Sei BAOGASSoooaa Gaoaaasd EAE EAEAED EREREDER EREREAEA VOL. VII, NO. 2 MARCH, 1929 Research Bulletin OF THE amas National Education Association —_—— 4 GER REE SESS eaeeeea GSISGGSG06656666 5666 566565 6660 666068 The Principal and Progressive Movements in Education SE6665565 ——————— iz) PUBLISHED BY THE RESEARCH DIVISION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201 SIXTEENTH STREET NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C. SS6 Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the postoffice at Washington, D. C., under Act « of August 24, 1912 pospeuenes * for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103 Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923 OB — GBOGSoEseoa0e ri Ww \ Research Bulletin of the National Education Association Published five times each year in January, March, May, September, and November by the Research Division of the National Education Association of the United States. President, Urs. W. LAMKIN Secretary, J. W. CRABTREE The payment of the $5 membership fee of the National Education Association entitles one to receive the Research Bulletin, the Journal, the Annual Volume of Ad- dresses and Proceedings, and certain other publications of the National Education Asso- ciation for one year. One dollar of each $5 membership fee is for a year’s subscription to the Research Bulletin. The Research Bulletin may be subscribed for separately at a subscription price of $1 per year. Copies may be purchased for 25 cents, and in quantities at a reduced rate. Those entitled to receive the Research Bulletin regularly are asked to report at once any change of address, giving old as well as new address. Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Sectio: 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. Director of Research: John K. Norton. Assistant Directors: Margaret M. Alltucker; Frank W. Hubbard; William G. Carr. Executive and Editorial Offices - - - 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. Research Bulletins Previously Issued See page 103 for previously issued Research Bulletins and for information as to their availability. How to Secure Additional Copies Additional copies of this issue of the Research Bulletin may be obtained at the following prices, postpaid if remittance accompanies order: Single copies of this issue 25¢ 2 to 9 copies—10% reduction 10 to 99 copies—25% reduction 100 or more copies—33!/4% reduction. Orders for Research Bulletins not accompanied by remittance are subject to trans- portation charges. Make checks payable to National Education Association. Subscriptions to Research Bulletins The Research Bulletin may be received regularly through a special subscription at $1 per year. Only those holding the $5 membership (see statement at top of this page) receive the Research Bulletin without such subscription. Many of the early issues of the Research Bulletin are already out of print. The special subscription at $1 per year offers an opportunity to maintain a complete file of future Research Bulletins. Reproduction of Material in Research Bulletins Electro-mat-slide service: The National Education Association maintains a special service to aid those reproducing material appearing in its publications. Send orders or requests for further information to the Division of Publications. Tables, charts, and any other material appearing in Research Bulletins may be reproduced for the advancement of education. No authority other than this notice is needed previous to such reproduction. For further information on this subject or others affecting the work of the Division, address the Research Division, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. [ 46 ] CONTENTS Foreword Introduction Building Health The Mental Life of Children .... Individual Differences . Character Education Preschool Education .... Parent Education ......... Books and Other Sources of Information Organizations Supplying Materials to Principals LISTS OF TABLES Percentage of Physical Rejections in the First Draft (1917) (Table 1).. Hospital and Clinic Facilities for the Correction of Defects Among School Children (Table 2) Death and Injuries to Children, 6 to 16, from March 1 to December 31, 1923 (Table 3) Number of Speech Defects Among 89,057 St. Louis School Children in 1915 (Table 4).. Percent of Unselected Children in the Different Intelligence Quotient Groups (Table 5) Comparison of Gifted, Ordinary and Dull Children (Table 6)...... Types of Provisions for Gifted Children by City Size (Table 7) Death Rates for Detroit Children in 1921 (Table 8).. Kindergarten Enrolment Since 1890 (Table 9) Books Suggested for Health Education (Table 10)..... Books Suggested for Mental Hygiene (Table 11) Books Suggested for Individual Differences (Table 12) . Books Suggested for Character Education (Table 13)..... Books Suggested for Preschool Education (Table 14).. Books Suggested for Parent Education (Table 15) Books Suggested for Progressive Education (Table 16) .. Books Suggested for Several Problems (Table 17)......... Addresses of Publishers of Books Listed in Tables (Table 18) .. FOREWORD ee years ago the National Education Association placed before the teachers of the country the slogan: “The profession at work on its problems.” ‘This phrase aroused the professional enthusiasm of teachers and administrators as it swept from one end of the country to the other. Committees were formed to study school prob- lems. Curriculums were revised. Study groups increased. ‘There was a general recognition of the value of careful investigation of all educational movements and problems. Recently this spirit of inquiry has gained new impetus and recognition among elementary school principals. Local clubs have done much to further the improve- ment of principals and teachers in service. Our own national department of ele- mentary principals has made significant contributions through its programs, committees, and publications. Now this Research Bulletin makes readily available the information and suggestions necessary for further study in certain important fields. The study of these progressive movements does not mean that principals will need to neglect major problems in supervision and administration. Constructive super- vision requires a broad understanding of such problems as are discussed in the following pages. I predict that individual principals and organizations will find this Bulletin to be a practical handbook. The content and problems presented are due to attract the interest and study of educators for some time to come. J. W. Crastree, Secretary, National Education Association. [48] ~~? Sin) atest = =D ee wap Bae ae ncaa lit am RNA 2 Pepa hahah ern 2. ete hh ee pl waht. A Che le apg in ON ph MRR FAs Nal th rT eee an Introduction NE of the recent outstanding changes in elementary education is the improved professional status of principals. In many communities the principalship has devel- oped from a minor clerical job to a position requiring technical skill of a high order.’ An important characteristic in this move- ment is the individual and collective interest of principals in their professional problems. A recent questionnaire to principals’ organiza- tions shows the existence of many study and research groups.” Inquiries to the Research Division indicate an increased interest in prac- tical professional knowledge. Purpose of this Bulletin—Contact with the above surveys indicate that mental hygiene, health, study classes for parents, preschool edu- cation, character development, individual dif- ferences and other progressive movements are offering problems to principals. This clusion is substantiated by the list of most “helpful books’ which appear in a previous publication.* This Research Bulletin will help many prin- cipals to be more than routine workers. Data have been given to orient and to inform prin- cipals in regard to certain movements in educa- tion. The essential facts provide a basis for further study and research. It is hoped that no one will be content to restrict his study to the material contained in this pamphlet. The preparation of the Bulletin—Current professional literature was read for data bear- ing upon the topics selected. Particular atten- tion was given to the “most helpful’ books mentioned above. To these references were added the suggestions of practical school work- ers encountered on recent field trips. Each section of the Bulletin was submitted for critical reviews by recognized authorities in the fields covered. These persons gave gen- erously of their time in suggesting additions and revisions. However, they should not be con- 1 National Education Association, Department of 228-54, 293-318. Elementary held responsible for specific statements, nor the final form of presentation. tributed to this work were: Thomas D. Wood, Lois Meek, Stuart A. Courtis, Garry C. My- ers, David La Rue, Milton Bennion, Mark A. May, Fred M. Gregg, Henry Neumann, and Ilse Forest. The emphasis in the Bulletin. cipal will find summaries in this Research Bul Frequently only Those who con- The prin letin of recent investigations. a brief reference has been made to complete sources of data. Such procedure has been nec- essary because detailed statistical treatment was not advisable, nor practical in a Bulletin of this type. But another reason for this type of compi- lation is the desire to emphasize the applica- How can these data be applied to practice? What ad- justments need to be made in current practice ? Is all research of equal merit? Does the ele- mentary school principal need a philosophy of education to guide him in the application of present-day knowledge? * What does it all mean? ® exactly how far these new methods will take us. Sometimes suggested reforms may lose more than they gain. This condition makes it important for each principal to have a “pro gram or policy, based on reflective and critical review of the available data, for the guidance of educational procedures.” ® Such an atti- tude of critical evaluation is evidence of a prac- tical philosophy of education. A careful consideration of results is partic- ularly important at the present time in the field Sometimes the em- tions and implications of research. No one knows of objective measurement. phasis upon objective data discourages critical reflective thinking. It is often assumed that a few tabulations can settle perplexing problems for all time and conditions. Monroe has offered a timely warning in this regard as follows: Prnicipals. The Seventh Yearbook 1928. p. School 2 Reported by E. W. Cober, Research Committee, Department of Elementary School Principals at Cleveland, March, 1929. 8% National Education Association, Division of Research. 116-19; March, 1928. * Coo per, 1929. 5 Morrison, J. Cayce. “What Does It Mean?” ® Bode, B. H. “Where Does One Go for Fundamental Assumptions in Education?” Supervision 14:368; September, 1928. H. P. “The Elementary Principal as a Supervisor.” “The Principal Studies His Job.” Research Bulletin ¢ American Educational Digest 48:196-7; January, Journal of Educational Methods 8:2; September-October, 1928. Educational Administration and [49] Objectivity is not synonymous with accuracy and accurate data may not be valid data. Furthermore, objective methods are not applicable to all problems. There is need for subjective methods. There is urgent need for developing and employing technics of critical reflective thinking in which some or all of the data are subjective, and for reviving an in- terest in the philosophy of education as a necessary supplement to the use of objective methods.’ Elementary school principals should not be misled into believing that the new methods and objective tendencies in education are be- ing criticised in the above quotation. The criticism is not of the more progressive meth- ods themselves, but in their misuse in practice. One important reason for this misuse has been the inability of educators to adjust new re- forms into a consistent scheme of unified pro- cedure. Mere memorization of technics is not enough. There must be a comprehensive phil- osophy to guide the emphasis, use, and de- velopment of progressive technics in school practice, How the Bulletin may be used.—The con- tents of this Bulletin are designed to assist the professional study of principals. According to the Seventh Yearbook of the Department of Elementary School Principals? there are at least one hundred principals’ organizations in cities over 30,000 in population. This does not include a- number of small informal groups which meet to discuss professional problems. Whether these groups are formally organ- ized will not make any difference as to the use- fulness of this pamphlet. Organized groups may wish to form committees on health, char- acter education, individual instruction and similar problems to study local situations. These committees can use this Bulletin as a starting point for their work. Often such committees will have to pursue their investiga- tions to the original research records before solutions to local problems can be satisfactorily evolved. The bibliographies cited will be help- ful in this more extensive study. Other groups may be content to read and discuss the contents of the Bulletin without appointing committees. In many instances medical authorities, juvenile-court workers, and other experts may be invited to present their viewpoints on the problems under discus- sion. Groups appointing committees will be interested in similar committees in other cities.° Progressive principals will not overlook the opportunities of discussing these current move- ments. in teachers’ meetings. As indicated in subsequent chapters, the ultimate success of the principal’s program depends upon the complete enlistment of the interest and efforts of his teaching staff. Meetings can be made more vital by discussing the local application of cur- rent research findings.* What does it all mean for our school ? The proposed schemes for group study of this Bulletin do not minimize the value of in- dividual effort. Many principals will prefer to study alone in connection with their own schools. Careful work of this type can be most constructive. But in certain fields, such as character education, the factors are so in- tangible that there are unique benefits in group study. Controlled experiments under differ- ent school conditions usually result in more practical and more reliable conclusions. For general reading of this Bulletin it will probably be best to ignore the footnotes. Re- search and study groups will find the many citations of particular value. All incomplete footnotes of the text are fully stated in the selected references at the end of each chapter. 2 Menai Walter S. “Shall We Use Objective Methods Exclusively?” The Nation’s yeptocis 2:16; May, 1928. 2See the Seventh Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Principals, 1928, p. 351-52. 3 For example: Detroit, Boston and Norfolk have committees on character education. — ; «In addition to the Research Bulletin the principal will find professional study suggestions in The Journal of the National Education Association, November, 1928, p. 269. HE GET-SCIENTIFIC-QUICK method of extricating oneself from supervisory difficulty may serve the temporary purpose of quieting an aroused community, but it is not a safe or valid method for scientific control for the schools—Charles H. Judd, “Can High-School Super- vision be Made Scientific?” Proceedings, National Education Association. 1928. p. 734. at [50] nn NI IN EN A, BAB a ae ete ee ites tattinze Building Health’ HERE have been theories that the mind and body are separate. School practices based upon such theories have often ignored the physical health of children while subjecting the mind to rigorous instruction. ‘There are still many unsettled problems in this field in which the elementary school principal is not immediately concerned. Sufficient for practi- cal purposes are the common examples of rela- tionship between physical health and the re- sponses of children to school situations.* “These examples alone have aroused principals to the importance of the contributions of each school to the preservation and improvement of the national health.* Physical efficiency and the school.—lIt is now generally recognized that many of the pupil’s richest experiences depend upon a rea- sonable degree of physical efficiency. Children with defective hearing cannot fully enjoy mu- sic and poetry.* Defective sight often elimi- nates one from the full enjoyment of reading, art, play and similar important school activi- ties. Even the more active and manual ac- tivities require certain efficiency of the sense organs. Generally speaking, elementary school prin- cipals realize the danger and handicaps due to serious physical defects. Classes are often formed for those with weak eyes or impaired hearing. Observation of practice shows that few children are assigned to special classes be fore contributing physical defects have been eliminated. Yet in spite of these precautions the prevalence and insidious nature of “partial health” is probably not generally recognized.' In emphasizing that true health means a complete condition of both physical and mental soundness we may quote Averill’s definition as follows: Health is that condition of body and mind in which sufficient energy is available for the per- formance of a full day’s work and a full day’s play—and that abundantly, without friction and without depletion.’ Prevalence of physical inefficiency. — The data of the World War draft given in Table 1 are illustrative of the many defects which cause partial disability. Prior to the draft many Americans had concluded that the abil- ity of our athletes was indicative of a high level of physical efficiency among the general population. Yet one man in three of those drafted was rejected as unfit for military serv- ice.® Many individuals go about the activities of civilian life in a state of partial health. The same condition is true of many school children whose ailments are not serious enough 1In connection with the chapter, see sections of this Bulletin on mental health and preschool education Also Table 10. 2 Hoefer, Carolyn, and Hardy, Mattie C. and Educational Achievement.’ Twenty-Seventh Yearbook, 386-7. 2 Wood, Thomas D. (Chairman). Health Education. “The Influence of Improvement in Physical Condition on Intelligence National Society for the Study of Education. 1928. p Report of the Joint Committee on Health Problems of the National Education Association and the American Medical Association. 1924. p. 11. *Drury, Dana W. “Fatigue from Imperfect Hearing.” 5 Wood, Thomas D. (Chairman). Health Service in City Schools of the United States. Hygeia 6: 251-3; June, 1928. Report of the J int Cor mittee of the National Education Association and the American Medical Association. 1922, p. 13, 21 and 2 ® Wood, Thomas D., and Lerrigo, Marion O. 7 Averill, Lawrence A. Educational Hygiene. ® Wood, Thomas D. (Chairman). Health Education. p. Health Behavior. Houghton Mifflin Company. 1926. p. 1. Public School Publishing Company. 192; | 17. TABLE 1.—PERCENTAGE OF PHYSICAL REJECTIONS IN THE FIRST DRAFT (1917) Total examined physically by local boards. . Total found physically disqualified........... Total percent of all rejections on physical grounds United States Government. General's Office, Washington, D. C Total found physically qualified .......... , eS Additional percent rejected at the sixteen camps ate Number Percent 2,510,706 | 100.00 at 1,779,950 | 70.89 730,756 | 29.11 ae , 4.00 33.11 First Report of the Provost Marshall General, 1917. Procurable from the Adjutant [51] eA I NT, to produce complete disability. Many of these children function in their school activities on a level far below their potential ability. Reliable statistics and estimates indicate that 20 to 80 percent need dental care, 10 to 12 percent have defective vision, adenoids and diseased or obstructive tonsils are present in 30 to 50 per- cent, malnutrition from 10 to 30 percent, de- fective hearing in 10 to 12 percent, orthopedic defects in 5 to 30 percent, and organic heart defects in slightly less than 1 percent. These figures do not include the children who are handicapped in their school work through loss of sleep, outside labor and unhygienic home conditions.” Illness due to communicable diseases takes a heavy toll among school children. A recent report shows there occurs among children un- der 10 years of age: 99 percent of all whooping cough deaths 89 percent of all measles deaths 86 percent of all diphtheria deaths 74 percent of all scarlet fever deaths 34 percent of all pneumonia deaths 7 percent of all tuberculosis deaths.* Figures secured by The New York State Commission on Ventilation indicate that the average child misses 11 days in a school year of 180 days. On six of these days the child is ® Averill, wrence A. op. cit., p. 19. out of school because of illness. Two days of this sick period are due to colds and associated infections of the respiratory tract. The other four days the illnesses may be due to communi- cable disease, headaches, stomach disorders, or other miscellaneous indispositions.* There are approximately 3,000,000 school children in the United States with definitely measurable hearing defects. A recent study of 349 deafened children showed that they had repeated grades 441 times as compared with 130 repetitions for 349 normal hearing chil- dren.® Whether one is willing to accept the esti- mates above as wholly reliable does not alter the fact that illness and physical defects are still common among school children. An- other significant fact is the economic loss due to physical defects and disease among adults.’ But statistics do not begin to portray the per- sonal unhappiness directly traceable to condi- tions which can be prevented or improved by an application of our present knowledge of healthful living. The problem of common physical defects.— Table 2 indicates that the correction of com- mon physical defects, such as those of the eyes, ears and throat, are being met by cooperative efforts between the homes and schools.® 1 According to a eugueniontion from Thomas D. Wood, December, 1928. the aang ea of Fatigue in School Children” by Max Seham in The Elementary School Journal 28: 106-13; October, % Wood, Thomas D, (Chairman). Health Education. p. 7 * Wood, Thomas D, (Chairman), Jbid. p,. 16. 5 Wood, Thomas D, (Chairman). The Deafened School Child. p. 8-11. * The conservative nature of may be indicated by those of a recent city survey. See ‘Health Exami- nations for All School Children,” by Cora de Forest Grant in o. a 1928 number of Hygeia, p. 214. woe Thomas D. (Chairman). Health Education. p. SW way D. (Chairman). Ibid, ta. Also, Health Behavior. p. 22-24. ( Wists t . E. A. “Health.” Chapter II in Whither Mankind. samt eg Green & Company. 1928. p. 187-207. TABLE 2.—HOSPITAL AND CLINIC FACILITIES FOR THE CORRECTION OF DEFECTS AMONG SCHOOL CHILDREN Clinic facilities for the Hospital facilities, for the | Dental clinics for the cor- | correction of visual defects removal of adenoids rection of dental defects | and tonsils Replies Number of Percent Number of Percent Number of Percent cities , Cities cities Reporting facilities. ............4.. 302 88.5 é 307 90.1 318 93.3 Sufficient facilities. ............... 162 53.6 170 55.4 152 47.8 Insufficient facilities .............. 115 38.5 116 37.8 143 4.9 | No facilities........ 2... ....-0005- 25 8.3 21 6.8 23 7.3 Source of data: Wood, Thomas D. (Chairman), Health Service in City Schools of the United States, National Edu- cation Association, 1922. p. 16. ee [52] oe ill apse © cere okt i Many school systems examine children peri- odically for disorders of the eyes, ears and teeth. Usually the report sent to the home suggests a program to correct the difficulty. In cases where permanent impairment exists, special classes may be established so that edu- cation may continue without increasing the de- fects. Classes for sight defectives, deaf, speech defectives and crippled children are common in progressive school systems.’ Nutrition.—The discovery of conditions of malnutrition is more difficult than the loca- tion of defects of the eyes and ears. There is some debate among medical experts as to what constitutes malnutrition,? although all are agreed that its symptoms need to be carefully investigated. It may be a symptom of dis- ease,* poor hygiene, bad social conditions,° food deficiencies or a combination of several factors.® Observation of school practice shows that height and weight are used as indices of under- nourishment. A child 10 percent or more underweight is often assigned to “nutrition classes” for rest and special feeding.’ This practice is based upon thousands of _ experi- ments which indicate that growth is a delicate index of the quality of the diet.’ Observations in several outstanding school systems show that indiscriminate feeding of underweight children is not approved. Chil- dren should be submitted to careful physical examinations before entering nutrition classes. Often these examinations reveal conditions not due to defective diet. Furthermore, pupils are not discharged from classes until it is shown that the acquisition of normal weight has been accompanied by the formation of good health habits. In certain instances children of nor- mal weight are assigned to “open-air nutrition classes” because of suspected respiratory infec- tions. ‘The concensus of expert opinion is that malnutrition is so elusive that careful exami- nation must be made of the whole physique, 2See such references as: Pitner, F. A Washington, D. C. 1928. p. 145-198. Atlantic City Public Schools. 1923. 6 Wile, Ira S. op. cit., p. 49. 8 Wile, Ira S. The Challenge of Childhood. Thomas Selzer Company *See such references as: “Preventing Tuberculosis in Children” by 5 Bedford, Scott E. W. “Illness As A Cause of Poverty.” the habits and surroundings of the child.* Defects of the skeleton.—It has been esti- mated that fully five percent of the school pop- ulation have skeletal deformities. ‘The most common defects are: stoop shoulders, lateral curvature of the spine, bowlegs and knock- knees, lameness, flat feet, or weak arches.° These conditions usually develop slowly and exert harmful effects upon vital organs over a long period of years. Often the absence of painful symptoms delays a recognition of the defect until it has become more or less perma- nently fixed. Some cases of stoop shoulders and lateral curvatures are due to malnutrition or disease, but other cases are simply the result of bad habits.'® Children fall easily into stooping atti- tudes while sitting and standing. Often school furniture contributes to the habits by being too low or too high." In some children, stoop shoulders may be caused by defective vision. Bowlegs and deformities of the bony struc- ture are commonly due to food inadequacies and insufficient sunlight during babyhood. This ailment is known as rickets and it has been estimated that approximately 10 percent of school children have been deformed by the disease. Ordinarily the school’s interest in nu- trition problems is manifested through moth- ers’ clubs, baby clinics, and meetings of parent- teacher associations. Lameness may be due to bacterial invasion or accidents. Impairment due to disease fac- tors must be handled largely by specialized workers. But Table 3 shows that many in- juries due to accidents are preventable and, therefore, of interest to school workers. The data indicate deaths and injuries from street accidents to children in New York City. Defects of the feet are usually preventable by the observation of certain hygienic princi- ples. A common affliction is “fallen arches,” which means a condition in which the muscles do not maintain the normal arches of the bones 1 Wood, Thomas D. (Chairman). Health Service in City Schools p. 15. Survey of American Schools for the Deaf. National Research Council, Special Class Department. Pamphlet issued in 1926. p. 48. A. Levinson in Hygeia 6: 312-14; June, 1928. Hygeia 6: 427-30; August, 1928. 7 Wood, Thomas D. (Chairman). Health Education p. 27-28, 36-43. 8 Wile, Ira S. op. cit., p. 50-53. ® Averill, Lawrence A. op. cit., p. 18. 1 Winslow, C. E. A. of. cit., p. 224-25. 1 Lewin, Philip. “The Ten Commandments of Good Posture,” Hygeia 6: 3-5; January, 1928. [ 53] rics - _ = of the feet. Averill has pointed out that the condition is preventable if the shoes are broad enough to support the foot and ankle, and if the shoes are not so narrow as to paralyze the muscles of the foot. But once the weakened condition has developed new practices in wear- ing shoes and special exercises for the weak- ened muscles can do much to improve the con- dition. In some school systems children with de- fects of the skeletal structure are assigned to the “special exercise’ room for individual at- tention and guidance. Such specialized atten- tion marks an improvement over the undesir- able practice of herding children into physical education classes prior to careful individual examinations. Speech defects—It has been estimated that over 500,000 children in American schools have some speech defect.? These disorders are, those associated with mental states, i. e., stut- tering, and those due to malformations. Speech defects are often found among people of normal mental ability, although it is some- times associated with feeblemindedness. Un- like lisping, stuttering is not usually out- grown,® and often deprives the child of right- ful school progress.* A child who appears dull before a class of pupils may often be caused to speak intelligently by one skilled in correcting defects. It is important to recognize that stut- tering is largely due to psychic factors aggra- vated by the sensitiveness and anxiety of the afflicted person.’ Many people who stutter will be found in social groups to be timid, de- pendent upon others, and imbued with strong feeling of inadequacy. The three steps® in overcoming the difh- culty have been stated as follows: (1) Physical examination, to discover and to eliminate malformations, disease or other defects contributing to stuttering. (2) Mental hygiene or the correction of faulty attitudes which cause the tension. Hob- bies and special activities may give the child a feeling of success. (3) Relaxation and training in muscle co- ordination. Opportunities to speak should be given in which the stuttering will be ignored. Since the disorder is primarily psychological, drill exercises, phonetics and similar methods may increase the difficulty. Probably 200,000 of the speech defectives in American schools are stutterers.’ The types of defects shown in Table 4 pre- sent not only an immediate problem in the in- struction of children, but there is the ultimate difficulty of a suitable vocation. ‘The personal hardship and economic loss to these persons is particularly deplorable, when possibly fifty ae E Legreame & A, op. cit., p. 157-58. * Wile, 3 +e Hag “smiley, pos Sl Mar G. Child Guidance. The Century ~ my. 1927. p. 108. *Root, A. R. “A Survey of Sou ectives in the Public Elementary School South Dakota.” Elementary School Journal 26: 531-41; March, 192 5 Wolfe, Walter B. “Stuttering, ~ ‘State of Mind.” * Blanton, Smiley, and Blanton, Margaret G. op. cit., * Wile, Ira S, op. cit., p. 37. Hyeeia ¢ 6: 560-62; October, 1928. . 