they have examined some of the origina references, tried out the suggestions and made their own evaluations.* In no sense does this Bulletin pretend to b final. Nor will it suggest panaceas for a! situations. It presents what is believed to bx suggestive material and cites many supple mentary references. Each principal should make such use of these suggestions as his schoo! situation demands. ‘The Bulletin challenges uncritical thinking. It shows the importance of a philosophy of life and of education.’ It places this question squarely before every prin cipal: Am I carrying my share of the super- visory program? Research Bulletin 7 Other estimates, using a broader definition of the FR have reported * See the Seventh Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association, p. 350. + Many readers will find it advantageous to ignore the footnotes during the first reading of this Bulletin. references a not we in complete form in the footnotes, they will be found in greater detail in the selected refe «When pig mmo Sdn ost principals will ey food for thought in such books as: Charles A. Beard’s Whither Mankind; Walter Lippmann’s, Public Optaben Everett Dean Martin's, The Meaning of a Liberal Education and A. N. Whitehead's Science and the Modern \Vorld. HE PURPOSE of the visit should be carefully planned. One ought not to be satisfied with sauntering into a room and draping one’s self over a radiator for a few minutes. ought to distribute visits according to a plan—a plan in which the strong and weak teachers, the experienced and inexperienced all receive consideration. Under some circumstances the principal may contemplate visiting by subjects; under other circumstances, by grades. Again, one may visit for the purpose of furthering some policy which the school has agreed upon. The facts which one collects will be affected by these considerations—B. R. Buckingham, Edu- cational Research Bulletin, The Ohio State University, May 1, 1929, p. 190. One und re- better d that ssiona| Il find f each f such up ex- value gainst V will tisfied igina! made to be r all to be pple- ould choo! nges ‘ance ce $e yrin- iper- The Principal in a Program of Supervision ' The practice of placing heavy supervisory responsibilities upon elementary school prin- cipals is raising many problems. Is the prin- cipal the final supervisory authority in each school? Should special supervisors work under the direction of the school principal ? What status do directors of instruction as- sume unon entering a particular school? How may the work of assistant superintendents, special supervisors and principals be coordi- nated so as to make a unified attack on class- room problems? Such questions must be answered by school systems in terms of their local conditions. The number and type of special supervisors, the exact status of the principalship, the super- visory objectives, and similar specific problems cannot be settled by any general panacea. But certain general facts and principles do bear upon all local problems. Some of these are found in this section which asks this ques- tion: Mr. Principal, just what is your place in the local supervisory program? What is supervision?—There have been many attempts to formulate a definition of supervision in terms of specific technics, inter- mediate purposes and ultimate ends. Supervision can be said to be visiting classes, conferring with teachers, rating in- struction, holding teachers’ meetings and sim- ilar activities. But definitions in terms of technics or means are not complete, for super- vision is more than a miscellaneous collection of procedures. Specific supervisory procedures may become administrative by a change of emphasis.” The current tendency is to define super- vision in terms of purposes, as the following: The coordination, stimulation, and direction of instruction,® or, the improvement of instruc- tion. Such definitions are of practical value in giving principals pe’ ective in this field. The ultimate end of supervision is the development in each teacher of the power of efficient self-direction. The development in teachers of the ability critically to direct their own work requires much concrete help and close direction by the principal. But some- times there must be opportunities for teachers to experiment with the minimum of guidance by administrators.° Such freedom in teach- ing, accompanied by a democratic philosophy of supervision, does much to capitalize the personal qualities of the individual teacher.*® Supervision in the fullest sense becomes: help- ing teachers to enjoy the freedom and satis- faction of functioning upon a high level of self-direction within a professional teaching group.’ Development of supervision—School super- vision of a primitive type,* began in the United States with the New England school committee.? The members of these commit- tees often inspected the schools.'® According to Suzzalo, knowledge gained through in- spection was first used in 1753 by the school committee to improve the teacher’s work." But professional supervision, as we under- stand it today, probably began with the ap- pointment of school superintendents.’* The rapid growth of cities in the United States hastened the appointment of city super- intendents to care for the increases in com- plexity of school organization.** Some of the earliest superintendencies were Buffalo in 1See the 1930 Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence (available February, 1930) and The Organization of Super- vision by F. C, Ayer and A. S. Barr, Appleton, 1928, 2 See The Seventh Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association, p. 182-203. 3 Scott, Charles E., Educational Supervision, p.9. (Footnote.) 4 See “The Principal Studies His Job,” Research Bulletin, 6: 92-102; March, 1928. National Education Association. ‘Nutt, H. W., The Supervision of Instruction, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1920, p. 12, 89, and 93. * See “The Principal Studies His Job,’ Research Bulletin, 6: 98-99; March, 1928. National Education Association. Also, The Seventh Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association, p. 340. 7 See Chapters I and II of the 1930 Yearbook, Department of Superintendence, National Education Association, dealing with supervision. This Yearbook will be available F ebruary, 1930 § Showalter, ee 10: 481-94; November, BB ‘The Development of Supervision of Instruction.” Educational Administration and Supervision ® Wilson, Julia S., nell of appwetnen. Unpublished M. A. Thesis, University of California. 1925, p. 21-22. w pay me Charles E., Op. cit., D. io, Henry. The Rise - ‘Local School Supervision in Massachusetts. Teachers College, Columbia University. 1906. as 12 ‘Cubberley, E. P., Public School Adminisiration (Revised Edition). 8 Wilson, Julia S., op. cit., p. 22. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1929., p. 149-257. [ 283 J 1837, Louisville in 1837, and Providence in 1839.1 Boston, New York, San Francisco, Chicago and Saint Louis appointed school superintendents between 1851 and 1854. By 1870 there were twenty-nine such superin- tendents of schools.‘ Recently the number of city superintendents of schools totaled approxi- mately 3,000 according to the directory pre- pared by the United States Bureau of Educa- tion.” Cubberley has discussed the development of county school superintendencies under state in- fluence.’ At first the county superintendent was largely a clerical officer representing the state in relations with the local units. In some states, such as Maryland, the county superintendent has assumed a position of genu- ine professional leadership. While the position of superintendent of schools was coming into being, the elementary school principalship, even in the largest com- munities, had not freed itself from heavy teaching duties. In 1857 the prescribed duties of principal teachers in Boston did not in- clude any real supervisory work.* Beginning about 1857, city school reports show superin- tendents making efforts to release the prin- cipal teachers from some teaching responsi- bilities. The following quotation made by Superintendent Wells of Chicago in 1859 is typical of several that could be cited: In several of the new school buildings the num- ber of teachers and pupils is so large that a con- siderable portion of the principal’s time is consumed in attending to matters of general oversight, and in giving such aid to the other teachers as may be necessary to secure uniformity and efficiency in all the different parts . . . I would suggest that it may be desirable to make some special provision by which the principals of the larger schools will be relieved from the immediate charge of their own rooms during a portion of each day for the pur- pose of attending to the general interests of their respective schools.5 1 Cubberley, E. P., op. cit., P., 74- ?U. S. Bureau of Education, « Rducational Directory.” 3 Cubberley, E. P., a Pa cil., p. 44-54. ‘ The development of tary School Principals, Notional Educa Association, 192 school principalship has been traced in the Seventh Yearbook. 8, p. 160-67. In large communities the changes in sch: organization made the head teachers int teaching principals with general superviso: powers. In time, some of the teaching prin cipals, freed entirely from regular teaching duties, became building or administrative principals. Sometimes building princips ils were called supervising principals so as emphasize their obligation to direct the teach ing in their own schools. All of the types discussed in this paragraph exist in commun ties of the United States at the present time Now, a constructive program of supervision is looked upon as a necessity in progressive school systems. While the importance of supervision is generally recognized by supe: intendents,’ principals,* and supervisors,’ the places of these various officers in the super- visory program has not been finally settled. There is a need at the present time for furthe: study, experimentation and dissemination ot knowledge so that all supervisory officers ma) gain a proper perspective of their functions. Types of supervisory organization’'—Thic number and kinds of supervisory officers, the authority of each, and similar factors all exert influence upon the principal’s supervisory pro gram. The next section will present a briet summary of school organization as set forth in current professional literature. ‘The alert principal will be anxious to study his loca! school system in terms of these standards so as to coordinate his efforts with those of the superintendent and supervisors. According to Ayer and Barr*® there are in practice three general types of supervisory or- ganizations: the dualistic, the line-and-staff and the coordinate divisional plan. The dualistic is represented by the system in which principals and supervisors both have direct administrative authority over the work of teachers. This plan fails to delimit author- Bulletin, 1929. No. 1, p. 37-55. Department of Elemen- 5 See p. 163 of the Seventh Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association, 1928. 1 See Fhe Stats 285-92 and 560-61. P Status of the Superintendent, " First Yearbook, * See ‘The Elementary 209, 228, 249. one Mg may yy u See C i Tage meg tee a le tion A February, 1930. t of Superintendence, 1923, p. 15-16, 123-42. Principalship,”” Seventh Yearbook, Deon of Elementary School Principals, 1928, p. 182- " First Pestosh, National Conference on Educational Method, 1928, p. 105-22. ion.” Method 929. tion’’ in 1930 Yearbook, Aven Fred C., and Barr, A. S., The Organization of Supervision. D. Appleton and Company. [ 284] 8: 445-49; May, 1 Ey Lapetistendance, National Educa- 1928. p. 210-48. Pa einen ae alg nt ENE cael schoo] 'S Into TVisory g prin- ‘aching trative Ncipals as to teach- types imuni- time.' ‘vision ressive ce ot super- ® the super- ttled. irther m of ; may ons. ! ~The ’ the exert pro- brief ‘orth alert local Is so the ‘ty. It hinders cooperation between the two supervising officers, and places the teacher be- tween the cross-fire of different viewpoints. The second general supervisory organiza- tion has been called the line-and-staff system. Aver and Barr have pointed out that this plan may exist in several types: 1) The line-and-staff organization with special supervision subordinated. Under this scheme special supervisors are eliminated’ or reduced to minor supervisory roles. (2) The non-divisional line-and-staff or- ganization with special supervision vertically organized. Under this plan special super- visors have advisory powers along instructional lines, but do not have administrative control over the teachers. All administrative and supervisory authority centers with a deputy superintendent. (3) The divisional line-and-staff organiza- tion with special supervision vertically organ- ized. This plan does not differ essentially from (2) above, except that authority and activities head up under divisional heads in charge of elementary schools, junior and senior high schools. The third general type of supervisory or- ganization has been called the coordinate divisional system.? The feature of this plan is that cooperation between administrative and supervisory officers is deliberately provided for under the direct control of assistant superin- tendents. It is the business of the assistant superintendent to see that these two services function effectively as separate units and co- operate together as parts of a larger program. Such a scheme emphasizes and facilitates a cooperative type of supervision. 7 Cooperation in supervision—The function of supervising is not lodged in one person. Superintendents, assistant superintendents, general supervisors, directors of instruction, special supervisors and principals all have supervisory powers. Cooperation between these officers makes supervision a constructive influence on the classroom. Progressive theory* and practice’ give the principal supreme administrative powers in his own building. Yet principals are ultimately responsible for good administrative practices to the head administrator, the superintendent. In the same way, principals are finally respon- sible to the superintendent for a constructive supervisory program. When a principal ig- nores or refuses to adopt the suggestions of supervisors or other expert advisers he makes himself accountable to the superintendent. Gosling has stated this point as follows: Just as the supervisor is the technical adviser of the superintendent so should he be the technical adviser of the principal. Both superintendent and principal will do well to lean heavily on thei: technical advisers. As the superintendent may dis regard the supervisor’s advice because he is con vinced that there is a better way to proceed than the one suggested, so may the principal disregard the advice of the supervisor. It should be clearly understood, however, that when the principal fails to accept the advice of the supervisor on those mat ters in which the supervisor is acting on the in struction of the superintendent, the obligation rests on the principal to explain his procedure and to show that his way is the better.® Supervision, like other cooperative activities, is likely to have inarticulations and difficulties. General and special supervisors may differ as to teaching aims. Principals and supervisors are not always in agreement on classroom methods. Some of these problems arise more from personal than professional differences. Yet in spite of the frailties of human nature, cooperation in supervision can be improved through the following: (1) Tolerance—Since supervision is a func- tion of superintendents, principals and super- visors, each may ask himself such questions as these: Do I give the other supervisors a fair chance with their programs? Do I ever op- pose them for personal rather than professional reasons? Is my attitude making the teach- ing of children less effective? April seapeeoted by T. W. Gosling in his article ‘‘Supervision Without a Supervisor,"" Journal of Educational Method 1: 306-11, <7 . 2 See the —— of the Seattle system by Ayer and Barr in The Organization of Supervision, p. 230-48. § See such articles as: Burton, 579-83; May, 1 , ‘Evaluating the Efficiency of Supervisory Programs." 5: 371-75; ae, Sa Wilson, Estaline: ‘Can the ‘shun’ be taken out of Supervision?” Journal of Educational Method Journal of Educational Method 5: t McGuiashy, J. J. B.. Quoted in the Seventh Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education 5See the Me et opinion of superintendents, Seventh Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Principals, National Educatio: ip Sonainion, p. 228. ‘ Gosling, T ciation, p. 244. +» Quoted in the Seventh Yearbook. Department of Elementary School Principals, Nationa! Education Asso [ 285 ] (2) Defining authority—Special supervi- 3. Coutincs, Extsworru. School Supervision j, sors are sometimes added to the supervisory Theory and Practice. Thomas Y. Crowell ( organization without a clear definition of their "eo a wir ork. ayo “ a. a - . . enera eory on the value an unctio authority. Rulebooks and handbooks of city sepesciaien. systems are often so general as to make ad- ministrative conflicts unavoidable. The initi- 4. Courris, $. A. “Problems in the Appraisal ative for assigning supervisory responsibility Supervision.” Educational Administration and rests largely with the superintendent of Supervision 15: 269-78; April, 1929. schools. Differences in the functioning of supervis e ° . ‘ rograms. (3) Talking it over—Even where indi- — vidual attitudes are right and authority clearly . CRANDELL, C. W. “The Relationship Betwe. defined there is value in conferences between Principals and Supervisors.” Eighth Yearboo| supervisors. Detroit? and San Antonio® use Department of Elementary School Principa|, group conferences between special supervisors re Education Association. 1929. p. 169 and principals. Maryland‘ uses state and , aS : : : ; Points out overlapping between the activitie: sectional meetings in promoting morale and of principals and supervisors. Attributes in understanding between rural school super- articulations to faulty supervisory organization visors. These meetings are ideal for the frank dis- - Gist, ArtHuR S. “Next Steps in Supervision cussion of controversial subjects. Special from the Standpoint of the Elementary Schoo : —_s Principal.” Eighth Yearbook, Department ot supervisors and principals have a chance to ti - ; . és : Elementary School Principals, National Educa- influence the instructional program through tion Association. 1929. p. 179-86. objective evidence.’ No problem should be Shows that principals cooperate with supe: dropped until all types of supervisors are visors who do not misuse administrative ready to present a united front toward class- authority. room difficulties. Without this basic coop- ti “4 nen dient t4 winaie . Hostc, James F. “A Balanced Program in Crane CEQETVNER Og8 — = & Supervision.” Educational Method 8: 445-49; the respect and support of the teacher. May, 1929. Discusses importance of integrating the actiy- The Principal in a Program of Super- ities of all supervisors. vision vo . HupBarD, FRANK W. “The Principal as a Su- 1. Ayer, Frep C., AND Barr, A. S. The Organ- pervisor.” Educational Method 8: 496-99; ization of Supervision. D. Appleton and Com- June, 1929. pany, New York. 1928. 397 p. - Describes the progressive principal in a pro- Practices, research, and expert opinion on the gram of cooperative supervision. functions of “superintendents, principals, and supervisors in a program of cooperative super- . Hunter, Freo M. “The Principal and the Educational Expert.” Fourth Yearbook, De- partment of Elementary School Principals, Na- . Barr, A. S., ano Burton, W. H. The Super- tional Education Association. 1925. p. 369-84. vision of Instruction. D. Appleton and Com- Urges the principal to cooperate with the pany, New York. 1926. p. 27-72. various officials attached to the superintendent's Summarizes the basic principles on the or- office. ganization and administration of a city-wide supervisory program. Many examples of prac- tice. vision. . KerwortH, M. R. “A Program of Appraisal! Under Functional Supervision in Hamtramck, ! Hubbard, Frank W., ‘‘ Do School Systems Need a Principal’s Handbook?” Elementary School Journal 29: 590-93; April, 1929 , hen Aa Quoted in the Seventh Yearbook. Department of Elementary School Principals, National — - ana kg OS ce of Supervision for San Antonio." First Yearbook. National Conference on Educational Ne oat hyd. - as pt ae ee on “The Plan of Supervision in Maryland.” First Yearbook. mk ar C. L., “‘The Detroit Plan of Supervision.” First Yearbook. National Conference on Educational Method. 1928. [ 286 } ision in ell Cx Ction aisal of 1On and rvisory etwee arbook, ICipals, p. 169 tivities tes in zation ‘Vision Schoo! ent of duca - super- rative Michigan.” Educational Administration and Supervision 15: 290-300; April, 1929. General discussion of supervision in oper- ation. _ NATIONAL EpucATION AssocIATION. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction. First Yearbook. 1928. 270 p. Second Year- book. 1929. 207 p. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University. These yearbooks summarize much of the ob- jective evidence on the value and use of spe- cific supervisory technics. Chapters describing cooperative supervision as a practice in certain states and cities. . NATIONAL EpucaATION AssOcIATION. Department of Elementary School Principals. The Seventh Yearbook. 1928. Chapters VIII and IX. Opinion and practices making for cooperation in specific activities between superintendents, supervisors, and principals. NEWLON, Jesse H. “Reorganizing City School Supervision.” Journal of Educational Method 2: 404-11; June, 1923. Discusses relationship of principals and su- pervisors in a city school system Nutt, H. W. Current Problems in the Super- vision of Instruction. Johnson Publishing Com- pany, Richmond. 1928. Chapters I through X. Typical practices in the organization of super- vision in cities of varying sizes. Examples to show that typical board rules do not distinguish clearly the duties of principals and special supervisors, Reeves, C. E. “The Principal as a Supervisor.” American School Board Journal 78: 51-2; 138, 140; February, 1929. Why the principal is an important super- Visor HE SUPERVISOR must be an adviser and sympathetic helper, working in full cooperation with the principal and the teachers if she is to succeed in her position. The relationship between a teacher and a good supervisor is most delicate and is subtly affected by conditions of ap- parently minor importance. The supervisor who is in a position to make demands or to exercise authority is at once placed under a serious handicap as an inspiring, constructive adviser and helper of either principals or teachers. It is in this sense that a “conflict” between a supervisor and building principal is completely impossible under a sound plan of organization. In the administrative sense, the principal can never be wrong.—J. R. McGaughy in the Seventh Year- book, Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association, p. 247. General Problems in Supervision The previous chapter dealt with the prin- cipal’s place in a cooperative program of super- vision, Attention has been called to the super- visory functions of the superintendent and the other supervisors. Supervision has been de- fined as a cooperative enterprise making for better teaching by increasing the individual teacher’s power of self-direction. The prin- cipal has been urged to examine critically the organization and persons of the local school system so as to evolve a sane and balanced conception of his place in the supervisory pro- gram. This chapter directs the principal’s atten- tion away from his supervisory environment. Instead, it emphasizes the principal himself and his general supervisory procedures. Our problem now is to study the individual prin- cipal in action. What does he do? How does he do it? Why does he do it? Types of principals—An effective program of supervision demands that the principal have wide knowledge of teaching devices, measure- ments, methods, and curriculums. Some prin- cipals seek guidance with these problems by uncritically adopting current suggestions which bear the signs of authority. Such ac- ceptance of unsubstantiated information en- courages an ignorant enthusiasm for the sci- ence of education.‘ At the other extreme there are those who have an enthusiasm for sentimental appeals, hearsay and_ tradition. People of both types bring supervision much undeserved criticism. Chart I, on pages 290-91, compares types of principals engaged in supervisory procedures.’ It will be noted that all types use the same general supervisory agencies, although they are functioning on different levels of pro- ficiency. Such tabular comparisons are valu- able insofar as they make one more critical of his own supervisory technics. : wuts, Chastes H., p. 7. with: Morrison, Robert H., ae Leading to Appointment as School Supervisors and Administrators. 1928. 2 Compare Educational Ad Administration and Su visor.” Educational Administration and Rpsokics $ «Ni Elma A 6: 372-76; May, 1923. “Can High School Supervision be Made Scientific.” Proceedings. 2: 505-11; , Rovemner, 1926, -8; January, 1923. * Waples, Douglas, ‘‘ Teachers’ Difficulties as a hts for Supervision.” , ‘What the Supervisor Can Do to Encourage Scientific Attitude in the Classroom.” The first type of principal performs a rud mentary form of supervisory work. He ma be harsh or sentimental, severe or weak, | in any case his procedures and knowledge conditions are relatively superficial. Often he directs attention away from his own wea nesses by doing things to keep the teach, guessing. Inspection is his over-worked tec! nic. In genuine teaching helps and persona enthusiasm he is usually seriously lacking. H might be called a snooper-visor. The second type of supervising principa| engages in a mechanical form of superviso work. He has an unshaken faith in the foo! proofness of current statistical procedures. He accepts experimental evidence without critica evaluation of its sources. Frequently his intense, high-power manner commands tem porary respect from his fellow-workers. His misuse of legitimate technics makes him leader with a false or pseudo-vision. The third type of principal is a true pr fessional worker. His technics are reliable, his manner sympathetic and his motives im- personal. He has an honest desire to help his teachers function upon a high professional! level. Difficulties are studied and remedied in terms of the personal and teaching differences of the school staff. Teachers are encouraged to accept the maximum of self-direction.* Strict uniformity in teaching technics is re- quired only when such demands can be sup- ported by objective evidence. The particula: abilities of each teacher are developed full) through many cooperative procedures. Per- sons qualifying as this type of supervisor stimulate general approval for the super- visory program. The time allotment—Probably the princi- pal’s time allotment to supervision is one of the most tangible problems to attack. Super- vising and teaching principals will find much National Education Association. Taylor, J. S., ‘‘Some Desirable Traits of the Super- Educational Method 8: 399-403; April, 1929. Educational Method { 288 ] of the available research on this problem summarized in earlier publications.* On the basis of this research it has been suggested that supervising principals and teaching principals should divide their time ap- proximately as follows: Teaching Supervising Activity Principals Principals Supervision ............. 35.0 50.0 Administration .......... 17.0 30.0 NE gg 6d sow S's 30.0 5.0 evar ghnie «wie 640: 8.0 5.0 Miscellaneous ........... 10.0 10.0 100 100 The above percents, although based on the suggestions of more than 1000 principals, are provisional. ‘There are many local cenditions which are bound to influence the individual allotment. Under ideal circumstances a supervising principal might be provided with enough help so as to eliminate most of the clerical work from his program. Perhaps, the platoon school principal and those in larger communities would not find it wise to assume any teaching responsibilities. So it is well to recognize that many individual varia- tions will legitimately exist. But these local and personal factors are poor excuses for not giving a fair share of the day to supervision. Every principal owes it to his school to avoid time-consuming, routine tasks.2, Administrative procedures should be used to free him for study and research of classroom instruction. ‘The initiative for undertaking such a program lies chiefly with the individual principal. General steps in improving the principal's supervision—All principals engage in some form of supervision. Progressive principals may be distinguished by continuous effort to improve their supervisory programs. A prin- cipal’s program of supervision can be raised to a higher level by improving its quantitative and qualitative aspects. The quantitative phases of the supervisory program have to do with the amount of time given certain factors in a supervisory program. Quality in supervision has to do with skill, adaptability, appropriateness, and discernment with which the factors of a supervisory pro- gram are manipulated. Perhaps the distinction between these two aspects may be brought out more clearly by the discussion in connection with Chart II. It will be noted that in Column | is listed a number of factors which may be involved in a supervisory program. Under the Columns 2 and 3 are given the quantitative and qualita tive interpretations of the factors in Column 1. For example, Principal A is anxious to im- prove his supervisory program. He selects teachers’ meetings as a factor requiring exam- ination and adjustment. If Principal A has been holding genuine supervisory teachers’ meetings,* he may increase the number of these meetings. Such a step would be improv- ing his supervisory program by emphasizing the quantitative aspects. On the other hand, Principal A might not increase the number of meetings, but simply provide better meetings. Such qualitative improvements would require attention to such factors as: adapting topics to teachers’ needs, obtaining services of out- standing experts, giving each teacher a chance to participate in the meetings, checking up the meetings through classroom visits. A third emphasis would be to adjust both the quantitative and qualitative aspects of the supervisory program at the same time. Prob- ably, in most situations principals will find that these two aspects require mutual consid- eration and adjustment. Specific steps in improving the principal's supervision—An analysis of the supervisory situation shows that the potent factors are (1) the principal, (2) other supervisors, (3) the teachers, (4) the pupils, (5) the curriculum, and (6) the various supervisory procedures. Basic to all improvement of supervision is the realization by the individual principal that improvement is necessary and possible. Not 1 National Education Association, Department of Elementary School Principals. Seventh Yearbook. 1928. p. 142, 146, 204-209, and 289-292. Research Division. ‘‘The Principal Studies His Job." Research Bulletin 6: 89-91; March, 1928. 2 Morrison, J. Cayce, ‘‘One Day With Fifty-three Principals.” School Principals, National Education Association. Bulletin 6: 67-73; January, 1927. Department of Elementary 3 National Education Association, Research Division. ‘‘The Principal Studies His Job.” Research Bulletin 6: 103-7; March, 4 Social and administrative teachers’ meetings are not considered a part of a supervisory program. * Hubbard, Frank W., ‘‘ The Frincipal as a Supervisor." Educational Method 8: 496-99; June, 1929. 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Numbers above the heavy lines represent ‘‘under age” children. Numbers below the heavy lines are so-called ‘‘over age” children. Adapted from Table 22 of The Adjustment of a School to Individual and Community Needs by Philip A. Boyer. Published thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of Pennsylvania, 1920. Read table as follows: There are seventeen children between the ages of 54 and 7. These children are said to be ‘‘at | TABLE 2—GRADE AND PROGRESS OF ELEMENTARY PUPILS Number of years in school Percent making slow progress » , . ’ ; 41.2 Percent making normal progress. . . ! : , 57.4 55.4 46.2 Percent making rapid progress b P ; 2.5 1.2 ‘ 3.4 13.2 BOS s cic covssepese Seteeeend 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Read table: One hundred and thirty-nine children have been in the first grade less than one year. The percents making normal, slow, and rapid progress are shown at the bottom of the table. Adapted from Table 22 of the Survey of Hammonton, New Jersey, 1926, p. 60. George D. Strayer, Director. See also, Survey of the Schools of Maple Heights, fm 1929, p. 77-112. ‘ram? Have we given enough attention to ndividual pupils? What can be done to in- crease the percent of acceleration? Promotional-failure status—A study of the school’s promotions and failures should give the principal clues as to needed supervision." These tabulations may include failures by grades, failures by subjects or teacher opinion as to the cause of failures. Table 3 shows the causes of failure in Sioux City according ta the classroom teachers. TABLE 3—CAUSES FOR PUPIL FAIL- URES ACCORDING TO TEACHERS | Percent | of total Total | number of failures Probable cause . Low mentality on exon 304 . Personality and behavior... .. 292 . Attendance 259 Academic difficulties......... = _ 139 . Family conditions | 117 . Activities outside of class..... .001 - een es ? . Unclassified causes...... pad 28 2.10 1329 811 Adapted from Table 1, page 241 of the Eighth Yearbook, | Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association. A study of failures in Sioux City | for 1927-28 as reported by E. E. Briggs. According to Table 3 low mentality and pupil personality difficulties most frequently cause pupil failures. But immediately the alert principal must face these problems: Are these 304 pupils genuine subnormals or merely cases of maladjustment? Should any child fail for “low mentality” reasons? Do we need to devote several teachers’ meetings to mental testing? Could we study with profit the char- acteristics and needs of children at each men- tal level? Are the curriculum requirements so difficult as to cause many so-called person- ality problems? How can we reduce the num- ber of failures without lowering the standards? 1 See such examples as: The intelligence test—Current professional literature is indicative of the widespread use of intelligence tests.2 Yet the most difficult problem in this field is applying the knowledge gained from the tests.*. When the principal finds that his school contains more than the dull what should he do about it? What difference would this make as to enrichment of the course of study? Would it be advisable to provide much drill material ? Should special classes be formed for the slowest pupils? How can the bright pupils be given their rightful opportunities ? The achievement test—Standardized diag- nostic and survey achievement tests may be used to discover learning difficulties.* Reports of such testing should show more than a given class standing in relation to national stand- normal proportion of children, ards.5 Classroom teachers are more interested in discovering individual learning difficulties and applying remedial teaching measures. It is a mistake to make the giving, the scoring, and the reporting of standard tests ends in themselves. Follow-up measures, based upon the facts discovered, demand the highest super- visory skill. Citizenship, character, and attitude tests— Recently schools have developed a new in- terest in character education. ‘This interest is shown by the addition of “habits and attitudes”’ to report cards® and by the development of courses of study.’ Character and civic-attitude tests of a preliminary type are now available in printed form. While many of these tests are still in experimental form, no other field de- serves more attention from principals.® Progressive principals are moving with due caution with these new testing developments. Attempts to measure intangible character traits are not always satisfactory.° Merrill, John., ‘Reducing the Percentage of Failures in the Detroit Elementary Schools Without Lowering Standards."’ Eighth Yearbook 1927, p. 65-71. 2 See such references as: Mental Tests and the Classroom Teacher by V. E. Dickson, World Book Company, 1923, 231 p. " Scott, Foresman and Company. * See the section of this Bulletin on pupil guidance and adjustment. Corning, H. M. After Testing—Whet? 4 See the following references: Brooks, Samuel S. Improving Schools by Standardized Tests. D. C. Heath and Company. Paulu, E.M. Diagnostic Testing and Remediai Teaching. 5 See the section of this Bulletin on pupil adjustment. * Homer, Francis E. tary School Principals, National Education Association. 7 For example: Oakland Public Schools. . ,, "National Education Association, Research Division. 7:75-82; March, 1929. Chapter on character education. * Brown, F. J. and Schelmadine, Marguerite. Educational Research 18:290-96; November, 1928. “‘A Survey of Elementary School Pupil Report Forms.” p. 218-34. Building Character Through Activities. “‘The Principal and Progressive Movements.” 1929, “A Critical Study in the Objective Measurement of Character.” Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association, 1929, p. 461-63. Rogers, Don C., ‘‘A Study of Pupil Failures and Subject Failures in Chicago.” Second Yearbook. Chicago Principals Club, Also, 1926, 1922. 278 p. 371 p. Houghton Mifflin Company. 1924, Eighth Yearbook. Oakland, California. 121 p. Research Bulletin Department of Elemen- Journal of [ 303 ] Yet the “simultaneous learning’ which goes on in the classroom needs to be recog- nized._ Honesty in school work, a love for school, confidence in the teacher and other pupil reactions seriously influence learning conditions. The study and use of these forces presents many administrative and supervisory problems. The informal test—The term informal tests applies to unstandardized materials used to measure attitudes, judgment, and informa- tion. Such tests are of particular value in diagnostic work and in checking the local course of study.” The value of such tests lies in their flexi- bility in the hands of competent persons. The preparation of reliable tests requires more good judgment and observance of basic prin- ciples than highly technical knowledge. The reader is referred to current literature for detailed discussion of how to make informal examinations.*® The personal interview—The technic of the personal interview as applied to pupils is considered in greater detail in the section of this Bulletin on pupil guidance and adjust- ment. Sufficient at this point is the reminder that the interview is a technic for securing data about pupils. Not infrequently a child will reveal to the principal interests and diffi- culties which can be passed along to the teacher. The interview is often the principal’s great chance to study the child’s emotions. Here good attitudes may be formed or de- stroyed depending upon the principal’s skill in winning confidence. Such data can be used to make adaptations in classroom procedure so as to facilitate the learning. Knowing the Teachers Much of our current literature of super- vision suggests working directly with teach- ers on class problems. While this Bulletin has suggested other approaches in improving classroom conditions, it is true that the teacher is the center of the problem. 1 See Chapter I of Kil 2 See the section of this Bulletin on pupil 3 See the following references: Paterson, D. G. Preparation and Ruch, G. M. The Improvement of the Russell, Charles. Classroom Tests. Ginn and Company. Probably many of the principal’s suggest;, are lost in dealing with teachers because 0; failure to recognize individual differences. \\- assume that a successful teaching technic \ one teacher can be transferred easily to other classroom. Such may not be the « Teachers differ radically in training, exp ence, energy, professional enthusiasm other ways which materially influence teac! ing procedures. Sometimes a particular teach. ing method succeeds not because of its inheren; value, but because of personal enthusiasn An alert principal will, therefore, inform him self in all particulars as to the individual differences of his staff and govern his profes sional leadership accordingly. Sources of information on the teachers in clude the following, (1) records in the supe: intendent’s office, (2) regular teacher rating scales, (3) self-rating scales and (4) persona! observation. Records in the superintendent's offic: Many school systems require each teacher to file references, and records cf training and previous experience. These data are suppl: mented from time to time by rating reports and professional training records. While som« of this information should be confidential much of it could be used by the principal in more careful assignment of teachers to class rooms. Regular teacher rating scales—Surveys ot teacher rating show the practice to be rathe: general in city school systems. Usuall) supervisors and principals are required to file an annual opinion of the teacher’s persona! traits and general teaching ability. Admitting the many weaknesses of teacher rating the judgments formed over a period of years should prove of some value in guiding pro- fessional growth. Self-survey forms—There are available now several self-rating or self-survey forms for teachers. Principals can distribute these to the teachers, asking each one to check himself and file the results in the office. Even the ordinary teacher rating scale can be used in "s Foundations of Method. Macmillan. 1925. nce and adjustment. Use of New Type Examinations. World Book Company. 1925. 87 p. ritten Examination. ae gas and Company. 1925. 193 p. 1926. ‘National Education Association, Committee on Classroom Teachers’ Probleme. Teacher Rating. 1925. p. 8. [ 304 ] the exal ful. p! In the sion the opp’ I obs ced mo! fact inte tha org sup cus the same manner. The standardized teacher examinations and check-lists may prove use- ful. These self-surveys not only provide the principal with information, but serve to make the teacher critical of her work and profes- sional preparation.’ A self-critical attitude on the part of teachers gives the principal an opportunity to discuss professional preparation. Personal observation—Collecting facts by observing a person at work is a typical pro- cedure. Principals probably use this means more frequently than any other in securing facts as to the teacher’s ability, attitudes, and interests. The weakness of this procedure is that information thus gained is apt to be un- organized. Personal observation needs to be supplemented by the records and the data dis- cussed in other paragraphs of this section. Knowing the School Plant The instructional program is closely related to the adequacy of the school plant and equip- ment. Once the school has obtained adequate facilities the real problem becomes one of efh- cient use. Principals may well investigate whether the physical plant and equipment are advancing the instructional phases of the school’s work. Here are some typical inarticu- lations between theory and practice: (1) The health classes emphasize the im- portance of washing the hands frequently. Yet the school does not provide soap or towels for the pupils. (2) Maps, atlases, globes, and equipment tend to collect in certain rooms. Since these devices are not readily accessible many teachers make no attempt to use them. (3) The supervisory program may empha- size the value of extensive reading in the sec- ond, third, and fourth grades. Yet supple- mentary readers are not supplied in numbers for classroom work. Bookcases and “brows- ing” tables are not used in displaying the books in the classroom. similar (4) Projection machines and slides are purchased to stimulate visual instruction ac- tivities. ‘The makeshifts used in darkening the rooms and the conflicting demands for the limited tend to the teachers. Other instances would be cited to show how the physical plant and the equipment may handicap the instruction. The program may make demands upon the teach- ers which they cannot meet because of poor instructional materials. Pupils may be required to learn facts which the school does not help them to practice. How may the principal study these conditions? Some of the available ap- equipment discourage supervisory proaches to these building problems are survey technics, inventories and the school janitor. Survey technics—The reader is referred to the many school surveys for detailed discus- sion of survey practices.2 One widely used device is the Strayer and Engelhardt score card for elementary school buildings.’ For the purposes of this discussion the total build- ing scores will not be as significant as the status of the school plant on specific items. For example, let us examine the rating of the serv- ice systems of a particular building* as shown in Table 4. TABLE 4—COMPARISON SCHOOL BUILDING SCORES WITH STANDARDS. Score received | Standard score | i Heating and ventilation | | 70 Fire protection | ‘ | 65 . Cleaning : 20 . Artificial lights 20 . Electric service. . » Pi ; 15 . Water supply 30 . Toilets . Mechanical services Item SBNAUWEAGNe Total There is a tendency in using rating forms to place much emphasis upon the total score. There are more implications for supervision and administration in the specific items. For 1 Principals and teachers can check their professional k nowledge by referring to the questions and answers in 7he Teachers’ Handbook by W. S. Elsbree, H. R. Halsey and Elizabeth S. Elsbree. College, Columbia University. 289 p, 2 For example: art, F. W., and Peterson, L. H. Public Schools. 1924. 58 p. Strayer, G. D., and Engelhardt, N. L. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. Strayer, G. College, Columbia University. 4 See 23 of A Sch 1926. 1923. 57 p. Bureau of Research in Education. pa University of California. A School Building Survey and School Housing Program for Eureka, California, Report of the Survey of the Schools of Port Arthur, Texas. D., and Engelhardt, N. L. Standards for Elementary School Buildings. Building Survey and Housing Program for San Rafael, California, by F. W. 1922. Published in 1929 by the Bureau of Publications, Teachers Eureka Division of Field Studies, Bureau of Publications, Teachers Hart and L. H. Peterson. 70 p. [ 305] example, note in the figures cited in Table 4+ that the drinking, washing, and toilet facilities are far below standard. These few inade- quacies of equipment may do much to destroy the effectiveness of the health instruction. In a similar manner other specific items such as lighting, equipment, and special rooms need careful study in relation to the instructional program.' Annual inventory—The annual school in- ventory is required in some school systems by the insurance companies. It also has value in calling the principal’s attention to the little used equipment or vacant class spaces.” Figure 1 illustrates an inventory record which is made out by the teacher for each classroom. Sometimes these records are made by the teachers and pupils as a part of the classroom work. Records from each classroom are combined with those made by the janitor for non-classroom areas of the building. Tab, lations of equipment may suggest a better dis. tribution of instructional materials. The school janitor—The school janitor jg generally recognized as an important unit jp the efficient school. He is in position to know of the school’s needs from angles which may bear indirectly upon classroom work. Although the janitor’s positive influence upon instruc. tion may be small, any failure to do his work efficiently may handicap the teachers. Recognizing the negative aspects of poor janitorial work some principals try to magnify his job.* He is made responsible for discover- ing needed repairs, checking upon the distribu- tion of supplies, inspecting the sanitary condi- tions of the plant, and judging the ability of certain equipment to meet school conditions.’ Rating forms and check lists can be used by the principal in checking his janitoria| service. The main items of the Engelhardt- FIGURE 1—INVENTORY FORM FOR A SINGLE CLASSROOM For classes from First thru Sixth Grades Directions: Check your Class Room Equipment by the following list. Add other items which are necessary rd cepa ie Display ‘be board for mounting bulletins, chil- 8 work pictures, etc Drawing tables Dust brush oRade or ae materials *Sign maker *In 1929. p. Taken —_ | poser Robert. Workbook for Principals and Supervisors. Los Angeles School Publication. No. 175. 1 See the suggestions in School Activities and Equipment by Rose B. Knox. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company in 1927 D. 2 An useful form phet. Published by the * Cuber! E.P. The he Principal end Bie Sched H 4 Reeves, Charies E. An Analysis of Janitor Service in College, “Columbia University. 1925. 194 p. Le Ae is the School Building Utilisation Forms Publications, Teachers Calon, G.D Columbia niversity. 1927. m Mifflin Company. 