OCT 2 2 1998 2BABBSSGEGSBSSSSGGGGGGGGRRGRGGRRRGRRQR mn 4, ROP pron’ S BRAR VOL. VI, emER \ xe Tce _, a Bulletin OF THE SEPTEMBER, 1928 National Education Association BBGBBEGaSaaaaacaaaaGaaaaaaaaaaaase HOOHHOHOOHGOOOOOHOGOHOO OOOO Practices Affecting ‘Teacher Personnel PUBLISHED BY THE RESEARCH DIVISION PSESTSES TSE SSE SEES SESE SESE SE SESE SES SEES SESE SESE SESE NE SESE SES ESI ar sh sors OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201 SIXTEENTH STREET NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. ¢ Enter 4 second lass matter February 10. 1923, at t Was hi ’ =a ( } ) mailin at rate re “t of O te . <« oe ee ae na et ed im ta oe a ed NOS. A ote Research Bulletin of the National Education Association Published five times each year in January, March, May, September, and November by the Research Division of the National Education Association of the United States. President, Us. W. LAMKIN The payment of the $5 membership fee of the National Education Association entitles one to receive the Research Bulletin, the Journal, the Annual Volume of Ad- dresses and Proceedings, and certain other publications of the National Education Asso- ciation for one year. One dollar of each $5 membership fee is for a year’s subscription to the Research Bulletin. The Research Bulletin may be subscribed for separately at a subscription price of $1 per year. Single copies may be purchased for 25 cents, and in quantities at a reduced rate. Those entitled to receive the Research Bulletin regularly are asked to report at once any change of address, giving old as well as new address. Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the postoffice at Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. Director of Research: John K. Norton Assistant Directors of Research: Margaret M. Alltucker; Frank W. Hubbard. Executive and Editorial Offices - - 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. Research Bulletins Recently Issued See pages 254-5 for an annotated list of recently issued Research Bulletins. How to Secure Additional Copies Additional Copies of this issue of the Research Bulletin may be obtained at the following prices, postpaid if remittance accompanies order: ; Single copies of this issue 25c. 2 to 9 copies—10% reduction. 10 to 99 copies—25% reduction. 100 or more copies—33 1/3% reduction. Orders for Research Bulletins not accompanied by remittance are subject to trans- portation charges. Make checks payable to National Education Association. Subscriptions to Research Bulletins The Research Bulletin may be received regularly through a special subscription at $1 per year. Only those holding the $5 membership (see statement at top of this page) receive the Research Bulletin without such subscription. 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[206] CONTENTS ES LS Pe ees ere ee ee ee Ri Seen eae ee NS EFC PRCT ERE Eee Se dae ea eee Salary Scheduling .......... eS ay Requirements Affecting Appointment, Retention and Promotion of Teachers Training Requirements for Beginning Teachers........ Married Women as Teachers.................--.: The Written Examination in the Certification, Selection and Promotion of Teachers Practices Affecting Professional Improvement..... Pen EEE eee ere ee Leaves of Absence for Study and Travel......... Recognition of Additional Training The Sick Leave Problem................ Pati: br Seo Relation of Salaries to Efficiency. ...........5cccccseses Efficiency Measures and the Normal Schedule...... PORT Ee ee ee Em@eeser Ratmge and the Supermaximum. ....... 2.6.2... 60 cc eecevcnccncses Salaries of Men and Women Teachers......... Be nS EE er ee Number of Monthly Salary Payments................... ee er ee ee ss uc aig ws cede Oe EW bee OE eden awe LIST OF TABLES Table 1—-The Trend of Salary Schedule Revisions in 1927-1928..........0..00e0005- Table 2.—Educational Qualifications of Newly Appointed Teachers...... ere Table 3.—Illness per Year Among Single and Married Women Teachers............. Table 4.—Policy Concerning Employment of Married Women as Teachers...............0+. Table 5.—Use of Written Examinations in Employing and Promoting Teachers.......... Table 6.—Granting Leave for Professional Improvement and Amount of Salary During Leave Table 7—Number of Persons Enrolled in Education Courses in Summer School... Table 8.—Financia] Assistance for Summer School Attendance Se Pere —- Table 9.—Financial Assistance for Professional Courses Taken During the School Year Table 10.—Financial Assistance for Education Travel..................00.0000005 Table 11.—Payment of Salary During Sick Leave...............00.ce0eecues rr Tables 12 to 16.—Number of Days Sick Leave Granted and Part of Salary Paid Cities over 100,000 in population......................4. Cities 30,000 to 100,000 in population.................... Cities 10,000 to 30,000 in population......... Se carne ote eo wane Cities 5,000 to 10,000 in population............. ee ee Oe S000 bE MODUS. 5.5 cscs ccc ccccscsccsecens Table 19.—Differentiation Between Salaries Paid Men and Women in School Systems. . Table 20.—Number of Months over Which the Payment of Teacher's Annual Salary Extend [ 207 ] FOREWORD There are few more encouraging signs upon the educational horizon than the new attitude which an increasing number of communities are taking toward the develop- ment of their teaching staffs. New York, Cincinnati, Pittsburgh—these are but a few of the cities which have recently fundamentally re-examined the principles and policies governing the recruiting, compensation, and retirement of their teaching per- sonnel. Representative citizens committees, teachers organizations, and boards of education in each of these cities have cooperated in financing studies and in securing expressions of community sentiment needed for intelligent action on these matters. Thus the guaranteeing of a capable teacher for every classroom is being elevated to its rightful place as a major community issue. It is to encourage and assist this movement that this Bulletin has been prepared. It presents in brief scope material bearing upon practical problems relating to the development of efficient teaching staffs. The topics dealt with are those most fre- quently inquired about in letters addressed to the Research Division by those in the field. The material presented should be of great value to the incrensing number of college specialists who are working in this field, as well as to school executives who are striving to make their methods of administering teacher personnel more scientific. J. W. Crastree, Secretary, National Education Association. — ee ete Sera mee This Bulletin presents material pertinent to the study of a number of practical prob- lems concerned with the management of teacher personnel. Letters reaching the Re- search Division from superintendents, prin- cipals, teachers and other school people over a period of approximately a year offered the basis for decision as to what topics should be dealt with. These letters were studied as to the frequency of requests for information on all problems of personnel administration. Questions which were the subject of fre- quent inquiry were selected for study. The questionnaire reproduced on pages 250 to 253 was circulated to obtain information as to present practise on these various topics. This questionnaire should be consulted in in- terpreting the tabulations of the succeeding sections. It was sent to all school systems of the 2880 cities over 2500 in population. A total of 1532 usable replies were received as follows: Number of cities | Cities replying according to Sa ht t Population group 1920 census | | No. Percent | —|—-——| - Over 100,000... .| 67 66 98.5 30,000 to 100,000... | 181 161 | 89.0 10,000 to 30,000... 511 326 63.8 5,000 to 10,000... .| 738 397 53.8 | 2,500 to 5,000... 1,383 582 42.1 | Potale,...... 2,880 1,532 | 53.2 | Every reasonable effort was used to make the preparation and circulation of this in- quiry accord with the best procedure in such projects. The tabulations and_ conclusions based upon the replies received, however, are doubtless affected by the inherent shortcom- ings of the questionnaire method of investiga- tion. Practically all cities in the over 100,000, and the 30,000 to 100,000 population groups replied, and a representative number of the smaller cities responded. It is not believed that factors of selection entered to affect the general indications of the tabulations. The data given may be accepted as representative for all population groups. +¢. Tudd and G. T. eo. * eee of Educational Investigations Relating to Arithmetic. Chicago, rat ened Illinois, 1925, p. [209] Introduction The Bulletin does not attempt to state com- plete or final conclusions concerning any of the personnel problems dealt with. Any one of these administrative procedures might alone furnish a suitable subject for a study consid- erably longer than this whole Bulletin, and still leave much unsettled. The whole field of teacher personnel has been relatively neglected by students of edu- cation. The problems of this field deserve a far larger share of the attention of scientific workers in education than they have received in the past. Experience in dealing with most of the teacher personnel practices touched up- on in this study has been too brief to furnish a sure guide. ‘These conditions call for an open mind as to all of these practices. Fur- ther scientific investigation, longer and more carefully evaluated experience are necessary be- fore we can approach definite conclusions as to their ultimate effect on school efficiency. But in the meantime school keeps. Super- intendents of schools and teachers’ associations are making decisions. It is better that they be made in the light of the best information available, meager though it may be. It is to supply such information that this issue of the Research Bulletin has been pre- pared. It aims to do the following for each personnel practice dealt with: 1. Briefly sum up what is believed to be the best available opinion pro and con as to the prac- tice and the issues involved. 2. Present up-to-date and representative data in- dicative of the extent and trend of the practice. 3. Cite a few of the most pertinent references in which further information may be obtained. While such information is generally a bet- ter guide to those required to make immediate decisions than individual opinion, it is well to have the following advice of Judd and Buswell in mind: It is often the highest exhibition of wisdom to depart from the traditional practices and certainly from the median of many discordant practices of school systems which are controlled by wholly different ideas of what education is and ought to be.’ The University of Salary Scheduling ‘The expenditures for pub.ic elementary and secondary schools in the United States for the school year 1927-28 were close to $2,- 100,000,000. Approximately $1,155,000,000 or fifty-five percent of this sum was for the payment of salaries of professional school em- ployees. The amount expended for this item represents a national investment of major im- portance. The returns expected are of the greatest significance to the nation’s future welfare. It is these considerations which justify the attention school executives have given in recent years to the development of sound procedures in administering school pay- rolls. The science of salary scheduling is still far from perfected. Recent years, however, have brought decided progress in the development of the principles and technics which should be employed in the intelligent scheduling of salaries. This section will point out sources of information for those who would have their salary scheduling accord with the best theory and practice. General principles of scheduling. Those seeking general statements of the principles to be observed in fixing salary schedules will find considerable material available. Evenden’s pioneer study has had a wide influence par- ticularly in encouraging the development of the “single” salary schedule idea.t Cubber- ley gives a statement in his State School Ad- ministration? Moehlman deals with the problem in Chapter 1X of his Public School Finance2 “The Scheduling of Teachers’ Salaries,” an issue of the Research Bulletin, suggests a number of bases for fixing salary rates.‘ Other statements covering general and specific phases of the problem of salary scheduling will be discovered by consulting the annotated bibliography beginning on page 181 of the last named reference. A pplication of principles. During recent years a number of school systems have applied the newer procedures in revising their salary schedules. The salary investigations in Cin- cinnati and New York are cited as example The approaches to the scheduling problen used by these and other cities are worthy o: study. A comprehensive investigation of the teacher salary situation in Pittsburgh is now under way. The results, to be available du: ing 1928-29, will doubtless deserve close scrutiny. It is significant that one progressive cit) after another is rejecting the old assumption that the scheduling of teachers’ salaries is purely a matter of teacher concern. It is being replaced by the assumption which looks upon the question as one of general concern. When a community fixes teachers’ salary rates and states the rules governing the payment of the same, it thereby determines to a large degree the amount of preparation and _per- sonal ability which its teachers will possess. The immediate welfare of the children and the future welfare of the whole community are involved. Accordingly, several school systems have approached the problem of salary scheduling by organizing a committee made up of repre- sentative laymen to cooperate with the school board and teachers in studying the problem. Experts have been employed and adequately financed to collect the data necessary to an intelligent handling of this important com- munity problem. This was the procedure in New York, Pittsburgh and several other com- munities. Sources of salary data. Definite figures as to salaries paid teachers in representative com- munities and other statistical information are needed in careful salary studies. The salary information service of the Re- search Division of the National Education Association is equipped to furnish much of the information needed. Biennially, inquiry blanks are sent to all city school systems to obtain figures as to salaries paid teachers, principals, executives and other school em- ployees. The results are promptly sum- 1 Reference No. 3, cited on page 212 of this bulletin. 