110 TABLE 3.—DEATH AND INJURIES TO CHILDREN, 6 TO 16, FROM MARCH 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1923. Causes or contributing factors Killed Injured Crossing streets not at crossing. .... 2. 6 eee ee 184 3,583 Playing games in the roadway......... 2... 66.6 ee eee 56 1,865 Cc ing streets at street crossing...... 2-6 cee 40 1,274 Running off sidewalk into street... ... ©. 22 cece 31 677 ee ee geal CU a dep ads db Meh bccn wacjese ce cane 3 622 es cht so bOMEL Gawsndird smkeis'sc.c0s esecces sent 10 §22 Steet ing eg OR OE IE =), Se a, ae bi bee MEME EFCCR, POISED, TEMCOD, SCC... . 0... eee eens 2 Roller skating, coasting, etc., Se wopestned oe BS ae oe a 11 207 While at play.. a ee ols a 5 delat 7 155 umping on or off cars, etc., in motion.. MGA. ASO. C5 ebe isd oa cae back 1 147 alling over obstacles or into excavations. ........... 22.0.6... eee eee 1 145 NN Cs 0-5 RRs Chk We > AEs 2 is ROA OD sv Bue ennis sos -Kund 321 10,929 ae a etek a AE BRA Ob a ee a Dad vides 0b 0 9 0 oe ne eeaied 750 20,784 Source of data: Wood, Thomas D. (Chairman), Health Education, p. 67. — oe _ [ 54] ~ eet ~a “> ~~ —-. a. aa wh mee Ok LA he cate yew percent of the cases could have been prevented or cured by early instruction.’ Speech defects due to disease and malforma- tions do not present the same school problem These are problems for spe- The principal needs as the stutterer. cialized medical workers. to ascertain the nature of the case and then to cooperate with parents and health workers in bringing to bear the necessary expert atten- tion. Responsibility of the school for the train- ing follows upon the improvement of the or- ganic condition.” The health program and the principal.—lIt is unnecessary to cite experiments to prove to elementary school principals that there exists a close relationship between physical health and mental efficiency. Every principal is ac- quainted with instances where children have appeared dull and incompetent because of a physical disability. The problem for the principal is to cooper- ate with the superintendent, school doctors, school nurses, health authorities, and parents in providing a program of positive and pre- ventive health procedures.* This involves the development of knowledge, habits, and atti- tudes of good health. Children must be helped to realize not only the increased happiness and abundance of life, but that health is an eco- 1 Wile, Ira S. op. cit., p. 38. 2 See such articles as “Correcting Cleft Palates”’ 8 Wood, Thomas D., and Cassidy, R. F. by J. The New Physical Education Ss. nomic asset. Many elementary school princi pals are aware of this challenge, as evidenced by the courses of study, health posters, dra- matics and similar activities of progressive schools.‘ Unfortunately, there are many children in our schools who are enjoying only partial health. children The disabilities handicapping these are often not sufficient to call atten tion to the importance of remedial measures. Many of school, achieve partial success, but never profit these children struggle through fully from the educational program. Some of the movements receiving new impetus are those involving the elimination of personal and eco nomic losses among those with partial disabili ties. Among these handicaps are malmutrition, defects of speech, defects of the sense organs, and defects of the skeleton. In meeting these problems the elementary school principal will need (1) to build up his own knowledge, (2) to educate parents, and (3) to readjust school procedures. In acquit ing a fund of information the principal will be particularly interested in the recent develop ments in child study. Problems of general hygiene procedures and principles have been discussed in terms of theory.® Diet has been treated in current lit modern educational February 1928 Horsley, Jr., in Hygeia 6: 105-6; ; 1927. Chapter 14 Macmillan Company, The following are examples of practice: Berkeley, Calif., Physical Education and Hygiene, Course of Study Mon ograph No. 9, 1923. 5 Typical books in the field are: (1) O’Shea, W. V. St. Louis, Mo., Health, Curriculum Bulletin, No. 8, Education, Elementary Course of Study, September, 1928. (Editor) The Child; His Nature and His Needs, The Children's 1926. Trenton, N. J., Physical and Health 1926. (3) Blanton S., and Blanton M (;.. Foundation. 1924. (2) Wile, Ira S. The Challenge of Childhood, Selzer - Child Guidance, The Century Co., 1927. (4) Chapin, Henry D., Heredity and Child Culture, E. P. Dutton and Co. 1922. ® See: Averill, L. A., Educational Hygiene, Houghton Mifflin. 1926. Wood, T. D., and Cassidy, R. F. The Neu Physical Education. Macmillan. 1927. Rhobotham, F. B. “The Care of the Teeth of the School Child,’’ Elementar School Journal 28: 517-20; March, 1928. Sonnerschein, Robert, “Signs and Symptoms of Common Nose, Throat and Ear Conditions, Including Defective Hearing,” Elementary School Journal 28: 436-42; February, 1928 TABLE 4.—NUMBER OF SPEECH DEFECTS AMONG 89,057 ST. LOUIS SCHOOL CHILDREN IN 1915. Boys | Girls Total | Types 3 a oil | No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent a | CO eee ee | 492 1.1 191 4 683 1.5 ES CRAs wwiemeb eee be 0% 852 1.9 596 1.3 1448 3 ee 264 } 5 141 3 405 8 TG, 50% siiwhsdddendenes 1612 3.6 924 2.0 2536 5.6 Source of data: Adapted from Graph I of J. E. Wallin’s “‘Speech Defective Children in a Large School System,”’ Miami University Bulletin, December 1926, p. 8. erature on child study as well as in more spe- cialized works.* The same materials used in building up his own fund of information may be used by the principal with parents.2, Any program of health education, whether it involves preven- tive or corrective work, should enlist the co- operation of the parents. Most of these con- tacts must be made by personal conferences and in terms of the individual cases. Many progressive principals establish child study groups in connection with the parent-teacher associations, mother clubs and similar groups.* The adjustment of the school for health building may be limited by the local school facilities and community cooperation. But these conditions do not absolve the principal from certain positive efforts: 1. To cooperate with the superintendent and school architects in designing new schools in which the ventilation, lighting,‘ first aid, lunchroom, toilet and drinking water facilities are constructed in accordance with known standards.® 2. In existing buildings, to secure changes in unhealthful conditions, and to require teachers and janitors to administer the build- 1 See: Sansum, W. D. Education. p, 36-43, 89-90 and 101-6. 2 Dodson, John M. 28: 273-77; December, 1927. ing facilities in accordance with common health principles.*® 3. In the classroom, to provide teachers with reliable facts, procedures and standards; and to assist them in teaching these to chil- dren." 4. In some instances it is advisable to permit teachers to specialize in the technics of cor- rective work. Usually the technical work in relation to the sense organs, malnutrition and similar defects must be left to specially trained workers, but skill in correcting skeleton de- fects and in improving speech may be acquired through training by classroom teachers of ability.® 5. The establishment of special agencies and activities is coming to be recognized as a legiti- mate function of the elementary school. The lunchroom may be a useful device in health building.® Safety patrols, clubs and school papers can be used to motivate the class work in health.?° 6. The principal should cooperate with other school workers in experimental and test studies of health programs. An experiment in Malden, Massachusetts, indicated the value of controlled studies in developing new tech- The Normal Diet. The C. V. Mosby Company. 1927. Wood, Thomas D. (Chairman). Health “School Health, the Joint Responsibility of Parent and Teacher.” Elementary School Journal 3 Almost every issue of Child Welfare, official magazine of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, contains descriptions of child-study Street N. W., Washington, 4 Winslow, C. E. A. “M 5 See such references as the Buildings, Bureau of Publications, Teachers ollowing: Strayer, G. D re in cooperation with school authorities. Address communications to 1201 Sixteenth the School Safe for = Xhildren.” ee School Journal 28: 649-58; May, 1928. , and Engelhardt, N. L,. College, Colum bia University. 1923. 57 p. Cooper, Frank I. (Chairman), Standards for Elementary School Report of Committee on School House Planning, National Education Association. 1925. 164 p. *See such useful material as the following: Wood, Thomas D. (Chairman), Ventilation of School Buildings, Joint Committee on Health Problems of the National Education Association and the American Medical Association. 1925. Thomas D. (Chairman) Concerning the Sight of School Children, Joint Committee. 1925. p. 38-39. Wood, Wood, Thomas D. (Chairman) The nage nd School “© Joint Committee. 1928. p. 23-27, 31-35. D. ‘Appleton Company. 1926. Hendricksen, Ethel M. Ventilation and Health. 7 See references similar to the following: (a) Averill, L. A. op. cit., 546 Wood, Thomas D., and p. (b) Brown, Maude A. “Fargo Lees F Health Habits.”” Hygeia 6: 328-38 and 267- 69; May and June, 1928. (c) Maddrey, be Happiness Leagu es of the Texas Schools.” Hygeia, February, 1928, p. 93-95. (d) ‘oes, & Hiei nl Bulletin 8: 91-925 anaes, 1929. Department of Elementary School Principals. National Bacation,Aseocia ® Ke Ruth H. “A uever, Ru “Are you a ood, Thomas D. (Chairman). Health Education. J Flen “Lenraing Health at School.” Child Welfare 23: 261-64; femeeer, 1929. Diplomat” Hygeia, July, 1928, p. "381-8 oint Committee. 1924, ies" p. (g) Wi AS} Wood” Thomas D., and Lerrigo, Marion, Health Behavior. 1927. 150 p. (i) Wood, bg ~~ bon D., and Callen Cthentie’ ©. A Tentative Course in Health Education Grades 1 to 6. Bureau of Pub- lications, Teachers University. 1925. *A specialist in the California State "oe of Education trains many classroom teachers in methods of speech correction. In the summer teachers a school year clinical demonstrations a: ao dren’s Bureau. Posture Clinics Pn connection with one of the universities and during the e state. See, also “A pk gt Speech.” Studies in Child Beto ys University of Iowa. December 15, 1920. Also, U. (Publication No. 164) and Posture Exercises (Publication No. 165). 1926. Preliminary Study in Corrective S. Department of Labor, Chil- *In many schools the parent-teacher association is an invaluable ally in this work. See current numbers of Child Welfare. 1° National Education Association, p. 319-41 t of Elementary School Is. The Seventh Yearbook. 1928. : Departmen’ Principa 7 . Gist, Arthur S, # School Administration. Scribner’s Sons. 1928. p. 130-66. National Society for the S of Ed Yearbook Part I. The Present Status of Sa ‘ety Education. Public School Publishi 0. 110, 123-24, 137-39. jucation, 1926. 410 p. ood, Thomas D. (Chairman). Health Education. Joint Committee, 1924, p. 104-5, [56] ie Saati os ot | : : i — nics and evaluating typical procedures.' Summary.—The preceding paragraphs indi- cate that physical defects resukting from dis- ease, accidents and neglect are widespread among school children. ‘The elusive nature of certain physical defects often fails to arouse drastic corrective measures, although these ail- ments may materially handicap the school ef- fectiveness and the individual in adult life. There is an insistent demand for principals to formulate and direct a constructive program of preventive health education. In this work he needs to enlist the active participation of the superintendent, health workers and parents. Important phases of a health program are the experimental efforts to evaluate and improve teaching procedures. Selected References Educational Hygiene. 1926. 1. AVERILL, LAWRENCE A. Houghton Mifflin Company, New York. 546 p. A general textbook for teachers on phases of the new health-teaching movement. Sections given to such topics as: The skin and its derivatives, the muscular system, child health and care, school hy- giene and sanitation, community health problems and school health administration. The volume in- cludes suggestions on teaching procedures, in addi- tion to a mass of scientific knowledge. DIVISION OF PUBLICA- New York. 2. COMMONWEALTH FUND, TIONS. Serving the Child in Fargo. 1928. 127 p. Report of a five-year health demonstration in Fargo, N. D. Shows how medical, dental, nursing, and school health education were built in a city- wide program of health. Describes cooperation between the school, health and investigating au- thorities. 3. DANSDILL, THERESA. Health Training in Schools. National Tuberculosis Association, 370 Seventh Avenue, New York. 1928. 405 p. A handbook for teachers and health workers. Contains stories, poems, quotations and projects to be used in teaching health in the elementary school. Bibliography and list of organizations supplying materials. 4. NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION AND ‘THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION. Joint Commit- tee on Health Problems in Education, Dr. Thomas D. Wood, Chairman. A series of re- ports on sale by The National Education Asso- ciation, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washing- ton, D. C. 1 Turner, C. E. “Description of the Malden, Massachusetts Experiment in Health Education.” Department of Superintendence, National Education Association. (a) Health Education, 1924. 164 p. A program of health education for public schools and teacher-training institutions. Presents statis- tics to show the need for preventive health work. Contains many suggestions on subject matter and procedures for a course of study in health educa- tion. Bibliography. (b) Conserving the Sight of School Chil- dren, 1925. 46 p. A report designed to supply teachers, school offi- cials and others with information, advice and prac- tical directions in the conservation of eyesight of school children. Bibliography. (c) The Deafened School Child, 1928. 38 p. This report calls attention to the importance of discovering and educating children with measur- able defects of hearing. Tests for briefly described. Suggestions are made for edu- cating these children in public school systems. Bib- liography. defects are 5. NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY OF EDUCATION. Twenty-fifth Yearbook, Part I, “The Present Status of Safety Education.” Public School Pub- lishing Co., Bloomington, Illinois. 1926. 410 p. A survey of school practices in the teaching of safety education. Contains general information on accident suggested classroom procedures, safety education projects and courses of study for elementary, junior and senior high schools. tated bibliography. losses, Anno- 6. WHITCOMB, CHARLOTTE T., AND BEVERIDGE, JOHN H. Our Health Habits. Rand McNally and Company, Chicago. 1926. 608 p. Many suggestions as to health information, projects and A course in child hygiene for the grades. activities for the pupils. Information and bibliog- raphies for pupils. 7. Woop, Tuomas D., Aanp Cassipy, RosALinp R. The New Physical Education. The Macmillan Company, New York. 1927. 457 p. Contains a program of physical education activi- ties based upon the natural impulses of children and youth. Deals with the philosophy objectives, content, projects, teaching procedures and problems of modern physical education. fied list of source materials, bibliography and an appendix on useful technics. Contains a classi- 8. Woop, Tuomas D., ANp Lerrico, Marion O. Health Behavior. Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Illinois. 1927. 150 p. A manual designed to express for the various age groups appropriate standards of healthful behavior in terms of habits or skills, attitudes and knowl- edge. Many suggestions of statidards of achieve- ment for a course of study in health. February, 1926. p. 233-38. [57] 9. Woop, Tuomas D., AND Rowe.t, H. G. Health Though the Prevention and Control of Dis- ease. World Book Company, Yonkers, N. Y. 1925. 122 p. A briefly written manual on the control of dis- ease in the school. Practical suggestions on the exclusion of ailing children and the prevention of illness. 10. Woop, THomas D., aNp Rowe.t, H. G. Health Supervision and Medical Inspection of Schools. W. B. Sanders Company, Philadelphia. 1927. 367 p. A comprehensive compilation of school practices in dealing with health problems. Chapters on the administration of health education in school, the program of weighing, the control of communicable diseases, health examination, correction and treat- ment of physical defects, special classes, school con- struction and sanitation, health supervision of teachers, health supervision of the pre-school child and the health of the child in industry. — of Superintendence. 1928. p. 468-69. HE CONTENT and teaching methods of health training and instruction have, during the past decade, traveled a long way along the road toward functioning efficiently. While for fifty years and more there has been in the public schools a subject on the program of studies known as “physiclogy,” it has been aimlessly taught, and, so far as any practical results are concerned, was, before the World War, largely a failure. This failure was due to several fac- tors. First, the content was not interesting to the average child, and many of the facts passed on to him were demonstrably false. Second, the method of teaching was wholly wrong. If there is any subject in the program of studies which must be taught by doing and by investiga- tion rather than by children collecting facts from a textbook and pouring them back with con- siderable inaccuracy to the teacher, this subject is health. Information concerning the number, shape, and structure of bones and teeth is practically valueless if the possessor neither knows nor does anything to cause them to grow properly and firmly, or to retain form, strength, and position. The change in title from “physiology” to “health training and instruction” is an epitome of the change that has taken place in the content and teaching of the subject. Note that the new title includes training as well as instruction. Teachers, parents, and children must understand certain fundamentals. The new idea is a health program, not one relating to medicine or to disease. “Health is that condition of the body and its organs necessary to the proper performance of their normal functions.” It is that condition which is ordinarily spoken of as “physical fitness.” It goes deeper than that, however, and includes mental, moral, and social fitness.- Its attainment means completeness of body, of mind, and of character—‘“Health and Physical Education.” The Sixth Yearbook, Department | 58 | lat aye a t+ Riltgaig aia The Mental Life of Children ' ROBABLY few people realize that ap- proximately $75,000,000 were expended in 1922 in caring for patients in hospitals for mental diseases.” It has been reported that in several states one cut of twenty adult deaths is in a hospital for the insane. Several states spend from one-sixth to one-third of their total public expenditures for the support of mental hospitals. There are more patients in such pub- lic institutions of the country than students in the colleges and universities.* Yet these amaz- ing statistics do not give an adequate idea of the great social and economic losses from men tal diseases. Nor do we know the extent of mild mental disorders among the general pop- ulation and their exact influence upon the com- mon social problems.* But enough data are available to convince thinking people of the importance of further research in the field of mental hygiene and the application of present knowledge in the pre- vention of mental diseases.° Since a large part of this preventive work will be done among school children this chapter attempts to intro- duce the principal to the field. In discussing mental hygiene the presentation is not limited to the most serious mental disorders which re- quire hospital treatment.® In fact, emphasis has been placed upon the apparently minor symptoms found among children which often lead to mental instability, social maladjust- ment and serious neuroses in adult life.? Since the mental illnesses of children are usually ex- pressions of social maladjustments the basis of prevention must be a survey of the individual child and the factors that influence him.*® Nature and nurture-—A consideration of mental hygiene raises the well-known contro- versy of the influence of nature and nurture.° It is generally agreed that an individual is the product of heredity and the factors of his en- vironment. ‘The controversy revolves around the relative influence of heredity and environ ment, and the possibilities of control so as to produce desirable modifications in the individ- ual and the race. At one extreme we have persons who believe that heredity lays down many patterns which determine the possibilities and limitations of the individual’s development. ‘These patterns are considered as being, under ordinary condi- tions, quite persistently self-determining. ‘The environmentalist, while recognizing certain in- herited potentialities, would point out vast areas of development which may be determined by influences outside of the individual.'® The elementary school principal is not di- rectly concerned in the more technical and academic discussion of the problem. As he works with children and parents from day to day he realizes that there is apparently truth in both viewpoints. Certainly most scientific data in this field agree with Conklin that “every person has a new heredity deal if not always a square one,” "! Also, there is agreement that the child is the meeting place of past and present forces which combine in determining the future.'? 1In connection with the chapter, see sections of this Bulletin th education, character educatior d pr ol education. Also, Table 11. *Beers, Clifford W. A Mind that Found Itself (Revised edit yuubleday, Page and Compan % National Committee for Mental Hygiene. Quoted in Mentai 4 mality and Deficiency by Sidney L. Pressey and Luella C. Pressey. Macmillan Company. 1926. p. 1 4 For objective data see the case studies as reported in references such as Probation and Delinquen by Edwin J Cooley. Thomas Nelson and Suns, 1927, and The Individual Delinquent by William Healy. Little, Brown and 830 p. 5 Elementary school principals will be particularly interested in the development of the mental hygiene movement and its relation to school work as set forth in the previous reference by Clifford W. Beers. * Campbell, C. Macfie, quoted in A Mind that Found Itself, p. 301-2. 7 The reader will recognize that emphasis in this section upon the mental and emotional phases The sections of this Bulletin which discuss aracter educa life does not 1gnore the essential unity of all life processes. tion and health are closély related to mental hygiene. 8 White, William A., in The Child; His Nature and His Needs. The Children’s Foundation, 1924. p. 211-1 ® See the comprehensive summary of objective data in Nature and Nurture, Twenty-seventh Yearbook I an individuals x National Society for the Study of Education. Prepared under the general direction of Dr. Lewis M. Terman 10 Bagley, W. C. “The Significance of Unambiguous Evidence Regarding Environmental Influences.”’ Education Ad ministration and Supervision 14: 441-50; October, 1928. it Conklin, E. G,, quoted by J. J. Walsh and J. A. Foote in Safeguarding Children’s Nerves IB pany. 1924. p. 62. 2 White, William A. op. cit., p. 2i1. [ 59] : : : When inherited factors prove elusive a most useful approach to mental disease is through the environmental influences.? The importance of the early years —The child study movement has awakened an inter- est in the study of original endowment and early environmental influences. An important outcome of this movement is the Nursery School which is discussed elsewhere in this Bulletin. But the facts revealed by child study are of general significance and application to education following the Nursery School. The child brings into the world a mosaic of traits. These potentialities of the original en- dowment represent a redistribution of ances- tral traits.2 Many of these potential powers will develop during childhood. A wise scheme of education endeavors to minimize the infl- ence of undesirable traits while strength- ening those essential to the well-being of the individual and society.® A study of the impulses, tendencies and traits of childhood may lead one into contro- versy as to the nature of these basic qualities.‘ Nor is there agreement as to whether these tendencies are inherited or acquired. Some students of the problem would list as many as fourteen principal instincts together with their emotional nuclei.5 Hollingworth recognizes the tendencies to resist, to be contented, to be startled and to be gloomy with their corresponding emotion phases. Other students insist upon the ego, the herd and the sex instincts as basic. The Freudians would base human activities largely upon the sex instinct." Regardless of the number and kind of the basic instincts it is now generally recognized that the treatment of the child during the early years is of great significance to the school. Unwise repression of instinctive tendencies may cause the short-circuiting of energy into undesirable forms of behavior. Watson’s work along these lines led him to conclude that “most of what we see that is bad in the child is the product of poor home and school training.’’® Integration of personality —As indicated above each child is a unique combination of traits. During the period of childhood these traits undergo change. Many of the crude, early tendencies apparently disappear or are sublimated into more refined behavior. This process of sifting and modifying the personal qualities goes on continually as the child par- ticipates in life’s activities. In summarizing recent research in phychology Freeman said : Emphasis is now laid on such experiences as cause suppression of the child’s impulses or conflict among them, or on the other hand, on an undue lack of regulation and absorption in adjustment to the world of persons and things.° Psychologists frequently call this bringing together of many forces “the integration of personality.” If in adult life the individual can make friends, carry on a vocation, manage his affairs, adapt himself to trying situations and adjust to the general demands of life we may say that he has a “balanced” or “‘inte- grated” personality.?° Variations between persons —The degree of balance of traits is not the same for all persons. One person may develop qualities which make for a highly successful family life while being a vocational failure. Another person may be highly ‘successful in business but not able to cope with parenthood responsibilities. A study of “borderland” cases shows apparently nor- mal persons with weaknesses only in relation to certain problems or difficulties." 1 Solomon, H. C. “What Causes Mental Diseases?” Hygeia 6: 465; August, 1928, 2 Walsh, J. J. and Foote, J. A. Safeguarding Children's Nerves. J. B. Lippincott Company. 1924. p. 60. M. a (Editor). The Child; His Nature andHis Needs, presents a symposium by Bird T. Baldwin, Mary others. 8 O'Shea, Whitley, Walter F. Dearborn, Henry Neumann and ae Charles H., on individual emotions in The Psychology of Social Institutions. Macmillan Company. 1926. p. 275-98 Mental Hygiene, Macmillan Co, 1927. 8 McDougall, William. Social Psychology. Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1924. p. 324. Quoted in D. W. La Rue’s 67-68 * Hollingworth, H. L. Mental Growth end Decline. D. Appleton and Company. 1927. p. 115-17. ™ McDougall, William. Outline of Abnormal Psychology. Scribner’s Sons, 1926. p. 127-87. ® Watson, J. B., quoted by William H. Burnham in The Normal Mind. D. Appleton and Company. 1924. p. 137. ® Freeman, Frank N. “Recent Educational Psychology.” Journal of the National Education Association 17: 42; February, 1928. 2% Burnham, William H. The Normal Mind. D. Appleton and Company. 1925. p. 27-60. 1 Pressey, Sidney L., and Pressey, Luella C. Mental Abnormality and Deficiency. Macmillan. 1926. p. 105-43. [ 60] Briefly then, no one is perfectly integrated. It is probably impossible to expect everyone to become perfectly adjusted to the unlimited number of life situations. We must expect normal people to have both strong and weak qualities, but healthy mindedness requires the maximum of self-management within and self- adjustment to the environment without.’ Difficulty of integration.—lf during childhood were merely a mechanical process of plucking out traits and bending others to acceptable standards the procedure would be relatively simple. As it is, the many tangible and intangible factors exert a fluctuat- ing influence which demand careful and pa- tient training efforts. integration An analysis of case studies shows the feel- ing phases of instinctive tendencies to be po- tent factors. These may be illustrated by anger, fear, love, and other more complex emotional states. Some would say that these emotions are simply manifestations of muscular, glandu- lar, or chemical conditions. Sufficient for our present purpose is the realization that feelings color our everyday activities. Uncontrolled emotional energy may be both a symptom and a cause of disintegration. Yet controlled emo- tional energy in the form of altruistic acts may be considered a characteristic of complete social and emotional maturity.” Other personalities around the individual may be disturbing to his balance. If these per- sons of the child’s environment were automa- tons it would be relatively easy to become ad- justed to them. But, as typical humans their behavior shows “ups and downs” which influ- ence the lives of others. This constant inter- action of personality upon personality is a strong educative force, but it may be damaging in its repressive and ignorant influence. This repressive influence has been repeatedly dem- onstrated in case studies of adult mishandling of nervous children.° A third factor making for unbalancing of personalities may be the demands of the en vironment. Trying to “keep up with the Joneses” makes it hard for adults to be cheer- ful, and even-tempered. The child who is forced through a heavy program of school work, dancing lessons, and music lessons may become strangely irritable or difficult to man- age. A sudden tendency to lie, steal, and be otherwise delinquent has developed in children who could not become adjusted to their sur- roundings.* Another disturbing factor is that of disease. In the largest sense this includes both organic destruction and functional disorders. Poison from diseased bodily areas may make for phy- sical lassitude, which in time forms the basis of a whining, spoiled attitude. Encephalitis may cause habits of indifference and laziness not characteristic of the normal personality.