1923. p. 209-22. ‘ary Schools. Contribution to Education, No. 167. Teachers [ 306] . Strayer, N. L. Engelhardt, and E. L. Mor- qui the the the cate I thit fin me} Reeves-Womrath score card for janitorial service’ are as follows: Item Standard Score Administration of janitorial engineer- ing service 40 Personnel 90 Building facilities for janitorial engi- neering service 20 Amount of work required per janitor- engineer 40 Daily cieaning of floors............... Dusting Scrubbing and mopping Oiling of floors Cleaning and polishing of woodwork and furniture Washing glass Toilet cleaning Blackboard cleaning Eraser cleaning Other cleaning Heating and ventilating Special work Summary—The purpose of this chapter has been to indicate that effective supervision re- quires the utilization of certain facts about the community, the superintendent’s policies, the parents, the teachers, the school plant and the course of study. The discussion has indi- cated sources of information on these factors. Principals should not deceive themselves by thinking that fact-finding is supervision. Fact- finding is only a means to an end. The facts merely throw light on such questions as these: What does this mean for our course of study? How should we change our teaching methods? What changes should be make in our school objectives? How should I assign my teaching staff ? The above chapter has dealt largely with the presupervisory activities of the principal. Important as most of these procedures are they may not exert any direct influence upon the teaching. Good administration makes teaching possible, but it does not guarantee good teach- ing. The business of supervision is to make all teaching good and good teaching better. Background for Supervision 1. BaAGLEy, WitttAM C., AND Kyte, Georce C. The California Curriculum Study. University of California Printing Office. 1926. 430 p. 1 Engelhardt, N. L., Reeves, C. E.,and Womrath,G.F. Standards for Public School Janitorial-Engineering Ser An analysis and criticism of the California school curriculum. Pages 247-331 present fac- tors affecting curriculum revision: ¢. ¢., public attitude, pupil progress and pupil mobility. . Boyer, Pure A. The Adjustment of a School to Individual Needs. University of Pennsy| vania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 1920. 141 p A principal collects objective data on the community, the parents and the pupils. These data are used in recommending changes in the school building, organization, curriculum, and methods. . CupBercey, E. P. The Principal and His School Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1923. p 337-413. Chapters on knowing the school, classifica- tion, and the course of study. Suggests how these many factors may be used to improve instruction. . HAMTRAMCK Pustic ScHoots. Housing the Chil- dren. Research Series No. 1. 1926. 123 p. Hamtramck, Michigan. Many practical suggestions for the principal who wishes to study the community, parents and pupils of his school district. . Heck, Arcu O. Administration of Pupil Per- sonnel, Ginn and Company, Boston. 1929. 479 p. Discusses types, purposes and uses of pupil personnel records. . Kirsy, B. C. “Standards for Surveying the Teaching Personnel.” School Executives Maga- zine 48: 531-33; August, 1929. Emphasizes teacher morale as a powerful factor in spite of poor buildings and equip- ment. . Knox, Rose B. School Activities and Equip- ment. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. 1927. 386 p. Considers school equipment in relation to the instructional program. . Kyte, Georce C. The Reorganization and Ad- ministration of an Elementary School to Meet the Needs of a Community. University of Cali- fornia Press, Berkeley, California. 1925. 144 p. How a principal obtained objective facts on his school community and used these to improve instruction. . Lane, Ropert H. 4 Work Book for Principals and Supervisors. School Publication No. 175. 159 p. 1929. Los Angeles City School District. A handbook on many problems in administra- tion and supervision. . McAuusrer, A. J., AND Otis, A. S. Child Ac- counting Practice. World Book Company, Yonkers-on-Hudson. 1927. 196 p. Records and systems to make pupils stand out as individuals. e of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University. 1926. p. 5-10. [ 307] oO INE IN re Oy ee aim 11. MARYLAND STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. . Reeper, Warp G. The Business Administra; “Supervisory Activities in Maryland.” Mary- of a School System. Ginn and Company, Bos land School Bulletin 10: 1-95; September, 1928. ton. 1929. Chapters I, II, VII, XI, XII, x11) Excerpts from the reports of county super- XV, and XVI. visors to the state superintendent. Many prac- Section on the use of the school plant, mai: tical suggestions. nance, ‘janitors, school inventory, and sup; . Moew_tMan, Artuur B. Child Accounting. Practical suggestions for making routine Courtis Standard Tests, Friesiema Brothers ministration less time consuming. Press, Detroit. 1924. 205 p. Suggests many seceed forme and describes ography of School Buildings, Grounds their use in practice. 3 2 . ‘ Equipment. Bulletin. School of Education. |p . MogHLMAN, ArtHurR B. “Relating the School di Uni itv. BI , 1928 Plant to the Instructiona) Process.” The Na- — wie: Lae eammpe dip ? ; tion’s Schools 4:21-24; August, 1929. Cites many references on the various phases of Discusses the relationship between the physi- building planning, constructing, and equipping cal plant and the teaching. . StRAYER, G. D., AND ENGELHARDT, N. L. Stand- . Mort, Paut R. The Individual Pupil. Ameri- ards for Elementary School Buildings. Bureay can Book Company, New York. 1928. 383 p. of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Many suggestions in classifying, studying, University, New York. 1923. 57 p. and adjusting the individual pupil. Invaluable guide in the systematic mainte- . NATIONAL EpucATION AssocIATION, Division of nance, improvement and use of the school Research. “The Principal Studies His Job.” building. Research Bulletin 6: 81-148; March, 1928. 19. Unirep STATES BurEAU oF EpucaTION. The A survey of the various phases of the princi- Francis Scott Key School. Bulletin, 1920, No. pal’s work. Many suggestions for articulating 41. (Prepared by Charles A. Bennett.) 31 p. duties so as to bear on the improvement of Tells how a school reorganization plan was instruction. based upon a survey of the community. . SmiTH, H. L., anD CHAMBERLAIN, L. M, 4 Bi)! T IS as fair for the principal to be expected to plan his work in advance of visitation as it is for the teachers to be expected to plan their work and to reduce their plans to writing for his inspection. It is also a good thing for the principal to do, for its influence on the school. The more the teachers are taken into the confidence of the principal in his supervisory work, the more teaching is made to partake of the nature of cooperative work between teachers and principals for the good of the pupils—E. P. Cubberley. The Principal and His School. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. 1923. p. 440. sery titut glin clas: clas: ing ship 7 ther insp casi type x7 chie are win mat per’ ing in 1 soc tea ing ler anc plic cul resi the not lev tea tiol vis roc rer ser po Classroom Visits [he progressive principal is anxious to se- cure firsthand reports of classroom activities. He forms judgments based upon his own ob- servations. He maintains a sympathetic at- titude toward instructional problems by min- gling with teachers and pupils under typical classroom conditions. Such principals report class visits as one of the largest time-consum- ing duties of the elementary school principal- ship. Types of visit—QObservations show that there are three types of classroom visits: social, inspectional, and supervisory. A particular oc- casion might combine two or more of the above types, but most visits have a primary purpose. A simple “good morning’”’ call is of value chiefly for social reasons. Inspection visits are useful in checking heat conditions, open windows, room neatness, pupil discipline, class management, and similar routine details. Su- pervisory visits are directly aimed at improv- ing the instruction. All types of visits are necessary and useful in the principal’s supervisory program.’ Brief social visits may help to make the young teacher more confident in his new surround- ings. Inspectional visits often reveal the prob- lems which need careful study. But social and inspectional visits alone cannot solve com- plicated instructional problems. Such diff- culties require patient observation and careful research. Supervisors who never get beyond the more superficial visits may be criticized as not functioning upon the highest supervisory level. Few principals are satisfied to advise teachers solely on the basis of social and inspec- tional visits. Do teachers want visits?—From the super- visor’s viewpoint an extensive program of class- room visitation is essential. According to cur- rent tradition teachers do not like to be ob- served. Are there any objective data on this point ? 1See the Seventh Yearbook. 189-90. ? National Education Association. March, 1928. 3 Kyte, George C. mentary School Principals Association. ‘Nutt, H. W. 5 Kyte, George C., op. cit., p. 48, Table 1. Research Division. 1927. p. 44-52. 6 See the exhaustive treatment in Visiling the Teacher at Work by Anderson, Barr, and Bush. Company. 1925. p. 56-77. Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association. “The Principal Studies His Job.” “*The Elementary School Principal as a Builder of Teaching Morale.” Current Problems in the Supervision of Instruction. Kyte asked classroom teachers to list aid desired from principals. The replies show that in fifteen items “more visitation and study of classroom” was fifth in frequency of men- tion. Nutt has tabulated the “helps desired from supervisors” as reported by classroom teachers in Topeka, Kansas, and Hammond, Indiana.‘ The second most frequently suggested aid from general supervisors was “more explicit criticisms of lessons taught under observation.” Out of the five important helps desired from special supervisors “more frequent visits’? was fourth in frequency of mention. Why do teachers react unfavorably to infre- The Nutt’s study by the request for “more fre quent visits? answer is suggested in quent” visits. ‘Teachers believe that the prin- cipal cannot judge the value of classroom ac tivities by one or two short visits each term. Nor can incidental observations give a com- plete idea of teaching difficulties. “leachers ap- preciate constructive help with teaching prob lems.” Principals find little objection to visits when teachers know that superficial advice will be followed with concrete assistance. The frequency and length of class visits— Generalization as to the frequency and length of class visits is suggestive for local school sit uations.” ‘Table 5 shows replies of more than 500 supervising principals as to the number of The number of visits is approximately 12 a week visits made per school week. median or an average of about two per school day. It is noteworthy that the median number of visits increases with the larger schools. Probably the length of shown in Table 6 is more significant than the observations as The most frequently re- The median length of classroom visits is 21 minutes. number of visits. ported period is from 26 to 30 minutes. 1928. p. Research Bulletin 6: 92-102: First Yearbook, Michigan Ele- 1928. Johnson Publishing Company. p. 245 and 254. Published by D. Appleton and [ 309 ] How long is a real supervisory visit? We cannot generalize too dogmatically on this for: The length of the supervisory visit should be determined by the specific situation. If we are to understand supervision as involving study of class- room situations and requiring careful planning then it is obvious that visits must be reasonably long. Certainly fair conclusions cannot be drawn by merely “dropping in” or by observing for even fifteen minutes in an hour period. The scheduling of visits—Whether super- visory visits should be scheduled or not is a practical difficulty for many principals. A little analysis shows that there are three types of supervisory visits: (1) The unannounced visit is commonly used by principals.2, While this type of visit may be justified in many instances, the sur- prise element tends to put many teachers on the defensive. In Melby’s study 377 teachers rank “unannounced visits” as sixteenth in value out of 17 items.* (2) The invitational visit is common among teachers who have experienced the benefits of constructive supervision. A sympathetic prin- cipal will usually have more requests than he can meet in the available time. While these voluntary requests for supervision are highly complimentary, to limit classroom visits to such TABLE 5—NUMBER OF CLASSROOM VISITS PER WEEK BY SUPERVIS- ING PRINCIPALS * School size 900 | 1300 1699 a basis would make for “hit and miss” s\, vision.® (3) The scheduled visit, the most diffi to use with regularity, assures guidance help to every teacher. The absence of a prise element makes it easier for the pri: pal to direct a cooperative study of teaching problems.’ Scheduled visits are usually ba upon a plan of supervision covering seve: weeks. Observations in typical schools sho. that these long-time plans are frequently d rupted by emergency demands upon the pri cipal. When such dangers threaten the wis principal will set up the administrative m. chinery necessary to safeguard his supervis: program. Should visits be scheduled by grades, by su! jects or according to the needs of individual teachers? Since all of these plans merit com- mon use in practice we may reasonably con- clude: Various plans of scheduling visits have merit and should prove useful to the principal. One situation might require an investigation of reading throughout the whole school, thereby making sub- ject supervision the best form in that particula: instance. An adjustment of content between sevy- eral classes of the same grade level would make grade visitation most effective. The principa should not develop a “pet hobby” or plan of super- vision to the exclusion of other types. All p: TABLE 6—LENGTH IN MINUTES OF CLASSROOM VISITS BY SUPERVIS- ING PRINCIPALS * Number of replies Time in minutes Descent PUAKR BO Upo . National Education Association. ‘‘The Principal Studies His Job.” in greater detail in Ibid. ae. See O. and Directors of Instruction. 1929. p. 250. «See the Seventh Yearbook. Department of Elementary School Princi in greater detail in ‘“‘The Principal Studies His Job.” 5 Discussed 6: 95; March, 1928. Research Bulletin, 6: 95; March, 1928. Teacher Evaluation of Supervisory Procedure.” Second Yearbook. National Conference of Superviso: 1928. p. 192. ch Bulletin. National Education Association [310] cedures should be employed according to the de- mands of the particular situation.’ Planning for the visit—Many class visits uld be more profitable if the principal made me previous preparation. Few principals _re experts in all phases of the elementary school curriculum. Even the best supervisors can hardly recall on instant notice the best teaching technics, the most recent research and the data on successful experiments. How can one judge a lesson without expert knowledge of the course of study? How can one suggest changes in general classroom pro- cedure without a knowledge of curriculum objectives? How can one advise as to specific technics without ample facts about experiments and research in a given field? Suggestions and criticisms based upon su- perficial knowledge cannot be the best. Ef- forts to improve instruction should be so sound as to arouse a profound respect among teach- ers. Therefore, principals will some day con- sider professional study prior to class visits as a legitimate supervisory activity. Budgets of the principal’s time will include a period for regular study.’ What should one study prior to a class- room visit? Questions of this type must be answered in terms of specific situations. Case I gives a simple application of the points pre- viously discussed. CASE I—PREPARATION PRIOR TO CLASS VISIT Principal Ross of the Silver Town Schools has an nounced to the teachers his intention to observe reading lessons from the first through the third grades. On the day under consideration he had finished the first two grades and was preparing to visit Miss Smith in the low third. Miss Smith sent word that she was planning a lesson in audience reading, using the ‘“Such-and-Such Story”’ in the Third Reader. Although Principal Ross did not have an exten- sive library he was able to prepare himself as follows: Time in Minutes Type of Preparation (1) The reading objectives in the local community 5 Silver Town course of study in read- ing, p. 5. 1 See “The Principal Studies His Job"’ op. cit. ? This regular study refers only to the quick review prior to starting a specific supervisory acti ‘ty. should have no regular place during the busy school day. 4 See the observation items proposed by Barr, A. S., in ‘Scientific Analyses of Teaching Procedures." sional stud Method 4: 360-71; May, 1925.: Also, Shannon, J. R. 14:9-14; January, 1928. 4 See the following: ‘‘ The Principal Studies His Job.” “‘An Analysis of High School Supervisory Notes.” Research Bulletin, National Education Association. (2) The content to be considered in class, 10 State Series. Third Reader “ Such-and- Such Stories,”’ p. 150-70. (3) The teaching technics... . . 10 Gist, A. S., and King, W. A., The Teaching and Supervision of Read- tng, Scribners, 1927, p. 48-70. (4) Certain phases of research. . 15 Third Yearbook, Department of Super- intendence, 1925, on fundamental reading habits, p. 155-60, on growth in reading ability, p. 160-65, on indi- vidual differences, p. 192-200. , | et ee een 40 Briefly, then Principal Ross has given about 40 minutes to study. Probably fifteen min- utes more could be given to reviewing quickly the reading, making notes and listing points to look for in the lesson.* Under no circumstances does short period constitute the whole of the principal’s preparation. The accumulated experience of his years as a teacher are of great value. But the intensive study prior to visits tends to re- vive many of the points which a principal should have in mind. It should give him greater confidence in his own ability intelli- gently to observe the lesson. Making general notations of visits—The problems of entering the classroom quietly, not disturbing typical conditions, and showing this a sympathetic attitude have been discussed elsewhere.* A more perplexing difficulty is that of note-taking during classroom visits. Excellent arguments can be presented both for and against the practice. According to reports from supervising principals 58 percent do not take during Probably much note-taking has been irritating to teachers in the past because visits have been so superficial and infrequent. It should be possible under more favorable circumstances for the principal to use records as aids in observing and making suggestions in terms of what actually hap- pened. Some of these devices will be discussed in the following paragraphs. Stenographic notes of a lesson may prove Exact notes of this type notes visits.° useful on occasion. Long periods of profes- Journal of Educational Educational Administration and Supervision 6: 96; March, 1928; Barr and Burton, The Supervision of Instruction. p. 141-58; Cubberley, E. P., The Principal and His School, p. 445-49, etc. 5 See the Seventh Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association. p. 193. [311] make it possible to examine carefully the teach- er’s questions, the pupil responses and the de- velopment of the lesson content. Stenographic records are less likely to be influenced by a per- sonal bias than ordinary notes. Therefore they may form a basis for discussion and references in the conference between teacher and super- visor. Nutt describes a plan for making super- vision objective through written records of observations. The steps in the procedure are: (1) visitation during a complete recitation, (2) making notes on lesson, (3) teacher given copy of notes, (4) several records summarized to discover outstanding difficulties of each teacher, (5) notes used in conference with teacher and (6) notes filed for future refer- ence in connection with the teacher’s work. A typical record is shown as, Reading— Case II: CASE II—READING LESSON Observations by Supervisor Grade 1—Number of upils: 12. ocedure Each pupil had pre- pared a different story to read to the class. Pupils seated on rugs or chairs in a group. Five minutes given for every- one to look over his story. Motive stated ~—by teacher: ‘Listen closely so we can choose the best stories to be finished to- morrow.” Nine of the twelve pupils read a part or all of their stories. Pupils hel each other over difficulties. No one was hurried. A few pupils took time to show ——- ge A panying the story. t the close of the safiintinn pupils voted for stories to be read the next day. Time: one hour Results Pupils engrossed in their work, and took no notice when teach- er left the room for a minute. Pupils gave little exclamations of an- ticipation. Teacher assumed an interested attitude. Most of pupils showed real interest. A few | ee grew tired and left the group to get their weaving. All pupils inter- ested in voting for their favorite stories. Analysis and Suggestions Good points: Socialized atmosphere notic: Pupils felt responsibility both as listeners an contributors. A majority of the pupils assum natural and genuine interest. Weakness: Was it necessary or desirable to ext; the reading period to one hour? Apparent fati; of several pupils in leaving the group indicates necessity of a shorter period. Supplementary questions: Do you hold socialized recitations too frequently? Are the pupils in need of phonetic facts? Are these phonetic drills give; regularly or as occasion demands? Upon w! basis would you advance the pupils to do sec grade reading? Suggestions: Do you ever have general discis sions with your pupils as to what constitutes goo reading, or why oer like to hear certain pupils read? Interest in the story is the correct en phasis, but it might be possible to get a som: what conscious attitude of what is needed in ora reading. Please let me know what you think on this ora! ae oe Right now I am watching this point through all grades. _I shall be glad of any sugges tions in regard to it.? The scheme for note-taking illustrated by Case II will appeal to principals because of its simplicity. Teachers will ‘appreciate the provision for an analysis of the iesson. ‘The summary of the supervisor's evaluations and opinions gives the teacher something definite to study. Probably, of even greater impor- tance is the fact that written evaluation of a lesson forces the principal to observe close|\ and to be specific in his suggestions." Teacher rating scales—Table 7 shows that rating scales are widely used in city school systems.‘ Superintendents say that one of the important purposes of teacher rating is to im prove teaching efficiency.° Yet observations show that most rating scales are used for ad- ministrative purposes, such as eliminating the unfit, giving or withholding salary increases, and promoting to high positions. Sometimes a principal can use the local rating scale or score card in his supervisor) program. Figure 2 illustrates a card which lends itself readily to class observations. Fig- 1 Nutt, H.W. Current Problems in the Supervision of Instruction. Chapter XIII. ? The form of these supervisory notes is adapted from Nutt’s Current Problems in the Supervision of Instruction, p. 283-85. The content is adapted from Ruby Minor's article, ‘‘ A Case Study of Supervision," Educational Administration and Supervision 7:241-54; May, 1921. 3 Wagner, C. A. Common Sense in School Supervision. Bruce Publishing Company. 4 National Education Association, Research Division. September, 1928. 1921. p. 49-51. “Practices Affecting Teacher Personnel.'’ Research Bulletin 6: 239; ‘ King, LeRoy, in the American School Board Journal. February, 1925. p. 44. { 312] FIGURE 2 » Return to Office of Teacher Employment ind Certification Board of Education Rochester, N. \ Report on Work of Teacher Name — School Date Appointment Status Rating Record 1. Knowledge of Subject Content and Course of Study 2. Plan and Presentation of the Lesson 3. Attention and Response of Pupils 4. Attention to individual needs . Growth of pupils in subject-matter . Personality and Cooperation Note: Indicate a rating by recording the letters H, A or L in the appropriate column after each of the six points above. H-high, A-average and L-low. Fill in appointment status by indicating whether the teacher is a temporary or regular supply or has received first, second or final appointment. ure 3 shows a form for assembling the ratings made on several occasions. Let it be noted again that rating in itself is not a complete supervisory procedure. The important supervisory steps are to show the teacher Figure 2 and to assist her in overcom- ing the indicated weakness. Until these two steps are taken the rating has been little more than clerical activity. Judging the pupils—Much of the super- visor’s attention in classroom visits is given to observing pupil’s reactions. The evidence of pupil interest, attention, understanding and growth are criteria for judging the worth- whileness of the learning conditions. Morrison has pointed out that sustained attention on the part of the class is an important evidence of that a observer, with the aid of a watch and a ruled good teaching.' He suggests quiet pad, can make a record of a child’s concen tration.? minute period with notes to indicate the cause Figure 4 is such a record for a ten- of the inattention. If the profiles of a number of pupils indicate little sustained attention two causes may exist: (1) the teacher’s procedures are not adapted to the pupils, or (2) the pupils have not de- FIGURE 3 Principal's Summary and Recommendation Observation | Observation Observation No, 1 No, 2 No. 3 Date Subject Remarks Interview Purport Principal's Recommendation: 1 Compare with Barr's technics in ‘‘ Scientific Supervision,’’ Journal of Educational Method 6:190-201; January, 1927 2 Morrison, H. C. The Practice of Teaching in the Secondary School. TABLE 7—RATING OF TEACHERS University of Chicago Press. 1926. p. 135-38 66 cities 161 cities | over 100,000 30,000 to in population 100,000 in | | Teachers definitely population rated as to quality of service rendered |__ a = | Per- cent Per- | Num- No report Total... 326 cities 10,000 to 30,000 in population Num- | ber 532 cities over 2,500 in population 582 cities 2,500 to 5,000 in population 397 cities 5,000 to 10,000 in population | | Per- cent Per- cent Per- cent Per- | Num- | cent ber . Fo - 11 12 13 41.5 | 321 38.0 657 42 56 343 58.9 838 5 1 18 3.1 37 9 7 4 100 397 100 582 | 100.0 1532 100.0 See ‘‘ Practices Affecting Teacher Personnel.’’ Research Builetin. National Education Association. September, 1928 [ 313] FIGURE 4—RECORD OF MINUTES OF PUPIL’S ATTENTION Inattention Attention a Conversation Rubs eyes and watches teacher CL, ein ala! ee! win — i Explanation: The heavy zigzag line indicates the ob- | server's record of pupil's attention. veloped proper habits of concentration. Assist- ing the teacher and pupils to eliminate either or both faults is essentially a supervisory prob- lem. Working through the teacher, the prin- cipal sets up a remedial program which can be checked from time to time with profile graphs.' The above discussion does not mean to imply that pupil attention must be rated on every classroom visit. After all, pupil attention is only one of many factors which the supervisor must keep in mind. But in solving certain teaching difficulties the pupil attention chart should prove a valuable aid.” “Other survey forms—The demand for a » ratiag card of teaching has been rather per- sistent. Most of the administrative cards con- tain items restricted tothe teacher. Sometimes principals are able to interest a group of teach- ers in developing a rating or survey form of their own. Figure 5 is the product of such study in the Reeb School of Columbus, Ohio.* Although a rating scale of this type may con- tain theoretical faults, the practical self-sur- vey value of the work to the teachers is ob- vious. Whitney has suggested that the steps in a cooperative study of rating are as follows: Step 1. Help teachers to discover the value of a self-rating scale. Ibid. p. 138-50. 1 Morrison, H. C. ? Blume, Clarence E. visors and Directors of Instruction. 1929. p. 3 3 Pollock, C. A. ‘Standardizing somata,” ‘Techniques in the nates of Pupil Attention.” The Elementary Yearbook. Reeb Elementary School. Step 2. Examine and discuss several good self-rating scales. Step 3. Work out cooperatively with the teachers a self-rating scale which they are willing to use. Step 4. Have teachers volunteer to rate themselves and discuss the result with the «, pervisor. Step 5. Let supervisor and teacher work to gether on weaknesses which self-rating dis- closes. The results on self-rating by a teacher should never be used as evidence against her.‘ One may purchase at the present time se\ eral teacher self-rating forms. These usual, contain many minute and specific items bearing upon teaching technic, pupil reactions and the teacher’s personal qualities.® FIGURE 5—STANDARDS FOR MEASUR. ING INSTRUCTION Name of standard Points A. Teacher Procedure. ..... : Definiteness of aim Careful preparation Plan of presentation............. Mastery Skill in guidance Skill in questioni Ability to meet individual need... Ability to remain ir background. . Adherence to program . Subject Matter Choce of material Within pupil's understanding... Organization of subject-matter. . Stressing essentials Providing interest............... Qo y at ty of materials eeeparation of assignment a for best work...... ve participation (pupil) Sestoee participation (class)... Attention and interest......... : rit and enthusiasm......... ; gns of initiative. . — and correctness of expres- Ability to summarize.......... ; Reprocuction and application . Taken from C. A. Pollock. The 7 ‘? Yearbook. Reeb School of Columbus, Ohio. 1928. p. 8. Second Yearbook, National Conference of Super- 1928. p. 8. 4 Quoted from Whitney by Lane, in A Work Book for Principals and Supervisors, Los Angeles City School District, Publication No. 175. 1919. p. 75. cational 5 For example, ihe a ng 7 Rating Teachers, World Book Company, and the South Dakota Score Card, Bureau of Edu- Research, N Nocmrai School Abeedeen., South Dakota. [314] FIGURE 6—A RATING SCALE FOR PRACTICE TEACHING 500d | | | | Failure | Pass | Average | Strong (Superior the Qualities Low | Next Next | High Percentage of 10% 50% 30% Score those passing Remarks IV TEACHING SKILL . Skill i in n the use of the Laws of Learning. *Readiness’’—To what extent does the teacher: 1. Ascertain capacities, experience, inter- ests and needs of children? 2. Make pupils feel the need of things to be learned? 3. Maintain in pupils ; a “mind ‘set tow: ard purpose? 4. Aid pupils to state such purposes in some definite clear way “Exercise” - To what extent does the teacher: Aid children in glensing lee « carrying out of purposes?.. 2. Aid pupils in using economical proce- dures in executing purposes?. . 3. Maintain interest and effort through- out the necessary prac tice periods? “Effect” —To what extent does the Teacher: 1. Get the pupils to judge thei ir own work well? 2. Get pupils to find satisf: action in ac- complishment of purposes?.... 3. See that pupils find dissatisfaction in undesirable responses? ; 4. Constantly encourage and commend effort? Peers Skill in the use of Purposeful Activity. To what extent does the teacher: . See that chosen purposes are gripping. challenging and worthwhile? . See that purposes are possible and feas- ible? . See that they are capable of enric hing the lives o children— that they have “leading on" qualities?....... . See that each one differs enough from the preceding to give necessary vari- What degree of skill does the teac sher possess in handling the technique of: . A lesson, where the child's purpose is to | embody an idea in concrete form? . An appreciation lesson—where chil- dren’ 8 purpose is to enjoy some aes- A problem- solving lesson — where pur- pose is to solve some intellectual . A drill lesson—where purpose is to | make automatic a skill or some spe- | . cific bit of learning? ta Skill in Securing and Checking Results. To what extent has the teacher: 1. Improved the pupils’ study habits? 2. Secured a gain in pupil self-direction and initiative? 3. Secured improvement in pupil partici- | pation, earnestness and industry?.... 4. Promoted progress by use of standard and informal tests? 5. Removed deficiencies by remedial measures? 6. Maintained a wholesome, happy work- Summary of Checks and Scores :.. , asia 3 10 | 10 | ‘ | Ave. Score IV 3.50 | A Taken from Waddell, C. W. “‘A New Rating Scale for Practice Teaching.’’ Educational Method 8: 214-19; January, 1929. | [315] A type of rating scale useful among student teachers of normal schools is illustrated Ly Figure 6. The main sections of this scale in- clude: personal qualities, academic and pro- fessional background, classroom management, and teaching skill. An alert principal might mineograph the section devoted to teaching skill for use in guiding his classroom observa- tions. A scale with unique descriptive terms, pub- lished by the Institute of Public Service of New York City, has been used in Minneapolis. The sections of this scale are: pupil response, spirit of teaching, lesson conduct, lesson assign- ment, and lesson preparedness. The section on lesson conduct has been reproduced in full as Figure 7. None of the sample rating scales illustrated above are recommended for uncritical accept- ance by elementary school principals. The ex- amples given merely suggest types which have proven to be helpful under certain conditions. Valuable characteristics of the above suggested forms are: (1) The descriptive rather than numerical evaluation of classroom conditions probably is more helpful to the classroom teachers. It avoids the numerical score with its implication of a high degree of accuracy. (2) The inclusion of many items on the pupils and the teaching technics eliminates the common fault of centering attention upon the teacher’s personal qualities. (3) Many scales lend themselves readily to self-rating purposes.’ If the principal can make a teacher conscious of her problems he 1 Hebb, Bertha Y. Samples of Teacher Self-Rating Scales. February. 1925, 15 p has also made progress in demonstrating ¢} value of supervision.” What objective facts may be obta; through visits?—Buckingham has made a gestive list of objective data to be collected through classroom visits.* His classifica: is as follows: I. Matters that may be expressed by time- A. The time required— 1. Before work begins 2. In passing materials 3. In non-productive, though perhaps nec essary, ways, such as passing to the board 4. In trying to get one pupil to understand 5. In review of the previous work 6. In discussing today’s topic B. Division of time between teacher and pupils II. Matters that may be counted— A. The number of pupils who participated (code for each)— 1. By answering questions: a. When called upon b. Voluntarily 2. By doing something: a. When called upon b. Voluntarily 3. By asking a question 4. By helping another pupil 5. By contributing a statement 6. By paying attention (at stated intervals) B. The number of participants above and be- low the average intelligence quotient C. The number of responses correct or satis- factory D. The number of responses incorrect or un satisfactory E. The number of incorrect responses ac cepted without challenge United States Bureau of Education, City School Leaflet No. 18. 2 Waples a Buckingham, B .R. Teaching Procedures." - Doulas. ‘Teachers’ Difficulties as a Basis for Supervision.” Journal of Educational Method 8:399-403; April,1929 Educational Research Bulletin. May 1, 1929. Compare with Barr’s list in ‘‘Scientific Analyses of Journal of Educational Method 4: 360-71; May, 1925. FIGURE 7—SELF-RATING SCALE OF TEACHER ABILITY | Lesson conduct: 1, Uses pupil's experiences... .. . Se occasionally............ little... .. ignores..... 2. Stimulates a: ST Sala CIE: 6 5 ic cand whens SES ae shrivels..... 3. Clears up pups dey map ee ee ERE. seldom tries.......... Se confuses 4. Su ext by stories, etc. freely.......... [Ee vo rrr LF 5. Uses blackboard and illustrations............ PE ae RS SP NG Ss olay wo b-0% 6. Continuity of lessons.............. RR Rae et BU i» » wikis vas 2d Mttle......... SNS Cs. 7. Effectiveness in drilling.............. SER: ... gcsevs (nee ss a aheedesa oe a 8. Exact accuracy.......... all subjects.......... mathematics.......... Sea fosters inaccuracy 9. Character of questions............ "Ea eS ae suggest answer............ vague 10. _— ,t ~~ FRE Se eas bss 5 0cdvs. aaa eau ss © a ~~ “peaeqerees ae "Spa ape , ea | 14. Uses cusvent GUAR. 60 5 en rees ‘saguiariy Op MB. cecdsacnee regulary SE ~ Re heWacain's ae eo eproduced in Samples of goa puating Cards by Bertha Y. Hebb, United States Bureau of Education, City Schocl | veal 8 No. 18, February, 1925, p. { 316 } ee MEEHAN Eat de I en eee this PAC h- _ BuckincHAM, B. R. “Visiting the Classroom.” Educational Research Bulletin 8: 185-90; May 1, 1929. Ohio State University. A complete summary of the classroom factors upon which the observer may obtain objective data. 9. CARRIGAN, Rose A. “The Rating of Temporary Teachers after a Single Supervisory Visit.” Eighth Yearbook. Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Asso- ciation. 1929. (Reprinted from the 1922 Year- book). 367-71. Gives a classroom score card and describes its use for supervisory purposes. . CoLttincs, ELtswortH. School Supervision in Theory and Practice. Thomas Y. Crowell Com- pany, New York. 1927. p. 121-234. Devices and records for studying the results of teaching. P . CupBervey, E. P. The Principal and His School. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. 1923. p. 441-49, A brief summary of the what and the how of classroom visitation. . Hucues, W. Harpin. “General Principles and Results of Rating Trait Characteristics.” Jour- nal of Educational Method 4: 421-31; June, 1925. Discusses pupil rating, gives forms used in Pasadena and reports correlations between trait ratings. . Meap, A. R. “An Annotated List of Manuals and Guides for Observation, Participation, and Supervised Student Teaching.” Educational Administration and Supervision 15: 47-51; January, 1929. Lists manuals used in teacher-training insti- tutions. . Mexsy, E. O., ano Lien, Acnes. “A Practicable Technic for Determining the Relative Effec- tiveness of Different Methods of Teaching.” Journal of Educational Research 19: 255-64; April, 1929. Describes a controlled study of teaching technics. . Montcomery, Ruopa. “The Principals Super- vision of the Special Subjects.” Sixth Yearbook. Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association. 1927. p. 168-77. Suggests criteria for evaluating classroom ac- tivities in music, nature study, and art. . NEWELL, Bernice. “Analysis of Skills Involved in Work Reading Activities.” Sixth Yearbook. Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association. 1927. p. 294- 302. Lists many points of use in observing and checking reading outcomes. . Nutr, H. W. Current Problems in the Super- vision of Instruction. Johnson Publishing Com- pany, Richmond. 1928. Chapter XIII. Suggests a method of note-taking which makes observation more specific and cbjective. [ 319 ] 19. OpELL, CHARLES W. “The Assignment of Les- sons.” University of Illinois Bulletin 23: 1-20; October 19, 1925. No. 7. Summarizes the criteria of good lesson as- signment. Useful to principals in observing how teachers perform this teaching activity. . Power, Leonard. “How to Make Visits Profit- able to Teachers.” Eighth Yearbook, Depart- ment of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association. (Reprinted from the 1922 Yearbook). p. 359-66. Gives examples of suggestions to send to teachers after classroom visits. . Reeper, Epwin H. “Lessons in Our Schools, Nos. I, II and III.” Teachers College Rec- ord, May, 1928; October, 1928, and February, 1929. Discusses three typical lessons in terms of modern psychology, principles of education, and teaching methods. Stimulating to the principal who would bring his general professional knowledge to bear on classroom activities. . Rucc, Georce. “Visitation as a Means of Diagnosis.” Eighth Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Principals, National Edu- cation Association. (Reprinted from the 1922 Yearbook). p. 355-9. Emphasizes friendly and practical class- room visits. . SHANNON, J. R. “An Analysis of High School Supervisory Notes.” Educational Administra- tion and Supervision 14: 9-14; January, 1928. Lists items commonly observed by super- visors. Raises questions as to relative value of factors in the teaching environment. . SauNpeRS, Lucy S. “A Survey of Classroom Work.” Journal of Educational Method 6: 20- 21; September, 1926. Suggests self-observation on part of each teacher. . Strong, CLARENCE R. “Oral Reading in the Elementary School and Its Supervision.” Third Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association, 1924. p. 310-21. Suggests points to look for in oral reading lessons and follow-up devices to use with the teachers. . TwitcHett, Doris F. “An Objective Measure in Supervision.” Journal of Educational Re- search 19: 128-34; February, 1929. Explains uses and merits of a particular ob- servation record form. . Wap.es, Douctas. “Teachers’ Difficulties as a Basis for Supervision.” Educational Method 8: 399-403; April, 1929. Suggestions on the discovery and solution of teaching difficulties. . Witson, G. M. “Teaching Levels, Teaching Technics and the Project, I and II.” Journal of Educational Method 2: 323-29 and 385-93; April and May, 1923. Discusses various types of lessons. Contrasts teaching technics with the project method. ye a a ee ate pene Sime 6S tte Sarre ll . Ss . rie EF Conferences between teacher and principal cultivate mutual understanding. The teacher has an opportunity to explain her technics, to describe teaching difficulties and to ask for aid. Upon these immediate problems many successful principals build their supervisory programs.” Extensive use of conferences—There is evi- dence that teachers want to discuss their class- room problems with the principal. Valentine asked teachers to list the most desirable super- visory technics.* Out of the first 36 items the following conference procedures were ranked 1, 4+, and 7 as follows: Hold office hours for teachers seeking help. Plan with new teachers individually. Hold friendly personal conference with teacher following visits. Nutt asked teachers to report the most help- ful things done by general supervisors. ‘The three most valuable helps mentioned in the study are activities typical of individual con- ferences, such as: 1. Encouragement, sympathy, and favorable comments. 2. Helpful, valuable suggestions. 3. Friendly, helpful, constructive criticisms. Recently, Melby made a study of the value of supervisory activities from the viewpoint of 377 elementary school teachers.’ The final tabulations show “conference following visita- tion” as being second in value out of seventeen items. Principals, also, place great value upon the individual conference as a supervisory device. Approximately 600 supervising principals listed ‘‘conferences with teachers’’ as the duty consuming the largest portion of their total time.* Both selected and unselected princi- pals rank “talks with individual teachers” as the most important phase of their super- vision.” a Education a Available February, 1 ples, one in full in the Seventh Yearboo’. pt Nutt, HW. C 5 Melb: , Ernest O. ‘‘Teacher Evaluation of Supervisory visors of my rectors of Instruction. 1929. p. 237-51. 7 See the Seventh Yearbook, Ibid., § See the discussion of class veaanen i this Bulletin. ® Barr, A. S., and Burton, W. H. Individual Conferences ' 1 See Chapter X.‘‘The Supervisor's Conferences and Postings with Teachers,” 1930 Yearbook, Department of Superintendenc« hers’ Difficulties as a Basis for Supervision.” Procedure." Second Yearbook. the Seventh Yearbook, ios nt of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association. The Supervision of Instruction. D. Appleton and Company. 1926. { 320] Frequency and time of conferences—Ag¢ with all other supervisory technics the { quency and length of individual conferen will depend upon the particular situatio Conferences with individual teachers aren.) ends in themselves, but means of assistiny teachers to higher levels of functioning While teachers’ meetings are a form of mass instruction, conferences assume the characte; istics of individual teaching. Personal inte; views may consume much time, but they are particularly useful in helping each teache with his peculiar problems.* Fhe hour at which conferences are held js often a perplexing problem. The danger in many cases is that interviews will be shortened by personal and professional demands. Such hurried conferences may be so superficial as to be valueless to teachers or so brief as to cause misunderstanding. Barr and Burton have discussed this point as follows: There is no uniformity of practice in regard to the amount of time given to conferences, nor in regard to the time for holding them. The al! too common practice is to hold a hurried consultation in front of the room or at the door just as the supervisor is leaving. Recess periods between class intermissions, noon hours, and other odd periods, are often utilized. Obviously little good can result, while much dissatisfaction can be en- gendered.® Data from approximately 600 supervising principals do not indicate complete agreement as the best time for conferences. The extent of agreement is indicated in Table 8. Place to hold conferences—Barr and Bur- ton say that hurried conferences immediatel) after the lesson are seldom satisfactory. ‘The presence of the children, the changing of classes and other physical conditions make it impossible for the supervisor to give detailed suggestions. While general comments may be Educational Method 8: 399-403; April, 1929. Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association urrent Problems in the Supervision of Instruction. Johnson Publishing Company. 1928. p. 240. National Conference of Super- p. 189. p. 163. AE AE ORR 1 Male ocenimabe pe p— A. e tre 4rences ation. e not MSting Ming mass acter inter- V are ache; Id is ar in ened Such il is to rton gard or in too ition the veen odd rood eni- ‘ing ent t of civen they seldom influence instruction in a positive way and may easily cause misunder- standing. Experience shows that the most helpful con- ference has these elements (1) unhurried, (2) offers the teacher opportunity to speak, and (3) encourages the teacher to speak frankly.’ The best place to hold this ideal conference should be the principal’s office. But this is not always the case. Too frequently the office is “the sanctum” where teachers may be seen but not heard. After all, the spirit of the interview is of greatest importance. If the teacher seems hesi- tant about speaking freely in the office, the meeting should be held in the classroom. Meanwhile much can be done in developing the idea that the office is a friendly place. Teachers should have no hesitation in asking for teaching help. Observations of successful principals show that this description does not set up an impractical ideal. Types of conferences—Personal interviews between teacher and principal may be classi- fied on the basis of purposes. The three gen- eral types of conferences, with their self- explanatory names, may be designated as fol- lows: the social, the administrative, and the TABLE 8—TIME OF CONFERENCES AS REPORTED TWENTY-ONE OR MORE TIMES BY SUPERVISING PRINCI- PALS. | | Frequency of Percent mention After school Close of recitation Recess. . ask oon. , Free period . Before school Same day First opportunity | 100.0 Taken from the Seventh Yearbook, Department of Elemen- a Principals, National Education Association, Pp. > 1 Minor, Ruby. ‘‘A Case Study of Supervision.” supervisory.” Since each interview has its own peculiar purposes the classification may be even more minute under each of these general heads. This more specific classification may be illustrated by briefly describing some of the more typical supervisory conferences. B Fact-finding—A common type of conter ence, particularly with new teachers, is one in which the principal reviews the individual's preparation, preferences, and previous experi- ence.* Class assignments based upon such in- terviews may be adapted to the teacher’s wishes and personal equipment. Sometimes princi- pals discover persons who are particularly suited to handle sub-normal children, oppor- tunity classes and curriculum committees. Wise conservation and distribution of the talents of the teaching staff may do much to improve the classroom instruction.* 2. Pre-teaching—In_pre-teaching confer- ences the principal helps the teacher to plan future classroom activities. ‘The supervisor prevents teaching difficulties by planning a pro- gram, anticipating learning difficulties, em- phasizing the important lesson points and im- parting strong enthusiasm.® Teachers appre- ciate conferences which give them an advanced clue of what supervision expects to accomplish. Pre-teaching suggestions should be followed by visits wherein the teacher is assisted in making proper classroom applications. Class- room visits based upon pre-teaching confer- ences may be planned far enough in advance as to contribute to the unity of the principal’s program.