2 Reference No. 2, cited on page 212 of this bulletin. * Reference No. 6, cited on page 212 of this bulletin. * Reference No. 8, cited on Ay 212 of this bulletin. : 5 References Nos. 1 and 4, on page 212 of this bulletin. [210] ee ee tees the now dur lose city tion » - Is Oks Tn. ites ent rge er- b3s. ind ity ive ng OO a Al 2 mater marized and issued as a number of the Re- search Bulletin* The study for 1926-1927 was based on a report for 295,063 employees in 1435 school systems, including most of the larger cities. In addition to the summary report in the Research Bulletin, a series of ten Special Sal- ary Tabulations * present information for in- dividual cities. “There are two sets of tables for cities of each of five population classes *“— one for teachers, principals and other em- ployees; and one for general supervisory and administrative officers. ‘These tables give the following data for the various groups in each city: Median salaries for alternate years since 1923; and for the current year, minimum and maximum salaries; number of increments; number of employees reported ; and a distribu- tion of salaries paid. During 1927-28, this being the alternate year, no comprehensive investigation of sal- aries was conducted. One brief investigation was made during this year to ascertain the trend of salaries between 1926-1927 and 1927-1928, for cities over 10,000 in popula- tion. Summarized results of this study are presented in Table 1. The complete results, giving data for individual cities, may be ob- tained by addressing the Research Division of the National Education Association, indi- cating the population of the city and re- questing a copy of: Public School Salary Revi- sions in 1927-1928. A study of the docu- ment just named justifies these conclusions: 1. During 1927-1928, the great majority (approximately 78 percent) of cities of over 10,000 in population made no changes in their salary schedules, other than granting the regular scheduled increases. 2. Approximately twenty percent of cities over 10,000 in population revised their sched- ules during 1927-1928. 3. Of the small percent of cities revising their schedules during 1927-1928, the major- ity adopted schedules paying higher rather than lower salaries. Since there were relatively during ‘Tabulations few changes 1927-1928, the 1926-1927 should furnish data as to salaries paid, satis- factory for most until the 1928- 1929 study is available. The U. S. Bureau of Education recently issued a mimeographed circular giving maxi- mum and minimum paid various groups of classroom teachers in 1927-1928.4 The Bureau is now conducting a study of schedules Salary in salary Special tor purposes, 1 . Salaries salaries of teachers in rural schools. During 1928-1929 the Research Division will conduct its regular biennial salary study, collecting data as to salaries paid in that year. Blanks will be sent to cities early in the fall of 1928. Replies will be tabulated promptly, and the figures for 1928-1929 will be sum- marized in a number of the Research Bulletin. Complete data for individual cities will again be issued in the form of Special Salary Tabu- lations. This Bulletin and the will not be available before the spring of 1929. Other statistical information. Data as to the trend of the cost of living and the stand- tabulations 1 Reference No. 7, cited on page 212 of this bulletin, presents the results for the 1926-1927 salary study. 2 Consult page 191 of reference No. 8, cited on page 212 of this bulletin, for information as to the cost and makeup of these Special Tabulations, and see reference No. 9, cited om page 212 for a further description of the contents of these tables. 8 Cities with populations of 100,000 and over; 30,000 to 100,000; 10,000 to 30,000; 5000 to 10,000; 2500 to 5000 *U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Education, City School Circular No. 5, May, 1928. Washington, D. C, TABLE 1—THE TREND OF SALARY SCHEDULE REVISIONS IN 1927-1928 Number of cities: Population of cities i SPReerete ~~ | Unciassified | Total num- Receiving Reporting same salary | Reporting change in replies ber of cities inquiry schedule in 1926-1927 schedule during replying blank and 1927-1928 1927-1928 * Sap saae Number Percent | Number | Percent a — ———- . =“ Over 100,000. ........ 59 Ss | 64 19 35 1 30,000 to 100,000 aie 147 101 80 23 18 3 10,000 to 30,000... ... 298 | 197 81 43 14 4 504 | 333 78 | 85 20 8 | ' (211] ard of living, as to the purchasing power of the dollar, as to the incomes of other eco- nomic groups, and other statistical informa- tion are essential to an adequate study of teachers’ salaries. Sources of such data and suggestions as to their use are given in a re- cent issue of the Research Bulletin.’ If this Bulletin does not supply the information needed, a letter should be addressed to the National Education Association, definitely in- dicating what is desired.2 The Research Di- vision keeps in touch with the best sources for reliable data bearing on teacher salary prob- lems. The following selected bibliography in- dicates some of the references to be consulted preliminary to undertaking an investigation of teachers’ salaries. Selected Bibliography 1. CinctnnAaTI Pustic ScHoors, Report of Com- mittee on the Study of Salaries. Cincinnati, Ohio, May 24, 1926. 78 p. Presents data for Cincinnati on basic fac- tors of salary schedule construction. 2. CupperLey, Ettwoop P., State School Adminis- tration. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1927. 773 p. See, “The Pay of Teachers,” p. 651-8, for succinct discussion of bases for determining salary schedules. 3. Evenpen, E. S., Teachers Salaries and Salary Schedules in the United States, 1918-19. Na- tional Education Association, Washington, D. C., 1919. 169 p. : The section beginning on p. 131, “Elements To Be Considered In Making Salary Sched- ules,” has been widely consulted and was largely responsible for the initiation of the “single” salary schedule movement. 4. McGaucuy, James R. and orners, Teachers’ Salaries in New York City. Final Report of Citizens Committee on Teachers’ Salaries. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1927. 256 p. Presents results of application of prin- ciples of salary scheduling to a specific situa- tion. 5. Meeker, Royat, 4 Study of Costs and Stand- ards of Living of Minneapolis Teachers in Relation to their Salaries. Central Commit- 1 Reference No. 8 on page 212 of this bullet Minneapo! 39 p. An analysis of the cost and standard living of 649 Minneapolis teachers and scho. nurses based on data for average salarie. expenditures, training, number of dependen: and position held. tee of Teachers Associations, Minnesota, September, 1926. 6. MoeHLMAN, ArtuHurR B., Public School Financ. Rand, McNally Company, New York Cit, 1927. 508 p. See p. 121-54 for discussion of principles of scheduling and types of schedules in us: 7. NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION, RESEARCH Division. “Salaries in City School Systems 1926-27.” Research Bulletin, 5:65-128- March, 1927. Washington, D. C. Summarizes figures as to salaries paid 295,063 teachers, principals, administrative and supervisory officers and other school em- ployees in 1435 city school systems. 8. NATIONAL EpucaTION AssociATION, RESEARCH Division, “The Scheduling of Teachers’ Sal- aries.” Research Bulletin, 5:130-92; May, 1927. Washington, D. C. Deals with nation’s ability to pay teachers a professional wage, the economic position of teachers, and guides to salary scheduling. Extensive annotated bibliography of recent material on teachers’ salaries. 9. NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION, RESEARCH Division, Special Salary Tabulations. Wash- ington, D. C., 1927. Tabulations giving by individual cities dis- tributions of salaries paid 295,063 city school employees in 1926-27. Two sets of tabula- tions for each of five population groups, one for teachers, principals and certain other school employees; and one for administra- tive and supervisory officers. These tables, prepared for the convenience of those wish- ing to make special salary studies, are avail- able at $5.00 per set. Similar tables, for the school year 1928-29, will be available in 1929. 10. Norton, JoHn K., “Teachers Salaries.” Jour- nal of the National Education Association 7:27-8, 55, 85, 115, 149; January to May in- clusive, 1928. Washington, D. C. Five brief articles tracing the major trends of teachers salaries under the titles: Teach- ers Salaries Before the War; Teachers Sal- ary Trends Since 1913; Teachers Salaries— Present Position; Teachers Salaries—The Future; and Teachers Salaries—A Construc- tive Program. * Reference No. 10, = on page 212 of this litt should also be consulted. [212] “te poli rd of cho: aries dents ance City, “iples use ARCH ems, 128: paid itive em- RCH Sal- lay, 1ers tion ing. ent Requirements Affecting Appointment, Retention and Promotion of Teachers Training Requirements for Beginning Teachers When the work of a group is developed until its successful performance requires knowledge and skill of a high order, that service becomes of peculiar significance to the general public. Therefore, to protect its own welfare, society sets up barriers which pre- vent admission to this work of those who are unprepared for it. We now examine with extreme care the qualifications of those who would practice as physicians. In most states those who would enter the legal profession must meet special requirements as to character and pro- fessional training. Society has similarly pro- tected itself in many other forms of profes- sional service. In our early history, in spite of the urgings of such leaders as Washington and Jefferson, teaching service was placed on a very low plane. An editorial which appeared in a colo- nial newspaper about the time of the Declara- tion of Independence is representative of the general attitude. This editorial contained this paragraph: Now for school masters. In the Ship Paca ar- rived at Baltimore in five weeks from Belfast and Cork are imported and advertised for sale in the Maryland Journal various Irish commodities, among which are school masters, beef, pork and potatoes. As teaching has developed toward becom- ing a skilled service based on a body of exact and tested knowledge, and as society has better realized the vital significance to in- dividual and general welfare of the influences under which the child develops, specifications have been stated as to who may teach. Pork and potatoes and teaching service are no longer looked upon as commodities of simi- lar importance, even in our least progressive states. Several states have already made high school graduation and two years of profes- sional training the minimum requirement for full certification for teaching. “The num- ber of states which have no definite training requirement for admission to teaching is now less than 15, and is rapidly being reduced. ' In addition to the certificate for classroom teaching, some states are requiring special qualifications for admission to administrative and other specialized forms of service in the field of education.* Necessity of training recognized. generally agreed that certification require- ments designed to protect children from un- prepared teachers should be enacted by all states and local communities. Robinson sums up the situation as follows: It is now Just as people are unwilling to ask legal advice of those who have not studied law and passed the bar examinations, or to have their bodies treated by doctors without thorough medical train- ing, they should be unwilling to employ anyone as a teacher who is not specifically trained to nurture the minds and characters of their chil- dren. The theory formerly held that anyone can teach any subject has been exploded. More and more, teachers are selected with particular consideration to their personal fitness and their special training for the subjects to be taught. * Lewis expresses a similar viewpoint as fol- lows: Teaching, if it is to be skilled and no other kind should be acceptable, demands a trained, experienced, and competent teaching personnel. The product of the public school will in many cases continue to be disappointing until our chil- dren are instructed by teachers properly qualified for this important service. Making good citizens is a skilled service and cannot be performed by unskilled workers. * Buckingham states the factors which have created the demand for trained teachers thus: The modern demands of society and of civiliza- tion require an everlengthening and _ intensive period of training for children and young people. Longer and longer grows the period of infancy— the period of dependence of the human child on 1 Page 16 of reference No. 3, cited on page 217 of this bulletin. 2 See reference No. 7, cited on page 217 of this bulletin. 3 Page 59 of reference No. 9, cited on page 217 of this bulletin. 4 Page 33 of reference No. 6, cited on page 217 of this bulletin. [213] adult guidance. Of supreme importance, there- fore, it is, that there be at the service of society as the teachers of its dependents, men and women of first rate intellect, morals and skill.’ A few, however, would qualify the gen- erally accepted views stated above. Dillard fears an overemphasis on professional teacher training will result in a standardized teacher lacking originality and initiative. He recalls the time when: teaching was hardly thought of as a profession. Young men and women and older men and women took it up to make a living or an extra penny when nothing better seemed at hand. Any plan of professional preparation, as for law or medicine, was nowhere in the lands- cape, nor even on the horizon. While the thing we call personality cuts a figure in what- ever anyone does, it is in teaching that per- sonality cuts deepest. . All of us know per- sonally numbers of fine teachers who have not had professional training. And yet, of course teaching has become a profession. As such it demands some professional preparation. Not however so Very much. It is easily overdone. It can easily fall into the vice of killing originality and making molds.* Champlin, however, has no fears that we will overtrain our teachers. He states: the claim . . . that the professional training of teachers is easily overdone and that it destroys originality and individuality is hardly borne out by the facts. Most of us would have to search for a pretty long time to discover any actual case of an overtrained public school teacher and those in a position to observe most widely will testify that the most thoroughly prepared in pedagogy fr classroom work are the very ones who pos- sess the greatest amount of adaptability, resource- fulness and spontaneity in the daily round of in- structional responsibilities. . . . The profes- sional preparation of public school teachers has been so conspicuously underdone in past genera- tions that it is inopportune to condemn the present program and premature to indict the leaders who so loyally and zealously seek to elevate the pro- fessional standards of the several hundreds of thousands now engaged in some form of teach- ing employment.’ The desirable minimum training. ‘There is rather complete unanimity that beginning ele- mentary teachers should have not less than two years, and that beginning high school teachers should have not less than four years, 1 Pages 3 and 4 of reference No. 2, cited on Page 226 of reference No. 4, cited on on page 21 Ry of ee | x. § cited on page 217 ‘Di 3%. ie dys Teacher Training” S Chamelin: Csiro De Teacher Training Is. ° Panes 155-6 of Sickest No. 2, cited on 217 of this bulletin. of this bulletin. of this chool and Society, 25: 406, April 2, 1927 School and Society,” 25: 572-3, May 14, 1927. page 217 of this bulletin. [214] of preparation for teaching beyond high schov! graduation. The right of the state to prescribe desirable minimum standards of professional training j- upheld by Buckingham: There are those who, for selfish reasons, want entrance into teaching made easy. They regard it as their “right” to become teachers or to have their relatives and friends become teachers. There is no right in the matter except the right acquired by paying the price of competency. The state has rights, the community has rights, the children have rights and one of the rights of the state— in this case acting for the community and the child as well as for itself—is to say what kind of teachers it wants in the schools. . . . This is one of its inherent rights, one of the rights which no individual may infringe. . . . The school does not exist to furnish jobs for any- body.* Cubberley vigorously advocates such a mini- mum as follows: For present-day city school work, graduation from a good high school with a good two-year normal course in addition is not too high a stand- ard to insist upon from elementary school teach- ers. . . . also graduation from a good college or university with special preparation in some line or lines of secondary school instruction and some professional study in addition is not too much to demand of teachers for the high school. With the recent multiplication of good normal schools in our different American states, the increase in the number of colleges offering both academic and professional education and the increasing per- centage of trained teachers it has become rela- tively easy for a city which has anything like a satisfactory salary schedule to make and to enforce such demands.° Lewis argues for a similar minimum stand- ard: A reasonable minimum standard for teachers in kindergarten and in grades one to six—would be graduation from a two-year normal school after graduation from a four-year high school. This standard is already adopted in many cities and partially if not completely attained—the standard for high-school teaching is already graduation from college. Often from one-half to one full year of graduate work is also required of high- school teachers. The rapid growth of junior high schools is resulting in the gradual introduction of college-trained teachers in the seventh and eighth grades.® hoo] able ig is vant yard lave here ired has lave the kind his ghts The ny- ini- tion ear nd- ich- ege line yme ith Myers sums up the consensus of opinion on this point as follows: The day has passed in American education when it was necessary to try to prove that one year of training beyond the high school was an insuficient amount of training for teachers. No important recommendation or proposal regarding training requirements for teaching has been made within the last ten years which contemplated a minimum training of less than two years beyond the high school for elementary teachers and four years for high-school teachers.’ There are those who maintain that the minimum standards advocated in the preced- ing paragraphs are insufficient. Robinson, doubtless familiar with the fact that some states already have passed measures requiring three and four years for graduation from the training course for elementary school teach- ers, states: It requires no prophet to predict that within the next ten years most of the leadership in ele- mentary education will have shifted to the per- sons whose professional preparation represents the equivalent of the standard or four-year college curriculum.’ Elsewhere Robinson states four reasons why training of beginning teachers should be in- creased : 1. As society advances and becomes more com- plex, a broader educational background is demanded before specialization begins. More time for acquaintance and interpretation is needed than when civilization was less de- veloped and less complex. 2. During the past quarter of a century the sciences dealing with the physical and mertal make-up of the child have developed at an unprecedented rate. The science of educa- tion has added much technical information that is needed by the prospective teacher. This vast amount of information is now avail- able in suitable form for the teacher’s guid- ance and makes a legitimate claim to a place in the normal school curriculum. The application of such principles of phi- losophy as “one learns to do by doing,” de- mands more observations, participations, con- ferences and teaching by the prospective teacher than heretofore. The addition of one or two years to the course allows for more of this type of laboratory work in normal school curriculums. i) . 4. More liberalizing subject matter is being in- troduced into the training courses. These courses are designed to lead students to the everwidening circle of related subject mat- ter more “advanced” in character and thus to awaken and promote the broadening of their intellectual horizon. This in turn will be passed on to pupils through richer teach- ing.” It is probably such considerations which lead Buckingham to contend that the two- year course is insufficient, although it may be a step toward something better. He states that four years of training is now customarily thought of as a minimum for induction into a truly professional career. ‘Therefore, he believes that: The goal should be a four-year course for every teacher; and this goal should not be a visionary one. It should at this moment form part of the definite plans of our educational leaders; its real- ization should be anticipated at an early date.‘ Almack is less certain as to the desirability of requiring more than a two-year minimum training period for new teachers. While maintaining that he does not oppose four years of college training for elementary teachers, he contends that: we have no conclusive evidence that it is worth while to extend the training period this far. It is better to set down a reasonable stand- ard—say two years—leaving it to the future to increase this minimum in the light of experience and investigation.’ The practice in city school systems. From the preceding theoretical statements we may go to practice as it now exists. The cities with their higher salary schedules maintain the higher standards for admission to teach- ing. Table 2 summarizes the professional training requirements for new appointees to the teaching staff in over 1500 cities. A sur- vey of this table reveals these facts for the cities reporting: 1. Only seven percent of cities will ap- point new elementary school teachers with less than two years of training beyond high school. 2. Practically all cities require at least two years, and a considerable percent already spec- 1 Myers, Alonzo Franklin, A Teacher-Training Program for Ohio, Contributions to Education No. 266, Bureau of ee Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1927, p. 108. of reference No. 8, cited on page 217 of ,this bulletin. pas 59 of reference No. 9, cited on page 217 of this bulletin. « Page 154 of reference No. 2, cited on page 217 of this bulletin. 5 Page 23 of reference No. 1, cited on page 217 of this bulletin. [215] ify three and four years, of professional training for qualification as junior high school teachers. This accords with the conclusion of the Fifth Yearbook.' 3. At least four years of training is now generally required for admission to high school teaching; some cities already require five years. * A study of the questionnaires upon which Table 2 is based suggests that the figures given understate the requirements for admission for teaching. In replying, several cities state: that whereas officially two years of profes sional training was required for elementar, school teaching, in practice they appointed practically no new elementary school teacher. who did not have three and in some case. four years training. Similarly some citie. have officially set four years of training as the minimum for high school teachers, but in practice employ few for this work with less than a master’s degree or equivalent. _ |= National Education Association, Department of Superintendence, The Junior High School Curriculum, Fift) Yearbook, Chapter V, “‘The Junior —— School Teacher,” pp. 55 and 56 2 National Education Association, Sixth Yearbook, p. 280. partment of Superintendence, The Development of the High School Curriculuy TABLE 2.—EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS OF NEWLY APPOINTED 2 Nin A NOR NPE on = TEACHERS 66 Cities 161 Cities 326 Cities 397 Cities 582 Cities 1,532 Cities ; over 100,000 | 30,000 to 10,000 to 5,000 to 2,500 to over 2,500 : Number of years training in population | 100,000 in 30,000 in 10,000 in 5,000 in in population 7 required beyond high school population population population population graduation an Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- ber ber | cent | ber | cent cent | ber | cent | ber | cent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 | 13 1.2 23 7.1 26 6.5 54 9.3 107 7.0 84.5 255 | 78.2 314 | 79.1 435’7| 74.7 }1,189 | 77.6 10.6 37 | 11.4 34 .6 57 9.8 156 | 10.2 = 2 Ge aap 6 1.5 8 1.4 17 1.1 ewes) rey) ee 1 ia 1 = 2 7 1.2 5 1.5 5 4 a 13 9 .6 6 1.8 14 3.5 23 3.9 48 3.1 100.0 326 |100.0 397 |100.0 582 |100.0 |1,532 (100.0 .6 12 3.7 8 2.0 18 3.1 40 2.6 26.1 90‘ | 27.6 1445| 36.3 183 | 31.4 470 | 30.7 16.8 69 | 21.2 87*| 21.9 1078| 18.4 302 | 19.7 ‘ 4 37.9 85 | 26.1 67 | 16.9 119 | 20.5 358 | 23.4 Serer ert ARE ae 1 .6 1 3 2 5 1 om 5 3 No specified amount..........}}......)...65: 1 6 2 6 2 5 3 5 x 5 AES erry 16 24.2 28 | 17.4 67 | 20.5 87 | 21.9 151 | 25.9 349 | 22.8 TNE. Coa Luke «+ ua idda eet 66 |100.0 161 |100.0 326 {100.0 397 |100.0 582 |100.0 |1,532 (100.0 Senior high schools J SEE, Co cc caks csvcceted 1 | 1.5 eo] @F+ 82 7} 1.8| 17| 2.9) 38] 2.5 : I, id debe leew net 4 6.1 6 3.8 13 4.0 17 4.3 24 4.2 64 4.2 IR cs cide <4 un tek he 1 7 ae 4 1.2 2 5 3 5 10 6 INS ook ice Udine onto pall 52 78.7 140 | 87.0 264 | 81.0 325 | 81.8 451 | 77.5 1,232 | 80.4 SOIL, 5's o/b kc d cae s 088 4 6.1 7 4.3 14 4.3 10 2.5 13 2.2 48 SS ee eee ee a Sees Cee: 2 6 2 5 3 5 7 5 | Rea it a eat oe 4 6.1 7 4.3 17 5.2 34 8.6 71 | 12.2 133 87 WO ibs xt cencrrdtbbatasns 66 (100.0 161 |100.0 326 |100.0 397 |100.0 582 |100.0 }1,532 |100.0 Read table as follows: Of the 66 cities over 100,000 in population ssplying. 2, or 3.0 percent, require one year's train- ing Papen high school Fy aon as the minimum educational q tion of newl appointed elementary teachers, 49, or 74.2 percent, req 2 years beyond high school graduation, etc. Similarly data for other teacher and popu- , This tabulation ie based on the replies to question 1 of the inquiry blank reproduced on page 250 notes: 1 One of these cities requires 2 years in 6 and 7 grade, and 4 years in 8 grade; and one city requires 2 years in 7 and 8 grade, and 4 years in 9 grade. 