° The above discussion indicates some of the difficulties of bringing together the personal traits into a healthy mental state. Disturbing factors are constantly present. Fortunately, the range of normalcy is wide enough so that temporary deviations do not stigmatize one as being queer. At times, however, the deviation from a healthy condition may be so serious as to constitute a mental disorder, or be the first steps in a complete breakdown. Common mental disorders.—Students of the problems of mental hygiene hesitate about dog- matic classification of mental disorders. In the first place many mental conditions may be traced back to physical weaknesses or organic changes. Secondly, some mental illnesses are combinations of several disorders, which may also occur in more or less isolated forms. For these and other reasons the casual student must be extremely cautious in his study of individual cases.°® It is beyond the purposes of this section to describe in detail the many kinds of mental illnesses. The symptoms of neurasthenia, hysteria, malingering and psychasthenia have 1 La Rue, Daniel W. Mental Hygiene. Macmillan Company. 1927. p. 69-78. Also, “The Background of Mental Health” in The Journal of the National Education Association 17: 211; ? Burnham, William H. op. cit., p. 580-82. 8 Blanton, Smiley, and Blanton, Margaret G. October, 1928. Child Guidance. Century Company. 1927. p. 212-24 Thom, Douglas A. Everyday Problems of the Everyday Child. D. Appleton and Co. 1928. p. 231-61 5 Wile, Ira S. The Challenge of Childhood. ©The importance of conservative and tasteful handling of mental disorders cannot be over-emphasized Thomas Seltzer. p. 170. The prac tical school worker can profit by the calm, unhurried scrutiny given to case-study data by recognized specialists of mental diseases. [ 61] : been adequately described elsewhere. The more serious pathological conditions such as melancholia, dementia precox, epilepsy and manic-depressive psychoses may be studied at length if one is interested. But the elementary school principal must be guided by certain facts: that the early stages of mental illnesses may exist in child- hood, that the repressive and strenuous influ- ences of environment may precipitate or in- tensify mental disorders, that factors such as fatigue, diet, nourishment, sleep and physical defects wield important influences and that many disorders may be prevented or cured by the early application of common-sense meas- ures. What does mental hygiene mean for the elementary school?—A complete study of mental hygiene would include discussion of mental disorders ranging from feeble-minded- ness through the complex psychoses. This sec- tion has not attempted such a complete pre- sentation, but has directed attention to certain deviations found to some degree in many typi- cal persons. Attention has been given to the evidence that many behavior problems of child- hood are due to an improper treatment of the elements of mental and emotional life. The elementary school principal cannot be expected to become a specialist in the treatment of emotional and mental disorders. But it is essential that he possess a degree of expert- ness. This degree of expertness will enable him to distinguish between cases similar to those of Richard and James. The primary teacher reported Richard as a “bad boy” who screamed in class, struck other children without cause and was gener- ally unmindful of the rights of others. About the same time the kindergarten teacher re- ported that James could not get along with other children, refused to participate in group work and was often guilty of striking other children. A casual study of both children re- vealed many similar elements, but the principal believed that careful case studies would reveal essential differences. With the aid of the school doctor, the school nurses, the teachers and the parents the prin- cipal secured the following data: CASE I. Name: Richard Age: 6 Grade: First Date: October, 1924 I. History of the family. A. Medical—Father frequently very ill. B. Social—Mother nervous type who con- stantly “nags” the child. C. Educational—Both parents high school graduates. D. Economic—Sufficient income to maintain a typical home. II. History of the individual. A. Medical—Never strong or robust. B. Social—Never allowed to play with other children because of father’s illnesses. No pets or hobbies. C. Educational—Did not attend the kinder- garten. III. History of present crisis. Unable to adjust to other children. Con- stantly fighting. Screams in class. Will not cooperate in classwork. IV. Present condition of individual. A. Physical—School physician reports gen- eral normal condition, excepting for slight under-weight condition. B. Appearance and _ behavior — Neatly dressed. Seems to want to play with other children, but does not know how to be- come acquainted. C. Intelligence—An I. Q. of 105 in spite of poor attention. D. Emotions—Quiet and moody most of the time. Pouts when scolded. Brightens quickly when praised. V. Conclusion. Child is evidently a product of home con- ditions. Repressive influences have prevented his socialization among other children. Par- ents need to revise the home program to provide more playmates and _ freedom. School feeding would help underweight con- dition. Teacher should assist child to make friends and participate in school activities. Principal can help by attention to child and coordinating the efforts of teacher and mother. CASE II. Name: James Age: 6 Grade: K Date: November, 1924 I. History of family. A. Medical—Parents apparently in good health. B. Social—No data. 1 White. vee A. Outlines of Teens Nervous and Mental Disease Publishing Company, Washington, D. C. ental 1919, La Rue, Daniel W. M. chology. cme Scribner’s Sons. 1926. Hygiene. Macmillan. 1927. McDougall, William. Outline of Abnormal Psy- [ 62] a yak — PS RAT ein os Sah SM a a | =) =zx.ouvnr. eS & eal a a oa C. Educational—Parents have had little schooling. Apparently “borderline” cases. D. Economic—Family often helped by county welfare agencies. II. History of the individual. A. Medical—No unusual illnesses or defects. B. Social—Child never got along with other children. Considered queer. C. Educational—Had started First grade. Placed in kindergarten to get socialized training. III. History of present crisis. Cannot follow directions. Apparently en- joys hitting other children. Frequently day dreaming in class. Unable to pay attention to anything for any length of time. IV: Present condition of individual. A. Physical—Several teeth proximately ten percent underweight. B. Appearance and behavior—Very dirty in person and clothes. Will not answer ques- tions. Obeys reluctantly. C. Intelligence—I. Q. of 75. D. Emotions—Moody. Scowls when spoken to. Seems to enjoy hurting other chil- dren. V. Conclusion. Child is evidently feebleminded. This con- dition aggravated by home conditions. Par- ents should stop whipping child for minor offences. School should place child in special mental class and provide school feeding. Principal, nurses and teachers must watch opportunities to make further individual and family adiustments.’ decayed. Ap- The careful analysis of all of the factors showed that Richard and James should be sub- jected to radically different treatment. In one case a potentially normal child needed assist- ance in becoming a social being. On the other hand, James needed special educational treat- ment and help in overcoming many inherited and environmental factors. 1 These cases have been presented in the form of the case ' Other ways of presenting data may be useful in a particular school. See, Pupil Adjustment in Pressey and Pressey. Junior and Senior High School by W. C. 2See: W. C. Reavis, Pupil Problem Child in School by Mary B. Sayles. 1925, 8A psychological discussion of the integrativ Reavis. lege, 1927. 93 p. 4 Helpful suggestions for cach subject of study will be found in D. C. Heath. 1927. Adjustment in Junior and Senior High School. D. C. Joint Committee on Methods of Preventing Delinquency New action of Education and the Integration of Behavior, Contribution to Education, No. 261, The cases of Richard and James illustrate in a simple way the application of basic scien- tific knowledge and procedures. Frequently cases will be complicated by hysteria, fears, kleptomania, sex perversions and similar diff- culties. ‘he principal must be able to rec- ognize the early stages of mental disorder so that he may enlist the services of competent specialists. But whether visiting teachers, psy- chologists and psychiatrists are available or not the principal cannot escape the responsibility of using standard technics in the adjustment of individual cases.” An integral part of the principal’s work is to provide wide opportunities for self-realiza tion by the pupils.* This may be done in each subject of study by providing systematic and purposeful learning conditions which make for satisfactions.‘ mental Another approach is through a program of extra-curriculum ac- tivities,° which offer natural tendencies socially acceptable outlets. These school activities can be directed into a scheme which is in reality a preventive program of mental hygiene.® As one phase of this program the principal should insist that his faculty consciously safe- guard the nerves and emotions of children. Fortunately, the professional training and com- mon sense of the typical teacher are such that he will be generally constructive with growing personalities.” However, there are instances of misunderstood children which more patience and correct information would have prevented. Probably elementary school principals would not report so much time given to disc ‘pline * “nudging and the if teachers interpreted the giggling as—demonstrations of childhood mis histories in Mental Abnormality and Dz ey by Heath. 1926 Also, The York ence has been made by Meredith social exper Smith in Bureau of Publications, Teachers Col- Ralph W. Pringle’s Methods with Adol ents. 5 Suggestions on extra-curriculum activities applicable to elementary education may be found in the following: Na tional Society for the Study of Education. “Extra-Curricular Activities,” Twenty Fifth Yearbook, Part II. 1926. 280 p McKown, Harry C. E-xtra-Curricular Activities. Macmillan. 1927. 617 p. Meyer, Harold D. A Handbook of Extra curricular Activities in the High School, A. S. Barnes and Company 1926. 402 p. Jordan, H. J. E-xtra-classroom Activities. Thomas Y. Crowell Company. 1928. 302 p. mural Activities in High School. D. C. Company. 7 W. H. Burnham presents many useful suggestions in his Great Teachers and Mental Health. D. Company. 1926. 351 p. 8 National Education Association, Department of Elementary School Principals. 189-90. Roberts, A. C., and Draper, E. M., Heath and Company. @ See references such as: Creative School Control by Philip W. L. Cox. Extra-class and Intra 1928. 529 p. Published in 1927 by J. B. lippincott Appleton and The Seventh Yearbook. 1928. p. [ 63 ] similar to the following illustrate the impor- tance of teachers having the patience and ability to diagnose personality difficulties. Orman came to the office with a note describing him as a “bad, wicked, and lazy boy.” He showed considerable nervousness, was unable to answer questions intelligently or speak fluently. In the classroom the child shrank from participation in any form. Investigation showed the teacher subjecting the child to public scoldings and punishments because “he seemed lazy” in class. The home showed (1) the boy to be the only child of elderly parents, (2) a rigid program of daily chores and few oppor- tunities for play, and (3) the frequent application of corporal punishment. The principal concluded that the combination of pressure from the school and home had made the child afraid to initiate or participate in activities. In cooperation with the parents the rigidity of the program was gradually reduced. The teacher was assisted in adapting her procedures. The child was given opportunities for recreation and warmly praised for any achievements. The cringing almost stupid classroom behavior gradually gave way to entirely normal conduct. The above case not only illustrates the role of the principal in assisting his faculty to a better handling of problem cases, but it also indicates the importance of home cooperation. Descriptions of case studies by specialists nearly always point to the influence of the home.* Objective data have been presented to show that the home influence on personality traits is probably more than it is in the case of intel- lectual traits.* Probably few cases of pupil maladjustment lend themselves to permanent treatment without the cooperation of the par- ents. To secure this cooperation requires a person with adaptability and tact, but there is no one more favorably placed to assume this role than the elementary school principal. Although most of the principal’s work will be done in individual cases there is a place for child-study groups. Parents can be brought together to receive reliable information and 1 Patri, Angelo. The Problems of Childhood. 2See: Wile, Ira S. The Challenge of Childhood. p. 163-227. directed, misunderstood, mismanaged.” + Cases to apply their knowledge in case studies plan of this kind makes it possible to reac! fathers of the community.* There are o tive data and tests to show that parental tudes may be modified by systematic inst tion in child-study groups.° The principal has an important place in ing the emotional and mental problems \ make for individual happiness. But ther: social angle which has not been general]; ognized. If these unbalanced nervous chi! simply grew into queer adults who did influence others the menace of neglected c| hood would not be so great. As it is, the evidence that repulsive crimes have been « mitted by persons who exhibited signs ot stability since early childhood. Emil Ludwie account of the last German Kaiser shows clearly early childhood damage of unfortunat: hereditary and environmental forces.® A recent study of a young murderer reveuls the superficial handling of early misconduc: the school and the home.’ The tragedy of many of these adult cases is that recognition of early symptoms and proper treatment might have prevented irre- parable damage to society. It has been sug gested that where these cases of delinquency prove too complex to be handled by an indi- vidual worker they might be referred + clinic group composed of a social worker o: visiting teacher, a physician, a psychologist, an educational expert, the child’s teacher, and the school principal. The recommendations 0 such a group would materially reduce the num ber of juvenile offenders brought before ' courts. Can the principal afford to ignore the vantages of a constructive program of ment! hygiene among the pupils and teachers ot school? Practices in school systems show ‘| physical health programs, intelligence and en tional tests, extra-class and other activities proving useful in (1) detecting mental \s = s D. Appleton and Company. 1926. p. vi of the preface. Thom, D. A., Everyday Problems of the Ever Child. pp. 27-49. Sayles, Mary B. The Problem Child in the Home. 1928. 342 p. 8 Freeman, Frank (and others). “The Influence of Environment on the Intelligence, School Achievement Conduct of Foster Children,” p. 211. Also, Burks, Barbara, “The Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture ( " Mental Development,” p. 309. Twenty-seventh Yearbook, Part I. National Society for the Study of Education. 1°25 *The father’s responsibility has been discussed by J. J. Walsh and J. A. Foote in Safeguarding Children’s Ner p. 152-53. SLaws, Gertrude. Parent Child Kelationships. Teachers College. 1927. p. 34. Contribution to Education, No. 283 Bureau of Pubicat * Ludwig, Emil. William Hohenzollern. Putnam. 1927. 528 p. ™Van Waters, Miriam. “Why Hickman Hangs.” Survey Graphic 50: 20-23; October 1, 1928. ®Van Waters, Miriam. Youth in Conflict. Republic Publishing Company. 1925. [ 64] p. 92. The hygier, the ele fession tact WV search preven tunitie of spec tate th teache: physici 1. BEER Cc rid 5 ¢ ) — mel tscok downs rs, (2) Preventing mental Dreakdowns, 3) in promoting an understanding of the nary .— -The statistics of the cost and ex f mental disorder indicate that this is a social problem. Approximately 300,- ‘rsons are seriously enough afflicted to be itted to institutions. There are probably times this number who are handicapped eir daily lives by minor mental and emo that ny mental diseases of maturity are prevent disturbances. Research indicates when scientific knowledge is applied at an age. Therefore childhood has been called “golden age” for mental hygiene. The existing facts in the field of mental ygiene place an important responsibility upon the elementary school principal. His own pro- fessional training, knowledge of children, con- tact with parents and responsiveness to re- search prepare him to meet the demands for preventive measures. In meeting these oppor tunities the principal will not usurp the work of specialists, but will do everything to facili- tate the efforts of his co-workers—the visiting teacher, the psychologist, the psychiatrist, the physician, the teacher, and the parents. Selected References 1, BEERS, CLIFFoRD W. A Mind that Found Itself (Revised Edition). Doubleday, Page and Company, Garden City, N. Y. 1927. A detailed insight into the mental condition of the insane by one who suffered in private and public hospitals for more than two years. The revised edition of this book contains a part dealing with the National Committee for Mental Hygiene. Mr. Beers describes the or- ganization and work of this committee with certain suggestions as to the role of the public schools, 2. BLANTON, SMILEY, AND BLANTON, MARGARET G. Child Guidance. The Century Co., New York. 1927. 301 p. Contains many case studies and principles developed by the authors in connection with the Child Guidance Clinic of the Minne- apolis Public Schools. Philosophy of the book is that it is better to prevent than to cure childhood behavior disorders. Child. 1925. Nervous w o ‘AMERON, Hector C. The Oxford University Press, New York. 233 p. An introduction to the application of psy- chology, physiology, and hygiene to the young School child. 4. Groves, Ernest R Personality and S§ F lad yustement Longmans, Green and ( New York. 1925. 296 p An attempt to apply scientific knowledge t social conduct. Chapters on the socia cance of fear, the emotional mat children, the inferiority complex and similar topics. Bibliographies §. LA Rug, DanieL W, Mental Hygien Mac New York. 1927. 443 Ihe tour parts of the book are discussion of millan Company, 1) a general mental disease and health 2 a genetic study of the self, 3) the mental hygiene of life problems and social adjust ment, and (4) the application of previous information and technics to problem children Many references to current psychology and recent research. Bibliography 6. Morcan, Joun, J. B. The Psychology of the Unadjusted School Child. The Macmillan Company, New York. 1926. 300 p A simplified treatment of mental peculiari ties and deviations of children. Many practi cal suggestions and illustrations based upon typical school practices. SayLtes, Mary B. Three Problem Children. The Commonwealth Fund, Division of Publi cations. (no date) 146 p. Detailed case study data on problem chil dren. Shows the assistance modern science offers to those interested in child welfare 8. SAYLES, Mary B. AND Nupp, H. W. The Prol lem Child in School. The Commonwealth Fund, Division of Publications, York. 1927. 288 p. New Case studies of common maladjustments of school children. Suggested solutions based upon sound psychology. References. 9. SayLtes, Mary B. The Problem Child at Home. The Commonwealth Fund, Division of Publi cations, New York. 1928. 342 p. A compilation of the experiences of parents and children in connection with child guidance clinics. Particular emphasis upon maladjust ments arising from home difficulties. Bibliog raphy. 10. THom, Doucias A. Everyday Problems of the Everyday Child. D. Appleton and Company, New York. 1928. 349 p. A book designed to show parents and others that the problem child is often the product of a problem environment. The material used in the book is drawn in part from the Habit Clinics of Boston. Many suggestions based on case studies. Bibliography. 11. VAN Warers, Miriam. Youth in Conflict, Re- public Publishing Company, New York. 1925. 293 p. Case studies from the writer’s experience as referee in the Juvenile Court of Los An geles, California. Chapters dealing with mal- [ 65 } adjustments of children in the home, the school, information and application of current and the community. Approximately half of the tific knowledge in the conservation o{ book given to juvenile court procedures and mental health of childhood. technics which have proven successful in ad- justing delinquent children. 13. Wire, IRA S. The Challenge of Child Thomas Seltzer, New York. 1926. 305 p 12. WaisH, JAMes J., AND Foore, Joun A. Safe- Based upon many years of work with « guarding Children’s Nerves. J. B. Lippincott hood problems in dispensaries, settlen Company, Philadelphia. 1924. 272 p. schools, homes, and penal institutions. A series of informal essays dealing with sentation of information and application the spoiled child, the nervous child, vital food based largely upon case studies. Divisions of and the nervous system, habit spasms, defec- book include studies of physical, intelle: tive children, and similar topics. Summarized emotional, and social problems. RONG BEHAVIOR ON the part of a child may frequently contain no element of per- versity or sin but may reflect solely the bad handling of his problem by parents or teachers whose motives are of the best and who believe that the steps they are taking are wise. Traced back to its ultimate source the trouble not infrequently lies in the failure of the respon- sible adults to understand and successfully manage some of their own problems. It is of great practical significance that the process which straightens out behavior difficul- ties likewise often eliminates factors which would make for lifelong unhappiness. Not all chil- dren who receive or need this kind of study are potential criminals or probable recruits for institutions which care for mental disease and defect. Many may struggle on through life burdened with a sense of inadequacy or with other handicaps of personality which blight their own happiness and that of family and friends. Others may through painful effort overcome or may outgrow their difficulties. The early removal of inner causes of unhappiness, with all that this means for the individual and for society, is the inspiring aim of effort such as is here described.—Three Probiem Children, p. 7-8. [ 66] was thi manite: with tl No tv from th can tw who are traits, e will pos of othe: formity, Exis ot stan group | of abil childre accordi Tab ligence tion 0} height individ interes’ teristic Sufficie tion th is a cc childre sent pl reality Recogr ences | 1No For this Also, Ta 2 Bu SW: ‘Su ci. 7 5 He tional Sc 8 Wi 39-40, ie hl RT >a eer te Individual ‘HE grouping of pupils into grades was ‘| rences.* ; ences. in early effort to recognize individual dif It was assumed that a child who had | in school one year belonged in a different p from one who was just starting to : |. Also, that tain pupils were slow, while the majority teachers soon recognized of the class progressed at a generally satisfac rate. But, not until objective and scien tific measures were applied to many persons was the extent of individual differences clearl\ m inifested.” Now there is reneral agreement with the following statement: No two leaves from the same tree, or two hairs Nor can two normal children, nor two adults be found from the same head, are ever exactly alike. who are absolutely alike in their physical or mental traits, even when they are “identical twins.” One will possess slightly more of some and slightly less of other traits. Diversity, rather than dead uni- formity, is the rule of life. * Existence of differences—The application of standard intelligence tests to an unselected group of school children reveals a wide range of ability. Table 5 indicates the percent of children on each intelligence quotient level according to two surveys. Table 5 reveals certain differences in intel- ligence between school children. An examina- tion of these same children in weight and height would reveal other differences between individuals. A study of emotions, avocational interests, mechanical skills and other charac- teristics would indicate individual peculiarities. Sufficient for our present purpose is the realiza tion that wide variation between individuals is a common condition among any g of children. Although these differences may pre- sent problems to school workers, they are in reality potential means of social progress.‘ Recognition of the significance of these diffe1 ences has resulted in an effort by progressive roup 1 No discussion of individual differences is comy For this reason, the reader is referred to the sections of Also, Table 12. 2 Buckingham, B. R. “Standards in Education.” ur ® Wallin, J. E. Wallace. Clinical and Abnormal Psych ‘Sutherland, A. A. “Factors Causing Maladjustment II, National Society for the Study of Education 1925 5 Holmes, William H. “An Example from Mount Ver tional Society for the Study of Education. 1926. p. 32-38, Time ® Wirt, William. 39-40, “Some Features of Distribution : Differences schools to adjust the educational program to meet individual needs TABLE 5.—PERCENT OF UNSELECTED CHILDREN IN THE DIFFERENT IN- TELLIGENCE QUOTIENT GROUPS Intelligence Quotient Kansas City Terman 56-65 1.1 66-75 3; 00 76-85 0 80-95 OO. i¢ 96-105 32. 1¢ 106-115 13.6 116-125 R R4 126-135 1.63 136-145 3 Numt ( 6.063 ( Med ( 100 on Source f d S han Lexie ) of the telliger © ation f Tw I sand Pri School Children ’ catior Re ’ 14:172; Table II, ¢ ‘ Terman, Lewis M The Measuren liges H hton Mifflin. 1916. p. ¢ Alth ugh the n Readjustment of the school.- advantage of meeting individual needs is ge erally recognized there is little agreement as Efforts t be » adjust to how it should be done. to changes in organization, administration, ma schools individuals may classified as terials of instruction, curriculums, and teach ing procedures. Although these terms are use ful for classification it will be found that the procedures in specific cases are often indis tinguishable. An of school organization is the Batavia plan with Under this plan the reg example change from traditional its many variations.® ular teacher is assisted by an extra teacher who coaches and encourages the laggards. ‘The pla toon school organization may also be used in providing for rapid, average, and slow working classes.°® of a ae f ] the menta I ene f lof E , 10 J é ) Hougl Mifflin 19 3 of Sch i lua Twenty-four Pp U non, New ¥Y Twenty-fourth Yeart at Gary. Indiana.” Twenty-fourth Year [ 67 ] Changes in school administration may be illustrated by the plan of ability grouping.' Under this plan the idea of class organization is retained, but the pupils are segregated into three groups on the basis of intelligence and achievement tests.2, The second step involves the adjustment of curriculum content and reading methods to meet the needs of each group. A common administrative adjustment to meet pupil differences is the provision of spe- cial classes for the mentally slow and the ex- exceptionally bright.® Adaptation to individual differences with emphasis upon changes in materials of instruc- tion can be illustrated by the systems of indi- vidual instruction.* Usually under these plans each child is provided with assignment books and materials which permit him to progress at his own rate. Group activity in the tool sub- jects is reduced to a minimum, although it may be provided for in certain activities.° Provision for individual differences through the curriculum has proven useful. While this effort is usually combined with other changes, such as ability grouping, it may be used in the traditionally organized school. Frequently dif- ferentiation through the curriculum takes the form of enrichment for the more able students. A more complete variation of this procedure is that of providing differentiated assignments in accordance with the ability of each pupil.’ Another scheme which endeavors to meet the problem of individual differences is the Dalton Plan. In this case the emphasis is upon changes in classroom procedure. The content of the curriculum may not be seriously ' Frazee, Laura. ber, 1928. ? Courtis, Stuart A. erland, A. H. “Ability Grouping in Los’ Angeles.” * Mort, Paul R. The Individual Pupil. 259-99, 5 Washburne, Carleton W. for the Study of Education. p. 257-72. “Administrative Aspects in Testing Individual Differences.” “Ability Grouping in Detroit Schools.” Twenty-fourth Yearbook, Part II. p. 47-48. American Book Co. *Washburne, Carleton, and Stearns, M. M. Better Schools. “A Program of Individualization.” McDade, James E. changed, although it must be organized into units. A laboratory room is established each subject and the pupil spends enough ime in each laboratory to complete at least on: of work. Pupils are free to work throug of the units in one subject or to complete a ini: from each subject. However, each mont so the assigned units in all of the subjects : be completed. The plan gives training in budgeting of time, freedom in working accord- ing to individual interests, and social ming! ing in the laboratories.* Evaluation of proposed schemes.—Plans o{ education designed to capitalize upon indi- vidual differences are relatively easy to make. A more difficult problem is to prove objectivel; that the plan has all of the advantages which are claimed. There are statistical data to show the advantages and weaknesses of several pro- posed schemes,® but this section will confine it- self to homogeneous grouping, individual! in- struction, and classes for the gifted. Homogeneous grouping.—Worlton *° made a comprehensive study of homogeneous group- ing in Salt Lake City. In this experiment 3700 children in the 4, 5, 6, and 7th grades were grouped in “classes which were as nearly homogeneous as possible with respect to the ability of the pupils to do the required work.” The basic assumptions in this grouping by o)- jective tests were: that intelligence is general, not specific in terms of subjects, and that pupils of equal mental ability have approximately equal needs.'* Every effort was made in Worlton’s stud) to control the quality of the teaching in homo- geneous and heterogeneous groups. The time Childhood Education 5:72-77; Twenty-fourth Yearbook, Part II. p. 44-47. 5 1928. p. 304-16. Chapter on “Making Schools Fit the Childre: Twenty-Fourth Yearbook, Part II, National 5 “The Mastery Unit Plan of Individual Instruction.” letin 8:78-80; January, 1929. Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association. * Smith, Margaret. 102-105. Ward, Mary A. (and others). lege."’ Twenty-fourth Yearbook, Part II. p. 60-82. 7 Reavis, W. C. book, Part II. p. 49-52. Miller, H. L., and Leonard, S. J. Twenty-fourth Yearbook, Part II. p. 52-57. 8 Parkhurst, Helen. hurst, Helen. Education on the Dalton Pian. E. * National Society for the Study of Education. 1926 "In this connection see: W. C. Bagley’s Determinism in Education, Warwick and York, 1925. [ 68] “Individual Work in the Sixty-first Street School.” “Individual System as Developed in the San Francisco State Teachers | “Differentiated Requirements in the University of Chicago High School.” 0 “Differentiated Assignments in the Wisconsin High Sch “The Dalton Laboratory Plan.” Twenty-fourth Yearbook, Part II. p. 82-93. P. Dutton. 7 Twenty-fourth Yearbook. Part II. ” Worlton, J. T. “The Why of Homogeneous Classification.” Elementary School Journal 27:265-74; Decen TwentyFourth Yearbook, Part [1 Twenty-fourth Year Also, I 1922. 278 p. 1925. p. 133-221. 194 p. 2 essed pe MORAN AI lat portu conce. pupils feelin ment, 8) | Th homo ire | techn failur needs abilit dull, He tain | failut abilit profe In ond 1 differ This feren situal sente subst instr Tl divid the ‘ tion upon of th ment detet unit aX om ao, I wo Publis menta +ments and supervisory guidance were the The conclusions for the homogeneous s were (1) more rapid progress in sub- of study, (2) more congenial social at phere in which to work, (3) more op- tunities for developing leadership, (4+) a ‘ter stimulus for individual effort, (5) in- ised happiness which comes from work -essfully accomplished, (6) a better op- tunity to curb the spirit of snobbishness and nceit which sometimes characterizes certain ipils and a better opportunity to develop a eling of confidence in pupils of slow develop ment, (7) fewer disciplinary problems, and 8) better morale among the teachers. Chree dangers of weaknesses associated with homogeneous grouping according to Worlton e (1) failure of teachers to adjust their technics to the abilities of the groups, (2) failure to adjust curriculum materials to group needs, and (3) unwise discussion of mental ibility of groups involving such terms as slow, dull, and superior. Homogeneous grouping has helped in cer- tain school systems to reduce the number of failures.t Other advantages and dangers in ibility grouping have been fully discussed in professional literature.” Individual Instruction —Probably the sec- ond most typical effort at meeting individual differences is that of individual instruction. This procedure has been applied in many dif- ferent places with technics peculiar to each situation.? The Winnetka program is pre- sented at this point since it offers evidence to substantiate many claims made for individual instruction. The curriculum of the Winnetka Schools is divided between the ‘ the “group and creative activities.” ‘common essentials’? and Instruc- tion in the common essentials proceeds largely upon an individual basis through the division of the curriculum into definite units of achieve- ment, the use of complete diagnostic tests to determine whether a child has mastered the unit and to locate his difficulties, and the use ‘Torgerson, T. L. “Is Classification by Mental Ages nal Research 13:171-80; March, 1926. *See the following: Dickson, V. E. Mental Tests 47-64. Freeman, Frank N. Mental Tests. D. C. Heath. 1924. p. 58-67. Houghton Mifflin. 1926. 1 83-89. ractice ma- of self-instructive, self-corrective p terials. Certain studies, such as history, em phasize group activities for the sake of socializ- A completing phase of the ing influences. tivities. A complete study has been made of the Win netka situation and comparisons made with similar communities.* Studies were made as to the intelligence and accomplishment ot pupils, the rate of learning under the indi vidual method, the concentration of pupils while studying, the richness of the creative program, the demands made upon teachers, and the cost of the system. As a result of care- ful measurement certain strengths and weak nesses were discovered. ‘The advantages of the individual method, according to the survey, were as follows: 1. The mastery of the tool subjects (reading, etc.) was better adapted to individual capacities than it is possible under the traditional class o1 ganization. 2. Grade repetition is eliminated, retardation is decreased, the proportion of children making nor mal and accelerated progress is increased 3. Greater amount of time for creative activi- 4. The efficiency of the work in the tool subjects as measured by standard tests is increased 5. The cost of the system does not appear to be greater. Certain disadvantages discovered in the general plan or detailed technic were 5 Ability to spell words not studied was lower in the Winnetka School. (A chatge in technic im proved this situation.) 2. Pupil concentration, as judged by the appear ance of attentiveness in the classroom, was less under the individual instruction. 3. The teachers were called upon for more work than in a typical public school system that An advantage, not mentioned above, is of the high-school those ti under the individual technic. A comparison of Winnetka pupils in the New Trier ‘Township High School with pupils from other similar success of uned communities revealed significant tendencies.® Although Winnetka furnished only 23 percent and Intelligence Quotients Worth While.” Journa f Edu and the Classroom Teacher. World Book C Paulu, E. M. Diagnostic Testing i Remedial Teaching. *See the Twenty-fourth Yearbook, Part II of the National Society for the Study of Education, 1925 * Washburne, Carleton; Vogel, Mabel, and Gray, W. S. A Survey of the Winnetka Public Sch P School Publishing Co. 1926. p. 15. *’ Washburne, Carleton, and Raths, Louis E. ‘The High School Achievement under the Individual 7 ”" Ele. mentary School Journal 28:214-24; November, 1927. |! 69 ] k Comy 1928. 383 | TABLE 7.—TYPES OF PROVISIONS FOR GIFTED CHILDREN BY CITY SIZE Type of provision Source of data: 126-33; February, 1927. | less than 20 ,000 | 20,000 | 49,999 | 2 3 Bw ad.0-< 0 2 | 24 2. By promotion, enrichment, et« | 5 34 3. Promotion by subjects (homo- geneous grouping). . 7 18 4. AYZ clasees........ 5 13 5. Special classes. 6 18 Total... 25 107 Jensen, Dortha W. “‘Present Provision for the Gi City Size | 50,000 100,000 | 500,000 over Total | 99,999 | 499,999 | 1,000,000 | 1,000,000 4 5 6 10 9 2 0 ; g 6 0 1 24 12 5 | 1 0 13 4 8 1 0 31 6 11 5 45 10 39 6 4 fted Child." Journal of Educational Research 15 [71] ee 2 ee —_ . [aa + of pupils.‘ But the possible weaknesses and inadequacies of standardized practices? will reveal the importance of the emotions, home conditions, playmates, and other potent influ- ences.* The suggestions of these sources will safe-guard him against unsound school pro- cedures and unwise claims of infallibility.* In his second obligation, the principal must become informed as to the organization schemes and instructional schemes affecting the teachers.° Current plans for reaching the in- dividual child need to be evaluated in terms of pupil improvement and adjusted in terms of school -size, community need, training of teachers, and the superintendent’s policies.° Any new plan of organization lessens its chances of effectiveness when teachers are not helped to adjust to the new standards, activi- ties and curriculum.’ Curriculum adjustments in terms of the different levels of ability are 1 See the following: particularly important.* The development informal teacher tests is an important phase curriculum development.’ Classroom instruc- tion can be materially improved by the p: cipal’s suggestions based upon the results standard tests.’° Under a plan of individual instruction teacher must be provided with standardiz. materials,'t or assisted in developing some « his own. When a principal urges a teache: change his technic he must stand by with en couragement and concrete assistance until |v has developed confidence in the new proc dures.'* Teachers should never feel that the principal is too busy for necessary confi ences.** The principal’s obligation to the pupil is met by a program that provides for the fullest de velopment of individual abilities in a socia! situation.'* Such a program not only provides Corning, Hobart M. After Testing—What? Scott, Foresman. 1926. 213 p Dickson, V. E. Mental Tests and The Classroom Teacher. Houghton Mifflin. 1926. How to Classify Pupus. Freeman Frank N. Mental Tests. McCall, W. A., and Bixler, H. H. bia University. 1928. 83 p. Smith, H. L., Trabue, Marion R. Wilson, Guy M., and Hoke, K. J. ? Kelley, ‘Iruman L. worth, Mary M. 158 p. and Wright, W. W. Tests and Measurements. Measuring Results in Education. How to Measure, (Revised). interpretation of Educational Measurements. Individual Differences in the Intelligence of School Children. World Book Company. 1923. 231 p. 3 p. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Co! Silver, Burdette and Company. 1928. 540 | American Book Company. 1924. 492 p. Macmillan. 1928. 597 p. World Book Company. 1927. Also, We Harvard University Press. 1 % See case study data in references such as, Pupil Adjustment in Junior and Senior High Schools by W. C. Rea\ dD. C. Heath, 1926. *An interesting debate on certain controversial issues has been reported: Bagley, W. C. “Educational Determinism, or Education and the I. Q.” School and Society 15: 373-84; Apr Whipple, G. V. “Educational Determinism; A Discussion of Professor Bagley’s Address at Chicago.” Sch and Society 15: 599-602; June 3, 1922. Bagley, W. C. “Educational Determinism Again: A Rejoinder to Professor Whipple’s Reply.” ciety 16:141-44; August 5, 1922. 5 See the following: National Society for the Study of Education. Individual Differences.” 1925. 410 p. Mort, Paul R. op. cit., 1928. 383 p. * Kyte, George C. “The Reorganization and Administration of an Elementary School.” Frazee, Laura. tion Vol. 2, No. 2. University of California. 1925. Childhoed Education 5:72-77; October, 1928. Twenty-fourth Yearbook, Part II. School and S “Adapting the Schools Publication in Edu “Administrative Aspects in Meeting Differences. 7 Discussed as a possible weakness of homogeneous grouping by Worlton in The Elementary School Journ 27:265-74; December, 1926, * Rugg, Harold. Study of Education. 1924. p. 91-121. ® See the following: l'otter, Charles. “The Testing and Correction of Language Errors.” “The Curriculum for Gifted Children.” Twenty-third Yearbook, Part I, National Society for Sixth Yearbook. Department of Ele mentary School Principals, National Education Association. 1927. p. 200-10. Russell, Charles. Classroom Tests. See the following: Ginn and Company. 1926. 346 p. Brooks, Samuel S. Improving Schools by Standardized Tests. Houghton Mifflin. 1922. 278 p. Courtis, S. A. Why Children Succeed. Courtis Standard Tests, Detroit. 1925. 271 p. C. “Educational Diagnosis of Fifty Individual Pupils.” Sixth Yeorbook. Jacobs, R. tary School Principals, National Education Association. 4 See list of publishers in Mort’s The 8, for artes , American Book Co. 1928. p. 373. les on individual differences. Bliss, Ethel H. Elastic Program Permeates the Primary.” 12 See: Childhood Education, October, 1928, for a gram for Five-Year Olds.” Sipple, E. “Gist, Arthur S. Elementary School Pt Mn “Examples of such work: Burdick, W. H. Freeman, Frank N. School Journal a’ 652-61; May, 1924. Kyte, G. C. n_ Experiment in the Education of Gifted Children.” First Yearbook. amg 4 5 Principele National Education Association. “The Bright Pupil—An Enriched Course in Place of Acceleration.” Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association. 1925. “The Treatment of the Gifted Child in the Light of Scientific Evidence.” Department of Elemen 1927. p. 217-28. “An Elastic P: Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1928. p. 108. Fourth Yearboo! p. 262- 71. Elementa» Department of E 1922. p. 71-80. Zirke, H. “Taking Care of the Gifted Child.” First Yearbook. Department of Elementary School P: cipals, Natioaal Education Association. 1922. p. 81-94. [72] cate their of e poin whic most! dure thei pare prov ties. NY exist are sive tion mat as b all « cert thro ence plan inst) drer 1 sent prin just man do | stim ents indi hom ber, ‘ cation 3 phasi mastery of the fundamentals, but many pportunities of group and creative activities. But it is not enough to set up this complete rogram unless each pupil is assisted in ad- isting himself to the various activities. Often the principal’s casual praise will be enough for the unresponsive pupils, but more than likely the most effective effort will be patient guid nce based upon complete case data.’ The fourth obligation is to the parents. The task is often imposed upon principals to indi ite to parents the individual development of their children.? Usually this will take the form f emphasizing the individual child’s strong an educational these abilities to the ut- points and urging program which will develop most. Sometimes it may seem the best proce- dure to inform parents of the weaknesses of their children. Then in cooperation with the parents the school may set up a plan to im- prove the child in regard to specific difficul- les. Summary—This section has emphasized the existence of individual differences. Such facts ire being increasingly recognized in progres- ive schoo!s. Various changes in administra- si tion, organization, curriculum, instructional materials, methods and so forth are advocated as best meeting individual needs. Apparently ull of the specific devices have some merit, but certain technics have demonstrated their value through objective measurement and _ experi- ence. Among the most generally acceptable plans are homogeneous grouping, individual instruction, and provisions for gifted chil- dren.® The problem of individual differences pre- sents many difficulties to elementary school principals. The principal must not only ad- just his thinking and procedures in terms of many individual factors, but assist his staff to Pupils need to be studied and Par- ents often require assistance in recognizing the do likewise. stimulated in terms of specific abilities. individual abilities of children which call for home and school cooperation. 1 Stenquist, John L. ‘The Research Bureau Meets Indi ber, 1928, *Smith, Eugene R. “Keeping Parents Informed About ation, July, August, September, 1927. p. 175-80. * This section has not considered the provisions for dull phasis upon this problem. For further reading on this impo Horn, John L. The Education of Exceptional Childr Inskeep, Annie D. Teaching Dull and Retarded C/ Wallin, J. E. Wallace. The Education of Handi Whipple, Helen Davis. Making Citizens of the Me ington, Illinois. 1927. 374 p. é (73 ] Selected References 1. CoRNING, Hopart M {fter T i , Scott, Foresman Company, Chicago. 19 13 p Describes how a superintendent used tes ita in improving the organization and instruction of his school system 2. Courtis, S. A. Why Children Su d. Ce is Standard Tests, Detroit. 1925. 271 p Ihe study aims (1) to isolate the factors which determine a child’s success in school, an 2) to show the application of scientific methods to edi cational problems. Appendix of tests, and statis tical formulas. Bibliography 3. Ho_LLiInGwortH, Leta S. The Gifted Child Ihe Macmillan Company, New York 1926 374 p. Summarizes and discusses research in relation to the gifted child. Chapters on history of the scientific study of children, the number of gifted children, the characteristics of the gifted, experimental education of the gifted school organization and the curricu lum. Bibliographies at the end of each chapter 4. Kerrey, TRUMAN L. IJnterpretati f Educa tional Measurements. World Book Company Yonkers. 1927. 363 p Unique features of the book are 1) the dis- cussion of achievement and intelligence measures in their mutual relationship, (2) the effort to eval uate the measures of reliability, and (3) ¢ rating of the general excellence of well-known intelligence and achievement tests. Bibliography 5. Mort, Paut R. The Individual Puf \meri can Book Company, New York. 1928 83 5 Discusses the instructional and administrative ising from the individual differences of problems ar children. Chapters on guidance, pupil placement, acceleration, retardation and class instruction in elementary, junior, and senior high school Brief treatment of classes for defectives, platoon schools Dalton and Winnetka plans. Appendix list of in fividual instruction materials 6. NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY OF EDUCATION I'wenty-third Yearbook, Part I. The Education of Gifted Children. Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois. 1924. 444 p Summarizes research and practice in the instruc idual D Childhood Education ) Oct the Deve it of Their Childre rogre e Edu and 1 because of , id rtant tort ec en. The Ce y Company, New York 1924 343 p iren, Mact in Company, New Yorl )2¢ 3 p pped Chilcrer Houghton Mifflin. 1924 + p. il Lin Put School Publishi: Cc y, I ae ve tion of gifted children. Data on the physical and mental characteristics of superior children. Objec- tive results from experimental organization and teaching procedures. Bibliography. 7. NATIONAL SocleTY FOR THE STUDY OF EDUCATION. Twenty-fourth Yearbook, Part Il. Adapting the Schools to Individual Differences. Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois. 1925. 410 p. Points out the maladjustments due to individual differences. Typical examples given of how schools attempt to adjust to individuals. Statistical data from various experimental individualization schemes. Discusses curriculum, teacher training, textbooks and similar special problems. Bibli- ography. 8. NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY OF EpUCATION. Twenty-seventh Yearbook, Parts I and II. Na- ture and Nurture. Public School Publishing Com- pany, Bloomington, Illinois. 1928. Part I deals with the influence of nature and nur- ture upon intelligence. Objective data showing the effect on intelligence of inheritance, race differences, home environment, school environment, health and special training. 465 p. Part II discusses the effect of nature and nurture upon achievement. Data from studies of the pos- sible influence upon achievement of school attend- ance, school expenditures and teaching methods. Presents data on the factors influencing special traits, i. e. mechanical ability. Summarizes relat: literature. 397 p. 9. PauLtu, EMANuEL M. Diagnostic Testing ani Remedial Teaching. D. C. Heath and Con pany, Boston. 1924. 368 p. Discusses the giving of standard tests and th adjustment of teaching to test results. Gives ex amples and applications of typical school situa tions. Appendix of test materials discussed in t} text. 10. TERMAN, Lewis M. Mental and Physical Trait of a Thousand Gifted Children. Gen Studies in Genius Volume I. Stanford Univ sity Press, Stanford, California. 1925. 648 | A study to ascertain the differences betwee: gifted children and children of ordinary mentality Data collected on more than 1400 children. Report on the physical, intellectual and emotional traits o/ superior children. Detailed report of procedures and statistical methods, but each chapter summa: ized in brief conclusions. 11. VAN WaAGENEN, M. J. Educational Diagnosis The Macmillan Company, New York. 192: 276 p. A manual of survey methods and principles o! school adjustment. Cites technics, tests, and record forms for gathering information on the individua! pupil. Discusses classification under different schoo! conditions. Suggestions on how to organize test data. P TO THIS TIME education has been concerned chiefly with pooled results and massed data. These are, of course, of service in determining general tendencies. General ten- dencies are, however, but a part of the story. The goal is prediction and control of the behavior of individual children. This is likeiy to be secured in education, as elsewhere, only through the use of particularized data made comparable through correction for the effects of divergent factors.—S. A. Courtis, Why Children Succeed. Courtis Standard Tests. 1925. p. 16. — > (ee twee often cent tentl being the ¢ Ac ing t T the « is re the | scho It loes shoul ment train supp acter by d R educ prim Rece prob dire C the amon nia C 260-6) a Build GTA EES have been used both to f juve prove and disprove the increase « e delinquency. It has been said that be tween 1910 and ffenders under the age of 34 years increased 1923 the commitments of 3.7 percent.2 Recently, more than 27 pet ent of the prisoners in Pennsylvania peni- tentiaries and reformatories were reported as eing under twenty-one years of age.*® Yet the Children’s Bureau Report states: Accurate information is not available concern ing the prevalence of crime among young people.’ Though there is general disagreement as to the extent of juvenile delinquency, the school is recognized as a potent force in improving the present situation. ‘This confidence in the school has been expressed as follows: It may be expecting too much of schools, but it joes appear reasonable that character training should go hand in hand with intellectual develop- School training serious consideration, but the public must ment. authorities are giving character support the movement. Knowledge without char- acter is valueless to the individual when surrounded by demoralizing temptations.® Renewed emphasis by schools on character education.—Character development has been a primary aim of American public schools.' Recently, the perplexing nature of many social problems has given character objectives new direction and emphasis.” Character education was not mentioned by the Committee of Fifteen in 1895,° but the Character Education Commission on the Curriculum gave approxi mately seventy pages to this subject i 120. Starbuck reported in 1927 that at least 150 “professional psychologists and other educ tors’ were ttempting to determine DY sclentihc methods the complex states and processes calle } ] character.2° There are hundreds of school sys tems in the United States with committees at work on programs in character education. Such activity does not necessarily mean the addition of more courses to an already crowded curric thousands of ulum. But it does show that 1 principals and teachers are attempting to mec rT - 8 = the demand ‘“‘for more training which shall im prove the morals of pupils and shall render } ral I SOCIAL pupils more competent to discharge thei obligations.” , ’ . ) Character education related to other prol lems.—Some of the literature of the field has been written as though character education were an isolated problem. Such discussions may be necessary and useful analyses, but they are not truly descriptive of the wholeness of life. Elsewhere in this Bulletin attention has been given to the health of children The re ° | } ] lation of health to conduct does not need to be Ihe facts presented on mental hy giene in this Bulletin are often suggestive a proved. to motives and urges in character develop ment.!® There can be little doubt of the con tribution to individual character of progressive education through social experiences in which moral qualities may be practiced.'* School prog ress as a factor is shown by ‘Terman’s report In connection with the chapter, see the sections of this Bu Table 13. 2Potter, Ellen C. “Spectacular Aspect of Crime in i ( Wa The us ty of Political and Social Science May, 1926. p. 14 5 Potter, Ellen C. Ibid, p. 18. 4 Abbots. Grace. Redort of the Chief of the Childres - I States Department of I , 5 Vollmer, August. “The Prevention and Detection of 1c as Vi | 1 I e O 1 in Academy of Political and Social Science May, 1926. p. 149. ®The Proceedings of the National Education Association reflect the trends in American I * Citizens, teachers, principals, superintendent ind college profe f education rated among the twelve very important subjects of the California element ol curriculum a rding t Califor nia Curriculum Study, W. C. Bagley and George C. Kyte, University of California Printing Of p. 24 60-61, 269, 277. * Moral training was given approximately sixteen lines. National E tion Association. Report f Fifteen on Elementary Education. 1895. 200 p. » National Education Associatio Department of Superintendence The Fourth Yeart I 1 379-4, 1 Starbuck, Edwin D. “Methods of a Science of Character.” Rel s Education 22:715; Se 4 Judd, Charles H., in the editor’s introduction to Charters’ Tea Ideals Macn n C " { 12See Reavis, W. C. Pupil Adjustment in Junior and Senior High hools. D. C. Heath and ¢ [ p. 302-316 13 White, William A. Outlines of Psychiatry. Nervous and Mental Disease Publishing Co., Washington, D. C “4 } Y j p. 7-12. Education 22:942-49; November, 1927. Building, 1921. Progressive See the following: Marriott, Victor. ‘“‘The Progressive Education Movement and Character Edu > Education Association, Progressive Education and Character [75 ] that gifted children who were skipped showed marked improvement in deportment as com- pared with gifted children who made normal progress.' A study of probationary court cases in New York shows that 50 percent of the de- linquents had been truant, retarded or other- wise maladjusted in school.? From the angle of society, character develop- ment is not an isolated or an academic problem. The Children’s Bureau after a study of 2,378 delinquent children reports 48 percent with parents who were alcoholic. Children brought into court for the second offense were more likely than first offenders to come from homes in which alcoholism was a problem.* More than 47 percent of 3,053 cases before a New York probation bureau were products of broken homes.* The potent influence of other environmental factors on conduct has been frequently demonstrated.® Problems in character education —lIt has been said that strictly scientific knowledge in the field of character education is almost nil.® The significance of this statement is evident when one endeavors to discover tested proce- dures. Current literature in character educa- tion contains contradictory practice and doubt- ful theories. Programs of character develop- ment may be naively based upon the theory of formal discipline, regardless of objective evi- dence to the contrary." We find the following basic questions still unanswered : 1. What terminology shall be used to desig- nate the new instruction? 2. Where shall we secure the basic content for character training? 3. How shall good character traits be effec- tively developed ? 4. How shall we determine the success character education ? What shall the new instruction be called The problem of the name for the efforts character formation is of more than casual | portance. Back of the name lies the philoso; which determines the content, purposes, « methods of instruction. The name religious education as propo by some is limited in its application. ‘The plication of creed in the word “religic makes it undesirable for public school inst: tion where sectarian beliefs must be exclude However, the term “religious education” acceptable to week-day classes held under va ous church and volunteer groups.° The terms moral education, moral instru tion, morals and manners, and ethics have been widely used. Often these courses have en phasized the morals, customs, or adult stan ards of the social group and ignored the natu ral tendencies of the individual child. Such instruction often becomes crystallized into rigid catechisms and preachments “about” goo conduct. Probably the most recently developed terms are those of character training and characte: education. ‘These terms have been genera!! accepted by national organizations and resear groups.’® Probably the tendency to approve t!) term character education is based upon the r: search which shows the importance of guidiny the habits and attitudes of young children. The term citizenship is frequently used in schools to denote work in- character develo; ment which utilizes a content of civic acti\ ities.’? Terman, Lewis M. Mental and Physical Traits of a Thousand Gifted Children. Stanford University Press. p. 630. 2 Cooley, Edwin J. 8 Abbott, Grace. op. cit., p. 18-19. Probation and Delinquency. ‘Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1927, p. 88. * Elliott, John L., amd McCloskey, Mark A. “Environmental Conditions and Crime.” The Annals. Ameri Academy of Political and Social 5 Cooley, Edwin J. op. cit., p. 87. ® National Education Association, Committee on Character Education. Science. May, 1926. p. 157-61. Milton Bennion, (Chairman). Chara Education. United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1926, No. 7. p. 2. ™Dr. Whipple discusses the uncritical application of formal discipline in the Twenty-fifth Yearbook, Natio: a for the Study of Education. 1927. p. 208-9. ® Religious instruction in connection wit School Administration, * See articles such as: “A Study of the W public schools has been discussed by Ellwood P. Cubberley in his S! Houghton Mifflin, My Oe 718-33. -day Bible School in Oregon” by Francis F. Power and Homer | Rainey, Elementary School Journal 28: 460-66; February, 1928. 1° National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Fourth Yearbook, p. 379. Also, Committee Character Education. Also current issues of Religious Education, Journal of the Religious Education Association. 4 University of Iowa. “Untruthfulness in Children; Its Conditioning Factors and Setting in Child Nature.” Stw in Character, Vol. 1, No. 4. 12 See city courses of study such as: Norfolk, Virginia, Character Education in Norfolk Elementary Schools, 192° Oakland, California, C Character Development, 1924. Education Through Activities; Boston, Massachusetts, Course in Citizenship Throw: [76] _— ne - ea chs es TC. sea4 strut and adul shall tion Prot com ous I ulun that both St tend coml The upon char: desc1 ence: love creas train carry In curri covel trait: are | three curri traits and to ha R 1 4 2 Makin i [he name used in schools to designate work character development is of some signifi ce. The initial start and encouragement :n to such work will depend on whether name creates a cordial attitude or merely Nor is the lem of terminology restricted to the gen- juses suspicions and prejudices. i] name. Current writing in the field shows uncritical and indiscriminate use of such rms as: honesty, virtues, qualities, direct in- ruction, indirect instruction, and activities. Where shall the content be secured?—The search for the content material in character in- truction arouses the older problem of social ind individual needs. Shall the morals and adult standards of society be emphasized? Orr, shall we concern ourselves with the integra- tion and adjustment of the individual's traits ? Probably an emphasis on either demand to the complete neglect of the other would be a seri- ous mistake. Here, as elsewhere in the curric- ulum, we must recognize the general principle that the curriculum arises from the needs of both the child and society.” Starting with the child we discover impulses, tendencies and attitudes which represent the combined effects of heredity and environment. The nature of these traits and their influence upon conduct suggest many activities for the character education curriculum. Neumann has described these curriculum activities as: experi- ences which arouse distaste for the vile and love for the admirable, knowledge which in- creases understanding of human life, and training in persistent, resolute, and efficient carrying out of sensible purposes.