® 3. Post-teaching—Classroom visits should be followed by individual interviews. Other post-teaching conferences should follow sur- vey and diagnostic testing programs. Such in- terviews are attempts to diagnose and improve existing classroom conditions.’ While some at- tention must be given to analyzing the weak- nesses of past practices, the purpose is not to humiliate the teacher. Rather the past is con- Educational Administration and Supervision 7; 241-54; May, 1921. ? Compare with page 158 in The Supervision of Instruction by A. S. Barr and. W. H. Burton. * See the section of this Bulletin entitled: ‘‘The Background for Supervision. 4 Taylor, George. February, 1926. **Responsibility of the School for the Unappointed Teacher."’ Journal of Educational Method §: 232-35; 5 See the earlier section of this Bulletin on a preventive type of supervision. ® See —{ section of this Bulletin on classroom visits. 7 Wilson, G. M. “*Teaching Levels, Teaching Technic and the Project.’ Parts I and II. Journal of Educational Method 2: 323-29 end 385-93; April and May, 1923. [ 321 ] Te eee ae i eee ~~ PP EP ee ao oi 1 al age a My ye x ao EA Se Bee 16 te ae <= ove ee i . ie q sidered simply as a basis for improving future procedures. No post-teaching conference is complete until the teacher understands what his problems are and how they may be at- tacked. In a sense, post-teaching conferences assume the characteristics of the pre-teaching type discussed under (2) above.* 4. Morale—The improvement of instruc- tion is frequently a problem of morale build- ing.’ Principals have seen the classroom work of teachers fall off rapidly because of unjust criticisms, financial difficulties, or family losses. Obviously, such cases do not require help with teaching technics, but sympathetic guidance of interests and emotions. Sometimes summer school work, a problem in research or a special teaching assignment will do much to restore personal balance. Principals often have teachers who are satis- fied to function on a routine level. The prob- lem here is the development of enthusiasms. Such teachers need to capitalize talents of which they are not always aware. A group of graduate students at New York University have summarized the morale-building func- tion of supervision in these words: One of the most helpful group of functions of the supervisor is that, in the exercise of which, he frankly and constructively criticizes the qualities, capacities and preparation of the teacher. At the same time, he guides her professional growth and develops her personality through a program which helps her find herself in the way so beautifully described by Woodrow Wilson in When a Man Comes to Himself. The supervisor will recog- nize when the teacher has “come to herself” and will commend her for the achievement and rejoice with her in it.3 Preparing for conferences—The purpose of the interview with the teacher determines the amount and type of preparation which the principal should make.* Probably little previ- ous planning is required for more or less social appointments. But the chances of a successful interview are greater if some preliminary con- sideration has been given to such questions as the following: What is the essential purpose of this con- ference? Do I want this teacher to feel at ease or conscience-stricken during the inter- —Comanee | with and pai 70 of C. & posts.» Eewatene! West, Chairman, 4 Collings, Ellsworth. School * National Society for the Study of Education. Twenty-fourth view? Does this person respond more readi to praise or criticism? How can I indicat, weaknesses in teaching procedure without im plying personal criticism? Upon what obie: tive data is this conference based? Exact what suggestions am I going to make to thi: teacher? What specific aid can I give this teacher in accomplishing the aims of our inte: view ? How am I to follow up the conference? When the conference is to be devoted to specific teaching problems the alert principal! will support his opinions with objective evi dence. Let us consider a hypothetical confe: ence following a visit of Principal X to the Second Grade. Principal X is very much dis- turbed by apparent stupidity of several of the children in reading. He asks Miss Jones if she can give any reason for the difficulty. Afte: the teacher cites evidence to prove that timid ity is the primary cause she asks Principal X for his advice. Compare the two types of an- swers which might be given to the teacher's request for help. Answer I (No previous preparation by the Principal) So you think it is timidity? Well, let us go right after that with a rush. Force those children to read before the class. Have them come down to the office and read to me. It’s just like learning to swim—the timid ones never learn unless you throw them in. I'll be up again in a few days to see how you are getting along. Meanwhile keep those timid ones together and make them toe the line. Answer II (Some previous preparation by the Principal) So you think it is timidity? I have been studying this summary of research on the reading difficulties of primary children. | see that a national reading committee ® has some specific suggestions on the matter of timidity. Probably each child will require individual treatment. Wouldn’t you like to read this chapter tonight? Please give these research suggestions a try. Will you report progress in a week or so? 24 of Bess 4 om Sense in School Supervision; p. 83 in Nutt’s The Supervision of Instruction. Supervision. PaloN ished ak ee p of Morale in Education." Journal of Educational Sociology, Vol. I, No. S. “- 3 From + unpublished Committee No. 1 on Systematic Supervision, New York University, 1928. Nathaniel G. Supervision in Theory and Practice. Thomas Y. =e 1927. p. 246-64. Yearbook, PartI. 1925. p. 278-280. [ 3221 Which answer represents the highest level of supervision? Does the progressive principal command or suggest teaching methods? Does he keep in touch with recent research and ex- perimentation ? Is he willing to advise on technical difficulties without ascertaining the position of specialists? Does he encourage teachers to assume an experimental attitude to- ward their teaching problems ? Conference procedures—Probably most in- dividual conferences consist of verbal ex- changes between teacher and principal. Such interviews may be ineffective because they lack concreteness. In avoiding this difficulty Mary- land supervisors in semi-urban communities often base discussions upon school exhibits. The procedure under such conditions has been described as follows: The conference room, Graceland Building, West- minster, was a source of help for our teachers. As in former years, we had there a permanent exhibit of (1) seatwork; (2) illustrative material such as posters, booklets, pictures, maps, charts; (3) fine and industrial arts; (4) handwriting; (5) unit plans in the Social Studies, all of which were con- tributed by the various schools. To make possible a larger exhibit an adjoining room was equipped with bulletin boards. Sandtables were also added this year. The conference room was open every Saturday morning except the fifth Saturday. Our teachers were encouraged to come for suggestions and ma- terials. They did so. The library books were in constant use. In some cases the teachers were requested by the supervisor to visit the conference room.” Experience in Saint Louis has resulted in 12 basic principles of supervision. These guides are particularly suggestive for procedure in the individual conference. The principles are as follows: 1. The supervisor does not criticize a teacher be- fore or in the hearing of the pupils. He says what he has to say at the end of the recitation period, privately, to the teacher. 2. He does not “butt in” during the recitation. He gives the teacher a chance, he recognizes she may ask the question he had in mind, or she may make the point he had in mind, if given an opportunity. If he wishes to take charge of the class, he does so at the end of the teacher’s work with the class, and 1 Collings, Elisworth. Op. cit., p. 265-80. then only after asking for and receiving permis- sion from the teacher to do so. 3. He offers a substitute procedure for consid- eration of the teacher, rather than a criticism of what she did. He capitalizes her strong points, rather than criticizes weaknesses. 4. He avoids the use of the pronoun “I” and “You” in his discussions with teachers. He keeps the discussion on an objective basis. He talks of what the children were doing or what the course of study suggests, not of what “I think” or what “you did.” 5. He recognizes many teachers may be reached most effectively through meetings, or by circular or bulletin. Thus they discover for themselves, rather than being told directly, what is needed. He considers indirect appeal frequently the most effective. 6. He concentrates on one thing at a time. He considers that to take up several things with the teacher about the same lesson would be probably more confusing than it would be helpful. 7. He makes it his purpose to raise a problem with the teacher concerning some phase of her work. His purpose is to make her conscious of her problems, rather than to criticize what she is do- ing, and to seek to control the situation so that she will seek his aid in the solution of the problems. 8. He always endeavors to secure and maintain the respect and goodwill of the teacher, and her confidence in his fairness. He recognizes it will be necessary for him to find things to praise as well as things to criticize, and he does not offer criticisms until conclusive evidence demands it. Many mat- ters may clear themselves if an opportunity is given. He obtains her respect, by respecting her— her opinions and her rights, privileges and pre- rogatives. He recognizes kindness of heart, sym- pathy, friendliness, are essential personal qualities of a supervisor. He can criticize with a smile. 9. He recognizes one of the great purposes of a supervisor should be to make himself acceptable to his teachers and principals, so that they shall be glad to have him visit them and work on their problems with them. He considers that an excel- lent criterion of the value of supervision is: “Does the teacher desire another visit from the supervisor in question?” 10. He recognizes that a fundamental principle of democratic leadership is respect for the per- sonality and opinions of the teacher and the pupil. He considers each should be regarded as an end, not a means to an end, and should be treated as he now is but with respect to what he may become. It should always be the supervisor’s purpose to get the teacher and pupils to want to do what they ought to do. 2 Maryland State Department of Education, ‘Supervisory Activities in Maryland,”” Maryland School Bulletin, September , 1928. p. 43. [ 323 ] 11. He recognizes the supervisor should con- stantly ask himself this question: “What is the next step for this teacher in this situation? 12. In dealing with the teacher, he uses the ques- ‘ion twenty times to the declaration once.’ The principal and individual conferences— Progressive principals use the individual con- ference freely in improving instruction. Its outstanding merit is the opportunity of adapr- ing conference procedures to the personality and teaching difficulties of the individual teacher.*, Another advantage is the possibility ef encouraging the timid teacher to raise ques- tions which might not be asked in group meetings. Most conferences grow out of the needs revealed by class observations, tests and similar supervisory practices.* Fact-finding confer- ences help the principal to make good teaching assignments. Pre-teaching interviews prepare the teacher in advance for demonstrations or class visits. Post-teaching interviews provide opportunity to analyze and improve the pres- ent status of the teaching as determined by supervisory technics. There is considerable usefulness for all types of procedures in the principal’s supervisory program. A summary of basic principles for individual conferences has been given in an earlier Re- search Bulletin as follows: The attitude of the principal during the confer- ence will largely determine his success in improv- ing the teacher’s work. Some principals consider the conference as a time to “put the teacher in her place” or to make her deeply aware of her short- comings. Such an approach may be justified in exceptional instances. It cannot be justified in most conferences for the purpose of helping the teacher to do better work. It has been suggested that a guiding principle should be, “Discuss the future and not the past. In the light of the past mistakes, but without an analysis or enumeration of them, plan the next periods with the teacher.”* The emphasis then is placed upon the plans for improvement and not upon the defects themselves. The principal becomes a friendly adviser anxious to aid in future im- provement, rather than a severe critic of the past.5 An individual conference may or may not be a complete supervisory act. Here again the follow-up activities of the principal are im- ! Underwood, F Pp. 8-9. Saint Logie Pu > eeeen, ‘ Mek Mur inet a "” Childhood Ed “ont Natanal Baneiba Aswaton B F. M. Pupte 8 others) ‘‘The Supervision of Classroom Instruction." + S., and Bush, Maybell. Visiting the Teacher at Work. D. Appleton and Co. 1925. Supervisory Conf. Jj ata Educational - portant. On the basis of the facts discove in the interview, what steps are necessary +) improve the work of this particular teache;? Teachers’ meetings, mimeographed bulletins special teaching assignments, professional read ing material, instruction supplies, and othe, conferences may prove useful secondary tech nics. These follow-up activities help to carry the verbal and intangible discussion over into practical classroom applications. Individual Conferences 1. Anperson, C. J., Barr, A. S., AND BusH, May BELL. Visiting the Teacher at Work. \) Appleton and Company, New York. 1925 382 p. Many practical suggestions on case studies of teachers, pre-teaching interviews, and follow- up conferences. 2. ARMENTROUT, W. D. “Supervision and Edu cational Aims.” Journal of Educational Method 2: 272-81; March, 1923. Supervisors should help teachers to think through their problems in terms of a philosophy of education. 3. Barr, A. S., AND Burton, W. H. The Super- vision of Instruction. D. Appleton and Com pany, New York. 1926. p. 158-86 Discusses characteristics, policies and pro- cedures of group and individual conferences 4. BeecHeLt, EnitH E. “A Supervisory Confer- ence.” Journal of Educational Method 5: 21-24; September, 1925. Describes a personal interview with a teache: after a drill lesson. 5. COLLINGs, ELLSworTH. Theory and Practice. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York. 1927. 368 p. Pages 246-80 discuss what the supervisor should do before and during conferences. 6. Kitson, H. D. “Measuring the Interest of Teachers in Their Work.” Teachers College Record 30: 28-33; October, 1928. A ten-step scale of use in making self-sur- veys. Could be used as a basis for personal interviews. 7. MARYLAND STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. “Supervisory Activities in Maryland.” Mary- land School Bulletin 10: 1-95; September, 1928. Brief descriptions of conference activities. 8. Minor, Rusy. “A Case Study of Supervision.” Educational Administration and Supervision 7 241-54; May, 1921. Public School Messenger. April 15, 1927 p. 78-348 School Supervision in : 21-24; September, 1925. 313; March, 1 lucation ucation Association, Division of Research. etre Principal Studies His Job.” Research Bulletin 6: 97; March [ 324] vA rn BANE lt ee... Presents summaries of actual lessons and . Scorr, CHARLES E. Educational Supervision subsequent conference between teacher and su- Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee. 1921 98 p. pervisor. A concise statement of the principles and Morris, Mary E. “The Principal as Super- yisor of Instruction.” Third Yearbook, De- aims of supervision. partment of Elementary School Principals, Na- . Woopy, CLirrorp. “Chart of Language Aims tional Education Association. 1924. p. 347-56. with Suggestions and Activities for Realizing Suggestions os note-taking and interviewing Them.” Second Yearbook, Department of Ele- in the supervision of new teachers. mentary School Principals, National Education Nutr, H. W. Current Problems in the Super- Association. 1923. p. 385-92. vision of Instruction. Johnson Publishing Com- A list of practical classroom activities for the pany, Richmond. 1928. Chapter XV. early elementary grades. Particularly sugges- tive for conferences with teachers on teaching Biden bes Rb alain Supervisors tell how observation notes are helpful in conferences with teachers. methods in language. 1925 Sot Tatars epenntabelitibtsdanhscae ceramics aie udies llow- Edu tho ~~ ROPERLY handled, the forward-looking conference will lead the teacher to the evaluation think P of her own lessons, and to progressive self-improvement. By skillful questions the super- ophy visor can teach the teacher how to study classroom technic as he himself does it; how to search for and recognize major elements of strength and weakness; how to work out and apply reme dial measures. That is, the teacher can be led to use the same devices, check lists, and per analyses which the supervisor uses.—The Supervision of Instruction, Barr, A. S., and Burton, om- ; W. H., D. Appleton and Company, New York. 1926. p. 169. pro- ces. ifer- 24; cher 1 in well sor of ege jur- ynal | ) “WTS 2 Me ad es rtd 1 relat As EE ON AE IEEE TINY IA, OT << ‘ Group meetings in some form have been an early and typical means of improving teachers in service.2 The present faith in group activity is indicated by the prevalence of extension classes, association meetings, col- lege classes, reading circles, institutes, and building meetings. Whether these assemblies are presided over by superintendents, princi- pals, college instructors or others does not change their “mass instruction” characteristics. Practice and opinion regarding teachers’ meetings—When several hundred principals were asked to list their “time consuming” duties, teachers’ meetings was seventeenth in 30 items.’ As a supervisory technic these same principals listed teachers’ meetings as fourth in importance. Among a selected group of supervising principals group meetings were third in rank.* Out of a group of 25 un- selected cities over 100,000 in population, four had rules requiring principals to hold monthly teachers’ meetings.® Valentine reports that teachers rank “in- structional group conferences with new teach- ers” and “frequent instructional conferences with teacher groups” as third and eighth in value out of 36 supervisory procedures.® Melby reports that “meetings of teachers of certain grades and subjects” was judged by 377 elementary teachers as being of greater value than general or committee faculty meet- ings. These same teachers ranked the above specific type of meeting as more valuable than class visitation, conferences, or demonstration lessons." Types of building meetings—Observations in the field show that principals are holding teachers’ meetings of several types. These meetings may be classified as: social, admin- istrative, supervisory, and miscellaneous. Teachers’ Meetings * The social meeting may be illustrated the parties given to new teachers. Simple re freshments before a supervisory meeting often help to put everyone at ease. While practices are not strictly supervisory, they do influence instruction by developing faculty morale.® Administrative meetings are particular|, numerous at the beginning and end of the school year. Usually the purpose of the meet ing is to save time by informing the staff en masse of plans for the organization and the direction of the school as a whole.°® Recently, supervisory meetings creased in importance in the work of the principal. These meetings confine themselves largely to the discussion, demonstration and investigation of the factors in classroom in struction.'° Miscellaneous meetings may represent de- liberate attempts to combine the above types, or may be the product of superficial planning. While such meetings may be necessary from time to time they probably exert little in fluence upon instructional practices. Practices at teachers’ institutes and teacher opinion " seem to place greater value on meetings with delimited and specific purposes. In Maryland the slogan, “Every teachers’ meeting a skillful teaching act” has done much to make these group meetings effective.'* When should meetings be held?—The time and place of teachers’ meetings are problems to be settled in each school. Observation of many successful principals has led to this sum- marized statement : have _in- The frequency of meetings would depend upon the program outlined for the year. After planning 1See Chapter X, ‘‘The Supervisor's Conferences and Meetings with Teachers.” 1930 Yearbook. Department of Superintend- 19 2 Orlin, Arvin S. ‘*The Instruction of Teachers Now at Work ‘in the Schools by Teachers’ Institutes."" Proceedings. Nationa! ence, National Education Association. Available February, 1 Education 1895. p. 166. 3 See a —— Department of Elementary School Principais, National Education Association. ven to individual conferences with teachers and pupil classification. 1929, p. 189 4 Ibid., s * Only’ 35 ae the 6 wae cities oe wes ve 000 in population sent in printed rules. *R 7 Melby, E.¢ oO “Teacher Feertoos. Dx of Su of Instruction. 1929. p. 242, and Directors § See much time at teachers’ ” Simpson, Mabel E. “ tember, 1922. 1 Melby, am, oO. a3 Stet and . Jj Journal 27: 176; Mo. By. [3 t of Elementary School Pri pervisory Procedure.” 250. the section of this - Sa on the morale building type of yn conference * One of the principals who reviewed this Bulletin in manuscript form said ‘‘Man of the trivial discussions that consume could be adequately cared for in a mimeographed b' Institute as a Means of Cooperative Supervision.” » aed of Educational Method 2: 2-8; Sep- x. 243. ‘the gd Meeting as an Instrument of Supervision in a County-Unit System." ea Peon ees National Conference of Supervisors Elemeniar) 6] MMR eas ot YRS. Imi, ted by ple re- r often such 1ey do aculty ‘ularly of the meet- aff en id the e in- f the selves 1 and m in- it de- types, ning. from e in- Ctices ion © with yland ill ful these time lems n of sum- upon ining itend- tional , 189. visors sume Sep- miary with the teachers the objectives of the professional meetings, then the number of meetings necessary accomplish the program may be estimated. The hour of meeting is one that should be set- tled in cooperation with the teachers. Usually the after-school meeting finds everyone tired and not in the mood for professional study. Meetings held before school in the morning have the advantages of brevity and an alert audience. Some principals have found the lunch-hour meeting satisfactory, although if meetings are held rather frequently they may seriously interfere with the midday rest to period.” The practices in suburban and rural areas of Maryland have been stated as follows: Teachers’ meetings are for the most part held on school days. Sometimes there is an all-day meet- ing from 9:30 a. m. to 3:30 p. m. More often there is an afternoon meeting from one to four o’clock. Teachers have a better attitude toward meetings if they are not held on Saturday. They assume a more definite responsibility for them if they are held on teachers’ work days. The evening, from seven-thirty to ten o'clock, is also a favorable time for thinking and working together.” Activities in a supervisory meeting—Pre- vious paragraphs have defined the types of meeting in terms of purposes, i. e. social, ad- ministrative or supervisory. But each general type may include radically different meetings depending on the activities or the program of the particular event. For example, supervisory meetings may be given over to lectures, dis- cussions, demonstrations, projects, reading cir- cles or a combination of several activities. A lecture meeting usually means a one-sided discussion by the principal or an _ outside speaker. To be most successful this type of meeting requires: (1) good preparation by the leader, (2) enthusiastic presentation, (3) in- teresting and appropriate facts, (4) concrete illustrations, and (5) the direction of aroused interest into purposeful applications. ‘The lec- ture meeting is essentially an appreciation lesson and needs to be guided according to recognized principles.?- While meetings of this type can be very instructive to the listener, the principal should ask himself these questions: Is it fair for me to dominate the discussions? 