2 One of these cities requires 3 years in 7 and 8 . and 4 years in 9 grade. : j ' 3 Two of these cities require 2 years in 7 and 8 , and 4 years in 9 grade; and one city requires 2 years in elementary subjects and 4 in school subjects. ; f q Theos of chen cities require 2 years in 7 and 8 grade, and 4 yeare in 9 grade; and one city requires 3 years in 8 grade and 4 ind > STITT nei ainsi cen cena tn? ont Cornde, Onl Guin © ante. 6 One of these 87 cities requires 3 years in 7 and 8 grade and 4 years in 9 grade. Ant 1 LP Sane oe Sareea Seaeigs Devens 2 rane One years experience beyond 3 years * Most of the cities nct reporting as to requirements for junior school teachers have not established such schools. a —— 7 tated rofes ntar\ inted chers Casé€s Cities iw as but with i Fifth ulum 2 Se OM eee os | ¢ [e| N cited of this bul [222} page 16 of reference No. 3 on page 2 anced training program of from two to fou: years or more including both academic and professional courses, and provide opportunity for practice teaching supervised by master teachers. Such a basis for eliminating the unfit and for preparing the fit for teaching outclasses the written examination. Whereas, the written examination is being discarded as a basis for certificating those en- tering teaching, it is employed in some com- munities as one basis for selecting teachers from among those holding certificates, and as a basis for promotion to specific lines of work. Table 5 reveals the extent to which written examinations are now used by city school sys- tems in appointing new teachers and in pro- moting those already on the staff. This table shows that 27 out of 66 cities over 100,000 in population reporting, or 41 percent, use some form of a written examination in select- ing new teachers. ‘The percent rapidly drops as cities decrease in population. Many of the larger cities have salary sched- ules which make it practical to insist that no teachers shall be employed who in ability, training and attitude do not reach the pro- fessional level. Such cities, with well trained administrative and supervisory staffs of ma- ture experience, and frequently employing an expert in personnel administration, are in a position to adopt rigorous methods in selecting the instructors of their children. Rapid progress is now being made in the development of scientific examination pro- cedures. We may look forward to the time when examining instruments of high validity Paci w0 Mifflln Company, Boston, 1919, p. 25. via and reliability will be available to aid those in the smaller school system should be adapted charged with personnel administration. Cities — to the less complicated situation obtaining Pai J : 192 with professional salary schedules should _ there. her. profit from and contribute to this movement Few would defend the written examination and thereby guarantee their children the best as a sole basis for selecting and promoting 7a possible teachers. teachers. In the hands of an expert in per- or Various types of written examinations are sonnal administration, with adequate time | the 1 ‘ ial “6 . = > i eeu used in the large cities and for different pur- properly to devise and administer this instru- d of poses. The place of the written examination ment, the written examination may be of con as it affects elementary school principals is siderable value. But even at its best, it is but briefly described for several cities in the last one of several means of measuring and stim- yearbook of the Elementary School Princi- ulating the professional growth of teachers. pals.1. The references given at the close of A poorly devised and poorly administered this section give further information as to the written examination system may be far worse | types of examinations used and their purposes. than none at all. Such a system is likely to our ae oP aa ; ae : Ae? Table 5 indicates that but one percent of encourage teachers to become “credit chasers an ae , ; : ; ; rote 7 cities below 10,000 in population use the writ- rather than students of teaching. “Those who nity rine : ; : - “wilh , ten examination in selecting and promoting go through the motions of professional growth ster ° ° ° ° e +H teachers. Whether the written examination may pass better examinations than those who 1e ° . . ° ° — ; as an instrument for selecting and promoting actually do superior teaching. ‘These unfor- ing = » teachers should be used in the smaller com- tunate outcomes and a general lowering of , munities is.a question. The opportunity which teacher morale are likely to result under a ing A . ap ‘ “ee ; : : ' the superintendent and his administrative and poorly administered written examination sys- en- : : : supervisory assistants have to come in close tem. Unless a school system is able to do the »m- : Seti. ; ‘ contact with the work of the individual teacher job well, it would probably do better to have lers . ° ° . . ‘ aid : : makes the examination less necessary in such no written examinations for selecting and pro . as ee ° ° . k communities. If employed, the examination moting teachers. rk, ten i a ea 1 National Education Association Department of Elementary School Principals, Seventh Yearbook, “The Elemen sys tary School Principal,’ Bulletin 7: 372 ff.; April, 1928, Washington, D. C. ro- | ble 100 ) TABLE 5.—USE OF WRITTEN EXAMINATIONS IN EMPLOYING AND PROMOT- use ING TEACHERS ct- a DPs 66 Cities 161 Cities 326 Cities | 397 Cities 582 Cities | 1,532 Cities over 100,000 | 30,000 to 10,000 to | 5,000 to 2,500 to | over 2,500 in population | 100,000 in 30,000 in | 10,000 in 5,000 in in population d Written examinations required | population population population population ed- of new teachers pe —_—-—__—_|--____ oa no Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- —e Per- |Num- | Per- ty ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent y» . EE ee * j— | - \. | ro- 1 2 7a he _% oe | 7 a Ld so |} 12 § m2 | 43 ed SEMERICLATS sastichiss +6000. 27 | 40.9 14] 8. eee 6 1.5 | 5 si ww) 38 CE 6 in, icacwesve so 38 | 57.6 | 146 | 90. 313 | 96.0 | 391 | 98.5 | 575 | 98.9 |1,463 | 95.5 la- CO 1 1.5 | 1 | ; oe} £.8}..... ‘i | 2 a | 10 | 7 an Tess dT fark canes 66 |100.0| 161 |100 326 |100.0 | 397 |100.0 | 582 100.0 /1,532 |100.0 | —____—}] i SSS => |§_ ———— | = | sa = | } = a Written examination required for | | $ | ng 0 err 10 |15.2/ 3] 1.9 5 | et. s| 2 3} 23] 1.5 Se ES eee 49 | 74.2 | 142 | 88.2 | 294 | 90.2 | 369 | 92.9 545 | 93.7 1,399 | 91.3 PE EGGS aban yetecese. 7 | 10.6 | 16/ 9.9} 27/ 83| 25] 63| 35| 6.0] 110) 7.2 . |———- - — ——— — |-———- _ |—-——_ -]- - -——— | ————_ | he eS eee 66 |100.0 | 161 |100.0 | 326 pane | 397 |100.0 | 582 |100.0 1,532 |100.0 | ‘O- ———EE . ne : _ Read table as follows: Of the 66 cities over 100,000 in population reporting, 27, or 40.9 percent, require written examina- 7 tion of new teachers; 38, or 57.6 percent, do not require written examination of new teachers; 4 city left this question blank. ty Of the 66 cities over 100,000 in population reporting concerning their policy of requiring written examination for promotion teachers, 10, or 15.2 percent, require such examinations; 49, or 74.2 percent, do not require such examinations; 7 cities left this question blank. Similarly read data for other population groups. 15 This tabulation is based on replies to question 4 of the inquiry blank, reproduced on page 250. [223] Selected References 1. ALmMAcK, J. C. and Lana, A. R. Problems of the Teaching Profession. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1925. p. 40-42. Among other means of securing data on candidates for teaching positions mentions the written examination and presents some of the advantages and disadvantages inci- dent to its use. 2. BaALLou, Frank W. The Appointment of Teachers in Cities. Harvard Studies in Edu- cation, Harvard University Press, Cam- bridge, Mass., 1915. p. 60-85, 179-181. Deals with the examination system in deter- mining the eligibility of candidates for ap- pointment to teaching positions. Studies prac- tice in five selected cities. Presents a con- structive plan for appointing teachers which includes system of competitive examinations for those who cannot qualify for certificates as graduates of approved institutions. 3. BALLou, Frank W. “Determining Who are Superior Teachers.” Elementary School Jour- nal, 28:256-62; December, 1927; also Report of the Board of Education of the District of Columbia, 1926-27, p. 43-7. Describes examination system used in Dis- trict of Columbia schools as a basis. for selecting successful candidates for super- maximum salaries. 4. Cuppertey, Ettwoop P. Public School Ad- ministration, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1922. pp. 207-10, 261-2. The use of the written examination as a basis for the selection and promotion of [224] teachers in large school systems is discuss: Names principles of action which show govern the competitive examination syste for appointing mew teachers. Maintai: that promotional examinations, while capab|. of limited application in the framing of plan for promoting teachers on the basis . merit, are chiefly useful as one of a nun ber of bases of estimating growth and pro fessional efficiency. 5. Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teach ing Staff. Century Company, New York N. Y., 1925. pp. 135-8, 293. Names purpose and describes content 0! written examination in use in Los Angeles as a part of the scheme of teacher selection. Disapproves of promotional examinations as a basis of salary increases unless these are equated in terms of academic and profes- sional courses in recognized institutions for teacher training. 6. RuepiceR, W. C. “New Duties New Occa- sions Teach,” School and Society, 24:334-5; September 11, 1926. - States that the shortage of qualified teach- ers in New York City schools, said to exist in spite of high salaries offered, is primarily due to the competitive examination system governing appointments of new teachers. Declares that professionally-minded teach- ers, already successful, find “assembled” ex- aminations humiliating but that without its examination system and with its present salary schedule, New York City could at- tract the most capable teachers within a radius of many miles. ~> we oan am Practices Affecting Professional Improvement Leaves of Absence The encouragement among teachers of a progressive and dynamic attitude toward their own professional improvement is a first duty of an educational leader. Nothing can more to lower the efficiency of a school system than to allow a situation to develop in which uninformed self-satisfaction and instinctive op- position to all progress characterize the atti- tude of the rank and file of the teaching staff. Progressive schools administrators would generally agree that one means of encouraging a right professional attitude is the adoption of regulations which encourage, or at least make it easy for teachers to take leave of absence for study, travel, or other approved means of improving one’s professional equipment. This generally accepted theory, but partially finds its counterpart in practice. Table 6 indicates that 43 percent of the 1532 cities reporting do not grant leave of absence to teachers for professional improvement even though the total cost involved is borne by the do however, for Study and Travel teacher. This high percent is due principally the the In of these communities salary to situation in smaller cities. many schedules are too low to permit the saving necessary for if such saving is accomplished, time off, or, the teacher expects after a period of study to move on to a community in which conditions better. Over sixty percent of from 10,000 to 30,000 in popula- tion grant leave for professional improvement. of service the cities The corresponding percents are 80 and 92 in the two larger population groups. Of the 828 cities who grant leave for study, 750 or 91 percent pay no salary during such leave. ‘The 63 cities composing the remain- ing nine percent pay some salary during leave; 30 of these pay half salary or more. Detailed information is available in a recent report of the National Education Association as to pres- ent practice among public school systems con- cerning granting of leave for professional im- TABLE 6—GRANTING LEAVE FOR PROFESSIONAL IMPROVEMENT AND AMOUNT OF SALARY DURING LEAVE | salary; 4 for other population groups. Footnotes: 1 One of these 41 cities reported “* | Tabulation is based on replies to questions 7 and 8 of the inquiry blank reproduced on page 250ff. [ ; | | 66 Cities 161 Cities 326 Cities | 397 Cities | 582 Cities 1,532 Cities | over 100,000 30,000 to 10,000 to ,000 to | 2,500 to over 2,500 | in population 100,000 in 30,000 in | 10,000 in | 5,000 in in population Leave of absence granted for | population ennai population population professional improvement a Se oe SE Se z | | | | Num-/| Per- |Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- |Num-)| Per- | ber cent | ber cent ber cent | ber cent | ber | cent ber cent 1 2 "ak. 5 6 7 8 | 9 | 10 i 2 | 43 i = ae | 61 | 92.4| 129] 80.1 | 197 | 60.4 | 208 | 52.4 | 233 | 40.0] 828 | 54.0 Oe a re 5 7.6 32 19.9 125 | 38.4 173 43.6 331 56.9 666 43.5 | No report or indefinite........ | eed ae ee ee 4 Re 16 4.0 18 3.1 mt 33 —— memes - - = | } | ee ere | 66 |100.0 | 161 |100.0 | 326 |100.0 | 397 |100.0 | 582 |100.0 1,532 |100.0 | Amoung of salary paid during | r - a as - leave: | } NE in ae Bes ou $88 54 io wm ee 1 .8 1 5 | , oe | 2 | 9 4} 5 > oS eeeee aren ee 1°10 | 16.4 6| 4.7 el) oe ‘5 3] 1.3 2%6| 3.1 Full salary less pay of substitute] 4 6.6 >i om 3} 1.8] 5S | 2.4 4] 1.7 18 | 2.2 Some other fraction of salary. | 3 4.9 7] 5.4 1 5 | 2] 1.0 | 2 9} 15] 1.8 No wae: | Pea 41! 67.2 112?| 86.8 186 | 94.4 196 | 94.2 215 | 92.2 | 750 | 90.6 ORS che toe cos «coms 4.9 1 . . | — 4 1.9 7 | 3.0 i5 | 1.8 Re 61 jt00 0 129 |100.0 | 197 1100 0 | 208 |100.0 | 233 |100.0 828 |100.0 Read table as follows: Of the 66 cities over 100,000 in population reporting, 61, or 92.4 percent, grant leave of absence for professional improvement; 5, or 7.6 percent, do not grant such leave. pe ay gee none paid full salary during such leave; 10, or 16.4 percent of the cities granting such leave, , or 6.6 percent, paid full salary less pay of substitute; 3, or 4.9 percent, paid some other fraction of sal: yi 41, or 67.2 percent did not pay any salaries; and 3, or 4.9 percent left this part of the question blank. Of the 61 cities granting leave for professional paid half Similarly read data no salary but $20 reimbursement per month for 50 months on return." ? Three of these 112 cities reported except to the extent that it placed them in a higher salary group. 