*® In the approach to the character education curriculum from the group standpoint we dis- cover the virtues which society rewards, the traits which are admired, and the actions which are socially successful. Charters stated the three problems of developing a moral education curriculum as: selecting the most important traits, determining the crucial life situations, and deciding upon the right actions necessary to handle the life situations.‘ Recent courses of study in character educa- high in conduct.® tion and citizenship show that the content ma terials are being selected with both the individ ual and society in mind.® How shall character be developed children \\ he n were considered as being “little adults” and moral education a matter of im | posing training from without, the method of instruction was largely direct and dictatorial. Standards of conduct were evolved by adults and coded into formulas for children to memo rize. Noah Webster included a moral cate chism in his American Spelling Book of 1822. Some direct quotations are as follows: d Question. What is moral virtue: Answer. It is an honest upright conduct in all our dealings with men. Question. What is humility? Answer. A lowly temper of mind. Question. What is industry? Answer. It is diligent attention to business in our several occupations. Question. Do not careless, slovenly people work harder than the neat and orderly? Answer. Much harder. It is more labor to de- stroy a growth of sturdy weeds than to pull them up when they first spring from the ground. So the disorders and abuses which grow out of a sloven’s carelessness in time become almost incurable. Hence, such people work like slaves and to little effect. Question. What is justice? Answer. It is giving to every man his due. The tendency to formalize character in- struction is still which depend wholly upon poems, stories, found in courses of study moral codes, pledges and proverbs to develop desirable personal qualities. The basic assump tion of these devices is that general facts about honesty, thrift, helpfulness, respect, and loyalty can be learned by the individual so as to safe guard him in all specific situations. In other words wide knowledge of right and wrong will automatically result in good conduct. But objective tests indicate that persons who rate high in moral knowledge do not necessarily rate This condition can readily 1A helpful book on terminology is The Teaching of Ideals by W. W. Charters, Macmillan, 19 2 National Society for the Study of Education. Twenty-sixth Yearbook. Part II. “The Foundations of Curricul Making.” 1926, p. 12-14. . * Neumann, Henry. ‘The Child’s Moral Equipment and Development” in The Child; His Natur Needs. p. 91. *Charters, W. W. op. cit., p. 48. 5 See: “The Teaching of Citizenship in the Elementary School.” faryland School Builetin, Vol. 8, No. 1, 1926 p. 262. Also: “Socializing Integrating Activities.’ St. Louis Public Schools. September, 192¢ ®* Hartshorne, Hugh, and May, Mark A. “Testing the Knowledg¢ f Right and Wrong.” J I tion 22:526; May, 1927. [7 See also: Studies in Deceit, Macmillan. 324-29 1928, p. — be understood when one observes closely how automatically children repeat salutes and moral codes. An elementary school principal, who had always prided himself on the facility with which his pupils could repeat the Flag Salute, was surprised to get the following written statements from the Third and Sixth Grades: I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States and to the Republican for which it stands, ete. I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States and to the republic for which it stands, one nation in the visible, with liberty and justice for all. Routine repetitions often lack conviction be- cause the pupils are not individually affected by the exercise. This does not mean that these direct approaches do not have a place in a pro- gram of character education! but the teacher who is satisfied with lip service as evidence of a developing character has certainly forgotten that “genuine character is always the outcome of what the child wishes at heart to do and be.” 2 In contrast with instruction which empha- sizes good conduct directly there exist certain indirect methods. Many teachers endeavor to give moral instruction through the regular courses.* Honest work, promptness, accuracy, and other qualities are emphasized as related to the work of these teachers. Often the teacher himself by his own personal acts has set a standard of good conduct which proves contagious among the pupils.‘ Objective data exists to show that the teacher is one of the most potent factors in establishing habits of good conduct.® Recently, teachers have amplified their char- acter education methods through clubs and pupil-control activities.* In school activities of this type children learn good social conduct in life-like situations.". Probably even more im- portant is that the individual learns the joy of self-direction and the conscious responsibility 1 Charters, W. W. op. cit., p. 183-211. Neumann has described ¢}), practice of these facts as follows: for his own acts. The old way discouraged the doing of wrong what is called breaking the will. The better way seeks to develop the will by providing opportu for self-direction. Kindergarten children are giyen lumps of clay and allowed to make whatever t! choose. One little fellow decides that he will mak; an inkstand, let it dry, shellac it, and carry it home proudly as a gift. But this result depends on the use he makes of his liberty. He may waste the tiny or, after beginning on his inkstand, he may want to change it into an automobile or a chicken lik: his neighbor’s. But when the morning is over and the boards must be put away, he knows that he has only himself to blame if he has nothing to show His choice is his own, and with it goes a readily understood responsibility for the outcome.® Wilson has summarized the five essentia! characteristics of progressive classroom pro- cedure as follows: (1) be meaningful, signiti cant and purposeful to the pupils at the tiny that they are engaged in doing them; (2) be socially valuable—valuable in equipping tly pupils for doing successfully any legitimate thing which they may undertake at any time (while children, or in later life) ; (3) be so carried forward that they appeal to the whole child, not just to his intellect or some othe: partial ability or quality of the child; (4) se- cure thoroughness of mastery and integrity ot effort on the part of each child; and (5) con stitute an on-going, developing integrating pro- cess of growth.°® Charters states five basic principles in the teaching of ideals*® which effectively sum marize the above discussion : 1. Diagnosing the situation. Before beginning program of training we must analyze’ individuals and groups to determine the abilities, ideals, interest and difficulties of significance to our teaching. 2. Creating desire. Only when the individual loves righteousness and the other admirable trait actions will his conduct be permanently changed. 2 Neumann, Henry, in The Child; His Nature and His Needs, p. 91. 8 Salisbury, Ethel I. Fourth Yearbook. Department of Superintendence, National Education Association. Neumann’s Education for Moral Growth. D. Appleton, 1923. *Neumann, Henry. Education for Moral Growth. “Way of Teaching the Elementary School Subjects so that They Contribute to Character.” 1926. p. 407-13. Also, Henry Chapter XIII on the moral value of the various studies. Chapter XVII on the teacher in moral education. 5 Hartshorne, Hugh, and May, Mark A. Studies in Deceit, p. 324-29. ®See such references as the following: National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Fourth Yearbook. p. 421-31. Activities in Public Schools.” 1926. 280 p. * Charters, W. W. op. cit., p. 161-82. 8 Neumann, Henry. Education for Moral Growth. ® Wilson, H. B. (Chairman). Education Association. 1926. p. 413. 1% Charters, W. W. The Teaching of Ideals. Macmillan [78] National Society for the Study of Education, Twenty-fifth Yearbook, Part II. “Extra-curricular p. 193. “Character Education.”” Fourth Yearbook. Department of Superintendence, Nationa! Co. 1928. p. 5-13. ~~, rn wl cd Oe ees moral « shown 4, Re ment 0 Kn wl In many : that th princip gent Cc Gre cause | indire may b seems mainly rect il summ: as fol! 1. [1 of tra builds situatic 3. F forth traits tuality school ated 1 these | and di 3. D direct brings velope cation directl forth. exercis urges. self-as 4. P actert lery,” the in and st cepted self su fellow: nature eS AR BES alg Sn PE Ln Developing a plan of action. The desire to be al does not function efficiently unless the child is vn how to make applications to many situations. +, Requiring practice. The complete develop- ment of ideals requires opportunities for practice. Knowledge must be applied to concrete situations. Integrating personality. Moral nany specific situations needs to be generalized so that the person will act in terms of a few great and intelli- behavior in neiples. This makes for consistent vent conduct. Gregg has criticised the direct method be The indirect method is often inadequate because it The most promising attack cause it is not psychological and natural. may be accidental. seems to be the inductive method which is mainly indirect for the pupil, but clear and di- rect in the mind of the teacher. Gregg has summarized the steps of the inductive method ' as follows: 1. Indirect stimulation of trait actions as the basis of trait percepts in the classroom. ‘The teacher builds a realization of punctuality by creating school situations whick demand punctual behavior. 2. Vicarious introduction through story and so forth to non-school trait percepts and to school traits in non-school situations. In Step 1 punc- tuality is only associated in the pupil’s mind with school situations. How can the concept be associ- ated with life situations? Largely by bringing these life activities into the classroom through story and drama. 3. Development of trait concepts by using the direct method in regular weekly lessons. This step brings together the background experiences de- veloped by Steps 1 and 2. The meaning and appli- cation of the trait punctuality is approached rather directly through discussion, dramatization and so forth. The concept punctuality is emotionalized by exercising the idea in connection with the inner urges. These urges include the tendencies toward self-assertion, self-subjection and others. 4. Provision for motivating the proposed char- acter trait through the stimulation of a “social gal- lery,” such as a school club. In the previous steps the individual has been led to understand, accept and strive for punctuality. Now this trait is ac- cepted by the group and the individual finds him- self subjected to the approval or disapproval of his fellows. Conscience will then develop, for it is the nature of conscience to cause one to be elated if his ‘Gregg, F. M. “Inductive Method of Character 1929, ? Rugh, C. E. “The Means and Meaning of Character Education.” dence, National Education Association. 1926. p. 448. Education.”” An “ ~. ! ' social gallery or group moral act vr approves a to feel dejected if the social group disapproves an immoral act. 5. Conversion of the concept into an ideal (an emotionalized concept) through the influence of motivating forces. The idea of punctuality becomes associated with the feelings. The individual “falls in love” with punctuality because the group ap proves and punctual behavior brings satisfaction 6. Conversion of the idea into a confact or gen eralized conduct response through frequent oppor tunities for habituation in such a way that they will transfer to life situations outside of the classroom. This step involves the generalization of the concept punctuality until the individual readily and habitu ally manifests the trait. The manifestation is a conduct response to peripheral, verbal or often sub- tile stimuli. Readiness to respond depends upon how well the habit has been established and whether the necessity for punctuality provokes a favorable attitude. The procedures discussed in the above para- graphs have implied group methods only. But Rugh has pointed out that in the case of indi- viduals “the freedom and power to achieve good character carries by implication the possibility of failure through disobedience and wrong ac- tion.”? ‘This does not mean that character ed- ucation should provide pitfalls, but rather that teachers must be prepared to help individuals who have inadvertently fallen into evil ways. Such help becomes in a real sense a technic in individual character instruction. Some have called this approach the case study hygiene method. The attitude of proach is that misconduct does not call for dis cipline so much as it does for study and the ap The in ’ or mental this ap plication of experimental methods. vestigator attempts to discover the underlying causes of maladjustment, the special interests and abilities. On the basis of scientifically de termined data a program is set up to develop self-control and balance with the minimum of imposed guidance. Such a plan in character education is of unusual value for it strikes di- rectly at the roots of the difficulty and fur nishes the student with procedures for making future adjustments without external assistance. The above paragraphs have not touched di- er in Educational Digest 48: 222, 224; January, Fourth Yearbook. Department of Superinten- * Reavis, W. C. Pupil Adjustment in Junior and Senior High Schools. D. C. Heath and Company. 1926. 348 p. * See the following: Sayles, Mary B. The Problem Child in School. Joint Committee on Methods of Preventing Juvenile Delinquency, New York City. 1925. 287 p. Cavan, Ruth S. “Character Education in Public Schools,” Religious Education 22: 917-18; November, [ 1927. 9] rectly upon the question of scheduled classes in character instruction. Neumann has stated the advantages of regular moral instruction as: emphasizing the importance of the subject, offering the teacher an opportunity to bring to- gether the children’s experiences and thinking in other fields, and the cultivation of moral thoughtfulness and standards of a higher kind than those which are merely customary.’ Yet, some school workers feel that special classes and hours tend to formalize character education into an ineffectual ritual. This is a problem to be settled by each principal in terms of the potent factors connected with the teaching staff, the pupils and the community. Certainly the problem cannot be settled dogmatically without careful investigation of local condi- tions. TTow shall we test the effectiveness of our teaching?—The first test of any system of character education is conduct.? Not conduct when the individual is “trying to impress some- body” or knows that he is observed, but actions which express the true personality. The best period for the evaluation of a pro- gram of character education would be the whole lifetime of a group of students. Since a longitudinal study is impractical for the im- mediate demands of practical instruction, we must resort to cross-sectional studies by means of tests or rating scales. Neither tests nor rating scales in character training have proved entirely reliable or satis- factory.’ This condition has been due to the intangible and fluctuating nature of the many personality factors. A summary of tests and rating scales will be found in the Nebraska Course of Study. A recent study of deceit among children discusses the use and results of character tests.5 Terman reports certain tests and trait rating in studying a group of gifted children. The Iowa Plan contains several self-measurement scales for different grad pupils.” A comprehensive summary and ography of personal trait measurement cluded in the report of the Committee on ( acter Education of the National Edu Association. Other summaries of cha: measurements have been made available \: rent publications.°® Many objections have been raised character tests because of the intangible n of character. Some of these same criti were raised against mental and achie\ tests when they first appeared. As in th of mental tests the greatest danger lies i; abuse rather than the use of characte: Watson points out the solution of cha: testing problems will be found by not fewer tests, but more.’° Watson’s warni: regard to character testing merit careful ; tion, (1) no individual is measured by the of an isolated test, (2) testing situations n be controlled so they can be repeated, (3 sponses must be defined objectively, that tly may be widely understood, and (4) tests mus: include a large sampling of behavior so ' prediction becomes more reliable. Probably, in the present state of characte: test development, the elementary school p: cipal will prefer to confine his activities to th simple rating charts of report cards. An an sis of typical cards shows provision for rat under such headings as: habits and attitude desirable in good citizenship, factors determi: ing success or failure, and deportment.' W hat does character education mean for | elementary school principal?—The lack strictly scientific knowledge in the field character development has resulted in man “short cut” met! Whether a! the efforts in this confusion will prove enti: reliable is beyond the field of the element theoretical discussions, and doubtful research studies. 1 Neumann, Henry, in The Child; His Nature and His Needs. p. 102. 2 Morrison points out pn gon conduct does not always indicate the right attitude. See: The Principles of 1 ing in the Secondary School b be * Brown, F. J., and She madine, Marguerite. Journal of Educational Research 18: C. Morrison. University of Chicago Press. 1926. p. 373-400. “A Critical Study in the Objective Measurement of Chara 290-96; November, 1928. *Gregg, F. M. Nebraska Course of Study in Character Education. p. 32-36, 78-85, 139-41, 156-61,170-79. ®S Hartshorne, Hugh, and May, Mark A. Studies in Deceit. Macmillan, 1928. 72 20 p * Terman, Lewis M. of. cit., p. 485-555 ' Character Education Methods, The Iowa Plan. Hetionel Capital Press, Washington, D. C. p. 28-40. § National Education Association. op cit., p. 35-4 ® See the following references: Watson, G. "B. “A + Review of Measures of Personality Traits.” of Educational Psychology. February, 1927. Watson, G. B. ‘Character Tests of 1926.” Vocational Guidance Mog April, 1927. May, M. A., and Hartshorne, Hugh. “Tests of Character and Personality.” 1926: 2%” Watson, G. B. “Character Tests.” Psychological Bulletin. Religious Education 22: 504; May, 1927. ; ™ Dickson, Virgil E. ‘“‘Rating Plans as a Means to Character Education.” Fourth Yearbook. Department of Su): tendence, National Education Association. 1926. p. 438-41. [ 80] ments ality. motiv demat moral Th home, must prehe [mpo the n societ help | Fo cultiv his O7* listme moral types nics ? ellie ie sos es ae ke OT OE | principal. He is faced with the fact school keeps and that he has a major role he character training of the children in his rve. How can he best discharge this func- f First, if he has not already, the principal uld arrive at a clear cunception of the place He must lize that “the highest degree of social wel- is reached when fully developed individ haracter training in the school.? s are integrated in such a manner as to place the service of the group the best that each vidual has ts offer.” * This is but another y of saying that education must produce ral persons. Can the elementary school deny it it has a part to play in moral development ? Second, the principal must equip himself with knowledge of the scope and nature of He must know the ele- iracter education. ments and factors which go to make person- itv. What desires and of children motivate actions? What virtues does society How does the child develop into a urges demand ? moral being? * Third, the principal should realize that the home,* the church and other social agencies must be expected to play their parts in a com- prehensive program of character education.° [mportant among these cooperative efforts is the movement to improve the moral tone of society at large by appealing to all citizens to help by their own example of good character.' Fourth, the principal must plan, install, and cultivate a program of character instruction in his own school.? Such a plan requires the en- listment of each teacher as a potent force in the moral instruction.* The various devices,° types of content material and teaching tech- must be utilized insofar as they prove nics 7° 1 National Education Association, Department of Sup« 2 National Education Association, Department of Super rintendence. helpful. Crystallization of character inst tion into devitalized rituals can be combatted by recognizing the feeling elements of child nature, adaptation of the program to individ ual needs, and providing life-like school a tivities. Fifth, the progressive principal will seek to evaluate the school program and adjust the school procedures in terms of best practice and research.'? Outstanding characteristics of th present development in character training are the new methods, devices and theories of in struction. ‘Lhese new developments must evaluated and discarded or woven into the existing program. ‘The program which does not improve individual behavior and attitudes study and adjustment until it needs furthet1 becomes effective. Yet in attempting research in character education the elementary school principal may profit by the warning by May: Character education is just now in grave danger of getting ahead of science. A sound and scientific character education is sure to come, but it will not come suddenly. Great educational changes are the results of years of careful study and laborious research. Summary.—Statistics are not complet enough at the present time to prove or dis prove the existence of an unusual crime wave But data sufh cient to indicate to school workers that the de among American youth. are velopment of good character traits is an essen tial aim of all education. Recent research has so clearly demonstrated the formative nature of the early years that the elementary school period is recognized as particularly important in the development of basic social habits and attitudes. Fourth Yearbook. 1926. 1 intendence. The Sirth Yearbook. p. 49 8 National Education Association, Committee on Character Education. of. cit., p, 2-17. ‘Cleveland, Elizabeth. “If Parents Only Knew.” Children, The Magazine for Parents. May, 19 ' 6 The procedure in one community has been described by R. S. Newcomb in “Introducing Moral and Religi Instruction in the Public School.”” Elementary Sci Journal 2¢ 782-86; June, 1926. ® National Education Association, Committee on Character Educatior op cit., p. 2 7 Sisson, Edward O. “What Can the School do More for Characte gious Education 22: 926-31: Nove e1 ® How a principal enlisted teachers and parents, described by R. E. Pollich, “An Experiment in Moral Educa on Elementary School Journal 26: 674-82; May, 1926 ® Morgan, Walter E. “What the Schools of the United States e Doing to Promote Character Fd rth Yearbook. Department of Superintendence, National Education A tior 1926. p. 383-90 ” Wilson, H. B. “Training for Efficient American Citizenshij Thr re th Tun Red Cross / National Education Association. 1928. p. 91-103. Also, “Character Training Through Student Organizatio: ( F. Roys and “Character Training by Means of Patriotic Pageants,” by Da Hamn Proceeding Nat ll ssociation. 1928. p, 401-7. 1 Wright, Myrtle L. “The City Make-Believe 4 Project in C ter Building ar Citizens} ntary 01 Journal 26: 376-86; January, 1926. “ Starbuck, Edwin D. “Methods of Science of Character Education ] Education ) 13 May, Mark A. “What Science Offers on Character Educatior In J ling Character, p. 4 [ 81] The practical results of these facts are the developments in character education content and procedures. ‘These activities in the school show an effort to meet the needs of both so- ciety and the individual. The proper guidance, development, and evaluation of many of these new advances in character education will de- pend upon the elementary school principal. Yet the intangible nature of character traits and the danger of irreparable damage to grow- ing personalities will make the progressive prin- cipal cautious as to the extent of his experi- mental efforts. Selected References 1. Cuarrers, W. W. The Teaching of Ideals. The Macmillan Company, New York. 1928. 372 p. Discusses the selection of ideals and situations for character education. Chapters on trait actions, individual instruction, indirect moral instruction, direct moral instruction, rewards and penalties, reasoning, conduct, measurement of traits and similar topics. Includes references to current prac- tice and research. Bibliography. 2. CuicaGo AssOCcIATION FOR CHILD STUDY AND Parent Epucation. Intelligent Parenthood. University of Chicago Press. 1926. 326 p. Proceedings and discussions of the March, 1926 conference. Includes both popular and academic material. 3. CHicaGoO AssoOcIATION FOR CHILD STUDY AND ParENT Epucation. Building Character. Uni- versity of Chicago Press. 1928. 345 p. Practical discussions by many recognized au- thorities. 4. Greoc, Frev M. A Course of Study in Char- acter Education. Nebraska State Department of Instruction, Lincoln, Nebraska. 1927. 205 p. A manual for teachers of character education. Considerable emphasis upon the psychology of in- struction during the different periods of childhood. Contains several rating scales, moral codes and character tests. Bibliography. 5. HARTSHCRNE, HucH, and May, Mark A. Studies in Deceit. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1928. 720 p. An extensive application of tests and measure- ments to character traits. Particular emphasis laid upon technics for measuring deceptive behavior. Book One summarizes the general methods and re- sults. Book Two includes statistical methods and results. Large portions of the contents of both sec- tions applicable to school situations only by princi- pals trained in statistical and research methods. 6. MARYLAND DEPARTMENT OF EbDUCATION. Che Teaching of Citizenship in the Elemen:ay School.” Maryland School Bulletin. A 1926. 262 p. A state manual in the teaching of citizens)jp Based upon practice in the through activities. Maryland schools. lar class instruction. Many projects related to | Bibliography. 7. NATIONAL EpucaTIon AssociATION, Committ: Character Education, Milton Bennion, Chair- man. Character Education. United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1926, No. 7 89 p. Government Printing Office, Washington. D. C. Summarized statements by sub-committees on pro- cesses in character education, classroom procedure curriculum materials, school community, characte; scales and measurements, teacher training, delin- quency and plans for study. Bibliography. 8. NATIONAL EpuCcATION ASSOCIATION, Deparr- MENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. Fourth Year|ook National Education Association, Washington, D. C. 520 p. About eighty pages of this yearbook are given to character education. Topics discussed include: what the schools are doing to promote character moral codes, research in character education, rat- ing plans and the means ef character education Bibliography. 9. NEUMANN, HeENry. Education for Moral Growth. D. Appleton and Company, New York 1923. 383 p. Draws the attention of parents and teachers to the moral resources of the school. Points out that school studies, social contacts and similar factors are opportunities for developing desirable habits, attitudes and ideals. Cites many examples of school practices. Bibliography. 10. Norro.tK City ScnHoors. “Character Education in the Norfolk Elementary Schools.” Bulletin No. 1. 1928. 207 p. A manual of codes, projects and procedures used in the Norfolk schools. Photographs of pupil ac- tivities. Bibliography. 11. OAKLAND Pustic ScHoors. Building Character Through Activities. Oakland, California. 121 p Includes description of clubs, dramatizatio: handwork, school organization, rating and othe: activities used in the Oakland schools. Bibliography. 12. STARBUCK, Epwin D. and SHUTTLEWORTH, FRANK K. A Guide to Literature for Character Training, Volume I. The Macmillan Compan) 1928. 389 p. An attempt to gather in one volume a list of the “first rate” stories for children. Recommende! stories have been classified according to ethica! situations, quality and grade levels. Index stories, authors and publishers. [ 82] At NA 8 i: § Be: ea two Mm Vo with } Lhe pre sch primal to ins early, school tion.” The or pal make scienti ing th of pat for an Alt mover many school coope! ment porter Em of the systen thirty group medic develc ality « and e Th involv defect 1Tr 2A Study « erghth ’™ p. 39-4 ‘HH Princip 245 p. I ea ees tHE realization of the importance of the | early years of childhood has resulted in movements: the systematic education of young child and the assistance of parents vith home problems. [he first movement is generally known as school education. It has manifested itself primarily in special schools and clinics designed to insure a healthy environment during the early, formative years. Certain aspects of pre school education will be discussed in this sec- tion.” [he second movement is known as parental or parent education. ‘This is an attempt to make available to parents the best of present scientific knowledge which may be used in solv ing the problems of home life. “he discussion of parent education has been largely reserved for another section of this Bulletin. Although in many local situations these two movements may be largely separate they have many common elements.’ No program of pre- school education is complete without parental cooperation while the parent education move- ment has found some of its most active sup- porters among the parents of young children.’ Emphasis upon child study.—The problems of the preschool period of childhood have been systematically studied only within the past thirty years. Research in this field can be grouped under certain heads: medical phases, studies of physical and mental studies in the development, studies of emotions and _ person- ality development, and studies of instructional and educational problems. The medical work with the preschool child involves: pre-natal care to eliminate congenital Preschool Education child reduce disease and deaths, and the correction of physical detects mothers, care to Research and experimentation in these fields have often been stimulated by amazing statis tical evidence.’ Over one third of the Cases Of blindness occur between birth and one year ot Thirty-five were present or caused at birth.’ age.® percent of the deaf cases In 1920 on mother died for every 135 babies born. ‘The death rate among young children is illustrated by the Detroit figures in Table 8. A complet report for all ages up to nineteen years would show the 10 to 14 period as the age of least health hazard. TABLE 8—DEATH RATES FOR DE TROIT CHILDREN IN 1921 Popula- Number Annual rate Age tion of deaths per 1000 Under 1 20,456 | 2,304 113.0 1 20,499 411 0 0 2 21,361 02 9 5 3 23.062 151 6 4 21,681 114 | 5.3 5 20,999 | 106 5.0 : haa Sources of data: Dr. Thomas D. Wood, / Education National Education Associatior . I Medical science has made intensive drives to reduce infant mortality. Minimum stand ards for mother and child care have been pro vided for in the Sheppard- Towner Bill of 1921. Campaigns have been waged to arouse an in terest in the health of young children.’ In New York approximately 700,000 children re ceived the Schick test for diphtheria and those found susceptible were treated toxin-anti toxin.'® After five years of this immuization work the death-rate had been reduced 50 per defects, reduction of mortality losses amongcent. 1In connection with the chapter, see the sections of this Bulletin on pa ?An exhaustive treatment of preschool and parent education has Study of Education. The complete reference: Meek, Lois H. (Chairman) eighth Yearbook. Public School Publishing Company. 1929 * Meek, Lois H. “Child Study in the Preschool Field.” p. 39-44, * Hill, May. “‘The Nursery School and Parental Education.” Sirt/ 145-61. Principals, National Education Association. 1927. p. = 5 See Causal Factors in Infant Mortality. Children 245 p. ® Gesell, Arnold. The Preschool Child. 7 Gesell, Arnold. Jbid. p. 109. ®Gesell, Arnold. Ibid. p. 23. ® Gesell, Arnold. The Preschool Child. p. 13-37. of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers. 1” Wood, Thomas D. Health Education. p. 14 ’s Bureau, United Also, articles in current Table 14 heen prepared by the National Society for the “Preschool and Parent Education.” TJwent rent education Also, 375 p. January, February, March, 192¢ Progressiz e Education Y earbook Department of Elementar Schox states Dey artment of Lab« r, Nx 14; 19 Houghton Mifflin Cx [ 83 J A large portion of our present data on the physical and mental growth of the preschool child has come from research stations, such as The lowa Child Welfare Research Station,' The Yale Pscho-Clinic,? the New York Bureau of Educational Experiments,’ the Teachers College, Columbia University, Institute of Child Welfare Research,* the Child Welfare Research Station, University of Minnesota,’ and the Institute of Child Welfare at the Uni- versity of California.® Some idea of the experimental work of the above child study centers may be secured from a study by Gesell and Lord: Problem: to make a psychological comparison of nursery-school children from homes of low and high economic status. Method: Eleven children from homes of high, and eleven from homes of low, economic status were paired and studied by the clinical method; 330 clinical measurements and estimates were made on fifteen different items. The following items deal- ing with language were studied: vocabulary— pointing to objects, naming objects and pictures, defining five and eight words in the Binet series; conversation—language used in reacting to Binet pictures; information—naming parts of body, sex, age, colors, right and left hands, days of week ; spon- taneity of speech—observed in relation to child's initial adjustment to the situation, and his spon- taneous comments during the course of the examina- tion. Findings: Restraint and inhibition in spontaneous speech were found to be more prevalent among children from homes of low economic status than among children from homes of high economic status. ‘The most outstanding difference in the two groups was in the greater amount of conversation in the children from homes of high economic status.’ Watson’s experimental work illustrates the investigations made into the fields of the emo- tionsandthepersonality. Afterstudyinginfants during the early months of life he concluded - ' Baldwin, Bird T., and Stecher, Lorle I. 1924. The Psychology of the Preschool Child. D. that the basic emotional reactions are fear, and anger. Experiments have sh. that one child will exhibit love reactions another fear reactions when confronted by) same stimuli. These differences in resp are due to the previous “conditioning” of child in relation to the particular stimuli. example, a child frightened during his experience with a white rat, would show ; on subsequent occasions when confronted \ any furry object. The possibility of “un ditioning” or changing the response of a \ has also been demonstrated.° Although some of the problems of | sonality have been discussed elsewhere in Bulletin, a general conclusion by Watson significance at this point: The individual then remains hampered by past. Possibly no one of us escapes unscat through the childhood and adolescent stages. | he early situations when again faced by the adult may not call out the overt infant reactions but they do not wholly lose their power to stir up the implicit emotional activity. The most convin evidence for this view comes from psychopatholoy, but daily life gives us also convincing eviden What does research indicate to be significant fact of the preschool period? Esse: tially this: In the preschool period the child acquires the basic physical and mental habi:s with which all future education must d This fact largely accounts for the baby clin habit clinics, nursery schools, and_ simi! organized efforts to bring to children parents the benefits of scientific knowledy Kindergarten education.—The preform: education most widely recognized in the Am: can schools has been the kindergarten. ‘I’ 9 gives an idea of the rapid growth of kind gartens during the period from 1890 to 1°) Appleton and Compa 305 p 2 Gesell. “Arnold. The Mental Growth of the Preschool Child. The Macmillan Company. 1926. 447 p a ohnson, Buford. Mental Growth of Children in Relation to Rate of Growth in Bodily Development. E P. and Company. 1925. 160 p *Andrus, Ruth. An hee entory of the Habits a § Children from Two to Five Years of Age. Teachers College, Columbia University. 1928. * Goodenough, Florence. Parents.”” School and Society 26: 54-56; 1927 Bureau of Publicati “The gg of the Intelligence of Preschool Children to the Education of 1 * Jones, H. E. “A Preschool Research Program. ** Journal Educational Method. December, 1928. p. 168-70. t ee statement from the Twenty-eighth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. ahs a Weteem: John B. Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist. J. B. Lippincott Company. 230. ® Jones, Mary C. “The Elimination of Children’s Fears.” Journal of Educational Psychology. 382-92. 1° Watson, ohn op. 1 Forest, age “What and why ut of "Nursery Schools.” ber, 1928. om p. 19 October, 1924 Children, The Magazine for Parents 3: 14-15, 57; Sept [ 84] ee Cee, et ees Betw n ot mM kinderg esti rs i ed | he States | se W rincip! se W n term 11ms of tors he kinderg betwee! may va prograr procedt tellectu nother ( ition, tions, C tion cl: pletely munitis ire con Kine terized has bee happy, the act the mo 1 Va 2 Wa us 4 Cr a en a ee) e — - eT Between 1914 and 1924 the general popula- selves and not as specific preparation for formal , of the United States increased 14 percent instruction. ‘The exact contribution of kinder- mmpared with a 32.5 percent growth in garten instruction to subsequent school success ergarten enrolments. Over 12 percent of is a problem requiring further study.‘ Kil rg stimated number of children of 4 and 5 Day Nursery.— Originally the day nursery s in the United States for 1922 were en- was established to care for the children of ed in public or private kindergartens.! employed mothers. Since this purpose was not Che kindergarten movement in the United _ primarily educational the day nursery has de States has been influenced by two groups (1) veloped largely under charity and church in se who would adhere rather closely to the fluence rather than under the public school. principles and practices of Froebel, and (2) The progam of the day nursery is usually se who would make progressive adjustments primarily concerned with the physical welfare , terms of recent child study. ‘hese various of the child. Opportunities are provided for i ims of kindergarten education and local fac- play, bathing, and feeding under conditions tors have produced many diverse types of equal to or superior to those in the homes of ndergartens.?, Not only are there differences working people. Due to lack of coordinating tween school systems, but individual schools and supervisory influences some day nurseries iy vary as to the comprehensiveness of their have not developed according to the best health program. One school may restrict itself to standards. Recently, municipal and _ state procedures designed to develop the child in- supervision has done much to correct unsatis tellectually and socially. ‘To this program factory conditions. nother school may add a plan of physical edu- In the more progressive centers the program ition, including rest periods, physical examina- of the day nursery includes more than passively tions, correction of physical defects, and nutri- caring for children during working hours. ion classes. Some kindergartens almost com- Physical examinations of nursery children often pletely ignore the parents, while in other com- show a need for medical attention. Clinics munities parental advising and adult classes have been established for the correction of - considered important parts of the program. physical defects and in many instances preven Kindergarten education has been charac- tive practices are being introduced into the terized by its informality. Child development home. has been based upon participation in active, Serious doubts have been raised in regard happy, industrious community life.* Often to the permanent value of the day nursery as the activities of the kindergarten have been, for a philanthropic institution.’ However, as a he most part, considered worthwhile in them health center the day nursery can fill an edu 1 Vandewalker, Nina C. Progress in Kindergarten Educatio Unit jureau of E : m2 he Waite, Mary G. The Kindergarten in Certain City School Sus 1 States Burea f Educa sulletin No. 13, p. 4-29, 32-40. Moore, Annie E. The Primary School. Houghton Mifflin Compan ] p. 10 ‘Contributions on this point: Detroit Public Schools. “The Effect of Kindergarten Attendance Progress and Quality of Worl the Grades.”” Research Bulletin, No. 10, 1925. Goetch, E. W. “The Kindergarten as a Factor in Elementary School Achievement and Progress sity of Iowa. Studies in Education, Vol. 3, N« 3. 1926. 47 p. MacLatchy, Josephine. ‘Attendance at Kindergarten and Progress in the Primary Grades.” Bureau J tion Monograph No. 8. Ohio State University. 1928. 144 p. Smith, Coleen M. “A Study to Determine the Effectiveness of Kindergarten Training.”’ Eleme» Journal 25: 451-66; February, 1925. 5 Barton, Eleanor, quoted in Arnold Gesell’s The Preschool Child, p. 40 TABLE 9.—KINDERGARTEN ENROLMENT SINCE 1890 Years 1890 | 1895 | 1900 | 1905 1910 | 1915 1920 1926 j Enrolment in public and private . a : a cesceeeeees+| 31,227 | 65,296 | 225,394 | 311,056 | 346,189 | 486,800 | 510,949 | 727.687 Source of data: Phillips, Frank M. Statistical Survey of Educatio Bulletin 1928, No. 12. United States Bureau of Education, p. 12. [$5] cational need.t. Under present conditions ele- mentary school principals will find the day nursery an institution to meet certain economic and social problems. With the improvement in equipment and practices of the day nursery it may become a cooperating institution with the school in improving the physical and mental hygiene of the community.” Nursery School—The basic aims of the nursery school movement are: to provide for the healthy growth of children, to increase physical control and power of sustained at- tention, to multiplying interests, and to en- courage happy freedom in creative activity.* Also, the nursery school in the United States has served as a center for the education oi parents and students of child development. The typical nursery school combines the best features of the day nursery and the kinder- garten. Forest has described three types of schools, (1) those founded by college experimentalists or by other persons interested in research, (2) those established by parents to provide a better education for children under existing social conditions, and (3) those provided to im- prove the educational status of the day nursery.* The practices of nursery schools depend largely upon the purposes of those who estab- lished the particular school.® Schools estab- lished by research groups devote considerable study to controlled experiments of child nature and of teaching methods. A few institutions provide opportunities for teacher training. ‘The home contact, an essential phase of all nursery schools, varies considerably as to the amount of instruction on child care, the improvement of physical condition, and home diet. In general, the nursery school is character- ized by: educational work, parental education, physical and mental hygiene, and experi: tation. The educational procedures of the nu: school resemble the activities of a progre kindergarten, but are much broader in s The essential differences are illustrated such typical nursery school activities as: 0\, door and indoor play with toys, sand piles, and large muscle apparatus; simple music and stories ; toilet activities such as washing, com) ing hair, and brushing teeth; resting; assis; ing in serving lunch; eating; dressing, sieeping.® It is claimed that the nursery school does not attempt to replace the home, but simp) aims to enrich the experiences of the child, A program of this type requires cooperation with the parents. Forest reports that man) nursery schools have some special provision fo home contacts. In some nursery schools, th parents are encouraged to help with the chiil- dren and thereby profit by the technics of 4 skilled teacher.® A positive mental hygiene is characteristic of the nursery school where “the joyous laughter of children is the sure sign that al! is well; it means health intelligence, happiness, and all that is good.” *® An environment o/ this sort involves wholesome social contacts with other children and the wise direction of the emotional life. When this preventive en- vironment is too late then intensive study of the child and a program of reconstruction must be resorted to.4! There is now ample evidence to show that wise child guidance and proper parental instruction are two im. portant means for preventing the mental dis tutbances of maturity.’” Nursery schools vary considerably as to the amount and technical character of their experi- 1 Baker, S. Josephine, quoted in Arnold Gesell’s The Preschool Child, p. 39. 2 Forest, Ilse. Preschool Education. Macmillan. 1927. p. 310-28. 3 Owen, Grace.” Nursery School Education. E. P., Dutton and Company. 1920. p. 25. 4 Forest, Ilse. op. cit., p. 293. 5 Several outstanding nursery schools have been described in the Twenty-eighth Yearbook, National Society for the Study of Education, p. 140-234. ®See such references as: Grace Owen (Editor). Nursery School Education, E. P. Dutton Company. 1920. Also, Johnson, Harriet M. Children in the Nursery School, The John Day Company. 1928. 325 p. 7 Stolz, Herbert R. “The California Congress and Research.” Child Welfare 22: 417-18; May, 1928. ® Forest, Ilse. Preschool Education. Macmillan. 1927. p. 302. ® Forest, Ilse. “What and Why are Nursery Schools.” Children, The Magazine for Parents 3: 15; September, | 1% Owen, Grace. (Editor). Nursery School Education. EF. P. Dutton and Company. 1920. p. 24-25. 1 Of particular interest is the work of Dr. D. A. Thom in the Habit Clinics for Preschool Children, Bost eae 12 See: Blanton, Smiley, and —; Margaret G. Child Guidance. oe Century Company. 1927. p. 309. Als The Chalice of Childhood by Ira S. Wile. Thomas Seltzer, 1926, p. 3-12. [86] O10 eleigade rin snelilaine ment with and Othe up a child In twee ten. rreec sing said W! let u: the d nothi run i on th gard Se kind It is ment cal a inter chile nurs tion. T tion sery than derg nurs the ° T elem men seau ture peat is lif the 1 scho the « appl the Iie in Silane ee ental programs. Some schools, in connection with research laboratories, emphasize careful nd scientific observation of child behavior. Other schools are organized primarily to set p a rich educational experience for certain children. In general, there are three differences be- tween the nursery school and the kindergar- ten. First there is a tendency toward greater freedom in the nursery school. After discus- sing typical kindergarten activities Miss Owen said: While we lay stress on all of these experiences, let us not forget the value of long quiet spaces in the daily life of the Nursery School Child, when nothing will be required of him, and he is free to run about, watching others at work or play, to lie on the floor or grass or to wander at large in the garden amongst the flowers. Second, the nursery school differs from the kindergarten in that its program is broader. It is interested in nutrition, physical improve- ment and mental hygiene to a degree not typi- cal among most kindergartens. In a sense, this interest in all of the factors which influence children during the early formative years is the nursery school’s unique contribution to educa- tion. The third difference concerns the organiza- tion of nurseries and kindergartens. The nur- sery school admits children at an earlier age than does the kindergarten. The typical kin- dergarten uses only half-day sessions while the nursery school requires the full day to develop the wide variety of its activities.’ The meaning of preschool education for the elementary school.—The nursery school move- ment represents a recent development of Rous- seau’s contention that the child is not a minia- ture adult. Nursery schools demonstrate re- peatedly Dewey’s philosophy that the school is life as well as preparation for life. Probably, the most significant contribution of the nursery school has been the focusing of attention upon the early years of childhood.? It endeavors to apply the discoveries of research in improving the inadequate child environment of modern 1 Forest, Ilse. Preschool Education. p. 336 life. lwo vroups ot persons are primarily con VW hat ] } nd thei cerned, the children and the parents. does this mean for established schools a statts ? No elementary school principal can read the literature of the preschool movement without realizing the tremendous influence it will have on all education. Research shows that in those early years are developed the essentials of pet sonality upon which subsequent education must build. Yet realizing the contributions of the movement, what can the typical principal do? In cooperation with the superintendent and others the principal should encourage: the es tablishment of necessary nursery schools, the redirection of established kindergarten-primary work, and the establishment of clinics. The establishment of a nursery school calls for careful study of the local school com munity. If existing agencies are caring ade quately for the preschool child it is doubtful that a duplicating agency should be developed. Furthermore, one of the important essentials of a nursery school is a well-trained staff. ‘The establishment of a school under persons not trained in nursery-school methods and imbued with the spirit of the work would be placing the experiment in danger of failure.* Data on these problems can be carefully compiled by the principal who wishes to facilitate the work of the superintendent, school board, parent teacher association, civic club or other cooperat- ing agency.* In many situations the redirection of exist- ing schools may serve to apply the nursery Kindergar tens may well adopt an attitude of child study. More attention can be given to nutrition, rest school theory to older children.® periods and the mental life of the child with out seriously changing the regular kindergar- ten program. Often facilities exist to admit younger children to kindergarten training. One wide-spread activity, closely related to the nursery-school movement, is that of the child clinic.6 These clinics have as their basic purposes the study and improvement of the mental life or the physical health of children. 2 See Progressive Education, January-February-March, 1925, as follow Johnson, G. E. “Original Nature and the Preschool Years.”’ p. 5-7. Gesell, Arnold. “The Changing Status of the Prescl “Preschool Education,” p. 11-14. 8 Miss Patty S. Hill on The training of the nursery school teacher in 1001 Child.’”’ p, 8-10 O'Shea, M. \ Childhood Education, October, 1926, p. 72-74. *How- the Kalamazoo Nursery School was started. Childhood Education, May 1927, p. 418. 5 Gesell, Arnold. The Preschool Child. p. 57-67. ® Many technics and applications of clinical procedure are given in The Mental Growth of the Preschool Arnold Gesell. The Macmillan Company. 1926. Child by [ 87 ] ae 9 err: i C .o & In no sense are these two phases of life separate, but the Habit Clinics of Boston emphasize primarily the mental health. Other clinics are established by local and state agencies,” parent-teacher associations,* and others inter- ested in the correction and prevention of phy- sical defects. Under the general guidance of the superin- tendent of schools, the elementary school prin- cipal has a place in the inauguration and maintenance of child clinics. It may be nec- essary for him to arouse the interest of public spirited medical specialists. He may have to advise and assist in the campaign to secure the necessary financial support. In many cases he can offer the facilities of his school building for the housing of the clinical work. At all times, by virtue of his knowledge of the com- munity, he may render significant service in securing the aid and the interest of the par- ents of preschool children. Summary.—Recent research among pre- school children has revealed the existence of many traits and weaknesses not generally rec- ognized. The potential influence of these fac- tors on the ultimate welfare of society has stimulated two movements: preschool and par- ent education. Preschool education seeks to lay the founda- tion of a sound physique and _ personality through the prevention of disease, the correc- tion of defects, the establishment of good habits, the instruction in useful knowledge and the integration of all life processes. Preschool education enlists the interest and cooperation of parents. This work with par- ents constitutes the contribution of preschool education to parent education. The existing agencies for preschool educa- tion are the day nursery, nursery schools and the kindergartens. These organized efforts are not far apart as to their philosophies, technics, and potential contributions to childhood educa- tion. The best way of handling preschool educa- tion in each community is a problem for local study. Should the school system establish nur- sery schools? Are the existing agencies han- dling the problem? Would classes for parents be sufficient in this particular school? Can the 1 See: Every Day Problems the Every Day Child by Dr. Douglas A . “F. S e “Pennsylvania Protects her Preschool Children.” Child Welfare 21: 63-65; October, 1927. % Bayly, Ann. athe Parents’ Educational Bureau in zveteas, Oregon.”” Child research *The scientifically trained principal will be interested i the Journal of Educational Research 14: ser; September, 1926. kindergarten program be redirected to m the demands for preschool education? W) can be done in a cooperative way through ba clinics, special weeks, newspaper publicity a: similar activities? What is the elementa: school’s place in this work? Questions of t! type must be carefully considered by the p: gressive principal who is endeavoring to m: the educational needs of his school communit Probably in some schools it will not be ad visable to attempt organized preschool class: But this does not prevent principals from operating with existing child-study centers ani clinics. Many progressive principals will r: ognize the value of applying the informatio; and technics of preschool education to the solu: tion of problem cases. Other ways of utilizin the benefits of preschool research will sugges: themselves. Selected References 1. BAKER, S. JosEPHINE. Child Hygiene. Harp Brothers, New York. 1925. 534 p. A detailed survey of the child hygien movement from earliest times. Discusses technical practices and statistical data. 2. BALDwin, Birp T., AND STECHER, Lorte I. 7 Psychology of the Preschool Child. D. App: ton and Company, New York. 1924. 305 p. Based upon a study of the physical, ment and social growth of children between ¢! ages of two and six years. Tentative stand ards are set up for the measurement physical and mental development of the pr: school child. Many suggestions of measur: ment technics and educational activities. .\, pendix lists useful books, phonograph records and sources for supplies. 3. CLEVELAND, ELIZABETH. Training the Toddler J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia. 1925 172 p. Discusses the nursery school as supplement to the home. Gives suggestions on the train ing of the young child. 4. Davis, Mary D. WNursery-Kindergarten-Pr: mary Education in 1924-1926. United States Bureau of Education Bulletin 1926, No. 28 Washington, D. C. 46 p. Summarizes practices in school systems in relation to the education of young children Discusses teacher training. Cites references to current literature. Thom. D. Appleton. 1928. elfare 21: 34- 36; September, 1927 possibilities discussed by Arnold Gesell i: [ 88] s -) Forest, Itse. Preschool Education. The Mac- Report of the second conference of millan Company, New York. 1927. 413 p. An historical and critical study of pre- school education. Discusses present status of work in Northampton Lhe Institute for the Coordination of Women's Interests. Based upon the nursery school any preschool work. Considers the ene — 10. JOHNSON, Burorp J. Mental Growtn of ( movement in a democratic society. Bibliog dren in Relation to Rate of Growth in Bodily raphy. Development. E. P. Dutton and Comp ; New York. 1925. 160 p. GeEsELL, ARNOLD. The Preschool Child. Hough ; P ton Mifflin Company, New York. 1923. 264 p An interpretation of existing statistics and research on the preschool child in terms of public hygiene and education. Summaries of practices in different cities. Suggestions as to growth rather than the status at any period, possible efforts by school systems. Bibliog- 11. JonNson, Harriet M. Children in the Nursery raphy. School. John Day Company, New York. 1928 325 p GESELL, ARNOLD. The Mental Growth of the History of and technics developed in a Preschool Child. The Macmillan Company, nursery school under the author. Contains New York. 1926. 447 p. many suggestions for teachers An outline study of the psychology of in- fancy. Detailed statements of data derived from the first-hand study of normal children. Applications of research findings for the use of persons interested in making estimates of the developmental status of young children 1929. 875 p. Consists largely of data gathered within regular schools. Descriptions of many meas uring technics. Data emphasizes the rate of one 2. NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY OF EDUCATION COMMITTEE ON PRESCHOOL AND PARENT Ept CATION. The Twenty-eighth Yearbook, Parts I and II. Public School Publishing Company An exhaustive survey of theory, research Groves, ERNEST R., AND Groves, GLADYs H Wholesome Childhood. Houghton Mifflin tion. Extensive bibliographies Company, Boston. 1924. 183 p. Contains advice based upon the authors’ experiences with their own children. Deals . ° ° lew ) 28. 350 with the child from infancy through ado- New York. 1928. 350 p lescence, and practices in preschool and parent educa connection with such problems as anger Howes, Etuet P. (Director). The Nursery fear, thumb-sucking, sex, and delinquency School as a Social Experiment. Smith College, Based upon the author’s experience in ha Northampton, Massachusetts. 1928. 38 p clinic work among young children 3. THom, DoucLas A. Everyday Problems of the Everyday Child. D. Appleton and Company, Suggests practices and principles to use in HE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT of public hygiene and education in the preschool field offers an inviting subject for speculation, and also for study and experimental demonstra- tion. That in a future day the principle of compulsory education and health may be legally extended to include the kindergarten and pre-kindergarten child is, at least, an interesting possi- bility. It is apparent even now that socialized if not compulsory ways should be found to im- prove the educational lot of certain types of handicapped children of preschool age. A develop- mental supervision of wider scope may be extended to preschool children in general, whether handicapped or not. We must develop methods of approach whereby the psychological and educational aspects of hygiene may become associated with pediatric and public health activi- ties in the preschool field. This does not require that we congregate all babies, toddlers, and runabounts in institutions; it is possible to graft a mental hygiene and an educational service upon existing arrangements.—Arnold Gesell, The Preschool Child, p. xiv. [ 89 ] Parent Education’ DULTS have profited in an educational way from libraries, chautauquas, muse- ums, theaters, and their own vocations.? But many persons have not fully utilized their op- portunities for more formal schooling. Prob- ably organized efforts in this field have been handicapped by the tradition that a grown person’s mind does not respond readily to learning. Recently, parent-study groups and experimental studies of adult learning have demonstrated new educational possibilities with persons who have left the existing schools. Comprehensiveness of adult education— The term adult education has been recently defined, as follows: Adult Education, with exceptions herein noted, refers to education under public auspices for per- sons of maturity who, being engaged for a major portion of their time in other occupations, are de- voting some time to educational pursuits.® Therefore, adult education would include Americanization classes, parenthood and par- ent education. Parenthood education is the in- struction given to people to prepare them for the responsibilities of establishing and main- taining a home.