1 See ‘‘ The Principal Studies His Job."" Research Bulletin. *Simpson, I. Jewell. Op. cit., p. 178-9. Do all people profit as fully from lectures as they do from meetings in which they actually participate? Is there a teacher viewpoint which should be expressed? Would | rate a teacher highly if she used the lecture method with her pupils? Should there ever be a teachers’ meeting without some reaction from the group? The discussion meeting is usually devoted to specific questions or problems.* Sometimes discussion meetings follow conventions, insti- tutes, demonstrations, and similar professional activities.© Meetings of this type give several people an opportunity to speak, but if the group is large this advantage may be mate- rially lessened. Often discussion meetings may be organized and directed by the teachers with- out the principal’s participation. Questions which may be raised: Are the topics under con- sideration worthwhile? Do the discussions help and apply to the work of the majority of the teachers? Are the topics part of a well- planned scheme of supervision? Are the dis- cussions superficial and insincere? Do cer- tain individuals and small groups dominate the thinking of the entire meeting? Do many per- sons participate without contributing any- thing worthwhile? The demonstration meeting is an attempt to make teaching methods objective and concrete. Teachers often report such meetings as the source of new inspiration. Under favorable conditions® the demonstration lesson may lead each teacher into thought-provoking discus- sions. Principals will want to consider cer- tain basic questions: Have the observers been prepared for the demonstration? Does the les- son exhibit suggestions of value in the work of each observer? Are the observers given an outline so that they may follow the important points of the lesson? Is there an opportunity for discussion and application of the demon- stration lesson to classroom practice? Are the demonstration lessons followed up in the classrooms ? The reading circle scheme is a useful plan for circulating general and professional liter- March, 1928. p. 100-101, such books as: Wilson, H. B., Kyte, G. C., and Lull, H. G., Modern Methods in Teaching. Silver, Burdett and Company. +See 1924. p. 122-38. 4 See the principles of the problem method as discussed in such books as: Wilson, H. B., Kyte, G. C., and Lull, H. G., op. cit. p. 92-121. 5 The Journal of the National Educaiion Association includes a page of topics and suggestions for faculty meetings in each issue. See the October, 1929, issue, p. 240. * Principles and »ractices for «lemonstration lessons have been given elsewhere in this Bulletin. [ 327 ] Pe SS OSI S ature. It has been described as a distinctive force in overcoming the inertia of books.* Reading circles tend to make everyone a par- ticipant in the activities of the group. Group discussions can be based upon a common back- ground. Certain questions may be raised: Is the reading circle organized so as to circulate the books rapidly and effectively? How shall the books be chosen? Should the reading mate- rial consist of professional matter only? How can educational periodicals be used effectively ? What place does the modern novel have in the reading circle? Should any effort be made to “check the thoroughness of reading by each member of the circle? Can the reading circle be adjusted to the principal’s plans for super- vision? Does the reading circle tend to over- standardize tastes in reading and habits in thinking ? The project? meeting would combine sev- eral of the activities described above. Under this plan the staff selects and undertakes a major problem such as curriculum revision for the whole school. Such a large activity would demand lectures by curriculum experts, dis- cussions by committees, demonstrations before various small groups and widespread profes- sional reading. Other large problems for group study are: character education, stand- ards in written composition, remedial meth- ods in reading, diagnostic work in arithmetic, a balanced modern reading program for pupils, teaching of larger units of subject-matter, re- ducing pupil failure without lowering aca- demic standards, and correlating instruction in all subjects. The principal may consider such questions as these: Would the teaching of this school improve under the impetus of a group _ study among the teachers? Is such an activity practical under present conditions? What problem should this staff attack? How shall that problem be studied? Would this project proceed most effectively under the direction of teachers, the vice-principal, or myself? How does this plan fit in with the general activities and schemes for the school system as a whole? What use can be made of the superintendent and the general or special supervisors ? Material for meetings—Principals are sometimes perplexed as to what problems shou! , be considered at teachers’ meetings. If we stop to recall basic teaching procedures, we soon recognize that we must first consider learner. Such is the case in improving teac} ers in service. Through individual confer- ences, class visits and other supervisory tecl)- nics the principal should be able to locate the problems which need to be studied. Some principals find that mimeographed question naires distributed among teachers will indicate teaching difficulties. For example, in the De- troit schools we find such questionnaires as the following: Questionnaire to Teachers * 1. In what particular phase of school work are you most interested ? 2. What particular problem in your work most perplexes you? 3. List below the subjects which should be studied or worked upon in teacher commit- tees. 4. List eight problems that you would like to have as the general subject of regular monthly teacher meetings. Sources of valuable topics for teachers’ meet- ings are the current issues of professional magazines. One principal found the Journal so helpful that he wrote to the Division of Publications of the National Education As- sociation as follows: For some reason I have not received my copy of the Journal and I simply cannot get along without it. Will you please have one sent to me at once? The teachers of this school have weekly meetings for the consideration of our common problems. One meeting each month is devoted to the Journal of the National Education Association. Teachers take turns in planning these meetings. A leading article or editorial is assigned to each teacher who takes charge of the discussion on it. There is much informal discussion and it is always difficult to cover the ground within the hour to which our meetings are limited. This regular study of the Journal means a great deal to our teaching staff.‘ Suggestions of value to both city and rural schools are contained in publications of state 1 Jones, + Nai “The Instruction and Improvement of Teachers Now at Work in the Schools by Teachers’ Reading Circles." 1895. p. 179. ? The term J cipala: National Education Assocation. Get. 1925. 'p. S152 “project” pm Ft o enane eens nei Cli rf nny yy EH by ghn Thomas, Principal of 4, out by the teachers of ihe school. ppert School, Detroit, Michigan Department of Elementary Schoo! Prin- [ 328] ead nkce o icl eaC HE i alia Seti oa amt ind ebnisicamy soit ww co althady Mews Depart a ad ARM i rt tit di lu ti sc m in lo ri are ould - Stop s00n the each- nter- tech- > the ome tlon- icate De- ; the vork york 1 be mit- like ilar eet- nal “nal of As- r of lout ce? ngs Ine of ers ing vho is cult our : H departments of education. For example, a Maryland bulletin contained these topics: Material for Teachers’ Meetings * 1. A careful analysis of the course of study. Adding to the course of study, revising the course of study—the whole field of cooperative curriculum building provides constant material for good meet- ings. 2. Well-organized and well-taught demonstra- tion lessons involving subject-matter from the course of study, followed by a critique and free discussion. Some of the things which may be il- lustrated and explained by means of demonstra- tion lessons are: the project method, the necessity for lesson planning, clever drill devices, etc. 3. The daily schedule. For teachers of one-room schools a demonstration lesson given to two or more grades combined will be of real assistance in “getting across” the group schedule. 4. Study and discussion of remedial work fol- lowing the standardized tests. Use Bulletins on Silent Reading and Arithmetic and similar mate- rial. 5. Study of the classification of pupils. 6. Study of the promotion of pupils, involving age-grade problems. 7. Encourage the teachers to work on problems— a kind of seminar. A teacher of the second grade class, for example, might be interested in what could be done through individual instruction to bring her pupils up to standard in reading. Her report would include analyses of special cases, amount of time spent on the work, methods em- ployed, and results obtained. Set up a series of worthwhile problems and let the teachers work them out. 8. Sometimes it is profitable to study a worth- while professional book together. Certain teachers might report on magazine articles dealing with the topic under discussion. 9. The review of a new text book which has just been adopted, or the study of supplementary read- ers, or the inspection of any material offered for school use—all of these are sources of discussion. 10. Lesson planning. Many teachers are weak in lesson planning. ‘The necessity for planning, economical methods of doing it, and the benefits of it, should be made clear. One or more lesson plans used by successful teachers may be mimeographed and distributed for discussion. 11. The project method of teaching—its advan- tages; its difficulties and dangers. 12. Parent-Teacher meetings and community work. A discussion of ways of bringing to the parents and patrons a thorough understanding of the objectives and problems of the school. 1 Maryland State Department of Education. ““Worthwhile Teachers’ Meetings.” 1923. p. 86-87. Other suggestions in ‘‘A Supervisor of Town Schools Analyses Her Work.” 13. Formulate questions which will present sug- gestions and constructive criticism based upon data accumulated during class room visits. Stimulate the discussion of the suggestions and criticism so that the teachers themselves determine the correct answers and decide what procedures will produce more efhcient work. Basic criteria for supervisory meetings— Can the above suggestions on teachers’ meet- ings be summarized into basic principles or criteria? Miss Simpson’s list * of underlying principles is very suggestive to the principal who is anxious to make his meetings skillful teaching acts. These suggestions follow: a. Be carefully planned, definite and pur- poseful—Without planning the discussion may wander aimlessly among trifling teaching prob- lems. Every meeting should contribute some- thing definite to the teacher’s thinking. b. Be organized around the needs of teach- ers—Meetings based upon teaching difficulties easily enlist the interest of teachers. Some- times it is necessary to present a teaching prin- ciple in several different ways before it car- ries over into practice. c. Provide for the maximum of teacher participation under guidance of the principal —Teachers profit most from meetings when there is an opportunity to discuss problems, ask questions, make reports, and give demon- strations. Without guidance from the prin- cipal some participation may contribute little or nothing to the discussion. d. Be related to what has preceded and lead on to new advances—The worthwhile meet- ing not only inspires the teacher to new ef- forts, but offers some concrete suggestions as to what these advances should be. The principal and teachers’ meetings—The above paragraphs indicate the existence of social, administrative, and supervisory teach- ers’ meetings. Often meetings combine several types. This discussion has been primarily con- cerned with the supervisory meeting as a part of a general supervisory program. It is evi- dent that there must be adaptation of specific supervisory procedures to meet the difficulties of a particular school situation. In evolving certain general principles of procedure the principal will want to consider Maryland School Bulletin. September, Maryland School Bulletin. Oct., 1926. _p. 17 and “‘Supervisory Activities a, Maryland School Bulletin. September, 1928. p. 11. *Simpson, I. Jewell. Op. cit., p. 175 [ 329 ] . i ie EN ha such questions as: Is the principal justified in emphasizing social and administrative teach- ers’ meetings to the neglect ‘of supervisory meetings? Are combined administrative and supervisory meetings ever effective? Is the principal ultimately responsible for the worth- whileness of meetings? How can teachers be encouraged to participate in teachers’ meet- ings? Should teachers’ meetings be a part of the principal’s larger supervisory plans? Is the superintendent justified in judging the principal on his teachers’ meetings, just as the principal judges the teacher on instructional technics? What use can be made of teacher committees in developing worthwhile meet- ings? How can the research and theory found in current literature be used effectively in con- nection with classroom work? On what basis may we evaluate the effectiveness of our teachers’ meetings? Effective supervisory meetings are not ac- cidental.'' Principals using the teachers’ meet- ing as a supervisory technic will find the above underlying principles invaluable. But a fifth criteria, implied above but not specifically stated, is that teachers’ meetings should be followed by check-up procedures. Probably the simplest device is a summary on the bulletin board showing the outcomes of the meeting in points of agreement and problems for further study. Where clerical help is available, copies of the summary should be made for each teacher. ‘ Sometimes the summarized report on the meeting needs to be followed by a question- naire or “reaction” blank. Teachers are thereby encouraged to ask further questions or to request the consideration of other topics. A “question box” in the office for unsigned requests has been the source of inspiration for many principals. Classroom visits is an important check on teachers’ meetings.? Is the teacher applying the technics discusssed in the meeting? If not, was the meeting a skillful and successful teaching act? What problems do these class observations suggest for future meetings? The natural follow-up procedure for many supervisory meetings is another group discus- 1 Rose A. “ of Teachers in a School 152-56; 185-89. . 2 See section of this Bu Ay # See the section this Bulletin on individual conferences. District. ; December, . oes and January, 1925. sion of the same type. In this way teaching technics and educational principles become familiar to the teachers by repetition. Since teachers vary greatly in personal traits and are confronted with different teach- ing problems, the principal will find the indi- vidual conferences a useful check technic. Conferences provide the teacher, who passivel; acquiesces in the group meeting, with an op- portunity to raise pertinent questions. Prob- ably the role of ‘“‘a good listener” should be assumed by the wise supervisor. Other follow-up procedures or combinations of the above technics will suggest themselyes to the principal who studies his supervisor, problems. He will see that the teachers’ meet- ing is essentially a problem of group instruc- tion. Classroom experience reveals basic prin- ciples as to pupil participation in the learning, adaptation of content to the learner’s needs, and follow-up devices until pupil growth is assured. These same principles apply to teachers’ meetings. Progressive principals aim to make group meetings examples of skillful teaching. Teachers’ Meetings 1. Brooks, SAMUEL S. Improving Schools by Standardized Tests. Houghton Mifflin Com- pany, Boston. 1922. 278 p. Chapter III tells how a superintendent used teachers’ meetings to arouse a keen interest in his testing program. 2. Burton, W. H. (and Others). The Supervision of Elementary Subjects. D. Appleton and Com- pany, New York. 1929. 710 p. The summaries of research and practices offer unlimited problems for teachers’ conferences. Discusses types, materials and topics of pro- fessional meetings. 3. CupperLey, E. P. The Principal and His School. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. 1923. p. 513-29. Discusses types of meetings, common mis- takes of supervisors and criteria for making meetings of value to teachers. 4. Evspree, Witiarp S., Hausey, H. R., and Erspree, EvizapeTH S. The Teacher's Hand- book. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. 1929. 289 p. Questions and answers on teaching methods and management. Bibliography and _ index. Suggests many topics for teachers’ meetings. " TI, ILand III, Journal of Educational Method 4: 91-93, [330] wn ‘aching 2eCOme *rsonal teach- € indi- chnic.* ssively an op- Prob- ild be a | ations selves Visory meet- struc- prin- rning, needs, rth is ly to Ss aim illful Is by Com- used est in vision Com- offer "es. pro- His _ Ketvey, E. L., and Wuirney, F. L. . McKEEHAN, 10. 11, 12. _ Gist, ArTHUR S. Elementary School Super- Scribner’s Sons, New York. 1926. p. vision. 235-36. Several good topics for meetings. “Educa- tional Magazines Read by Five Hundred Ele- mentary School Principals and Classroom Teachers.” Elementary School Journal 29: 176-80; November, 1928. Reports most frequently read _ professional magazines. . MARYLAND STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. “Worthwhile Teachers’ Meetings.” Maryland School Bulletin, Vol. V, No. 1. September, 1923. 87 p. County-unit supervisors outline and describe meetings which have proven helpful in train- ing teachers in service. . MARYLAND STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. “A Supervisor of Town Schools Analyzes Her Work.” Maryland School Bulletin, Vol. VIII, No. 3. October, 1926. p. 17-40. One section of this Bulletin contains helpful suggestions on worthwhile supervisory meet- ings. CuHartes F. “The Principal’s Building Meetings.” Third Yearbook. Depart- ment of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association. 1924. p. 366-70. States general principles to be observed. MILLER, WILLIAM A. “Teacher Rating from the Principal’s Point of View.” American School Board Journal 78: 48; May, 1929. Lists specific rating points under twenty main headings. Monroe, Water S. “Teachers’ Objectives.” University of Iilinois Bulletin 23: 1-24; June 1, 1926. No. 39. A useful bulletin in unifying the teaching objectives of a school faculty. Morcan, Joy Ermer. “A Good Idea for Faculty Meetings.” Bulletin 5: 51-53; October, 1925. Department of Elementary School Prin- cipals, National Education Association. A principal tells how useful The Journal of the National Education Association has been in his teachers’ meetings. 16. 17. . MossMan, Lois C. . NATIONAL . NATIONAL . Simpson, I. JEWELL. . Scott, CHARLES E. “Changing Conceptions Rel- ative to Lesson Planning.” Educational Ad- ministration and Supervision 11: 344-49; May, 1925. A summary of teaching which would be useful in discussion groups and con- ferences. principles EpucaTIoN AssociATION. Division of Publications. The Journal. Published month- ly, except July, August, and September. Each issue contains a page of topics and references for faculty meetings. EpucaTION ASSOCIATION. Division of Research. “Handbook of Major Educational Issues.” Research Bulletin 4: 227-32; Septem- ber, 1926. Discusses general value and topics of profes- sional meetings. NATIONAL EpucaTion AssociATION. Division of “The Principal Studies His Job.” Research Bulletin 6: 81-148; March, 1928. Particularly pages 97-101, 124-26 and 138. Gives references and _ suggested procedures for supervisory meetings. Research. topics, EpUCATION ASSOCIATION. Division “The Principal and Progressive Research Bulletin NATIONAL of Research. Movements in Education.” 7: 45-104; March, 1929. Chapters on health, mental hygiene, char- acter education and individual differences offer much available material for group discussions. “The Teachers’ Meeting as an Instrument of Supervision in a County- unit System.” Elementary School Journal 27: 175-86; November, 1926. Practical suggestions and basic principles for teachers’ meetings as developed under county- unit organization. Educational Supervision. Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee. 1924. p. 57-60. Discusses meetings as one device in unifying the teaching principles and purposes of the faculty. ston. mis- king and and- “sity, —— ———_— DVANCES in educational science and psychology and the results of educational research cannot be disregarded in the modern classroom coming to be as significant for teachers as medical research is for physicians. sive administrator brings these to the attention of his teachers through faculty meetings.—Na- tional Education Association, Research Division. Research Bulletin 4: 227; September, 1926. hods “A Handbook of Major Educational Issues.” Findings of educational research are The progres- dex. [ 331 ] Demonstration Teaching Demonstration lessons appeal to certain characteristics of human nature. McCall dis- cusses this tendency to imitate in connection with test construction, as follows: “An ounce of demonstration is worth a pound of words. It takes more words to describe effectively what is to be done than it takes moves to show what is to be done. Anyone can try for himself an experiment to discover whether it is easier to show than to tell. Probably due to primordial practice, children, not to mention adults, can imitate better than they can comprehend and follow linguistic directions. To accompany description with a dem- onstration not only caters to pupils who may get impressions easier through the eye or through the ear, but, what is more important, it gives to all an impression through both eye and ear. Demonstra- tion has the still further advantage of securing bet- ter attention, expecially from the young children.’ Demonstration teaching as a supervisory device—Demonstrations are commonly asso- ciated with teacher-training institutions and teachers’ institutes. The introduction of spe- cial school supervisors brought in demonstra- tion lessons as parts of the prescribed program of these workers.* Barr's study shows demon- strations as the second most important “‘train- ing activity” of supervisors.* Demonstration teaching was found by Thune to be one of the most typical duties of special supervisors in city school systems.* In rural schools demonstration work has proved to be an important agency in the super- visory work of county superintendents: County superintendents reach the same inevitable conclusion, namely, that the most effective work under present conditions can be done by organiza- tion rather than personal visitation. Results must 1 McCall, William A. How to Measure in Education. MacMillan Co. saad * See the pereeiet duties of yee my ag serge one ae Bs 4 Thune, Elmer T. thesis, University of Washington. 1926. p. 123. 5 Moeller, H. C. nm Association. 1924. p. 699. utt. 1 n yrs of the Duties and Functions of olla Supervisors. January, 1926. p. 31-34, 176. * Maryland State Department of Education. Worthwhile Teachers’ Meetings. “Raising the Standards of County Supervision Through Demonstration Teaching."’ be obtained by working with groups rather thay individuals. Among the ways that one may 4 work, demonstration teaching should occupy , prominent place.® The value of demonstrations in rural sy. pervision is further testified to by the Maryland State supervisory program: Perhaps no other activity is so effective as the demonstration lesson for developing desirable teach- ing procedure.® Cubberley has suggested demonstration |es- sons as a supervisory device in these words: Every principal, in observing the instruction within his own school, or in contact with visiting supervisors, will find opportunities for organizing an occasional demonstration lesson, to be put on before a part or possibly all of his teachers. It would be well if all teachers could occasionally observe the work of a master craftsman, and be able to question as to the why and the how.’ Do teachers want demonstration lessons ?— Strayer asked the elementary teachers of Beau- mont, Texas, this question: “What has hap- pened during the past year which has made a difference in the way you teach?” ‘The re- plies ranked model demonstration lessons as the most helpful of all the supervisory methods.* Nutt reported questionnaire returns from teachers in Hammond, Indiana, and Topeka, Kansas, in which “more demonstration teach- ing” was one of the supervisory aids most fre- quently desired.