3 One city takes care of pension payments for teachers during absence. [225] provement with compensation during such leave.* Opinion—pro and con. Whether leave with salary should become a general practice in public school systems is still an open ques- tion. The report cited just above indicates that cities with such a leave plan in effect are generally well satisfied with it. This attitude, however, is characteristic of the innovators of educational practices. We also have evidence that granting sabbatical leave to college pro- fessors, a practice now in effect in a consider- able percent of colleges, has worked with success.” Those favoring the application of this plan for public school systems believe that it in- creases school efficiency by improving the pro- fessional and cultural background of the teachers, and by making it possible for teach- ers to make up deficiencies in or to improve their mastery of the field in which they in- struct. Opponents of the practice question whether the returns justify the cost and con- tend that the same amount spent on other means of encouraging professional growth will yield larger results with fewer difficulties of administration. Further experience and re- search will eventually decide the validity of these conflicting claims. Below are listed essential elements for the effective administration of a plan of sabbatical leave for teachers. These were formulated as a result of a detailed study of such plans already in effect in thirty cities, and are taken from the report of the National Education Association previously cited. 1. A period of uninterrupted teaching service prior to taking sabbatical leave. 2. A provision which will safeguard to the school system the use of sabbatical leave for pur- poses of professional growth. ‘3. Compensation during the period of sabbatical leave sufficient to make the leave possible with- out undue sacrifice by the teacher. 4. A statement as to the number of teachers who may be on leave at one time without embarrass- ment to the school system. 5. An equitable basis for selecting the teachers to be granted leave, when more apply than may be absent at one time. 6. A period of leave long enough te make real professional study and growth possible. 7. A provision guaranteeing that the improved services of the teacher following sabbatical leave 1 See reference No. 7, cited on page 227 of this bulletin 2 See reference Nos. 2 and 9, cited on pages 226-7 of this bulletin, [226] shall be rendered in the school system granti the leave. 8. Protection of the salary and retirement sta: of the teacher taking leave. Troy and Schenectady, New York, recent! adopted a plan which combines provisions ft.) granting both sick leave and leave for prote- sional improvement. ‘The plan is similar j: both cities. That for Schenectady is into: mally described by Superintendent A. J. Stod dard as follows: 1. Each person coming under the plan shall |. allowed a maximum of ten days’ sick leave on full pay each year. These periods shall be ac cumulative in whole or in part until a total of 100 days has been reached. At any time, the person may use all or part of the days accumulated for sickness on full pay. Whenever 100 days have been accumulated, the person may apply to the Board of Education for a half year’s leave of absence, on full pay, for study or travel or some other activity which in the judgment of the Board of Education shall be of equivalent value to the school system. These requests for leave shall be honored in the order filed as the budget permits. However, any person must use his half year's leave of absence within one year after the date approved by the Board of Education. 2. The budget for the present is to be one per- cent of the salary budgets for administrative ofh- cers, supervisors, special teachers, principals and teachers. 3. The plan is to be retroactive for ten years from June, 1927. 4. The plan shall apply to all teachers, nurses, heads of instructional departments, chief of med- ical staff, supervisors of instruction, principals or other heads of schools, director of research and superintendent and assistant superintendent of schools. Selected References 1. “The Ann Arbor Plan for Leave.” Journal of the National Education Association, 16:155; May, 1927. Quotes resolutions adopted by Ann Arbor Board of Education with regard to the granting of leaves of absence to members of administrative, supervisory, teaching or library staff. 2. Lemon, ALLAN C. “The Leave of Absence in Universities and Colleges.” Journal of Edu- cational Research, 16:210-212; October, 1927. Summarizes results of survey of current practices in regard to granting sabbatical ee PO ee eee > es ' ome To PR TC TR CU OCD 4. MacCauGuey, V. leave in seventy-five universities and col- leges. 3. Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teach- ing Staff. Century Company, New York, 1925. 460 p. Chapter V, p. 77-81 contains a brief sum- mary of essential practices in granting sab- batical leave to teachers in seven cities. Gives Boston and Rochester plans in some detail. “Sabbatical Leave for Teachers.” Journal of the National Educa- tion Association, 15:18; January, 1926. A brief article reviewing outstanding points in report, on sabbatical leave for teachers, to California State Council of Edu- cation. Lists typical cities which have plan in some form. 5. McGLape, JoHN C. “Leave-of-Absence for Study.” Sierra Educational News, 24:9-10; January, 1928. Summarizes data from two studies of prac- tice in American cities relative to the grant- ing of sabbatical leave to teachers. Benefits to teachers, school system, and community are discussed. 6. MorGaANn, KATHERINE M. “Report on Sabbatical Year.” Proceedings, 63:369-72; 1925, Na- tional Education Association, Washington, D.. & Report of committee of Teachers’ Coopera- tive Council of Kansas City. Lists typical cities granting leave and surveys variations in practice. Concludes that “practice has passed the experimental stage and is fast becoming a recognized means of securing for the community the benefits of teacher improvement.” 7. NATIONAL EpucaTION AsSOCIATION, RESEARCH Division. Sabbatical Leave for Public School Teachers. National Education Association, Washington, D. C., July, 1927. 31 p. A study directed by the Representative Assembly of the National Education Asso- ciation. Brings together data on systems for sabbatical leave in effect in thirty cities re- plying to questionnaire. Discusses purpose and [227] 8. 11. value of sabbatical leave, essential elements of plans for granting leave to teachers and characteristics of existing plans. Quotes in full Ann Arbor plan and California law passed in 1926 permitting local school sys- tems to grant sabbatical leave to teachers. Presents tabular analysis and summary of thirty systems reported. Extensive bibliog- raphy. “A Practical Plan for Sabbatical Leave.” Yearbook, 1926, National League of Teach- ers’ Associations. p. 40-43. States that wherever a plan of sabbatical leave for teachers is in effect it has met with general approval, and expense is small. Gives some of most widely accepted regula- tions governing sabbatical leave. Names benefits accruing to teachers and to school systems. 9. RANDALL, Otis E. “Report of Commission on Sabbatic Leave.” Bulletin of the Association of American Colleges, $:104-118; 9:188-202; 10:137-140; March, 1922; April, 1923; May, 1924. Commission reports for 1922, 1923, and 1924. Reports summarized results of ques- tionnaire investigation of present and desired practice in five hundred and ninety colleges and universities and present general conclu- sions and recommendations based on data. A sabbatical year plan in every university and college is urged. 10. “Sabbatical Leaves for Teachers.” Elementary School Journal, 27:321-3; January, 1927. Quotes from an article by Albert M. Shaw in 1926 Yearbook of the National League of Teachers’ Associations. Lists eleven regula- tions generally applicable to sabbatical leave plans; cites plans in Rochester, Richmond, and New York, as variations from the reg- ulations suggested. SHANK, TuHeo. B. “Investments with Large Dividends.” American School Board Jour- nal, 74:66; March, 1927. Commends school board of Kansas City for adoption of a new policy with regard to sabbatical leave for teachers. Discusses practices current in school systems relating to teachers’ leaves of absence. SS ee cdi nes epseiniiresbhceis Recognition of Additional Training A considerable percent of school systems financially encourage professional study by teachers during summer vacation or concur- rently with the school year. Such assistance of professional improvement may be adopted as alternative or supplemental to the granting of leave during the school year for purposes of professional training. Summer session study. Attendance at sum- mer sessions of colleges or universities is fa- vored by some communities. Many opportuni- ties for attendance at well conducted summer schools, even for specialized types of work, are open in every section of the nation’ and for- eign colleges offer unique opportunities for the enrichment of one’s professional equipment. Over 280,000 teachers, nearly one in three in the United States, annually attend summer school for from six to eight and twelve weeks. Table 7 shows summer school enrolment by states for 1926, 1927, and 1928." Those favoring attendance at summer ses- sions contend that such work is of particular value since it (1) may be keyed to the prac- tical needs of active teachers with backgrounds of experience, (2) offers an opportunity for an exchange of ideas on good practice by ex- perienced practitioners, (3) makes possible an intermingling of theoretical training and prac- tical experience over a number of years, (4) frequently makes it possible to combine edu- cative travel with classroom work, and (5) need not involve a health menace if alternate summer sessions are attended and the school vacation beyond the six weeks summer school is used wisely. Those unfavorable to summer courses be- lieve that they (1) are too brief to allow the proper development of a unit of instruction, (2) bring together teachers whose previous training and experience are so diverse as to make satisfactory class work impossible, (3) give instructors insufficient time to discover and minister to the particular needs of their groups, and (4) constitute a serious health menace to a teacher who does conscientious work. 1 National Education Association . 411-12. Also see: Hum Association, XVIT: 155-9; May, 1928. 2 For a more complete presentation of Departmen rtment of Elementary Schooi Pri rey, Adele, Opportunities in Summer Schonlen 192 Table 8 indicates that nearly 40 percent | school systems now encourage summer schv: by financially assisting such attendance. ‘|| aid is most often given on the basis of ¢| number of credits earned in a college or un versity. In some cases a “bonus” or sing}, payment of $100, or more or less, is paid to indemnify teachers who satisfactorily earn given number of course units. In 58 percen: of the 605 cities giving direct financial reward for summer school attendance, teachers are granted a permanent salary increase of a speci- fied amount or an extra salary schedule incre- ment. Courses during the school year. Some cities encourage the pursuit of resident, extension, o: correspondence courses during the school year. This plan when properly worked out allows a close and concurrent relating of the actual school work with the subjects of study, per- mits the instructor to develop a well rounded unit of work and to adapt it to the specific needs of the community and of the individua! members of his class. Those opposing such courses criticize the value of the work sometimes given and con- tend that it too often either endangers a teach- er’s health or is carried on at the expense of the regular school work. Table 9 indicates that approximately one city in five now has some plan for financially encouraging college work during the school year. Such a financial award is usually based on the units of work completed and is most often granted in the form of an extra salary schedule increment. Information was not secured as to the means used by cities to insure that college work is of the type calculated to increase the teacher’s efficiency in the classroom. Educative travel. Most people would agree that travel is desirable as a part of the prep- aration of a professional teacher. The direct contribution of travel to classroom instruction is not easily measured, however, nor is it easy to evaluate the worth of various types and amounts of travel. These and other con- siderations are responsible for the fact, indi- 7 oe Seventh Yearbook, April, 1928, ” Journal of the National Education figures and for information as to their proper interpretation see “Growth of Summer School Attendance,” Journal of the National Education Association, XVII: 265; November, 1928. [228] = cated by Table 10, that less than eight per- teaching. Professional cent of school systems financially encourage paid for somewhere along the line. such travel. competency must be leachers of sound scholarship and full protessional prep- Direct versus indirect encouragement. It aration, with broad experience ard contacts, is an open question how far it is wise to cannot be obtained for the same ss as teach- relate financial rewards directly to the obtain- ers with little training and contacts no wide: ing of increased professional preparation for than those of their local communities. As the TABLE 7.—NUMBER OF PERSONS ENROLLED IN EDUCATION COURSES IN SUMMER SCHOOL States 1926! 1 2 United States.... 