* Parent or parental education cultivates home environments in which children may grow to physical, mental and moral health. Hence, it works with parents and other adults who are responsible for the care and raising of children. Studies of adult learning—In 1893 William James indicated that learning ability was at a low ebb among adults when he said: Outside of their own business, the ideas gained by men before they are twenty-five are practically the only ideas they shall have in their lives. They cannot get anything new. Disinterested curiosity is past, the mental grooves and channels set, the power of assimilation gone. Whatever individ exceptions might be cited to these are of the that prove the rule.* A review of early research findings in ad learning indicate that the subjects tes: seemed “eminently plastic and teachable every mental function that was examined. However, these early investigations may hay, included only superior adults. In the more recent studies an effort made to avoid the weaknesses of early inves tigations. Control situations were set up fo: the learning of algebra, biology, civics other regular school subjects. Comparisons data were made in terms of age, training, \ cations and other factors. One study of 886 pupils in public evening schools was of pa: ticular value in bringing out differences in learning ability from the age of 14 to 30 and over. Taking the group which gained the mos: as 100 or standard, the relative learning abilit, of the various age-groups were: 59 for age 14 to 16 years 85 for age 17 to 19 years 100 for age 20 to 24 years 89 for age 25 to 29 years 87 for age 30 or over.’ On the basis of data similar to the above Thorndike made the following practical ap lication : The facts should, however, cure us of conside: ing early learning as a law of nature, or as invari ably superior, and of treating learning by adults as something irregular, remedial, casual, and triv- ial. Furthermore, if a community becomes rich enough to afford eleven thousand or twelve thou sand or thirteen thousand hours of schooling for all, it becomes increasingly doubtful whether years should be added on to seventeen, to eighteen, to nineteen, rather than inserted at twenty or twenty five or thirty. In connection with the chapter, see the sections of this Bulletin on preschool education. Also, Table 15. * Fisher, Dorothy Canfield. Why Stop Learning? Harcourt Brace and Company. 1927. 301 p. * National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. “The Articulation of the Units of America: Education.” Seventh Yearbook. 1929. p. 480. *See such references as: Groves, Ernest R., and Groves, Gladys H. “Parenthood Training.” Child Welfare 22 349-52; April, 1928. Binkley, Martha. “High School Craft Courses for Girls and Boys.” Journal of Home Economics 20: 153-5' March, 1928. Kugel, Daisy A. “The Opinion of Parents Regarding the Teaching of Family Relationships.” Journal of Hom: Economics 21: 1-6; January, 1929. Williams, Alice. “Child Care Program in a Continuation School.’”’ Journal of Home Economics 20: 99-101; Fe! ruary, 1928. 5 Quoted by Thorndike in the introduction to his Adult Learning, p. 3. ¢ Thorndike, Edward L. (and others). Jbid., p. 15. * Thorndike, Edward L. ‘The Teachable Age.” Survey Graphic 61: 36; April 1, 1928. p. 36. [90] trom arou C tive how attit wer in ce the whi prac seve to f tech of tl tent rela chile pare stud A conr indir cases gatic a pr read worl to tl Part mot P. One sery } ent educ 1 i Unive : 2 3 Depar ‘ 5 lf adults are able to profit so much from nstruction, why do many of them fail to do ? Thorndike concluded that: The decrease in learning, which does, on the verage, occur, may be explained by various com- inations of the four factors, general health and energy, ability to learn, interest in learning, and portunity. A decline in general health is prob- ly of great significance in respect of the decline f learning at late eighty-five), but is of small consequence for changes very ages (say sixty-five to from the score of years around fifteen to the score around thirty-five. Child clinics and parent education.—Objec- tive data submitted by Gertrude Laws show how parents may be helped in diagnosing their attitudes and practices.1 ‘The parents studied were members of child study groups organized in connection with a child guidance clinic. At the first meeting the parents filled out a blank which brought out the typical attitudes and practices in the handling of children. After several months of study other tests were given to provoke further self-analysis. Under this technic many parents became acutely conscious of the weaknesses of their practices. Two po- tent values of the procedure were: tracing the relationship between practice and child responses, and measuring of changes in parental attitudes brought about by organized parental study.” A large portion of the parent education in connection with child clinics will probably be individual in character. Usually the problem cases require: a study of the child, an investi- gation of the home environments, setting up of , a program of correction, and follow-up and readjustment work. The reports of ‘Thom’s work with problem children refer repeatedly to the importance of reeducating the parents. Particularly important is the work with the mothers in the case of the preschool child.* Parent education and the nursery school.— One of the distinct contributions of the nur- sery school movement is its emphasis upon par- ent education. According to Gesell, parent education was one of Froebel’s aims for the 7 | dialeendaiid MESA A tin Ala, ~ oe ae ee | ' kindergarten, although in present-day practice it is often neglected.* con- One procedure in present education in nection with the nursery school may be illus trated by the Northampton Cooperative Nut sery School. Children are not admitted to this school unless the mothers agree to ‘‘assist’’ with the school’s activities. “his work of assisting half day the requires a every two weeks during which time mother’s education proceeds as follows: he assisting mother is not hurried into action In the first place, she is urged to make use of the excellent school library which contains current ma terial on child guidance and nursery school prac tice. ” * “ The assisting mother at first observes, having been instructed by the head teacher how to ob- serve; she then takes an active part in all technics of the school, including assistance in the toilet and on the play-ground. Later she may be as signed individual children to study, and may come She thus understands, as only a continuous participant to take full direction of a group on occasion. can, the special aims and methods of the school, and is enabled to continue at home the same atti- tude and training.’ In addition to the assisting work the plan of the Northampton School provides for study and discussion groups. The programs of these meetings are arranged by a committee of par ents in cooperation with the school authorities Experience has shown that these meetings be come more conducive to spontaneous discus The interest of fathers has been enlisted by invita sion when held in the individual homes. tions to special meetings.® Parent education and the city school sys- tem.—In many cities parent education is not sponsored directly by the local school system. Some child-study groups have been formed by progressive principals in connection with the primary classes. Often parent-teacher associa tions and similar organizations may form classes in connection with the work of their own group. In Tulsa parent education is a regular ac- tivity under the Mothercraft Department of _ 1 Laws, Gertrude. Parent-Child Relationships. Contributions to Education No. 283, Teachers ( ege. ( bia University. 1927. 56 p. 2 Laws, Gertrude. /bid. p. 34. 3 Thom, D. A. Habit Clinics for the Child of Preschool Age. Children’s Bureau Publication No. 135, nited States Department of Labor. 1924. 71 p. * Gesell, Arnold. The Preschool Child. p. 154-56 5 Howes, Ethel P., and Beach, Dorothea. The Cooperative Nurser School. Smith College. 1928. {| 3 q * Howes, Ethel P., and Beach, Dorothea. Ibid., p. 34-36. [91] ce WP The director of this work is a member of the superintendent’s staff. According to recent reports, the: work es- tablished in 37 schools has reached approxi- mately 2000 men and women. Classes have been given in child psychology, discipline, and similar topics. Each course is divided into units of six, nine, or twelve weeks depending upon the nature of the subject. All classes meet weekly for one and one- half to two hours sessions. Most sessions con- sist of lectures followed by discussions. Mimeographed outlines are distributed fre- quently to facilitate the work. In some courses each parent is expected to select a problem for special study. These special studies are usually simple investigations, but serve to care for in- dividual interests. Each study group elects a representative to the study class council which meets with the Director of Mothercraft. Through this organ- ization the director stimulates class morale, prepares leaders, and puts across city-wide projects such as health surveys. Often, direc- tors of testing, art, and similar staff officers are asked to explain the work of their depart- ments to the study-class council. Classes for expectant mothers.—The antici- pation of early babyhood problems by instruct- ing expectant mothers has been tried in one city. This pioneer work in Cleveland has been described as follows: the city schools.’ The Pre-natal Education Committee of the Cleve- land Health Council are conducting classes for expectant mothers at the five visiting nurse stations of Cleveland. This is pioneer work since both the health and child-control sides are presented. The groups are taught by a graduate nurse who pre- sents health and care of the mother and baby, and 1 Harrison, Eileen M. 16-18; September, 1928. 2 Myers, Garry C. “Parent Education.” ® Watson, Amey E., and es a D. “Opportunities for Parental Education.” ber, November, December, 1926. 323-3 * Such as The Young Child ur Bird t Baldwin, 1928. 5 For example: Reading lists, by the Chairman of the Child Training Comm who presents simple guidance in mental healt! the expectant mother and happy effectual man ment of the child during his first few years Other agencies interested in parent ed: tion —The improvement of ways in which | ents care for their children is not limited to preschool period. Each succeeding year of } child’s life brings new problems for paren: The demand for assistance with the child ot school age has stimulated the widespread velopment of reading courses and child-st, groups.® The reading courses are particularly att: tive to parents who for one reason or ano! cannot enroll in formal study groups. ‘| American Library Association has a series “reading with a purpose” leaflets. ‘| United States Bureau of Education issues 1 ing lists and pamphlets.5 Other suggestions may be secured’ from the Children’s Burea of the United States Department of Labor.’ In many local situations universities and \ leges are offering special classes and corres pondence courses." Parent education sometimes takes the forn ' of child study groups. This type of work !is been encouraged by the National Congress 0! Parents and Teachers,® the Child Study As ciation of America,’® and the American Ass. ciation of University Women." All of thes organizations supply bibliographies, outli: and supplementary materials. The practical applications of medicine other data are given in publications of American Child Health Association.’2 Fac! month the Child Welfare magazine of the Na- , tional Congress of Parents and Teachers con tains articles and outlines on child study. ; A clearing-house of progressive principles ani “Tulsa Schools Maintain Classes to Educate Parents for Home Tasks. School Life 14 ’ Progressive Education. July, August, September, 1927. p. 216. Progressive Education. © American Library Association, Chicago No. 21, Twenty Good Books for Parents, No, 29, The (meee ae Child, and N« The Whole Child. Also, eleven parent education letters by Garry C. Myers. ® From the Children’s Bureau: No. 73, Child Welfare Programs. No. 143, Child Management, and No. 30, ( Care. 7 For example: University of Iowa; § Gans, Bird S. “Child Study Groups, Methods and Materials.” 1926. = 333-37. ational Congress of Parents and Teachers, 1201 Sixteenth St. N. " The Child Study Association of America, 54 West 74th St., The Institute of Child Welfare, University of Minnesota; Iowa Child Welfare Research Stat Division of Parental Education, Cleve ‘and College. i Progressive Education. October, November, Decem! , Washington, D. C. New Wark City. 4 American Association of University Women, 1634 I (eye) ‘St. Washington, D. C. " American Child Health Association, 370 Seventh Ave., New York City. For example: “Problem Parents” by Garry C. Myers, Child Welfare. “Children and Their Parents” by Douglas A. Thom and George K. Pratt, Child Welfare. March to July-August. 1 May 1928, to August, 1929. [92] p kK t it r luc Vi en and exis! en man prev day P have touc pare amo! cant, ciati study grou Rapi grou elem this 1 l. the | the a 2. and i home k a attitu level group | 2 F T B E 2s 4 D Bulletir 5S Als nomics Als 1929. t 6p earch | 7 y p. 283- 8S ctices may be found in the publications of e Progressive Education Association.t Each nth the Child Study Association of Amer- publishes the Child Study magazine. Re- ntly, the general interest in children has ited a demand for worthwhile articles in rrent periodicals.* Parent education and the elementary school. Recently scientific study of environmental factors has revealed data of significance to all ation. Experiments with young children e indicated the potent influence of environ- nt during babyhood. Surveys of physical ind mental health among children show the existence of defects which yield to expert treat- ment. There is evidence in problem cases that iny abnormal conditions could have been prevented if parents had but utilized present- day knowledge. Preschool education and parent education have developed largely to meet the problems touched upon in the above paragraph.* In parent education rapid growth of study groups among parents has been particularly signifi- cant. In 1923 and 1924 the American ciation of University Women reported 2 study groups while in 1925-26 there were 15 groups enrolling approximately 1500 parents. Rapid growth has been characteristic of the groups sponsored by other agencies. Many elementary school principals have encouraged this work because : 1. There is evidence that the parents and the home exert an important influence upon the ability of the child to do school work. 2. The school’s efforts to promote health and improve conduct are dependent upon the home’s willingness to cooperate. 3. Objective evidence shows that parental attitudes can be raised to a more constructive level through systematic instruction in study groups. Association, 10 Jackson Place, 1 Progressive Educatior +. In some communities the home has shifted so many responsibilities to other agencies that the disruption of family has been threatened many | Parent education can assist lomes to recognize and assume thei proper places in the lives of children.’ 5. Manv lunchrooms, health centers, clinics, improved playgrounds, and similar tangib activities are outcomes of an intelligent inte: of school patrons Child est on the part study groups can do much to acquaint with the importance of school facilities in solving health and social problems. Summary} Adult education includes Ame1 icanization classes, parenthood instruction, and parent education. Recent activity in all of } | ' these lines have been stimulated by the develoy ment of study groups and the findings of re search. Experiments disprove the traditional opinion that adult learning must cease after twenty-five years of age. There is evidence to prove the possibility of adult learning by pet interest and ( ppor sons who are favored by tunities. Parent education is a phase of adult educa tion which seeks to guide parents and others Recently it the preschool in caring for children. has been emphasized by the interest ir child. among thrown new light upon the parent's responsi bility for a favorable environment during early this information Research young children has infancy. In disseminating among parents a number of organizations have issued publications, established clinics, and formed child-study groups. The ofters school principal. whole program of adult education many suggestions to the elementary Study-group activities and publications can be incorporated into the school’s publicity program. But of even greate1 importance is the work among parents which seeks to improve the educational opportunities Washington, D. C * For example: Thom, Douglas A. “Moulding Personality in the Preschool Age.’’ American Childhe Septembe 128 Boss, Agnes. “A New Kind of Baby Record.” Children, The ine for Parents 3: 12, 45; September, 1928 Estabrooks, G. H. “Three Things Every Child Craves.’’ Hygeia, September, 1928 3See: “Parents As Students” in Why Stop Learning by Dorothy Canf Fisher, p. 116-47 ‘Davis, Mary D. Nursery, Kindergarten, Primary Education in 1924 2¢ United States Bure ie Bulletin 1927, No. 28. p. 9-10. 5 See: “Parent Education.” Garry C. Myers. Progressive Education. September, 1927. p. 3 Also: “Progress in Child Development and Parental Education.”” Anna E. Richardsor lourna [ nomics 20: 725-6; October, 1928. , Also: Flora M. Thurston. ‘What's Ahead for Parents?” Progressive Ed é Jane Fe March, 929. p. 40-44, * Discussed briefly by Dr. Jessie Allen Charters in “Parent Education and A State University” / t Re earch Bulletin. Ohio State University. October 3, 1928, p, 285-89. 7 Yeomans, Edward D. “Salvaging the Family.” Progressive 1 October, Nove De p. 283-88, Congress of Parents c ®See current issues of Child Welfare, official magazine of the National [93] of childhood. How much more useful will this parental interest be if it is guided by the sub- stantial findings of careful research? Selected References 1. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR ADULT EDUCATION. Proceedings of the Third Annual Meeting. Published by the A. A. A. E., New York. 1928. 161 p. Presents a digest of the addresses and pro- ceedings of the meeting held at Swarthmore College in May, 1928. Glimpses of current tendencies in the various phases of adult education. 2. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF UNIVERSITY WOMEN. (Lois H. Meek, Educational Secretary). Interests of Young Children. Guidance Mater- ials, No. III, 1634 Eye Street N. W., Wash- ington, D. C., 1926. 40 p. Outlines and references for study groups interested in the play life of the preschool child. 3. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF UNIVERSITY WOMEN. (Lois H. Meek, Educational Secretary). Schools and Children. Guidance Materials for Study Groups, No. II. 1634 Eye Street N. W., Washington, D. C., 1927. 80 p. Contains questions and _ references on mental tests, health, gifted children, disci- pline, retarded children, school costs, teacher preparation, and similar topics. Designed to acquaint parents with the literature bear- ing on elementary school problems. 4. CuiLp Stupy ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA. (Mar- garet J. Quilliard, Director of Field Work). Child Study Discussion Records; Develop- W ment, Method and Technics. 54 West 74th fe St., New York, 1928. 74 p. A compilation of helpful methods and ma- terials for use of groups composed of parents with limited educational background. 5. CutLp StuDY ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA. A Se- mm iP lected List of Books for Parents and Teach- \ ers. $4 West 74th St., New York. 1928. 78 p. i An annotated list of books on adolescence, health, play, child study, sex education, ethics and similar topics. Indexed. 6. Fisher, DororHy CANFIELD. Why Stop Learn- ing. Harcourt, Brace and Company, New York. 1927. 301 p. Summarizes the current tendencies in adult if education. Points out the importance and op- portunities of continuous education through correspondence courses, libraries, women’s } clubs, child-study groups, chautauquas, mu- ob seums, and similar agencies. Reviews adult education in European countries. patie THR eRe 7. Howes, Eruer P., AND Beacu, DororHea. 7 Cooperative Nursery School; What It ( Do for Parents. Smith College, Northamp: Massachusetts. 1928. 74 p. Describes the administration of a nurs school organized in cooperation with pare: Suggests how parents may assist in the sch work, 8. Laws, Gertrupe. Parent Child Relations): Contribution to Education No. 283. Bure of Publications, Teachers College, Colum! University. 1927. 57 p. Reports an experiment in measuring th: attitudes and practices of parents. Suggestive as to methods in measuring attitudes of child study groups. 9. Myers, Garry C. Six Programs for Child Study Groups. (For committee of the Ohio Branch, National Congress of Parents and Teachers.) Published by the State Depart- ment of Education, Columbus, Ohio. Practical suggestions and questions fo: meetings on childhood fears, anger, jealousy, children’s lies, habit building and property, habits. Contains a habit rating scale. Bibli- ography. 10. Myers, Garry C. Helping Our Children to Succeed in School. Published by the United State Bureau of Education. 1928-1929. A series of letters to parents discussing such problems as the “dawdling habit” among schoo] children. Give practical suggestions based upon case studies. 11. NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS Current issues of the Child Welfare maga- zine. 1201 Sixteenth St. N. W., Washington, D. C. Each issue contains a department on child health (by the American Child Health Asso- ciation). Programs for child-study groups and special articles on parent education. 12. THORNDIKE, Epwarp L. (and others). 4dul! Learning. The Macmillan Company, New York. 1928. 335 p. Reports the facts on the changes in amount and nature of the ability to learn between the ages of fifteen and forty-five. Sum- marizes previous investigations. Shows ev:- dence that adults can learn efficiently, if not handicapped by lack of interest, ill-health or similar difficulties. 13. THorRNpDIKE, Epwarp L. “The Teachable Age.” Survey Graphic 61:35-37; April, 1928. Summarizes some of the findings reported in Adult Learning. [94] LDN ok cen OK he compile experts. find the enlarges tional | United ences tc Americ (Americ Andres Andres Gold Baker, Blanto garet Broadt Burnhz Chapir Chapli Comm: Dausdi Dressl: Emers Fisher, Gallow Gulick Halloc A meric Hoag, Jordan Kerr, | La Ru McCol McKe' Mang Massa nolo Oliver, *O'Shez Payne Payne Rober’ Sedgw Staffor Staley *Terma Turne Wallir Wickn Wile, Willia Winsk *Wood. Wood Books and Other Sources of Information lhe tables presented in this section were reterring to the footnotes of the compiled from the suggestions of main text number of above. xperts.! Elementary school principals will Following the tables ot this section the find that this list of books supplements and nt Printing Office, Washington, BD 1928 65 p TABLE 10.—BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR HEALTH EDUCATION enlarges upon an earlier compilation.2, Addi- ‘der will find a list of educational and semi tional references can be secured from the ¢ducational organizations. Many principals United States Bureau of Education. Refer will want to write for the publication lists ences to current periodicals can be found by of these organized groups. replies received. The names of the persons replying ar dicated in the f tes of each tal 1An opportunity to make suggestions was given to aj »ximately one 1 persons. The table National Education Association, Division of Research. “The Principal § es His Job Re B { 8, p. 116-19. United States Bureau of Education. Bulletins of the Bureau of Educat 1927 Bullet 19 Author Title Publisher Year American Child Health Association Health Survey of 86 Cities n Child Health A ci 19 American Child Health Association Report of the Cambridge Health American Child Health Associat 1924 Education Conference Andress, J. M. and Bragg, M. C. The Sunshine School Ginr 1928 Andress, J. M., Aldinger, A. K., and Health Essentials Ginn 1928 f Goldberger, I. H. Baker, S. J Child Hygiene Harper's 1925 Blanton, Smiley and Blanton, Mar- | Child Guidance Century 19 garet. Broadhurst, J.. Home and Community Hygiene Lippincott... 1925 Burnham, Wm. H. The Normal Mind Appleton 1924 Chapin, C. V. | Sources and Modes of Infection Wiley 1912 Chaplin, Hugh and Strecker, E. Signs of Health in Childhood American Child Health Associat 19 Commonwealth Fund Fargo Demonstration Reports Commonwealth Fund 1928 Dausdill, T... Health Training in Schools National Tuberculosis Associat 1923 Dresslar, F. B. School Hygiene Macmillan 1913 Emerson, Wm. R. P. Nutrition and Growth in Children Appleton 19 Fisher, I. and Fisk, E. I How to Live Funk & Wagnalls 1925 Galloway, T. W. Sex and Social Health American Social Hygiene A 1974 tion ; Gulick, Luther H.. The Efficient Life Doubleday 190 ; Hallock, Grace Dramatizing Child Health American Child Health Asso« 1925 American Child Health Association Health Trends in Secondary Educa American Child Health Associ tion. Hoag, E. B. and Terman, L. M | Health Work in the Schools Houghton Mifflin 1914 Jordan, E, O... | Test Book of General Bacteriology W. B. Saunders 1924 Kerr, James The Fundamentals of School Health Macmillan 19 La Rue, D. W | Mental Hygiene Macmillan 19 McCollum, E. V. and Simmons, Nina.| Food Nutrition and Health Address Authors: Box 25, Balt 1925 more, Maryland McKenzie, R. T... Exercise in Education and Medicine W. B. Saunders 1923 Mangold, Geo. B. Problems of Child Welfare Macmillan 1924 Massachusetts Institute of Tech- | School Health Appraisal Form Massachusetts Institute of Ts nology. | nology Oliver, Thomas (and others) | The Health of the Child of School Age.| Oxford Press 192 *O’Shea, M. V. (Editor) The Child: His Nature and His Needs.) Childrens Foundation 1924 Payne, E. G. and Gebhart, J. C. Method and Measurement of Health | New York Association for Imy 1926 Education. ing the Poor Payne, E. G. and Schroeder, L. C Health Safety in the New Curriculum.| American Viewnoint Society 1925 Roberts, —. J. Nutrition Work with Children University of Chicago Pre 19 Sedgwick, W. Principles of Sanitary Science Macmillan 1902 Stafford, G....... Preventive and Corrective Physical \. S. Barnes 1928 z Education. 2 ee Calisthenics. .. \. S. Barnes 1926 ! *Terman, L. M Hygiene of the School Child Houghton Mifflin 1914 ; Turner, Claire E. and Collins, G. B Community Health D. C. Heath 1928 t Wallin, J. E. Mental Health of the School Child Yale University Press 1914 j Wickman, E. K. Children’s Behavior and Teacher Commonwealth Fund 1928 Attitudes. Wile, Ira S... The Challenge of Childhood Thomas Seltzer 1925 Williams, é Oa Administration of Physical Education| Macmillan 1922 Winslow, C. E. and Williamson, P The Laws of Health and How to | C. E. Merrill 1926 F Teach Them *Wood, Thomas D. (Chairman) Health Education National Education Ags« 192 bat Thomas D. and Brownwell, | Source Book in Health and Physical | Macmillan 1925 Education. We ae ’ Thomas D. and Cassidy, | The New Physical Education Macmillan 19 Rosalind. [95 ] cam hae = = TABLE 10.—BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR HEALTH EDUCATION (Continued) | Author Title? Publisher Yea Wood, 1 Thomas D. and Lerrigo, | Health Behavior.................. Public School Publishing Company.| 19 *Wood, Thomas D. and Rowell, H.G.| Health Supervision and Medical In- | W. B. Saunders. .... tit waiehie | 19 spection. Wood, Thomas D. and Rowell, H.G.| Health Through Prevention and | World Book Company | 19 Control of Diseases. These peaks were ongoeaied & y: William R. P. Emerson, Warren E. Forsythe, Ira V. Hiscock, G. T. Stafford, H) G. Rowell, C. E. Turner, Ira S. Wile and C. E. A. Winslow. ? Annotations of several of these books will be found at the end of the chapter on building health. * Books marked with an asterisk (*) were mentioned three or more times. i —_ TABLE 11.—BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR MENTAL HYGIENE! Author Title? Publisher | Yea | PE ee incon shades sep Educational Hygiene............... eee | Sin «c% pn 6 viestekhe o3 | 492 — Smiley and Blanton, Mar- | Child Guidance................... Century.. ; |} 19 oSee. J. M. and Others..........| Case Studies in Educational and | Ginn....................00000. | 19 Vocational Guidance. Burbank, Luther.......... agaaude The Training of the Human Plant. AS kote diy S03 Ws aon ere hs 190 Burnham, Wm. H................. The Normal Mind................. Appleton. Diakidiay cis a tw hs sa 1924 *Cameron, H. C.. The Nervous Child................ ord University Press. : 1924 Chicago Association for Child Study Intelligent Parenthood............. University of Chicago Press...... 192¢ and Parent Education. Fletcher, John M.................. Problem of Stuttering.............. Longmans, Green............... 1928 eee Psycho-analytic Study of the Family .| Stechert........................ 1921 ae 6s acc an ch ehSs ond Psycho-analysis in the Class-room...| Putnam........................ 1921 Cs. sv wh tre oe db ow kee 6 aes Personality and Social Adjustment . .| Longmans, Green............... 1924 CS eee ee Guides of Childhood and Youth..... Ss nts wkewoR ee hes 1926 ON = 5 ee Outlines of Child Study............ RS ee 1925 i vn chs <6.< 6 nkwatae a cawvunenes 1924 Jennings, H. S. and Watson, a B. et al ions of Modern Science Con- | Macmillan.................... 1918 cerning Education. Kirkpatrick, B. A...........-.005: The Individual in the Making.......| Houghton Mifflin... 1911 OY eer ee Fundamentals of Child Study....... Macimilan...... 191 ie = a ten wag 5 454k mek aed Mental Hygiene................... eee 192 a on The Unstable Child........ Appleton. 1924 Buffalo Mental Hygiene Council . Mental Hygiene of Normal C hildhood = Committee for Mental ygiene. ee rer Ps: chology of the Unadjusted School | Macmillan.................... 1924 a 6 » sino 6 esas Childhood Fears..............2000: es ves ee'ndddadietues 1925 Mc. DG 2 cheb idebes wemas Outline of Psychology.............. eee 1923 O'Shea, M. V. (Editor) The Child: His Nature and His Needs.| Childrens Foundation........... 1924 Ss ctireneé-v< Satec-nens ho-analysis in the Service of | Dodd......................... ucation. SS EEA AEE EN EE pe EES ee ee oe Funk & Wagnalls............... 1924 Pringle, Ralph W.................. Adolesence and High School Problems| D. EASES pares es A 192 Reavis, Wm. C.............0500 00s » Ane ment = Junior and | D.C. Heath.................. 1926 or hools. Sayles, Mary B..............00055 The Problem Child at Home........ Commonwealth Fund........... 1928 EC wna eee. sancaneee The Problem Child in School. Commonwealth Fund......... 1927 4 Sein Wit ye Bveeey Problems of the Everyday Ee ks 0s ds aed pcleene 1927 ie, TE Binns ons cer cthrenmsas The Unadjusted Girl............... EE ae 1923 Van Waters, Miriam............... Wee OP CUIER. occ ncesccecnss New Republic............... 1925 “SS 3 Baer Clinical and Abnormal ovata. Houghton Mifflin........... 