® More than 35 percent of the teachers in Kyte’s study indicated a desire for more help from principals in regard to demonstration teaching.*® An inquiry by the Seattle Princi- pals’ Club revealed that six percent of the 1922. p. 237. nde 0 a in school board rules as brought out in Cur- 9, 178 and 187. Bureau of Educational Research, Uni- The Place and Functions of Supervision of Special Subjects in City School Systems. An unpublished master's Proceedings. National 1923. p. 13. ? Cubberley, E. P. The Principal and His School. Houghton Mifflin. 1923. p. 469-70. * Strayer, George D. (Director). bia University, New York City. 1927. p. * Nutt, H.W. Current Problems in the Supervision of Instruction. Johnson Publishing Co. Siest Principal as a Builder of Teaching Morale."" First Yearbook. Michigan State do " C. “The Elementa Principals’ A tion. 1927. p. 50. Table 3. Survey of the Schools of Beaumont, Texas. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Colum- 1928. p. 244-46, 254. [ 332] er than may so Cupy a ral Su- tyland as the » teach- mn les- ls: ruction ‘isiting nizing ut on onally nd be Beau- hap- ide a e re- s the ds.* from eka, -ach- fre- s in help tion inci- the Cur- Uni- ter's onal lum- tate teachers wanted the principal to do some dem- onstration teaching.’ Minor reports on her experience in teacher training as follows: Demonstration teaching has come to be a recog- nized means of training teachers in service. As a result of direct questioning the writer has found that a large percentage of the teachers in her college classes and under her administrative guid- ance consider the demonstration lesson a preferred supervisory agency.” Purposes of demonstration teaching—Su- pervisors use demonstrations to show the man- agement of classroom activities, the directing of pupil interest, the content of new courses of study, and the use of special devices.* Such activities are classified as teaching technics. Most demonstrations attempt to set forth so-called “superior” teaching technics. Some- times the primary purpose is to show a “model lesson” in complete form. Other meetings merely demonstrate “suggestive lessons’ or technics. Types of demonstrations—In terms of the demonstrator and certain classroom conditions there are four general types of demonstrations. These may be described as follows: (1) Lessons taught by typical teachers in their own classrooms—These demonstrations may be illustrated by the intervisitation or ex- change visits between regular classroom teach- ers. Sometimes the principal might ask a reg- ular teacher to illustrate her work before a small informal group. Advantages: the teach- er’s technic can receive praise and criticism from her peers; the teacher knows the pupils and she is familar to them; the teacher is stimulated to professional study and lesson planning so as to teach effectively; and the classroom situation is so nearly “typical” as to facilitate the subsequent discussion. Dis- advantages: some teachers may try to “show off,” thereby attracting too much personal at- tention ; observers may consider the demonstra- tion a publicity stunt, or a “staged” affair; 1Gist, Arthur S., and King, William A. Journal, 22: 120-26; October, 1922. 2? Minor, Ruby. tgs ‘ary School Journal, 26: 519. March, 1926. 3 Simpson, Mabel E. ucational Method 5: 140-4; December, 1925. 4Smith, Nila B. ‘‘The Key-Teacher Scheme of Supervision.” ‘* After-school Demonstrations in the Primary Grades."’ Also, Rutledge, M. Pauline. 5: 36-37; November, 1926. Baltimore Public Schools. $ Willard, Frank E. ciation. ® See the Seventh Yearbook. ‘The Efficiency of the Principalship from the Standpoint of the Teacher.” “The Summit Demonstration School."’ Journal 18: 153-54; May, 1929. Department of Elementary School Principals. and timidity may make the demonstrator ap- pear at his worst. Overcoming the disad- vantages: choose well-poised teachers to make the demonstrations; hold demonstrations more frequently ; and assist the teacher in preparing the lesson to be demonstrated. (2) Lessons taught by special demonstrators in their own classrooms—Sometimes general supervisors or principals designate a few regu- lar teachers as special demonstrators. ‘These persons may be “key” teachers assigned to different buildings,* or the members of demon- stration school faculties.5 Unlike the typical teacher described in (1) above the demonstra- tions by these persons are carefully prepared parts of their regular work. Not infrequently the lessons are practical demonstrations of the policies of the superintendent. Advantages: The role of the demonstrator as a regular teacher gives him a natural setting and contact with everyday teaching difficulties; and the careful selection and training under super- visory officers assures more effective demonstra- tions. Disadvantages: the dissatisfaction among those not selected to be demonstrators, and the overloading of teachers who already have fulltime teaching responsibilities. Over- coming the disadvantages: select only outstand- ing teachers, or make every teacher a demon- strator in one subject ;° and release overloaded demonstrators from clerical and routine duties of the school. (3) Lessons taught by supervisory officers * in typical classrooms—This type refers par- ticularly to demonstrations by supervisors to individual teachers or small groups. Advan- tages: the teacher has a chance to view technic more objectively, to raise questions and ask advice ; the supervisor may pass on new methods seen in other schools; and the superior train- ing, experience, and opportunities of the super- visor may give the teacher new insights. Dis- advantages: the supervisory officer, not being in constant touch with the particular classroom, Ele- “‘Improvement in the Technic of Teaching Through a Recognition of Principles in Demonstration Teach- “The Work of the Demonstration Teacher and Its Relation to a Program of Constructive Supervision." Elementary School Journal 28: 576-86; April, 1928. Baltimore Bulletin of Education National Education Asso- p. 340. 7 Including principals, special supervisors, general supervisors, directors of instruction, and others not regularly assigned to m work. [ 333 ] ee PE ae - ae An Es ee oN — an cel o-- may suggest unwise technics; the supervisor demonstrates under unfamiliar classroom con- ditions; and the skill of the supervisor may overawe and discourage the regular teacher. Overcoming the disadvantages: frequent teach- ing and observing by the supervisory officer ; frequent visitation in the particular classroom ; and encouraging the teacher to criticize and improve upon the supervisor’s technic. (4) Lessons taught by supervisory officers? outside of classrooms—At institutes and teach- ers’ meetings it is often customary to give de- monstrations with small groups of children. Advantages: basic procedures can be shown to many persons at one time; and the general talks on methods can be made more concrete and objective. Disadvantages: the teaching conditions are not typical; the number of dem- onstrations may be tiring and confusing; the size of the crowd discourages questions and dis- cussions; many teachers may be subjected to demonstrations which have no bearing upon their own problems; and insufficient time is provided for discussion. Overcoming the dis- advantages: use the demonstration to illustrate the basic mechanics of technics, not to show outcomes; reduce the number of demonstra- tions; hold exhibits for small specialized groups; and ask teachers prior to the demon- stration to suggest the lessons they would like to see. Basic principles—Practical experience with demonstrations has led to agreement on cer- tain basic principles. Among these essential guides are the following: (1) Demonstrations should meet carefully determined teacher needs—lIt is probably futile to stage demonstrations beyond the comprehen- sion, experience, and professional training of young teachers. Special lessons in easily-taught subjects cannot be expected to arouse much in- terest. Can the principal afford to offer a dem- onstration program which does not show a keen appreciation of genuine teaching diffi- culties ? (2) The general purpose of the demonstra- tion should be known to the observers—Some demonstration lessons are models which the ob- servers are supposed to imitate in their own classrooms. Other lessons are suggestive oj self-criticism devices, or of methods of experi- mentation, or of principles in solving classroom difficulties. The observers should have a gen. eral idea of the general purpose to aid them in taking notes and formulating questions. (3) Observers should be prepared for the demonstration lesson—Experience shows that one may visit without observing. ‘That is to say, the specific aims of a lesson may be lost on observers who are not keenly sensitive to the more subtle principles of teaching. Super- visors often safeguard against this danger by) providing preliminary outlines, observation points, or questions for visiting teachers to keep in mind during the lesson. ‘Teachers should realize that taking much away from a demon- stration lesson requires one to take much to it. (4) Demonstration lessons should be fol- lowed by discussion—Sometimes teachers ma\ recognize the value of demonstrations without being able to summarize and apply the new knowledge in their own classrooms.? During the discussion period the questions and discus- sions between observers helps to make applica- tions. Some supervisors find it advantageous to develop an outline of the demonstration on the blackboard immediately following a les- son.* Stenographic notes of the lesson and the discussion are often valuable for later refer- ence. (5) Supervisory visits should follow the dem- onstration lessons—The follow-up is impor- tant not only to check the teachers, but to assist them in applying their new knowledge. Fail- ure of the teachers to benefit by the demonstra- tion may indicate ineffective teaching proce- dures on the supervisor’s part. Visitation also serves to bring the supervisor in touch with classroom problems and may be suggestive as to future demonstrations. Demonstration lessons in Detroit—Demon- strations in Detroit are not accidental. “The philosophy of supervision of the system con- ceives of demonstration lessons as one of the most effective instruments for improving teach- ers in service.* The supervisory organization 1 Including principals, special supervisors, general supervisors, directors of instruction, and others not regularly assigned to * Spencer, Cassie R. “‘The Demonstration Lesson as an Agency in Supervision.” Elementary School Journal 26: 624-25; April, 1926. -“" Minor, Ruby. Op. cit., p. of plan. +p. 520. ‘ Space limitations make it eo to describe effective plans in other cities. For example, Baltimore has had a program demonstration lessons since 1925. The testimonials of principals to Superintendent Weglein indicate general approval of the [ 334] a= *+, as * fF eS a ok eee ot r OWn ive of ‘Xperi- STOOM a gen- em in or the s that is to dst on 0 the uper- er by ration ) keep hould mon- to it. » fol- may thout new uring scus- lica- reOUS n on les- 1 the efer- lem- ipor- ssist ‘ail- tra- oce- also vith e as 10n- The ‘on- the ich- tion d to +25; ram the includes a number of subject supervisors. These persons devote a large proportion of their time to teacher training and research. The program of teacher training involves (1) the selection and preparation of “key” teachers for demon- strations, (2) the development of observation points and (3) the planning of demonstrations necessary to pass superior technics down the line to each classroom. The general work with the “key” teachers is conducted primarily by the supervisors, with such administrative assistance from the prin- cipals as may be necessary.‘ The operation of this scheme has been described as follows: In order to assist the principal in giving his teach- ers advice with regard to the details of the method, the key-teacher feature of the scheme was devised. According to this plan, the district principal ap- points two of the best first-grade teachers in his district to act as key teachers, one for the low first grade and one for the high first grade. The func- tions of these key teachers are as follows: to give demonstration lessons; to act as a visiting center; and to visit other teachers in the district. A second feature of this general scheme of super- vision is a testing program which provides for the administration of a standardized reading test at intervals of six weeks throughout the semester. Standards are furnished for the X, Y, and Z groups. The results of the tests are of assistance to the prin- cipals and the teachers in judging the effectiveness of their work at intervals throughout the term. A third feature of the general plan is the use of teacher-report blanks sent to the district principals by the principals at intervals throughout the term. While working with teachers in developing technics of teaching, the supervisor is also co- operating with the principals in supervisory. ac- tivities. Usually this cooperation takes. the form of developing “observation points” or an outline of characteristics of a good lesson in history, arithmetic, or some other subject. This outline is not handed out by supervisors, but it embodies the critical thinking of both principals and supervisors. Copies of the “observation points” are used by district and building prin- cipals in observing demonstration lessons. A typical observation outline is given in Figure 8. The third step of the supervisor's work is that of helping principals to make the lessons and the “observation points” of benefit to class- room teachers. ‘This part of the program places heavy administrative work on each principal. First, the district principals judge a demonstra- tion lesson on the basis of the ‘‘observation points” previously developed. They in turn arrange demonstrations in their own districts for the benefit of the building principals. “he principals of each building arrange lessons for their own staff based upon the district demonstrations. Copies of the “observation points” are used by both teachers and principals during all demonstrations. Each building principal studies and advises his teachers in terms of the “points” previously demonstrated. The effectiveness of the system was generally commented upon by the principals during a recent field visit. Further testimony is found in the following statement: District principals and principals of individual schools, through observation of lessons presented under direction of the department and through sub- sequent conferences, have helped to bring about mutual understanding and cooperation to an extent which is in the highest degree helpful in raising the level of instruction in the schools,* Demonstration schools—Special schools for demonstration and experimental purposes are to be found in a few city school systems. In some cases teachers are sent to the demonstra- tion by the school principal or the directors of instruction. Other cities permit teachers to select the lessons they want to see.* A problem for the principal of a regular school is to articulate his own supervisory pro- cedures with the demonstration school work. Similiar difficulties are encountered when teachers are allowed to exchange visits. “The value of such observations may be lost unless the principal guides the activity.‘ Gist sug- gests: that the teacher prepare for a visit, observe in terms of teaching outlines, and re- port the work observed to the principal or to other teachers.® 1 The Baltimore plan provides demonstration centers which are available to large sections of the city. Demonstrations are held at four in the afternoon. Teachers may receive colleze credit for attending two hours each week. According to Assistant Superintendent Douglass about 89 percent of the elementary school teachers have taken at least one year of study since the plan was started in 1925. ? Detroit Public Schools. Annual Report. 1927. p. 35. 3? West, Roscoe L. ‘‘The Value of a Demonstration Bhool. - National Education = 1926. p. 279-86. vision 10: 587.93: May, 1924. “*Making Observations Effective for Teachers in Training.” Frank C ody, Superintendent. Fifth Yearbook. Department of Elementary School Principals, Educational Administration and Super- § Gist, Arthur Elementary School Supervision. Charles Scribner's Sons. 1926. p. 11-13. [ 335] FIGURE 8—-DETROIT CHECK LIST IN READING Items to Observe—Reading (Grades 5-8) General Items I. Organization of the Room for Work 1. Do pupils show self-direction and self-control in getting to work as evidenced in changing seats and getting material? 2. Are pupils prompt in accepting assignments? (Do they seem to know just what to do o: do they spend time looking around to see how their neighbors are going to begin?) II. Provision for Individual Differences 1. As the lesson proceeds and the work in the different groups is taken up does it appear that pupils are in the group best fitted to their level of ability as evidenced by— attitude toward the assignments (ability to begin work independently) carrying on the work of the assignment (ability to carry assignment to a conclusion) check on the work done (seen in result) 2. Are pupils intelligent about why ~~ have been placed in the group in which they are placed? Has the uping been carefully explained to pupils and do they understand the type of work which will be taken up in each group? (Pupils will work more earnestly if they have placed themselves in their respective groups.) 3. Does the work seem to be adapted to the needs of the pupils? ; 4. Does the grouping furnish incentives for progress? (For example—a certain number of consecutive perfect myo may make a standard for promotion to next group, or a pupil may announce that he thinks he is ready for the next group and ask if he may be given a test to determine whether he is or not.) III. Individual Pupil Growth 1. Are the pupils pur ully working toward definite goals? In Group A may be: 1. To more worthwhile literature. 2. To retain their places in the A group. 3. To make others enjoy what they are enjoying. In Groups B and C Is may be: 1. To overcome the difficulties which placed them in the group. 2. To attain the next higher group. Note: All pupils should be encouraged to read books, but only those who have attained the A group should use the reading period daily for this purpose. Occasionally it might be done in groups B and C as a means of stimulation. IV. Social Growth Evidenced in attitude toward and acceptance of suggestions among the members of the group. See A-B-C groups below. V. Participation—concentration and attention. See ABC groups below. ‘ Group A Preparation Period 1. Are the pupils reading worthwhile literature? (Books on accredited library lists.) 2. Are they engaged in other worthwhile activities having a bearing on reading, such as preparing outlines, book reports, dramatizations? 3. Is there a variety of material in the room to meet the needs and tastes of different pupils? 4. Is there sufficient stimulation by the teacher or from pupil to pupil to encourage reading of various types such as biography, travel, and so forth as well as fiction? 5. Are the pupils concentrating, evidencing enjoyment of their books? Discussion Period 1. Is the leader, whether pupil or teacher, helpful, friendly, cheerful and impartial? 2. Are the pupils courteous and considerate of each other in their discussions? 3. Do they interest others in the books and materials in which they are interested? 4. Do me | seem to interpret and appreciate the books they are reading—do they get the situa- tions, , humour, etc.? 5. Has the teacher a check on the reading done by the pupils? It may be obtained through— a—an oral report ead “ b—a written report impersonations yar: ow A a eS See q ie Can d—a catalogue jJ——Organization of group into a reading club, the e—an outline members of which ices the books freely and f—dramatizations of parts or wholes sincerely as a social group—thus giving the g—character sketches teacher a check on the reading. a [ 336] maces a eelUcreeermlUrelC(i elUCUrOlCi rh |lC Mh UC r|OClCUc UC UCU ging O or that ion) are the y if r of upil na ive ng | of | Demonstration teaching in rural schools— Usually the demonstration teaching in rural school supervision must be done by county su- pervisors. This can be made an unusually effective program when guided by the super- vision of progressive state supervisors. Quota- tions illustrating the demonstration work in Maryland are as follows: In Baltimore County, where expert supervision has been in effect for many years, demonstration teaching has become a recognized instrument of su- pervision. The supervisor, appreciating the par- ticularly fine work which a skillful teacher is ac- complishing, will talk with her about various de- tails of technic and suggest that this be demon- strated for the benefit of other teachers. Subse- quently, a group of from ten to twenty teachers will meet in the classroom and observe, it may be for an hour, or it may be for a half-day, the work of the teacher in charge. This will be followed by a critical discussion, directed by the supervisor and participated in by all the teachers present, includ- ing the teacher in charge of the class. One county supervisor reported her work as follows: Teaching by the supervisor was not confined to the poorest classes only. In many classes she aimed to show by means of a practical teaching lesson that many children are capable of much more than the average teacher requires. The best children were used to demonstrate this. ‘The types of les- sons varied, but in every case the aims, purposes, and outcomes of the lesson were discussed with the teacher. Many teachers worked out individual reading exercises to take care of the variation in ability. Several of these were brought before the group in the February meeting. A cooperative program has proven effective in the work of another county supervisor : The demonstration meeting was a new venture in the rural schools of Cecil County. The super- visor and teacher planned the type of lesson to be demonstrated by the teacher. The supervisor taught a lesson of the same type for the teacher and ob- served the teacher teach several lessons before the day of the meeting, offering suggestions for im- proving the lessons taught. An entirely new lesson of a similar type was presented on the day of the meeting. Demonstration teaching and the elementary school principal—Experienced supervisors have found demonstration lessons to be effective in training teachers in service. Pittman has sub- mitted objective evidence that demonstrations are essential in an effective rural supervisory program.’ But do principals consider demonstration teaching an important supervisory device? The committee on Standards and Training found that supervising principals ranked demonstra- tion teaching as sixth in value among seven su- pervisory activities.2, Hampton reported that the elementary school principals in his study devoted less than one percent of their total time to demonstration teaching. Why are demonstration lessons mentioned so infrequently in connection with the prin- cipal’s responsibilities? Observation in the field suggests two misconceptions among many principals: (1) that demonstration lessons must be given by the principal personally, and (2) that all demonstration lessons must be models of perfection. Probably these points have been adequately treated in an earlier Re- search Bulletin as follows: It is not necessary that demonstration lessons be given by the principal. The purpose of the dem- onstration teaching should be to improve instruc- tion. The principal should call upon any qualified and available member of the school system to give the actual demonstration. The persons available for these demonstration lessons include the super- intendent, assistant superintendent, special super- visors, other principals and teachers. All demonstration lessons need not be model les- sons nor examples of unusual teaching procedure. In practice the actual demonstration may be some- what disjoined due to the importance of indicating a particular device. Furthermore, it would be ex- cellent training for teachers to look upon the dem- onstration lessons as legitimate subjects for criti- cism. The wise supervisor will ask the teachers for suggestions on how to improve the demonstration lesson. With this critical attitude a teacher is more apt to make improvements in her own teaching. The idea that demonstration lessons are perfect leads to pure imitation. Pittman improved the su- pervision of rural schools through “suggestive” as contrasted with model lessons. Practices in progressive school systems indi- cate that demonstration lessons are effective in improving the work of the teachers. Studies of opinion consistently show that teachers be- lieve that demonstrations are of unusual help in solving classroom problems.