218,695 REI 55568605 6 60's 4,302 a ee 873 LS aa hwo ewetacdceser 1,639 iin 8 5, 6:ky, oie 9:8 5,883 RU cars 6 be cesscecs 5,563 Se ee ee 22 oS 2 eee 272 District of Columbia... . ; 140 0 SE ere 1,231 MN Gess sn etenswracece : 2,347 0 Se re 1, 296 GG es 9k ee nie 4 15,145 eS mseee ed sce's 10,524 ee i 6,059 Kansas...... 7,048 Ey o.5.«. «di0-6.<'0 eae 5,486 Louisiana....... as - ’ 2,059 | a a 1,304 | pO Ree nee 1,548 | Massachusetts............ 3,183 << eres 8,161 "a i. 3,789 TE dre ho Gcihas oa wi0cg 1,570 ole ee 7,458 | Montana..........--+.-.+-+. 1,162 te) Eee 5,718 EC Ciwddleesctene cs ah 139 2D SREY Ce ee 376 | New Jersey...... 3 = ei 1,375 | New Mexico.............-... res 1,034 | | PREM EstRSeneredenererccesesereess : bain 15,978 NS ee caw sbocdectcsessccsorce pase 7,862 | North Dakota............. SF ae SR 4,297 | Ohio... ....... sees sees A stiri e tay erace:d 4 wees 10,091 EE Te ated Re ee 11,223 EE ake k aires 06.2064 000+ 2,381 ea. 6. 9's de.0 65-000 16, 280 Rhode Ieland............. } 369 South Carolina............ | 2, 868 SOmtm SPONGtR.... 2... eee | 2,378 Gees Siuidtadrs des a , rye? 7,615 ee eee ; is ee 8,429 Ee iiled 3 v.00 6-00 00's ris wee ila iene ewa.'e ee 395 RT as civ car cve vis : Re Seis’ el aealin < <0 6-01s.0' oo Sa 603 Se ee Pihaaa «ice 4,455 Ns ial .c ses on Zs : wetaidwe + ae 3,873 West Ed Pee dia 6Se wares as ; ci 3,874 ao iin 'b a 0.0.0:60 ee See abd a 4 | 6,903 ES os ys ieciesBy av avect se ree | 640 Eee + eae ee ae 525 Philippine Islands..................... pMiaaek : se eS oe eee _ 950 | 1 From reports from 482 of the 661 institutions conducting summer schools. 2? From reports from 596 of the 662 institutions conducting summer schools. * From reports from 616 of the 626 institutions conducting summer schools. 1927? ; 249, 268 8 ~ Anwrn << w 16, a) wn — om we Jb de , 883 | 585 , 136 } ,118 , 248 873 237 729 ,450 ,778 | , 180 700 644 562 , 858 , 561 530 , 364 ,428 ,425 437 707 255 , 286 300 | ,018 | 88 | 320 | 983 , 346 , 887 152 573 148 , 894 ,979 740 459 , 355 ,933 ,228 ,155 | ,337 635 , 856 | 922 ,349 ,039 425 616 000 457 | Number enrolled summer of: 817 243 ,073 373 , 725 -_— ,O75 781 319 775 ,001 onoue 818 ,537 ,552 836 796 eeu 809 084 373 , 792 651 ne 6,323 100 377 1,315 1,511 21,611 10,767 3,547 ? 665 2,171 ,559 16,147 457 2,593 2,411 9,280 | 18,817 866 684 , 397 =) 761 679 646 760 New 1,253 3,643 1,000 | | Percent of teachers enrolled in 1928 55 10 23 38 29 36.87 [229] Fa retin Los Angeles Express recent!y commented edi- torially: In education, as in other fields of human action, you do not get more than you pay for. If you persistently pay second-rate salaries, you will find the first-class teachers gradually drift from your employment and your teaching staff as inevitably in time will be composed of second-class material. That we want the best teachers that can be had goes without argument, for it is the general purpose and resolution to build up the best schools. But as it is impossible that we shall succeed in building up such schools unless in that process we employ the best teachers, we must face the fact that to get the best teachers we must pay the best salaries. Whether the economic cost of maintaining a corps of able and well trained teachers should be accomplished through petty finan- cial rewards is another question. As a tem- porary device following the war such meth- ods were probably necessary. The lowered purchasing power of salaries had forced m,, of the best teachers from the profession. ‘|’! had been replaced in many instances by re! tively unprepared recruits. When a sch system finds itself with a large percent of su. teachers, the piece-meal method of lifting ¢/ professional preparation of its teaching sta: to an acceptable minimum may be necess.: and desirable as a temporary expedient. Ultimately the aim should be to emp!o\ none but well prepared teachers and to en courage standards of performance in the class room which can be met only by those who keep abreast of the best school theory and practice. The keystone to such a situation must be a salary schedule which makes it eco- nomically practical to expect first-rate people to equip themselves with the pre-service and in-service training basic to classroom work on a high level. TABLE 8.—FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE FOR SUMMER SCHOOL ATTENDANCE 2 66 Cities 161 Cities 326 Cities 397 Cities 582 Cities 1,532 Cities | over 100,000 , 30,000 tec 10,000 to 5 to 2,500 to over 2,500 | Direct financial reward ted | in population 100,000 in 30,000 in 10,000 in 5,000 in in population to teachers for attending population population population population | summer school i ae Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- | Num-/| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-/| Per- | Num-| Per- | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent cent | ber | cent | ber | cent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Fi 12 13 Ss eee 241 | 36.4 792/ 49.1 | 1473| 45.1 | 151*| 38.0] 204 | 35.1 | 605.| 39.5 | Rs ean ok da ih «en 40 60.6 80 | 49.7 174 | 53.4 236 | 59.5 363 | 62.3 893 | 58.3 ee ea 2 3.0 2 a2 5 1.5 10 2.5 15 2.6 34 2.2 , eer oe 66 |100.0 161 |100.0 326 |100.0 397 |100.0 582 |100.0 |1,532 |100.0 Reward for attending summer school made on the basis of the number of college or univer- sity credits earned: MOE. wi Cenk eaSUE is us AWE" 21 87.5 66 | 83.6 97 | 66.0 108 | 71.5 1205| 58.8 412 | 68.1 SR reer ee 1 4.2 5 6.3 16 | 10.9 31 | 20.5 58 | 28.4 111 | 18.3 ee ee 2 8.3 8 | 10.1 34 | 23.1 12 8.0 26 | 12.8 82 | 13.6 p> ee ee ee 24 |100.0 79 |100.0 147 |100.0 151 |100.0 204 |100.0 605 (100.0 Reward for attending summer school a permanent salary in- crease (a ee eee 19 79.2 52 | 65.8 75 | 51.0 87 | 57.6 117 | 57.3 350 | 57.8 Se a Fee Te 3 12.5 15 | 19.0 39 | 26.5 48 | 31.8 63 | 30.9 168 | 27.8 | A Trees 2 8.3 12 | 15.2 33 | 22.5 16 | 10.6 24) 11.8 87 | 14.4 pee rere oe 24 {100.0 79 |100.0 147 |100.0 151 |100.0 204 |100.0 605 (100.0 Read table as follows: Of the 66 cities over 100,000 a permanent salary increase; 3, or 12.5 not to this question. Similarly read data for other Fee a teak an canine quewlanbal che Ine in population reporting, 24, or 36.4 percent, grant financial re- wards to teachers for attending summer oe Fa or 60.6 percent, yw base the amount of such reward on the number of college or university credits earned; a. oF 4.2 percent, do not base the or earned; ‘ Nineteen, or 79.2 percent of the 24 cities granting financial rewards for summer school attendance, make such reward percent, do not make such reward a permanent salary increase, and 2 cities did group. financial reward was given for summer school attendance to the extent that it places that a direct financial reward was given for summer school attendance to the extent salary group; one L that a direct financial reward was given for summer school attendance to the extent that nt such rewards, and 2, or 3 percent left this rewards for attendance at summer blank, reproduced on page 250ff. (iv RZ « TABLE 9.—FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE FOR PROFESSIONAL COURSES TAKEN DURING SCHOOL YEAR 66 Cities 161 Cities 326 Cities 397 Cities 582 Cities 1,532 Cities over 100,000 30,000 to 10,000 to 5,000 to 2,500 to over 2,500 Direct financial reward granted | in population 100,000 in 30,000 in 10,000 in 5,000 in in population to teachers for professional population population population population courses taken during the school ‘ a : year | Num- Per- Num- Per- |Num- Per- Num- Per- |Num- Per- Num- Per- ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent I 2 ; 4 5 6 7 & 9 10 11 12 13 Yes. - , 23) 34.8 63 39.1 903 30.4 73 18.4 68 11.7 326 Ss No : 39 59.1 87 54.1 206 63.2 303 76.3 471 80.9 (1,106 72.2 No report... ies 4 6.1 11 6.8 21 6.4 21 5.3 43 7.4 100 6.5 TOME. 5 05.0 Pty aR ese on 66 100.0 161 (100.0 326 100.0 397 100.0 582 100.0 |1.532 100.0 Reward for professional courses | taken during the school year made on the basis of the num- ber of college or university credits earned: , rere eC P ena wire’s 18 78.3 51 | 81.0 69 69.7 63 86.4 57 | 83.8 258 | 79.1 No eat manned , 6 6.1 5 6.8 3 4.4 14 co No report 5 21.7 12 19.0 | 24 24.2 5 6.8 8 11.8 54 16.6 0 ee 23 100.0 63 100.0 99 100.0 73 100.0 68 (100.0 326 (100.0 Reward for professional courses taken during the school year a permanent — increase: Wee veces F : 19 82.6 46 73.0 60 60.6 49 67.1 45 66.2 219 67.2 No.. Sere F 1 4.4 5 8.0 15 15.2 17 23.3 11 16.2 49 15.0 No report. vinci oF 3 13.0 12 19.0 | 24 24.2 7 9.6 4 17.6 58 17.8 po Ka ce 23 100.0 63 100.0 | 99 $100.0 73 100.0 68 100.0 326 100.0 Read table as follows: Of the 66 cities over 100,000 in population reporting, 23, or 34.8 percent, grant financial re- wards to teachers for professional courses taken during the school year; 39, or 59.1 percent, do not grant such rewards, and 4, or 6.1 percent, left this question blank. Of the 23 cities granting financial rewards for professional courses taken during the school year, 18 cities base the amount of such reward on the number of college or university credits earned, while the remaining 5 cities do not reply to this question. Nineteen, or 83.6 percent of the 23 cities granting financial rewards for professional courses taken during the school year, make such reward a permanent salary increase; 1, or 4.4 percent, do not make such reward a permanent increase; and 3 cities did not reply to this question. Similarly read data for other population groups. Tabulation is based on replies to question 10 of the inquiry blank, reproduced on page 250ff. Footnotes: 1 Nine cities reported that a direct financial reward is given for professional courses taken during the school year to the extent that it places teachers in a higher salary group. 2 Ten cities reported that a direct financial reward is given for professional courses taken during the schoo! year to the extent that it places teachers in a higher salary group. 3 One reported yes for a year's credits. 4 Five of these 73 cities reported that a direct financial reward is given for professional courses taken during the shcool year to the extent that it places teachers in a higher salary group. TABLE 10.—FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE FOR EDUCATIVE TRAVEL 161 Cities | 326 Cities | 397 Cities | 582 Cities | 1,532 Cities } 66 Cities | | over 100,000 | 30,000 to 10,000 to 5,000 to | 2,500 to | over 2,500 | in population | 100,000 in 30,000 in 10,000 in 5,000 in in Financial reward population population population population population for educative travel \——— as aa Num-,| Per- |Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- _Num-| Per- |Num-)| Per- | Num- Per- ber | cent | ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent 1 > wees 4 5 | 6 7 8 0 | 1 12 13 a 1+——-— — = } 6 -~. 8} 7.6 22 | 13.7 31 9.5 01 761 2 5.3 119 | 7.8 A ee eee | S58 | 87.9 124 | 77.0 | 264 | 81.0 | 334 | 84.1 501 | 86.1 |1,281 | 83.6 a ER eee } 3 | 45] 15] 9.3 31 | 9.5 33 | 8.3 SO} 8.6] 132] 8.6 ———$——— |§ —____. | _ | — |——___— i} ee Pee eee | 66 |100.0| 161 100.0 326 |100.0 397 100.0 | 582 |100.0 1,532 |100.0 Read table as follows: Of the 66 cities over 100,000 in population reporting 5, or 7.6 percent, grant financial rewards to teachers for educative travel; 58, or 87.9 percent, do not grant such reward; and 3 cities left this question blank. Simi- larly read data for other population groups. Tabulation is based on replies to question 11 of the inquiry, reproduced on page 250ff. Footnote: 1 Two cities reported that a direct financial reward is given for summer school attendance to ‘the extent that it places teachers in a higher salary group. [231] Selected References 1. Boynton, F. D. “Improving ‘Teachers in Service.” Journal of Education, 106:352-3; October 17, 1927. Declares that any adequate plan for the improvement of teachers in service should provide both opportunity and _ reward. Favors salary increases rather than the bonus as a form of reward for teacher improve- ment in service. 2. Cuppertey, Ettwoop P. Public School Ad- ministration. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, Mass., 1922. p. 255-7, 263-4. Declares that the number of superior teachers in a school system will depend greatly on incentives to growth offered by the salary schedule. Names some objections to grant- ing salary increases for additional study but in general favors this method among others for stimulating teachers to greater efficiency. 3. Hess, BertHa Y. Credit for Professional Im- provement of Teachers, U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Education, Teacher’s Leaflet, No. 16, March, 1922. 7 p. Quotes school board regulations of a num- ber of cities governing the granting of finan- cial rewards to teachers in recognition of study or educative travel carried on during the school year or in summer vacations. 4. Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teach- ing Staff. Century Co., New York City, 1925. p. 72-81. Gives extracts from school board regula- tions of a number of cities relative to the granting of financial rewards to teachers in recognition of study and educational trave| for purposes of professional improvement. Emphasizes especially the Ann Arbor plan. 5. RusseLL, CHARLES. The Improvement of the City Elementary School Teacher in Service Contributions to Education, No. 128, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1922. p. 47-53. Quotes provisions of a number of cities governing the granting of additional salary increments or bonuses in recognition of pro- fessional improvement of teachers by means of study or travel. 6. WatsH, MAtruew J. Teaching as a Profes- sion. Henry Holt and Co., New York City, 1926. p. 315-22. Advocates the recognizing of additional training of teachers by means of tangible rewards. Summarizes provisions relative to rewards for advanced professional training in cities in eastern, southern, north central and western states. 