1927 ih Wl ¢ cite s« os Saenncamay a aes of ndicapped Houghton Mifflin.............. 1924 ren. A Se Os pace renee coknens Mental Health of the School Child.. Yes pedvenity a He 1914 Wells, RTs iets 6 bo + Gite The Mental Adjustments...........| Appleton...................... 1917 WE, EG Ah ns vecccecevecetpet M of Formation Metilan REE RES, Koa 1916 *White, Wm. A..... é-asaews Aad Mental Hygiene of Childhood....... Sea's vine sb ele owe Be 1919 White, Wm. A...............00055 The he of Mental Hygiene Macmillan . eae $924 Sa RN iy Ate, The Inner World of Childhood...... University of C Chicago Press...... 1926 i. '. «vou 46 oaankemebeen Cc of Childhood............. Thomas 1925 De Us 4004s u twee ws sone Men ygiene (Reprint).......... National Pemuslttes for Mental 1923 Hygiene. 1 These books were by: Blanton, William H. Burnham, William Healy, D. W. La Rue, Zoe Leather- man, D. A. Thom, J. E. W. Wallin and A. te. several of these books will be found at the end of the chapter on mental hygiene. * Books marked with an asterisk (*) were mentioned three or more times. Fre (ral *Ho Ho Hu Ins Irw Kil Kil Mc *Mo Nu Ou *Pir Re Tet Th Th Th Wi [96] Ad] Bor Bri Bu *Bu Cal Cal Cal *Ch Ch Co Co Co De En Fir Ga Gil Go le Almera TABLE 12.—BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES | Author Title? Publisher Year rill, L. A Educational Hygiene Houghton Mifflin 1926 ker, S. J Characteristic Differences in Bright | Public School Publishing Company 1927 and Dull Pupils arr, A. S. and Burton, W. H The Supervision of Instruction Appleton 1926 sode, Boyd H Modern Educational Theories Macmillan 1927 Buckingham, B. R. Research for Teachers silver Burdette 1926 Burt, Cyril The Young Delinquent Appleton 1925 ibberley, E. P | The Principal and His School Houghton Mifflin 1923 ‘Department of Elementary School | Yearbooks National Education Association 192? Principals 1929 Dickson, V. E Mental Tests and the Classroom World Book Company 1923 } Teacher. Freeman, Burks, (et al T'wenty-seventh Yearbook, National Public School Publishing Company 1928 | Society for the Study of Education Freeman, F. N | Mental Tests Houghton Mifflin 1926 Gates, A. I } Psychology for Students of Education Macmillan 1923 Gist, A. S. and King, W. A The Teaching and Supervision of Scribners 1927 Reading *Hollingworth, L _ Gifted Children: Their Nature and | Macmillan 1926 Nurture. Hollingworth, L. | Psychology of the Normal Child Macmillan 1920 *Hollingworth, L Special Talents and Defects Macmillan 1923 Hull, Clark L | Aptitude Testing World Book Company 1928 Inskeep, Annie | Teaching Dull and Defective Children} Macmillan 1926 Irwin, E. A. and Marks, L. A Fitting the School to the Child Macmillan 1924 Kelley, T. L Interpretation of Educational Meas- World Book Company 1927 urements Kilpatrick, W. H Education for a Changing Civilization] Macmillan 1926 Kilpatrick, W. H | Foundations of Method Macmillan 1925 McCall, W. A How to Measure in Education | Macmillan 1922 *Morgan, J. J. B The Psychology of the Unadjusted | Macmillan 1924 | School Child Nutt, H. W | Current Problems in the Supervision Johnson Publishing Company 1928 t of Instruction Otis, A. S | Statistical Method in Educational | World Book Company 1925 Measurement *Pintner, R.... Intelligence Testing Henry Holt 1923 Reed, Homer Psychology of the Elementary School | Ginn. 1927 Subjects | Terman, L. M | The Intelligence of School Children Houghton Mifflin 1919 *Terman, L. M The Measurement of Intelligence Houghton Mifflin 1916 Thayer, V. T | Passing of the Recitation D. C. Heath 1928 Thorndike, E. L | Educational Psychology Vol. 1, 2, 3, Bureau of Publications Teachers 1921 (Also, Briefer Course) College. 1925 Thurstone, L. L | The Nature of Intelligence Harcourt Brace 1924 Trabue, M. R... | Measuring Results in Education American Book Company 1924 Whipple, Helen D Making Citizens of the Mentally Public School Publishing Company 1927 Limited. ! These books were suggested by: Leta S. Hollingworth, F. B. Knight, and J. T. Worlton ? Annotations of several of these books will be found at the end of the chapter on individual differences * Books marked with an asterisk (*) were mentioned two or more times. TABLE 13.—BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR CHARACTER EDUCATION ! Author Title? Publisher Year Adler, Alfred. Understanding Human Nature Greenberg 1927 Bode, Boyd H Fundamentals of Education Macmillan 1921 Briggs, T. H. Curriculum Problems Macmillan 1926 Burnham, Wm. H The Normal Mind Appleton 1924 *Burt, Cyril...... | The Young Delinquent Appleton 1925 Cabot, Ella Lyman | Ethics for Children Houghton Mifflin 1910 Cabot, Ella Lyman | Courses in Citizenship Houghton Mifflin 1918 Cabot, Ella Lyman Seven Ages of Childhood Houghton Mifflin 1921 *Charters, W. W | Teaching of Ideals Macmillan 1927 Chicago Association for Child Study | Intelligent Parenthood University of Chicago Press 1926 and Parent Education. Coe, George A | Law and Freedom in School University of Chicago Press 1928 Coe, George A. | Social Theory of Religious Education. | Scribners 1917 Coe, George A. | What Ails Our Youth. Scribners 1924 *Dewey, John.... Human Nature and Conduct Henry Holt 1922 Dewey, John.... Moral Principles in Education Houghton Mifflin 1909 Engleman, J. O Moral Education in School and Home.| Sanborn 1918 Finch, Charles E Guide Posts to Citizenship American Book Company 1927 Galloway, T. W. Sex and Social Health American Social Hygiene Associa 1924 | tion. Gibson, Jessie E... | On Being a Girl Macmillan 1927 Present Status of the Teaching of George Peabody College 1926 Golightly, T. Morals in the Public High Schools [97] TABLE 13.—BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR CHARACTER EDUCATION (Continued Title? Publisher | | Haone! Be BF. ame GtherS..0. ccc sce Hartshorne, Hugh | *Hartshorne, a « and Mw. M. A.. Kilpatrick, W. H Kilpatrick, W. H | ehaceneall. ‘a *National Education Association I Ts... soe seen eee sds Starbuck, = D. and others . and Shuttleworth, M homas, ‘Wm. I. _and Thomas, D. S. Yonge, Charlotte M Personality and Social Adjustment. . Psychology and Morals............ Studies in Conduct with Character Case Conferences. Childhood and Character........... CK Ea Talks to Teachers. ............0..- Foundations of Method... Source Book in the Philosophy of Education. Play in Education................. Formative Factors in Character..... Character and the Conduct of Life. sie => ae of the Unadjusted School ild. Character Education Bulletin No. 7 (Milton Bennion, Chairman). Education for Moral Growth. . The Child: His Nature and His Needs. The Problems of Childhood Pupil Adjustment in Junior and Senior High Schools. The Psychology of Character....... The Problem Child in School....... Education for Character............ The Essentials of Character......... Is os osc andere eos NS Ee eee A Guide To Literature for Character Training. Nature of Conduct EEE eT The Child in America.............. Scientific Method in Education...... Children’s Behavior and Teachers’ Attitudes. Book of Golden Deeds............. Longmans, Green ; Robert McBride C ompany. ‘sa University Publishing Company... | Pilgrim Press. . . Macmillan ... Henry Holt... .. Macmillan... Macmillan... Macmillan . Longmans, Green Putmam....... ; Macmillan ..... United States Bureau of Education. Apgiston GR ae ee Idrens Foundation........... rs cin 6's PL Re- die 4 xs eee Harcourt Brace Commonwealth Fund Bobbs Merrill. .... Macmillan . University of C hicago Press. . National Capita! Press Macmillan .... Seurhian Mifflin. . Commonwealth Fund NE ho cd cw pata as e6%4 1 These books were sug, May, Henry Neumann, C. Rugh, Frank S. Shuttleworth, ted by: Milton Bennion, Ella Lyman Cabot, Fred M. Gregg, Hugh Hartshorne, Mark A win D. Starbuck and Goodwin Watson. ? Annotations of several of these books will be found at the end of the chapter on character education. * Books marked with an asterisk (*) were mentioned three or more times. TABLE 14.—BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR PRESCHOOL EDUCATION! Title? Publisher *Baldwin, Bird T. and Stecher, Lorle I. Blanchard, Phyllis Blanton, hSinileyand re , Margaret. ndergarten Union... oom Pecket, — ~ and Boren, D Tentative Inventory of Habits of Children from 2 to 4 Years of Age. Pepe of Infancy and Early Childhood. EE ee ee Psychology of the Preschool Child . . The Child and Society. ............ NR wes cnckeedesnas Training the Toddlers.............. A Practical Psychology of Babyhood. Preschool Education............... Infancy and Human Growth........ ™ Mental Growth of the Preschool hild. The Preschool Child From the Stand- point of Public Hygiene and Edu- cation. Personality and Social Adjustment. . Social Problems of the Family...... Educational Problems, Vol. 1....... ae of the Kindergarten in Culldven i in, the ual in the Making. ae The Individual in the Making....... Nu ar ost tek Haucation Re Early Childhood Education......... Psychology of the Kindergarten- . Child. EE Cx 0542 nccdeceven: Longmans, Green............... RR ee Lippincott a Houghton DERE. « dod cat ddaos INES ip o's 4 4.6.5.9. 5.6-050-4abh oc Macmillan........ Macmillan ...... Bureau of Publications Teachers College. "ene ten, OEE EEE Dutt World | Book Company aie keeenes Houghton Mifflin................ [ 98] cow Sees bbe PNA Miley tebe ay BB TABLE 14.—BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR PRESCHOOL EDUCATION (Continued) Author Title Publisher Year Reynolds, Martha Negativism of Preschool Childrer Bureau of Publications Teach« 1928 College Shinn, M. W... Biography of a Baby Houghton Miffiir 1900 Stevenson, Emma The Open-Air Nursery School E. P. Dutton 1923 Thom, D. A Everday Problems of the Everyday Appleton 19 Child. National Society for the Study of Preschool and Parent Educatior Public School Publis! Com 1929 Education. Children’s Bureau, United States | Pamphlets: No. 30 (1925) No. 60 | Government Printing Office 1919 Department of Labor (1919) No. 111 (1923) N 1? 1924 (1924) No. 135 (1924), Watson, J. B. and Watson, R. A Psychological Care of Infant and Norton 1928 Child White, Wm. A The Mental Hygiene of Childhood Littl 1919 Wickes, F. G ; The Inner World of Childhood Appleton 19 1 These books were suggested by: Arnold Gesell], Buford Johnson, E. A. Kirkpatrick, Lydia J. Roberts, Herbert R Stolz and Helen T. Woolley. _ ? Annotations of several of these books will be found at the end of the chapter on preschool education * Books marked with an asterisk (*) were mentioned three or more times TABLE 15.—BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR PARENT EDUCATION Author Title? Publisher Year Baldwin, Bird T.... | The Young Child... American Library Association 1928 Blanchard, Phillis | Child and Society Longmans, Green 1928 Blanton, Smiley and Blanton, Mar- | Child Guidance Century 19 garet. | Burnham, Wm. H | The Normal Mind Appleton 1924 Butterworth, J. E . The Parent-Teacher Association and Macmillan 1928 | Its Work Cabot, Richard C What Men Live By Houghton Mifflin 1914 Dewey, Evelyn.. | New Schools for Oid Dutton 1919 Groves, Parents and Children and Youth Macmillan 1926 Gruenberg, B.C. .. | Outlines of Child Study Macmillan 1925 Lee, Joseph. . Play in Education Macmillan 1915 Lindeman, E. ¢ | The Meaning of Adult Education New Republic 1927 *Mason, M. S.. Parents and Teachers Ginn... 1928 Miller, H. C The New Psychology and the Parents.| Thomas Seltzer 1923 Morgan, J. J. B The Psychology of the Unadjusted; Macmillan. 1924 | School Child Myers, Garry C.... ahcait | The Learner and His Attitude Sanborn.... 1925 National Congress of Parents and | Proceedings , National Congress of Parents and 1928 Teachers. Teachers O'Shea, M. V. (Editor ; | The Child: His Nature and His Needs.| Childrens Foundation | 1924 Patri, Angelo. .... ‘ The Problems of Childhood Appleton 1926 Quilliard, M. J.. ‘ ’ Child Study discussion records: de- | Child Study Association of America 1928 | velopment—methods—techniques Sayles, Mary B | The Problem Child at Home Commonwealth Fund 1928 *Sayles, Mary B | The Problem Child in School Commonwealth Fund 1927 Scott, M. F... | How to Know your Child Little 1915 Seham, M. and G | The Tired Child ; Lippincott. . 1926 Stearn, Alfred... | Challenge of Youth Wilde 1925 Stearn, Alfred Education of the Modern Boy Small 1925 *Thom, D. A : | Everday Problems of the Everyday Appleton 1927 Child. Van Waters, Miriam Parente and Probation New Republi 1927 Van Waters, Miriam. . Youth in Conflict New Republic 1925 White, Wm. A Mental Hygiene of Childhood Little 1919 Wickes, F. G The Inner World of Childhood Appleton 1927 Wickman, E. K Children's Behavior and Teachers Commonwealth Fund 1928 | Attitudes. Wile, Ira S ; | The Challenge of Childhood Thomas Seltzer 1925 Wood, Thos. D. and Lerrigo, Marion Health Behavior Public School Publishing Company 1927 | ' 1 These books were suggested by: Ruth Andrus, Joy E. Morgan, Garry C. Myers, Margarietta Reeve and Frank D Watson. ? Annotations cf several of these books will be found at the end of the chapter on parent education. * Books marked with an asterisk (*) were mentioned two or more times. [ 99 ] TABLE 16.—BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION | r - a Author Title? Publisher | Bonser, Fred. G. and Mossman, L. C. Burk, OS rere - Coleman, Satis N.... Lima, Sane. . A ey Dewey, John.. ceries Dewey, John.. Dewey, — and Dewey, a. Dewey, Evelyn. . ¥ Ferriere, Adolph. we ea Hartman, Gertrude................ Keelor, Katherine I ES Us 4nd ve deludoues ane Knox, B *Lincoln Elementary School Staff... . . A. and others Mathias, Margaret................ PEER, SEUNG vei cies ccedevdecees ECO. oicas- guess scadencwae EE ee PN OEE Tico ecdcscscicanss RS a eee Pe Progressive Education Association. . . Progressive Education Association. . Progressive Education Association. . . *Rugg, ag - Shumaker, Ann... Thorndike, E. L... ie NG oc tincwcasecunnys Washburne, Carleton and Stearns, Washburne, Carleton and Stearns, M. M. Industrial Arts for ElementarySchools A Conduct-Curriculum for Kinder- garten—First Grade. The New NS aa Wa ach s dip a6 ace Creative Music for Children Our Enemy the Child.............. Democracy and Education.......... The School and Society Schools of Tomorrow............. New Schools For Old The Activity School. . . The Child and His School Curriculum Studies in the Second Grade. Education for a Changing Civilization School Activities and Equipment... . —— Making in an Elementary me gof Ar Art in the Public Schools. Creative Youth Here and Now Primer; Here and Now Story Book. The Primary School Education: The Mastery of the Arts of Life. Experimental Practice in the City and Country School. Creative Expression through Art.... Creative Expression through Music. . The Environment for Creative Edu- cation. The Child-Centered School Education for Initiative and Origi- nality. Languages and Literature in the Kindergarten—Primary Grades. aS New Schools in the Old World. ..... Macmillan... Scribners... John Day..... ear tnam.... - nee | New Republic ; Macmillan . . University of C oad eee Dutton..... Dutton. . ohn Day... utton..... Bureau of Publications Teachers College. Macmillan... Sen Mifflin. . Ginn.. a Scribners......... Doubleday....... ree Houghton Mifflin...... Little Dutton......... Progressive Education Association Progressive Education Association Progressive Education Association World Book Company Bureau of Publications Teachers College. Scribners....... 1 These books were suggested by: Gertrude Hartman, Annie E. Moore, Mary M. Reed and Carleton Washbur: ? Annotations of several of these books will be found at the end of the various chapters. * Books marked with an asterisk (*) were mentioned three or more times. TABLE 17.—BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR SEVERAL PROBLEMS! TRS FZ = pe t Author Title? a i | | §3 & |» 16 Averill, L. A... ...... Educational peiene. . 25 i, Bere Baker, S. po .| Child Hygiene. . : 22 , & Sav Blanton, iley ‘and Blanton, Margaret. . Child Guidance............. 9 . ae Burnham, Wm. H.....| The Normal Mind........... 6 24 x oot. Cyril, ee old The Young Delinquent.. 6 . - mew, EES Sex and Social Health. . 4 ‘24 x aan Shed ARS — and Social Adjust- - ne: CeO See Seeesseeesensss x Gruenberg, B. C...... Guides of Snes he Youth} 34 . i eee Gruenberg, B. C...... Outlines of Child Study. ..... 34 . \- ae Kilpatrick, W. H.....| Education for a _ Ae Civilization. .............. 34 . 2 er Kirkpetrc W. H.. Foundations of Method. ..... 34 "25 x trick, ee A.. Individual in the Making s i. ; kia -] an ixateas of the Unadjusted PE Pa BEY eae x O'Shea, M. V......... The Child: His Nature and His Needs................ il . os Patri, Angie SwHV ES Us The Problems of Childhood. . . 6 "26 x Reavis, W. C.........| Pupil Adjustment in Junior and Senior High Schools....| 23 "26 x & c =a 3 © = $s ss e|/ ie} 2e $ | es | 25/82 | 23 3 op és os im am a | aw wade x x =. meets x x x x x me BS eee x x oe orem @ x me Mee oe how « x x x x . pitare-eans 64d « x x pe wees x nee b aciaalis a 60-6 eer eee x es eb ees ps 6 pans woe « aS eceus x ve pe x weee es x x Pt ee i Bw diese x TREES COUR CR x TTT rr) Terr x eeses Education Progressive blogs het: ab gD 6 TABLE 17.—BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR SEVERAL PROBLEMS (Continued) H Wickman, — Author yles, Mary B E. K Wile, Ira S... Wood, Thos. D. and Lerrigo, Marian 1 1 For the names of the authorities see the footnotes to 2 Annotations of several of these 3 Publishers are numbered in this column and according to Table »? ygiene is published by No. Children's Behavior Teachers’ The Challenge of Childhood Title* and Attitudes Health Behavior... books will be The Problem Child in School } vies, Mary B | The Problem Child at Home Thom, D. A.... Everyday Problems of th Everyday Child Vallin, J. E. W Mental Health of the School Child White, Wm. A The Mental Hygiene of Child hood. e Wickes, F. G The Inner World of Childhood found according to 18 publisher No Publisher ° «cc S pS) $e © of co aca ae s >t Sos 3 | 435 3s | se | 88 © av = Ss o> > Om = =A | An 28 x 8 x 14 x x 19 7 28 x 25 x x 27 x »”? For example; S. J. B 2 is Harper and Brothers, the special lists as given in the tables 10-16 at the end of the different chapters their order in Table 18 e r ss > es iis 68 ss | oe a - | as $s os oe 22 Be . 2 2 ss av » O ie] Ow Ow Oy x x x x x x x x x x iker’s Cl New York TABLE 18.—ADDRESSES OF PUBLISHERS OF BOOKS LISTED IN TABLES 0 ~ 9 10 xm 30. 34 3? 33 34, 35 Publisher American Book Company American Child Health ciation, American Library Association American Social Hygiene Asso- ciation, American Viewpoint Society D. Appleton and Company. 4. S. Barnes... Bobbs-Merrill Company Century Company Child Study Association America. Asso- of . Childrens Foundation . Commonwealth Fund, Division of Publications. John Day Company. Dodd, Mead and C ompany Doubleday, Page and Company E. P. Dutton and Company.. Funk and Wagnalls Company. Ginn and Company .. Government Printing Office Greenberg, Publisher, Inc. Harcourt, Brace and Company Harper and Brothers D. C. Heath and Company.. Henry Holt and Company Houghton Mifflin Company Johnson Publishing Company. Alfred A. Knopf J. B. Lippincott Company Little, Brown and Company. — Green and Com- Robert McBride and Company E. V. McCollum. McGraw-Hill Book Company. The Macmillan Company.... Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Address | New York City, N. Y. | 36 | New York City, N. 37 38 | Chicago, Ill New York City, N. ¥ 39 New York City, N. \ | Th) New York City, N. \ 41 | New York City, N. ¥ | | New York (¢ ity, N. \ | 42. New York City, N. ¥ 43. New York City, N. Y. | | 44. Valparaiso, Ind. | 45 New York City, N. ¥ 46 New York City, N. Y. New York City, N. Y. || 47. New York City, N. Y. | 48. New York City, N. Y. | New York City, N. Y. | 49. New York City, N. Y. | Washington, D. ¢ | 50 New York City, N. Y. | 51 New York City, N. \ 52 New York City, N. ¥ 53 Boston, Mass | 54 New York City, N. Y. | 55 Boston, Mass | 56. Richmond, V irginia | 57 New York City, \ 58 Philadelphia, Pa. | Boston, Mass. New York City, N. Y. || 59 New York City, N. Y 60. Box 25, East End Sta- | 61. tion, Baltimore, Mary-|} 62. land. | 63 New York City, N. Y. || 64 New York City, N. ¥ Cambridge, Mass. 65 . Charles E . George . Thomas Seltzer . Silver, Burdett and Company Publisher Merrill National Capital Press ational Committee for Mental Hygiene National Congress of Parents and Teachers. National Education Association National Tuberculosis Asso ciation. New Republic New York Association for Improving the Poor W. W. Norton Company , Oxford U niversity Press Peabody College, Bureau of Publications. Pilgrim Press Progressive ciation Public School Publishing Com- pany. . P. Putnam's Sons B. H. Sanborn and Company W. B. Saunders Company Education Asso- . Charles Scribner's Sons (Boni) Small, Maynard and Company 7. G. E. Stechert and Company Teachers College, Bureau of Publications, Columbia Univer- sity. . United States Bureau of Edu- cation. Address New York City, N. \ Washington, D. ¢ New York City, N. \ Washington, D. ¢ Washington, D. ¢ New York City, N. \ | New York City, N. \ New York City, N. \ New York City, N. \ 35 W. 32nd St | New \ New York City, N. ¥ Nashville, Tenn Boston, Mass Washington, D. ( Bloomington, I! New York City, N. \ Boston, Mass Philadelphia, Pa New York City, N. \ New York City, N. \ ork City, N. ¥ Boston, Mass | New York City, N. ¥ The University of Chicago Press| University Publishing Company | W. A. Wilde John Wiley and Sons World Book Company Yale University Press New York City, N. ¥ Washington, D. ¢ Chicago, Ill Lincoln, Neb Boston, Mass New York City, N. Yonkers-on-Hudson New York New Haven, Con: [ 101 J Organizations Supplying Materials to Principals ' Most elementary school principals are ex- ceedingly busy persons. Often in the press of school affairs it is necessary to send requests to certain national committees or associations. Unless the desired addresses are immediately at hand the letters may be delayed or entirely forgotten. Such difficulties can be largely avoided by a mailing list as given below. 1 For a complete list of educational organizations see: No. 36. 82 p. United States Bureau of ucation. The listing of organizations in this section does not mean that the Division of Research of the National Education Association en- dorses the publications of these groups. In a few instances, printed materials have been ex- amined which should be useful to elementary school principals. However, the Division of Research recommends that all printed publica- tions be examined critically by each principal in terms of the best principles and practices of education.” A Handbook of Educational Organizations. Bulletin 1926, 2 Attention is called to the National Education Association's Committee of ten to investigate the use in the schools of propaganda provided by outside agencies. Under the chairmanship of Dr. Edwin C. me, Superintendent of Schools of Philadelphia, this committee will formulate principles for the guidance of school workers. Name of Organization Address Name of Organization Address American Association for Adult | 41 East 42nd St. Education. New York, N. Hts American Association of Univeristy | 1634 Eye St. N. W Women. Washington, D. C. American Association to Promote | 1601 35th St. o the Teaching of Speech to the | Washington, D. C. Deaf. The American Child Health Asso- | 370 Seventh Ave. cia " New York City, N. Y. American Federation of Organiza- | 1601 35th St. tions for the Hard of Hearing. Washington, D. C. American Foundation for the Blind] 1147 Grand Central Palace : 125 East =“ > New York, N American Home Economics Asso- | 617 Mills Building ciation. bry ashington, D. American Humane Education Ave. Society. ahs ass. American Library Association... .. E. see St. American Medical! Association... . 2 ‘ - \ American Red Cross............. 17th & D St. N. W. American Social Hygiene Associa- | 370 Seventh Ave. _ tion. New York City, N. Y. American Society for the Preven- | 50 Madison Ave. tion of Cruelty to Animals. New York City, N. Y. Boy Scouts of America........... 200 Fifth Ave New York Cit ity N Bureau of Education............. ieeuaed Washington, D. C. Bureau of Educational Experiments} 144 West 13th St. pa ae N. Y. Camp Fire Girls................. §27 New York City, N. Y. - — ? McCormick Memorial North Dearborn Fund. Chicago, Ill General Education Board.. ..| 61 New York, N. Y. Highway Education Board....... Willard Building Washington, D. C. Institute for Child Guidance... ... 145 East 57th St. New York, N. Y. Institute of Child Welfare........ University of Minnesot M Minn. Institute of Child Welfare Research| Teachers Institute for the Co-ordination of | Northampton Coopera- Women's Interests. tive Nursery School Smith College Northampton, Mass. Institute of Buthenics............ Vassar keepsie, N. Y. Institute on Social & Religious | 370 Ave. Research. New York City, N. Y. International Kindergarten Union..| 1201 Sixteenth St. Washington, D. C. Character Education Institution. .| 3770 McKinley St. Chevy Chase Washi D.C. Child Education Foundation... .. . 866 W. “ New York, N. Y National Dairy Council.......... = Ss. oo Ave. National Education Association. ..| 1201 Sixteenth St. 2 Wi ngton, D. C. National Health Council. ........ 370 Seventh Ave. Child Study Association of America| 54 West 74th St. New York City, N.Y. | Child Welfare Committee of Amer- | 730 5th Ave. | i New York, N. Y. ica. Children’s Bureau............... U. a.) Department of | Washin on, D. C. Coitrem’e Citalc. 6.6 ii ic cnccucs ‘eachers C ollege | Detroit, i Children’s Foundation........... ~ooen Sy Nad. | The Commonwealth Fund........ 1 Bots 57th St. | penny York City, N. Y. International Society for Crippled | 800 Lorain County Children. Bank Building Elyria, Ohio —_ Child-Welfare Research Sta- | State University ion. Joint Committee on Methods of | 50 East 42nd *. Preventing te none mg New York, N. National Association for Study | 532 17th St. N. W. of the Platoon or Work-Study- | Washington, D. C. Play School Organization. National Association of Visiting | 1421 Race St. Teachers. Philadelphia, Pa. National Child Labor Committee ..| 215 Fourth Ave. New York City, N.Y. | National Child-Welfare Association| 70 Fifth Ave. } New York City, N.Y. | National Committee for Mental | 370 Seventh Ave. | | lowa City, Ia. Hygiene. : New York City, N. Y. National Community Center Asso- | Columbia Usvorsity ciation. New York City, N. Y. National Congress of Mothers and | 1201 Sixteenth St. Parent-Teachers’ Association. Washington, D. C. New York al N. Y. National Kindergarten Association.| 8 W. 40th S New York City, N. Y. National Probation Association... .| 370 7th Ave New York City, N.Y. National Research Council.......| B & 21 Sts. N. W Washington, D. C. National Safety Council.......... 108 E. Ohio St. New York Society for the E: College of he Ci f xperi- e t mental Study of Education. New Y age National Society for the Study of | 10 Putnam ‘St. Educatio Danvers, Mass. National Tubercatesie Association .| 370 Seventh Ave. New York City, N. Y. nd and Recreation Asso- | 315 Fourth Ave. tion of America. New York City, N. Y. Progressive Education Association.| 10 soateen | 4" Washi Philadelphia Child Health Society. .| 311 S. ec oc wtg St , Pa Rockefeller Foundation... ....... y New York City, N. Y. Society for Visual Education......| 327 S. La Salle St. Chicago, III. [ 102 ] Ae hte MS ES SS rs) sual: fas niall A hy Research Bulletins Previously Issued Facts on State Educational Needs. Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 1923. 64 p. (Out of print. Can the Nation Afford to Educate Its Children? Vol. 1, No. 2, March, 1923. 72 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Trends in 1923. Vol. I, No. 3, May, 1923. 116 p. Price per single copy, $1.00. Five Questions for American Education Week. Vol. 1, No. 4, September, 1923. 56 p. (Out of print.) Facts on the Public School Curriculum. Vol. 1, No. 5, November, 1923. 48 p. (Out of print. Current Facts on City School Costs. Vol. Il, Nos. 1 and 2, January and March, 1924. 64 p. (Out of print.) Teachers’ Retirement Allowances. Vol. Il, No. 3, May, 1924. 32 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Facts on the Public School for American Education Week. Vol. Il, No. 4, September, 1924 40 p. (Out of print.) The Problem of Teacher Tenure. Vol. Il, No. 5, November, 1924. 40 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Public School Salaries in 1924-1925. Vol. III, Nos. 1 and 2, January and March, 1925. 72 p. Price per copy, 50 cents. Taking Stock of the Schools. Vol. Ill, No. 3, May, 1925. 32 p. (Out of print.) Keeping Pace With the Advancing Curriculum. Vol. Ill, Nos. 4 and 5, September and Novem- ber, 1925. 96 p. (Out of print.) The Ability of the States to Support Education. Vol. 1V, Nos. 1 and 2, January and March, 1926. 96 p. Price per copy, 50 cents. Efficient Teaching and Retirement Legislation. Vol. 1V, No. 3, May, 1926. 72 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. A Handbook of Major Educational Issues. Vol. IV, No. 4, September, 1926. 72 p. (Out of print.) Major Issues in School Finance—Part I. Vol. IV, No. 5, November, 1926. 32 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Major Issues in School Finance—Part Il. Vol. V, No. 1, January, 1927, 64 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Salaries in City School Systems, 1926-27. Vol. V, No. 2, March, 1927. 64 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. The Scheduling of Teachers’ Salaries. Vol. V, No. 3, May, 1927. 64 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. The Advance of the American School System. Vol. V, No. 4, September, 1927. 32 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. School Records and Reports. Vol. V, No. 5, November, 1927. 132 p. Price per copy, 50 cents. Creating a Curriculum for Adolescent Youth. Vol. VI, No. 1, January, 1928. 80 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. The Principal Studies His Job. Vol. V1, No. 2, March, 1928. 68 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. The Advance of the Teacher Retirement Movement. Vol. VI, No. 3, May, 1928. 56 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Practices Affecting Teacher Personnel. Vol. V1, No. 4, September, 1928. 52 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Can the Nation Afford to Educate Its Children? Vol. VI, No. 5, November, 1928. 48 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Can the States Afford to Educate Their Children? Vol. VII, No. 1, January, 1929, 44 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. [ 103 ] NLESS SIGNS FAIL, the ° elementary principalship is | on its way to better things. A change is coming through evolu- tion rather than through more dras- tic means. We can all help evolution along. If those who have vision will keep up a campaign of education, we can look forward to a time when not only a new generation of prin- cipals but many of those long in service may attain a training and an attitude of mind that will make them truly artists in their work.— Charles L. Spain, Deputy Superin- tendent of Schools, Detroit, Michigan.