® 1 Pittman, M.S. The Value of School Supervision. Warwick and York, Inc., 1921. p. 36, 62-119. 2 See the Seventh Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Principals, p. 194. * Quoted in the Seventh Yearbook, Department of Elementa “The Principal Studies His Job." Research Bulletin 6: 98; March, 4 National Education Association, Division of Research. School Principals, National Education Association, p. 183. 5 Mel , Ernest O. ‘Teacher Evaluation i Seetieny Procedure.”’ Second Yearbook. National Conference of Super- visors and Directors of Instruction. 1929. p. q [ 337] It would be a mistake to assume that poorly 2. prepared or carelessly checked demonstrations will exert any marked influence on instruction. Ill-chosen, mechanical, and uninteresting demonstrations may be actually damaging to 3 teacher morale. Such haphazard use of demonstration teaching cannot be considered good supervision. Specific activities of the prin- cipal are not supervision until they exert a con- structive influence on the teaching. More em- phasis, therefore, needs to be placed upon the follow-up procedures which help the teacher utilize his new knowledge. One follow-up procedure is the discussion immediately after the demonstration lesson. The value of this activity has been discussed 5. earlier in the chapter. Probably much individual work will be nec- essary with teachers before the new technics in- fluence classroom practice. For example, the field worker has observed principals using a series of procedures as follows: 1. Demonstration lesson of new technic in spell- ing. 2. Discussion of lesson by teachers, demonstrator and principal. - 3. Principal observes teachers applying new tech- nics in their own classroom. 4. Small teachers’ meeting to discuss principal’s observations, 5. Principa' observes teachers again. 6. Individual conferences with each teacher in g terms of last class visits. 7. Continue observations and conferences until technics are established. In the case of more complex technics the de- monstrations may have to be given several times. Intervisitation between good and poor teachers should give the latter many excellent and practical ideas. Books and magazine ar- ticles bearing on the new technics should be made readily available. Supervisors, college experts and directors of instruction can help in providing stimulating programs for teachers’ meetings. Only through many follow-up ac- tivities can the principal be sure that the de- monstration lessons have actually influenced classroom practices. Demonstration Teaching 1. Armentrout, W. D. “Making Observations Ef- fective for Teachers in Training.” Educational Administration and Supervision 10: 287-93; May, 1924. Administrative practices for making the ob- servation of teaching worthwhile. - [338] . Hopper, A. M. “Teacher Participation in Super- 4. MARYLAND STATE DEPARTMENT OF EbucATION. . Minor, Rusy. “Improvement in the Technic of . Prrrman, M. S. The Value of School Super- . Stmpson, Maset E. “The Work of the Demon- . SMITH, Nita B. “The Key Teacher Scheme in 10. 11. 12. Barr, A. S., anD Burton, W. H. The Super vision of Instruction. D. Appleton and Coy. pany, New York. 1926. p. 428-34. Brief treatment of demonstrations as a yep. eral supervisory device. vision.” The Journal 18: 172; June, 1929. Na- tional Education Association. Supervision in Louisiana shows the effec- tiveness of demonstrations, intervisitation, and conferences among typical classroom teachers “Supervisor of Town Schools Analyzes Her Work.” Maryland School Bulletin 8: 13-24: October, 1926. Outlines, questions, and activities as used in demonstration meetings by county-unit super- visors. MARYLAND STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. “A Supervisor of Town Schools Analyzes Her Work.” Maryland School Bulletin 8: 17-40; Oc- tober, 1926. Outlines and questions used in typical demon- stration meetings. Teaching Through a Recognition of Prin- ciples in Demonstration Teaching.” Elementary School Journal 26: 519; March, 1926. Discusses the basic principles which make demonstrations valuable to teachers. vision Demonstrated with the Zone Plan in Rural Schools. Warwick and York, Inc., Balti- more. 1921. p. 36, 62-119. Describes the use of “suggestive”? demonstra- tion lessons in improving instruction. stration Teacher and Its Relation to a Pro- gram of Constructive Supervision.” Journal of Educational Method 5: 140-44; December, 1925. Tells how the demonstration teachers co- operate with principals and supervisors. Supervision.” Elementary School Journal 28: 576-86; April, 1928. Describes how Detroit organizes and man- ages a program of demonstration lessons. Spencer, Cassie R. “The Demonstration Les- son as an Agency in Supervision.” Elementary School Journal 26: 619-26; April, 1926. Practical advice on making demonstrations effective in supervision. West, Roscoz L. “The Value of a Demonstra- tion School.” Fifth Yearbook. Department of Elementary School Principals, National Educa- tion Association. 1926. p. 279-86. Reports practices and opinions from several! school systems as to the helpfulness of demon- stration schools. Witrarp, Frank E. “The Summit Demonstra- tion School.” The Journal of the National Edu- cation Association 18: 153-54; May, 1929. Description of a demonstration school in ac- tion as a unit of the public school system. Super- Com- a gen- The success of instructional methods is ulti- mately judged by the growth of the pupils. Much of this Bulletin has been given to the classroom conditions, the teaching technics and other external factors which influence pupil development. But each pupil presents a com- plex array of physical, intellectual, and emo- tional traits which influence learning.* Fre- quently, the most helpful thing a principal can do is to assist the teacher in discovering the strengths and weaknesses of individual pupils. Individual differences—Standard tests and measurements in education have done much to reveal pupil differences.* Discussions of test- ing procedures and the results of testing sur- veys will be found in current professional lit- erature.* The possibility of studying traits not adequately measured by existing tests is indi- cated in the following quotation: Super- , N a- effec- 1, and hers. ATION, Her 13-24; ed in super- ATION. s Her S Oc- -mon- nic of Prin- ntary Our knowledge of differences in general intelli- gence is more complete than our knowledge of differences of special intellectual capacities or in the non-intellectual traits, such as emotion, will, or moral character. Our methods of measuring gen- eral intelligence are also better developed than are our methods of measuring most of these other traits. Our knowledge is sufficient, however, to in- dicate clearly that differences in the other traits are of sufficient importance to merit serious con- sideration. Where we cannot as yet measure them accurately, we should estimate them to the best of our ability.® make uper- im in Balti- stra- mon- Pro- al of 1925. § 6CO- The utilization of standard measurements is not in itself a complete supervisory act. ‘Test- ing programs are fact-finding devices. Statisti- cal statements of learning conditions are not automatically helpful to the teacher. ‘The most difficult problem is knowing what to do to improve conditions. The individual differ- ences, the pupil strengths, the signs of learn- ing difficulties and other facts are necessary guides for future action. The follow-up ne in | 28: man- ntary tions stra- it of luca- yeral mon- September, 1929. p. 553-56 and 582-83. 2 See Why Children Succeed by Stuart A. Courtis. ‘ For example: Courtis Standard Tests, Detroit. 3 See The Individual Pupil by Paul R. Mort, particularly pages 17-79. Pupil Diagnosis and Adjustment ' activities of pupil adjustment, curriculum re- vision and demonstrations of remedial teach- ing technics are the factors which directly modity the classroom instruction. Group improvement from tests—The prac- tice of annual survey testing is found in many city and rural school systems. Such surveys usually include standard tests in the so-called basic subjects of reading, spelling, history, geography, language and arithmetic. Usually the test scores, with the medians and national norms, are reported to each school in tabular form such as Table 9. The principal of School C would probably have attention called to the standing of his school below the national norm. He in turn might point out this fact to the teachers. In the remaining few weeks of the term applied. The procedure of handling test scores as de- scribed above results in losses of potential power to the supervisory program. The com- parison of school averages with the standard norm is excellent practice as far as it goes. But the fact that school C is below the norm is not the major problem. What about the 55 remedial measures would be TABLE 9.—AVERAGE READING GRADE SCORES OF SECOND GRADE PUPILS Average grade scores in each test Com- Schools iciniatlihatacametliek pian’ | posite | scores Test 1 | Test 2 | Test 3 words sen- para- tences | graphs | — — || » a ee 2.93 2.62 | 2.53 | 2.69 0 Sikes ae 2.72 | 2.59 | 2.52 | 2.61 | eee 2.58 3.83 | 3.31 . | oa Average of schools 2.d3 2.59 2.47 2.61 | Standard norm...| 2.60 2.60 2.60 2.60 Difference....... et .O1 13 oO1 Figures taken from Table 47 in the Survey of the Schools | of Beaumont, Texas. 1927. George D. Strayer (Director). 1A popularly written article on this general topic is: ‘‘ Records that Come Alive” by Robert W. Bruere in Survey Graphic. 1925. 271 p. Published by the American Book Company. 1928. stra- Corning, H. M. After Testing—What? 1926. Edu- Dickson, Virgil. Mental Tests and the Classroom Teacher. 1923. Trabue, Marion. Measuring Results in Education. 1924. Wilson and Hoke. How to Measure (Revised). 1928. | ac- 5 Freeman, Frank N. Mental Tests. Houghton Mifflin Company. 1926. [ 339 ] p. 368. Ss EE te Tee erp agg ens comer ——— _idthionn« Nn cn dbcs cbsdcherannedese - a Ser x : Ee Sree x » ee alee Ca ac Bhs anda ccd sceces x a Sep x x x RY a ET 1. os coWebatdsarisscekhananines x x et: Bi dtlnncpae = ae x IRs sens ves save caw aewiedan sehen > Se PRR SO Se er = eae x TT tee ee eee + ES aT nt me = Bvowwaret x NS eee WE. das cn ti ackeese en phaene 2 5 4 2 5 4 2 Compare with pages 173-83 of How to Measure by G. M. Wilson and K. J. Hoke. { 342] FIGURE 9—WORDS FROM THE THIRD GRADE SPELLING LIST 161. having 166. herself 162. hear 167. high 163. heard 168. himself 164. heart 169. hold 165. held 170. hole Test A Note: Pronounce the word in parentheses and then ask the class to write the sentence from dictation. . (having) We are having a good time. . (hear) I hear the bell. . (heard) We heard them coming. > erty I want a candy heart. held) He held the bail. . (herself) She hurt herself on the swing. . (high) How high can you jump? . (himself) He threw himself on the floor. . (hold) Please hold the bat. 10. (hole) I dug a round hole. CRN ANE Ne From the Boston spelling list. Table 13 gives the teacher a clear indication of the words missed by the class. Tabulations of errors in this form help the teacher to plan the necessary drill or remedial work. In the same way informal tests can be made to cover the local course of study in history, geography, arithmetic, and the other subjects. These local tests have the advantage of surveying pupil achievement in terms of what the child is being taught. The case study technic—It has long been the custom for physicians to make case records on their patients. These data compiled on one or more cards have proven useful in giving a complete summary of an individual’s status and history. This practice has been wide- Pp. 2 See suggestions on pages 265-85 in Mort's The Individual * Mort, Paul R. The Individual Pupil. p. 285-303. p. 184-322. 5 See ‘‘ Uniform Records and Reports," Research Bulletin. spread in the study of the mentally deficient, the insane, and the criminally inclined, but its use has been limited among normal persons. Probably the most frequent use of case studies among typical persons have been in connection with educational guidance programs.’ Case study devices and technics should be among those commonly used by elementary school principals.2, Nor would this be limited to problem cases only, for there is evidence of the value of systematic study of every student. The essential characteristics of a case study are (1) reliable information carefully organ- ized, and (2) as complete data as possible. ‘The successful accomplishment of these two aims requires carefully planned record cards.° The size and printing arrangement will de- pend considerably upon personal preferences. Practice indicates a preference for the filing card system as contrasted with loose-leaf fold- ers. Abbreviations and code symbols on record cards not only save space, but render informa- tion less understandable to the curious. Sug- gestions may be had from the samples printed in professional texts * and previous Research Bulletins.® Basic items for the card will depend some- what upon the purposes for which the records are to be used. Educational guidance cards would contain items not usually found in medi- cal case studies. Reavis has suggested a modi- fied case study of items based upon the Whit- tier State School, California records. 1 Developed in detail by Reavis in his Pupil Adjustment in Junior and Senior High School, D. C. Heath and Company, 1926, Pupil. 4 See Reavis’ Pupil Adjustment, p. 324-41; Mort's The Individual Pupil, 246-50; and Heck's Administration of Pupil Personnel, TABLE 13.—-TABULATION OF SPELLING ERRORS Word A ek ok adatde opeciwn. esa x Ee ee Ae Ser meee re ak oan chs 6 ds vécde sdcaehs x NE 5 oo ain «ope kle'e's Gasw'e eK alnls-6 riko 8 xX a so cc cpa hk ea id 6 ese so 0 pike ee Ome ES OD EO eee eee ee on dance ie nade cag bid pes thee I bk 6 o45.a's 00 cb 6 dieeee cess vee he eso bn's none e ae ence cama ed xX ES ee ee eee fee rT eae as Boule vs ise Wae vies v4 Ca cao 4 Pupils missing certain words PEE IEE ee Total words B Cc D E F G H missed etre) ee, Pee ore xX ae 2 rae X ear See Pe Sele 1 ath a Al x ace wie X 3 } Tere Paves Te | ba nee 2 } ere an ere: eee See 1 ee eee PS 2 ores x i paws: «cn is 9 i TS oes Si ak 0 EY RR SO ee Se Ree 0 | See aa eee, Pere : 1 | every - 0 0 0 3 1 2 1 0 11 T ad + Serer 2A —— ie be Se Outline of Individual Case History . Chronological data. Includes date and place of birth, with important events during develop- ment period. 2. Intelligence. Results of tests, measurements, observations, and opinions of persons who have known propositus. 3. Temperament. Refers to the expression of character in the form of mood. Ranges from pathological depression (hypokinesis) to patho- logical excitation (hyperkinesis). The common classifications are phlegmatic, calm, moderate, active, and excitable. 4. Other mental conditions. Refers to mental con- ditions and expressions which are not strictly intellectual or temperamental. 5. Physical condition. Includes personal descrip- tion, results of medical examinations, physical tests and measurements, and physical develop- ment history. 6. Moral character. This refers to that phase of the individual make-up “which produces in varying degrees adaptation and conformity to social custom.” Includes trustworthiness, hon- esty, personal habits, religious attitude, etc. 7. Conduct. Detailed account of behavior, includ- ing misconduct and conditions under which good conduct is obtained. Details of offenses com- mitted. 8. Associates. An account of the subject’s choice of companions or of the kind of company kept. 9. Amusements. Favorite pastimes, with extent and result of indulgence. 10. Education. School attainments and progress, determined by (a) standardized tests and measurements in school subjects and (b) inter- views with teachers and principals. 11. Vocational record. Kind and extent of employ- ment with indications of success. Special abil- ities or disabilities. Judgments based upon psy- chological, educational, and physical examina- tions. 12. Home conditions. Detailed account, based upon Whittier Scale for Grading Home Conditions. 13. Neighborhood conditions. Detailed account, based upon Whittier Scale for Grading Neigh- borhood Conditions.” —— Kelley? has a minimal list to be studied in understanding school children: 1. Name; sex (a certain sex becomes exceptional when considered in connection with an activity ordinarily engaged in by the opposite sex) ; residence; date and place of birth; nationality of parents; vocation of parents; past disciplin- ary record; recent school transfers; special sensory or motor defects or abilities; past ill- nesses; present general health condition; bodily size and strength. Items important for purposes involving mental classification, education, and guidance: 2. Maturity, or present chronological age. (| is so important that it should be obtained in ¢ independent ways in order to check one aga the other.) 3. Verbal intelligence. (This can be detern by school achievement tests of the reading and vocabulary sorts and by general intellic: tests or such portions of them as are of a ver! nature and do not include numbers and spatial relationships as content.) 4. Social intelligence. (Pending the derivation of an adequate objective test, this trait must be estimated by teachers and others coming into intimate contact with the child.) 5. Activity and mechanical intelligence. (This trait may be estimated by judgments and in part by existing mechanical ability tests. It may eventually be necessary to divide the trait her mentioned into two or more.) 6. Interests along lines (3), (4), and (5) and along other lines specially noted by the child. (These other lines may be correlated with special sensory or motor development, as, for example, are music, drawing, and certain games. Meas ures of these interests may be estimated by teachers on the basis of replies to a questionnaire and may also be measured by interest tests such as the Wyman test and the Cowdery (1925) test.) 7. Ability with reference to quantitative phenomena —computation, etc. (This can be determined by computation and various other number tests.) 8. Ability with reference to spatial relationships— geometrical forms, etc. (This can be deter- mined by form boards, geometrical form tests, etc. ) 9. Memory with reference to verbal material. (Since most tests of memory include element (3) to a large extent, this should at present be estimated by teachers rather than derived from a test score.) 10. Special sensory or motor interests and abilities (Suggestions as to these may be got from a questionnaire, and certain of these may also be readily ascertained by existing objective tests. The personal interview—Case studies often stop with record making. Such instances fail to utilize the personal interview. ‘This con- ference makes the needs more vital and gives an opportunity to check important facts not previously recorded. Probably the most important factor in the interview is the attitude and tact of the ex- aminer. The interview is supposed to offer the examiner an opportunity to study and in- fluence the real self of the pupil. The pro- gressive principal may ask himself these ques- tions: Do we tell our personal history to peo- ple we cannot trust? Are we inclined to talk 1 Reavis, W. C., Pupil Adjustment in Junior and Senior High School. D. S Heath and Co. 1926. p. 79-80 +3 Educational Measurements. 1927. p. 123-25 [ 344] * Kelly, T. L. pent of WH one on t of 1 note var oo age wht A Th lish on car it i be the net tac as, we th ar w si ev 1 of be into “his art lay ere ng ese ial le, is- by ire freely after someone has criticized or dis- couraged us? How can I keep pupils from be- ing self-conscious? How can I ask questions so as to secure sincere and honest statements from pupils? A statement of principles in interviewing has been suggested as follows: Win the confidence of the boy—Some men check one or more significant bits of information noted on the blank and then open the interview with one of these as the topic of conversation, e. g.: “I note you are a baseball fan. I used to play on the varsity team. At what position do you play?” Or “J note that you and your friend Tom are the same age as my own boy,” or “I have a personal friend who works in the same place as you.” Arrive quickly at the boy’s particular problem— The interview period is all too brief. After estab- lishing a friendly relationship with the boy, press on to consider the special needs as indicated by a careful review of his analysis blank. While usually it is best to draw the boy into a conversation, it will be necessary for the interviewer wisely to direct the use of the time during the conference. Un- necessary questions or conversation may have to be tactfully set aside by some such sincere statement as, “I’ll be glad to talk that over with you when we have an opportunity for another interview.” Emphasize the Character Values——Seldom does the successful interviewer “lecture at” the boys. However, if he is alert to discover on the self- analysis blank or in the interview any evidence of weakness in character, he will with earnestness, sincerity, and great tact lead the boy to a self- evaluation and appropriate decision of the will. Follow up the Interview—In order to secure the permanent results in this interviewing there should be careful planning in advance for the follow-up of the first interview. A report with suggestions for a later guidance should be written after the interview. Time for this is a prerequisite. Ap- pointments for later interviews should be arranged. Successful interviewers make personal memoranda and follow-up the conference by letters, telephone calls, and visits later.’ The above principles are suggestive as to general procedure in interviewing. When important notes are to be made without dis- tracting the pupil’s attention it may be well to have a supplementary record form. Such a device may be shielded from the pupil’s view by books and papers. In making records during interviews the principal may ask himself these questions: Do the scratching of my pen, writ- ing movements, etc. disturb the pupil? Am I unnecessarily duplicating previous records? Is this record interfering with my observations and systematic study of this pupil ? Case study technic has been remarkably im- proved by the addition of objective measure- ment.? It is now possible to make accurate measurements of height, weight, blood pres- sure, blood infections and food values in nutri- tion work. Records of individuals can be easily compared with generally accepted norms.* Some advances of particular interest to prin- cipals have been in the objective measure- ment of intellectual and emotional traits.‘ Standardized individuai and group intelligence tests have come to be common tools among school workers. Informal and standardized tests of achievement are of more recent de- velopment. Research at the present time indi- cates the possibility of measuring many emo- tional and character qualities not adequately measured by other standard tests.° Statistics have become essential in the interpretation and application of test scores. Following-up pupil adjustment—The above paragraphs have discussed pupil adjustment as a potential supervisory activity. Some atten- tion has been given to standard tests, informal tests, case study records, and pupil interviews. These agencies have been presented as fact- finding tools in the larger problem of pupil adjustment. Let us suppose we find maladjustments be- tween the child and the school; or, a child with poor motor coordination ; or, several chil- dren with speech defects; or, children with poor reading habits. What can be done about such problems? Administrators often establish special classes, revise the curriculum, and use other general means to eliminate poor school adjustment.® These changes may be grouped as plans of (1) organization, (2) administration, (3) in- struction materials, and (4) classroom proce- dure.’ Changes in school organization may be il- lustrated by the Batavia Plan. In this scheme, an extra teacher is provided to assist the regu- lar teacher with the laggards.* 1 Robinson, Clarence C. The Find Yourself Idea, Association Press, 1922, p. 36. 2 See such texts as: Wells, F. L. Mental Tests in Clinical Practice. World Book Company. 1927. 315 p. * For references, see ‘‘The Principal and Progressive Movements,"’ Research Bulletin, 7: 51-8; March, 1929. ‘See such references as, Freeman, Frank N. Mental Tests, etc. 5 See references in ‘“‘The Principal and Progressive Movements.” Research Bulletin, p. 75-82. March, 1929. ® See Paul R. Mort's The Indivsd ual Pupil, p. 195-264 ard 304-71, and Heck’s Administration of Pupil Personnel, p. 413-54. 7 Discussed