7. Wuitney, Frepertick L. The Growth of Teachers in Service. Century Co., New York City, 1927. p. 80-91, 153-77. Describes increasing use of tangible re- wards as a method of motivating and re- warding teacher growth in service. Gives features of salary schedules in ten cities which aim at professional improvement of the teacher. —vsSs | mam 2 @&@ The Sick Leave Problem According to a recent estimate, illness and its results annually cost the people of the United States nearly $16,000,000,000. ‘The nation’s total yearly income is approximately $90,000,- 000,000. It is evident from these figures that teaching is not unique in presenting a problem erowing out of absence from work due to ill- ness. In meeting this problem a considerable percent of cities have adopted plans whereby leave may be granted because of illness with part or full salary. Opinion—Pro and Con. ‘The literature dealing with this question presents an array of opinions both favorable and unfavorable to the granting of sick leave with salary. Those favoring the practice contend that it tends to increase teaching efficiency, that it is in accord with enlightened practice in other occupations, that the meagerness of most teachers’ salaries makes it necessary, and that properly adminis- tered the abuse involved is negligible. “Those opposing contend that the practice involves an undesirable paternalism, that a_ professional and saving wage should be paid all teachers and that they should then protect themselves against illness, that teaching offers no special illness hazards, and that abuses are likely to follow the adoption of sick leave plans.! The findings of research. Research has not proceeded to the place where it offers a sure guide in dealing with this question. ‘There are some investigations which reveal data bearing upon this problem from which the following tentative conclusions may be drawn: 1. Teachers as a group are absent from work a comparatively small number of days a year. In eight out of nine cities for which Rogers presents data, the average absence per year was between two and four days. This was but half the average absence found among nine groups of workers in other occupations.’ 2. The amount of absence due to illness among women in teaching is approximately twice as much as that among men.’ In other occupa- tions, the same relationship holds. Periodic illness (dysmenorrhea) as a cause of absence among women teachers is of less significance than is popularly supposed.‘ a 1 Consult bibliography at close of this section for elaboration of these arguments. 2 Page 6 of reference No. 5, cited on page 236 of this bulletin. : es 3 See data on page 6 of reference No. 5 and page 196 of reference No. 1, cited on page 236 of this bulletin. 4 Page 197 of reference No. 1, cited on page 236 of this bulletin. 5 Page 14 of reference No. 3, cited on page 236 of this bulletin. [233] 4. The sick leave privilege is not abused by teachers since there is no correspondence be- tween the amount of sick leave granted by different cities and the amount of absence.’ Present practice. In recent years there has been a trend, particularly in the larger cities, toward the adoption of provisions which in- demnify the teacher for illness. ‘Table 11 re- veals the culmination of this trend to date. Ninety-one percent of the 1532 cities report- ing now grant sick leave with some salary. A majority of the cities reporting allow such leave with full salary. Cities granting less than full salary probably do so to keep down costs and as a guard against abuse of the privi- lege. Cities which grant full pay during sick leave doubtless base this action on the belief that abuse of this privilege is the exception rather than the rule. It may be contended that a full salary is needed most at the time of illness. It is necessary for proper care and guards against a premature return to the class- room. Practice also varies widely as _ to amount of leave granted. In the distributions of ‘Tables 12 to 16 the number of days granted tend to cluster around ten. ‘This figure was doubtless suggested by the fact that in a ten months’ school year this allows leave of one day a month. Since available studies indicate that illness peculiar to women, except in ex- ceptional cases, is a minor rather than a major cause of absence, and since the amount of sick- ness absence among teachers averages less than four days a year, it is difficult to defend ten days’ leave as being preferable to nine, eleven, or some other number. ‘The ten-day period probably owes it popularity more to chance se- lection than to scientific determination. The cumulative leave principle. In recent years the incorporation of the cumulative prin- ciple has been advocated as a desirable provi- sion of a plan for sick leave allowance. Under the cumulative plan the days of sick leave available, but not used each year, may be added Sy St ee to those available in later years. Thus in a city allowing ten days of sick leave a year, a teacher who over a period of five years was absent respectively 3, 7, 2, 0 and 4+ days would have a cumulated reserve of 34 days. There- fore, if in the sixth year of service a serious illness was encountered, the teacher could be absent without loss of salary for 44 days, that is for the 10 days allowed in the current year plus the 34 days accumulated from previous years. In favor of the cumulative sick leave plan these contentions have been stated: 1. It offers protection against the hardships of the occasional extended illness. The flat allowance plan indemnifies only for the brief illness for which there is less need for pro- 2. It encourages regularity of attendance, w! the flat yearly allowance plan may place premium on the use of the maximum d permitted. 3. It tends to reward length of service and of greatest value to the experienced and p sumably more professionally minded teach: Further study needed. A more caret) evaluation of experience and additional + search will eventually offer a clearer answe as to the desirability of granting sick leay, with salary and as to the type of plan whic! means most for school efficiency. In th meantime the material presented or cited this section offers a better basis for decision on these questions than average or chance opinion The growth of the movement for leave fo: tection. T TABLE 11.—PAYMENT OF SALARY DURING SICK LEAVE { 66 Cities 161 Cities 326 Cities 397 Cities 582 Cities 1,532 Cities - over 100,000 30,000 to 10,000 to 5,000 to 2,500 to over 2,500 in population 100,000 in 30,000 in 10,000 in 5,000 in | in Some sick leave granted with: population population population population | population j } Num-/| Per- | Num-/| Per- | Num-/| Per- | Num-/ Per- | Num- Per- | Num- Per- , : ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber cent | 1 e493 ¢|s16f{7i|e{s9]| wo| a | az | 33 Bi EAs .. Sl ; Pe GRRE ov viv ccpoecancoesn 35 53.0 107 | 66.5 210 | 64.4 230 | 58.0 302 | 51.9 884 57.7 Less than full salary.......... 30 | 45.5 49 | 30.4 94 | 28.8 | 132 | 33.2 | 206 | 35.4} S11 | 33.4 ; ON SE eT 1 1.5 3 1.9 17 5.2 33 8.3 69 | 11.8 123 | 8.0 t PIOEIED < s cvdd cb uhinivg sacdgtkante cured oT 4.2 S| 1.6 2 5 S| .9} 14] .9 | = ‘ 4 PPE re era 66 |100.6 | 161 100.0 | 326 |100.0| 397 |100.0 | 582 100.0 1,532 100.0 ; 4 Sick I leave with pay cumulative: | = : AGU cence cpSsabddecieresd® 5! 27 247/| 15.4 283; 9.2 16* 4.4 235; 4.5 96 6.9 j No hace faite te i ip-etien ered pve ae 55 84.6 120 | 76.9 239 | 78.6 278 | 76.8 378 | 74.4 1,070 | 76.7 { a ee ee 5 7.7 12 7.7 37 | 12.2 68 | 18.8 107 | 21.1 229 | 16.4 WS hc ata dedtcceendeut 65 100.0 156 |100.0 304 |100.0 362 |100.0 508 100.0 |1,395 /100 0 | H Read table as follows: Of the 66 cities over 100,000 in population reporting 35, or 53 percent grant some sick leave with full salary; 30, or 45.5 percent, grant some sick leave with something less than full salary; and 1, or 1.5 percent does not pay any salary during sick leave. Of the 65 cities reporting as paying some salary during sick leave, 5, or 7.7 percent, allow the number of days of such leave to cumulate; 55, or 84.6 — do not allow such leave to cumulate; and 5 did not reply to this question. Similarly M read data for other population grou ; Tabulation is based on septiee © to > quseiians 5 and 6 of inquiry blank reproduced on page 250ff. i Footnotes: 3 { ! The 5 cities over 100,000 in which sick leave is allowed to cumulate reported the following lengths of time during ] {| which = leave may cumulate: } H reported 2 years; 1 reported no “tae 1 reported not to exceed 80 days; and 1 reported not to exceed 60 { ocheal ae ys, and 1 reported 10 yea 2 The 24 cities 30,000—100,000 in which sick leave is allowed to cumulate reported the following lengths of time during : which ~ leave may cumulate: 1 reported 2 years; 3 reported 4 years; 4 reported 3 years; 3 reported 5 years; 1 reported 10 years; 1 reported 20 years; 2 reported no limit; 1 reported cumulative to 90 days; 1 reported cumulative to 100 days; 1 reported cumulative to 6 months; 4 reported no definite number of years, and 2 left question blank. 3 The 28 cities 10,000 to 30,000 in which sick leave is allowed to cumulate reported the following lengths of time dur- ing we sick leave may cumulate: j 6 reported 3 _— 1 reported 4 A nyoy 7 reported 5 years; 1 reported 10 years; 1 reported 12 years; 1 reported not j to — 95 iS comers ant to exceed 20 days; 1 reported not to exceed 40 days; 3 reported not definite and 6 4 The 16 cities 3,000 to 10,000 in which sick leave is allowed to cumulate reported the following lengths of time during which sick leave ry? cumulate: 1 years; 4 reported 3 years; 2 reported 4 years; 3 reported 5 years; 1 reported no limit; 3 reported in- defini ven 2 oy left — blank. 5 The 23 ties 2,500 to 5,000 in which ‘sick leave is allowed to cumulate reported the following lengths of time during which - leave _ oe reported 2 2 reported 3 years; 1 reported 4 years; 3 reported 5 years; 1 reported 10 years; 11 reported - limit; 1 sapesaed not definite; al 2 left question blank. = | — [234] ee ere ee AA tae a het tov + eat illness offers one more reason why professional chools for teachers and local communities ould rigorously eliminate candidates pre- paring for and seeking admission to teaching who cannot pass examinations indicating physi- cal and emotional health. It also emphasizes the need of maintaining a positive program designed to encourage physical and mental health among the members of a teaching staff. Even the most perfect theoretical plan for granting sick leave will not work itself. As in other personnel problems constant vigilance is the price of success. Few things can do more to reduce abuse of a sick leave allow- ance plan to a minimum and to secure the TABLE 12.—NUMBER OF DAYS SICK LEAVE GRANTED AND PART OF SALARY PAID 66 Cities over 100,000 in Population | | | | | | | Full | Some | salary | other | Number of Full Half less | frac- | No days | salary | salary | pay of | tion | salary |substi-| of | | tute | salary | — ; 1 2 3 | 4 | 5 } 6 ee ee ; 10-14. | 21? 3 1 15-19 # 1 1 20-24 | 3 8? 29 eee 15 2 | 30 and over 2s 4 | 4 210 No definite | ie Eee Aare 1 1 1 Total....} 35 | 18 | 7 5 | 1 Read table as follows: Of the 35 cities over 100,000 in population granting sick leave with full salary, 5 cities reported between 5 and 9 days allowed; 21 re- ported between 10 and 15 days, etc. Similarly read data for other salary groups. Footnotes: ! These 5 cities grant additional days leave with s mething less than full salary. ?Nine of these 21 cities grant additional days leave with something less than full salary; and one city reported, ‘10 to 60 days, depending on length of service. ? One of these 3 cities grants additional days leave with something less than full salary; and one city reported, “15 to 30 days, depending on length of service. ‘One of these cities reported, ‘20 to 60 days, de- pending on length of service,’’and one city reported, ‘4 to 6 weeks, depending on length of service after 10 years. 5 This city grants additional days leave with some- thing less than full salary. * One of these cities grants additional days leave with something less than full salary. 7 One of these 8 cities reported, ‘20 days to 1 year;” and one city reported, “4 to 6 weeks, depending on length of service." § This city reports, “15 days to 4}4 months, de- pending on length of service. * One of these cities reported, “Full salary less $3 a day; and the other city pays 34 of salary. 10 One of these cities reported as paying 4 salary; and the other city pays full salary less $1 a day for first 10 days; for 11 to 100 days forfeit $2 a day; for teachers having 10 years or more service, half pay for each day after 100 days. TABLE 13.—NUMBER OF DAYS SICK LEAVE GRANTED AND PART OF SALARY PAID 159 Cities 30,000 to 100,000 in Population Full Some salary | other Number of Full Half less frac- No days salary | salary pay of tion salary substi- of tute salary 1 ? 3 4 Under 5 2 5-9 36! 4° ; 10-14 50° 56 1 7 l 15-19 835 1 20-24 5‘ 8 4 2 25-29 30 and over 4’ 2 3 6 No definite number 2 3 1 4 Total 107 20 11 18 3 Read table as follows: Of the 107 cities 30,000 t 100,000 in population granting sick leave with full salary, 2 reported under 5 days allowed; 36 reported between 5 and 9 days, etc. Similarly read data for other salary groups. Footnotes: 1 Twenty-two of these 36 cities grant additional days leave with something less than full salary and 1 grants from 5 to 30 days, depending on length of service. ? Nineteen of these 50 cities grant additional days leave with something less than full salary and 1 grants from 10 to 20 days, depending on length of service. 2 One of these 8 cities grants additional days leave with something less than full salary and | grants an additional day full salary for each year of service in city ‘Two of these cities grant additional days leave with something less than full salary 5 One of these 4 cities grant additional leave with some other fraction of salary and 1 grants from 5 to 20 days half salary, depending on length of service ®One of these 5 cities grants 10 additional days with 4 salary and 2 cities grant an addition of 10 days at % salary and 10 days at 4 salary full benefit of its proper use than wise leader- ship in explaining its purpose and in pointing out the ultimate result of its abuse. Existing indicate that under a sick leave plan or evidence seems to teachers whether working not are absent a surprisingly small number of With this professional attitude a morale can be built and days a year. as a foundation, maintained which will secure the conscien- tious and intelligent cooperation of all but the most unusual teacher. The experience of Gary ' in making the teachers jointly respon- sible with the superintendent’s office for the administration of a sick leave plan is deserv- ing of study. It suggests the desirability of doing something better than handing the plan down from above with the hope that it will successfully administer itself. ' Reference No. 7, cited on page 237 of this bulletin, [235] — ns Finally, the importance of administering a TABLE 15—NUMBER OF DAYS SICK sick leave plan on a “human” rather than on a mechanical basis can hardly be over-empha- sized. Nothing has yet replaced the human LEAVE GRANTED AND PART Of SALARY PAID 395 Cities 5,000 to 10,000 in Population touch in personnel administration as an eftec- tive builder and conserver of a high morale in a working group. Selected References 1. CARRoTHERS, GeorGe E. “Health and Physical Efficiency of City Teachers.” Journal of Educational Research, 16:184-97; October, 1927. A study undertaken with the purpose of securing evidence as to the amount of ab- sence among city teachers and the effect of existing school conditions. The need of ob- jective data to guide school administration in formulating equitable policies with re- gard to allowed absences for sickness is pointed out. TABLE 14.—NUMBER OF DAYS SICK LEAVE GRANTED AND PART OF SALARY PAID 321 Cities 10,000 to 30,000 in Population * ae Full Some | salary | other Number of Full Half less frac- No days salary | salary | pay of | tion | salar substi- | - tute salary 1 2 3 4 5 6 Under 5...... ee 44 8 OS Ser 1002 6 5 5 3 10-14 853 10 4 9 15-19........ a ee ‘ | 1 20-24........ 6 i 8 | 1 25-29.. sats es 1 | Oy Aree 30 and over... 5 5 10 | 1 No definite | number... . 15 6 37 | & 32 | 33 35 Total... ‘| 230 35 | 64 10,000 in population granting sick leave with ful! salary, 17 allow under 5 days; 100 allow from 5 to 9 days, etc. Similarly read data for other salary groups. Footnotes: leave with ee | less than full salary. days sick leave with something less than full salary. sick leave with something less than full salary; 1 grants from 10 to 30 days, depending on length of service. leave with some other fraction of salary. depending on length of service. Read table as follows: Of the 230 cities 5,000 to 1 Five of these 17 cities grant additional days sick 2 Twenty-seven of these cities grant additional * Fourteen of these 85 cities grant additional days 4One of these 4 cities grants additional days sick 5 One of these 3 cities grants from 20 to 40 days, Full | Some Number of Full Half J oa No | days salary | salary | pay of > salary | tute | salary | 1 2 3 4 6 6 30 and over. . 2 2 Baceate >. Batacees No definite number... . 12 1 9 6 14 Total....} 210 33 25 36 17 Read table as follows: Of the 210 cities 10,000 to 30,000 in —— gaye leave with full salary, 15 w under 5 —— allow between 5 and 9 days, etc. Similarly read data for other salary ups. ootnotes: 19 of these 15 cities grant additional days leave with ounesninn less than full salary 9 of these 75 cities grant ¢ additional days leave with pid less than full gy 1 city grants from 5 to 15 days and 1 grants 5 to 20 days, depending on length of service. 3 14 of these 87 cities grant additional days leave with something less than full salary; and 1 city agg —— @ == 20 bY depending on — = of servi | ties ome 15 days for } eng in 5 aie } MATS for those serving 5 years or more, 30 days full salary. 5 3 of these 15 cities Ty A apes By days leave with and 1 city grants from 20 to 40 days, ng on length service. of these 4 cities grants additional days leave [236] salary of these 14 cities Dp ot additional days leave with 4. CarroTHers, GeorGce E. The Physical Efficiency U. of Teachers, Contributions to Education, No 155. Bureau of Publications, Teachers Co! lege, Columbia University, New York City p. 61-76. Presents data secured from a study of absenteeism among teachers in Denver, Cleveland, and Springfield, Massachusetts schools. Compares sick leave provisions in relation to the number of teacher absences in the three cities. Concludes that of all sick leave plans, the cumulative is the best if a definite number of days of paid sick leave must be written into school board rules. 3. “The Compensation of Teachers during Ab- sence.” American School Board Journal, 74: 108; March, 1927. Quotes recommendation of special com- mittee on teachers’ sick leave, of school Board of Racine, Wisconsin. Presents tabu- lation of sick leave provisions in 118 cities, based on data received in reply to commit- tees questionnaire. S. DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR, BUREAU OF EpucaTion. Pay Status of Absent Teachers and Pay of Substitute Teachers. City School tse aa em tele ~ 5 Slidacat ai. ts n- ol u- DF rs ol je ealil eci HaesSn eratitt mwa Leaflet, No. 21, April, 1926. Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 14 p. Gives provisions of school systems in 163 Government cities, of 30,000 or more population, as to: the number of days teachers are granted leave for sickness; the pay of teachers during leave for sickness; and the rate of pay of substitute teachers. 5. Rogers, JAMES FrepericK. The Health of the Teacher, U. S. Department of Interior, Bu- reau of Education, School Health Studies, No. 12. Government Printing Office, Wash- ington, D. C. 1926. p. 14-15, 22, 34-7. Summarizes data from several studies on practice of cities in granting sick leave to teachers. Finds no relation indicated be- tween allowed length of leave and amount of absenteeism. Declares that cities are wise in granting sick leave with pay for at least ten days a year. Quotes by-laws of departments of education relative to the granting of sick leave in six large cities. 6. RoGERS, JAMES FrepERICK. “Wide Variation in the Matter of Sick Leave.” School Life, 13: p. 28-9; October, 1927. Gives data on sick leave for teachers in cities reporting to U. S. Bureau of Educa- tion and lays down a few principles, relat- ing to the health of the teacher, which should govern in the administering of sick leave system. States that a cumulative plan is “the next best thing” to allowing as many days as are needed and deciding each case on its individual merits. 7. ROSSMAN, JOHN C. “Teachers Sick Benefit Funds.” American School Board Journal, 73: 36; December, 1926. Describes plan in use in Gary, Indiana. Plan which is administered by teacher them- selves, provides for ten days leave annually at full pay, the accumulation of balance of unused days, and medical examinations of teachers entering the system and those re turning to their poistions after an illness TABLE 16.—NUMBER OF DAYS SICK LEAVE GRANTED AND PART OF SALARY PAID 578 Cities 2,500 to 5,000 in Population Full Some salary other Number of Full Half iess | frac- No days salary | salary | pay of tion salary } substi- of tute salary 1 2 ; 4 5 Under 5 201 1 6 6 1 5- 9 1372 3 14° 16 10-14 918 4 x 10 15-19 x 1 4 20-24 6 7 6 4 25-29 1* 30 and over 3 1 3 No definite number 27 4 96 14 68 Total 302 21 133 52 69 Read table as follows: Of the 302 cities 2,500 to 5,000 in population granting sick leave with full salary, 29 allow under 5 days, 137 allow from 5 to 7 days etc. Similarly read data for other salary groups Footnotes: 1Ten of these 29 cities grant additional days leave with something less than full salary 2 Twenty-three of these 137 cities grant additional days leave with something less than full salary; 2 grant from 5 to 10 days; 1 grants from 5 to 20 days and 1 grants additional day for each year of service with full pay. 3 Twelve of these 91 cities grant additional days leave with something less than full salary 4 This city grants additional days leave with some- thing less than full salary. 5 One of these 3 cities grants additional days leave with some other fraction of salary 6 Two of these 14 cities grant additional days leave with some other fraction of salary. 7 One of these 6 cities grants from 3 to 10 days Relation of Salaries to Efficiency Teachers’ salaries were generally increased in the years immediately following the war in order to restore their prewar purchasing power. These salary adjustments were usually granted in the form of flat amount or percent- age increases covering all teachers. The dif- ferences in salary received were based almost wholly on length of service. Having restored the prewar buying power of teachers’ salaries most communities re nized the need of providing further increase order that their incomes might more near} proach a professional level. This sec phase of the movement has been accompan by a tendency in a few communities to add the length of service criterion, as a basis { determining salaries, such factors as amou: of training and professional ability. Efficiency Measures and the Normal Schedule The single salary principle. Amount of professional preparation, as a basis for salary scheduling, has been emphasized in some cities by the adoption of a single salary schedule. Under such a schedule teachers with equal training and experience receive equal salaries whether employed in elementary or high schools. ! According to a recent partial survey made by the Research Division not less than 153 cities have the single salary schedule principle in practice. Further experience and research is needed before final evaluation can be made of this type of schedule. The single salary sched- ule among other things attempts to recognize superior competence as it is measured indi- rectly, but with some objectiveity, by the amount of professional training possessed. Certain other cities have adopted subjective merit ratings by principals and supervisors as a means of measuring teaching efficiency. Table 17 reveals the number and percent of cities which rate their teachers as to quality of service rendered. It indicates that 43 per- cent, or less than half of the cities of the United States now have some formal rating scheme. A comparison of this table for 1927- 28 with a similar one in the study of Teacher Rating made by the National Education As- sociation in 1924-25? suggests that a smaller, or at least a no larger, percent of cities now rate teachers than did three years ago. The reply in 1924-25 was less representative, and the form of question used in the earlier study differed somewhat. Table 17 reveals that whereas over 40 per- cent of cities now definitely rate teachers as to 1 For a brief discussion and an reference No. 8, cited on 212 of this bullet 2 Reference No. 11, cited on page 245 of this : bulletin. [238] quality of service rendered, but 10 percent « the cities with rating plans use the scores f. differentiating the salaries of teachers und: the normal schedule. But 67 out of 1532 citi: so use the scores. One city over 100,000 i; population reported this practice. The ru! covering this city reads as follows: The teachers of the city shall be classified by Committee on Classification, to be composed of th Superintendent of Schools, the Assistant Superi: tendent of Schools, and the principal of each se; arate school, into three classes to be known as ‘\' Class,” “B Class,” and “C Class,” the “A Class representing the highest degree of efficiency an | the “C Class” the lowest degree of efficiency. Th: method of conducting the classification shall |x determined by the Teachers’ Committee and Classi fication Committee. The salary of a teacher classed as A or B sha! be increased annually until the maximum salar is reached. The rate of increase for A clas: teachers shall be $100 per annum and $50 per an num for B class teachers. The salary of C class teachers shall not be increased. A smaller city reports as to salary differen- tiations on the basis of efficiency as follows: Our initial salary is $120.00 per month, for sub ordinate teaching positions. Our maximum is $180.00. Principals receive from $200 to $250, determined by size of building, length of service and efficiency. Supervisors receive from $250 to $370, determined in the same manner. The in- creases based upon the efficiency rating, range from $5 per month to $17.50 per month as per the following schedule: S—Superior—$12.50; E—Ex- cellent—$10.00; VG—Very Good—$7.50; G— Good—$5.00; F—Fair—Receives no increase on probation for one year. The service increase is discontinued as the median of $150 per month has been reached being extensive eae on the single salary schedule, see pages 160 and 186 of all ir\ ASS in- ass ib- 50), ice of thereafter based on efhciency ratings only. We are not satisfied with the present rating scheme. We are making one that will take effect beginning September, 1928. Most of the plans reported by the 67 cities in Table 17 made a somewhat less definite tie-up between the efficiency rating and the salary received than the two reported above. A large number of cities reported that they grant no salary increases to the small percent of teachers rated as doing unsatisfactory work. This common practice, however, is quite dif- ferent from granting several different incre- ments on the basis of ratings given teachers all of whom were doing satisfactory work, but work of ranging degrees of merit. Certainly detailed rating scales have not reached the point of objectivity and reliability where they may be used confidently in con- nection wtih salary schedules. The and subjective factors involved suggest a con- A useful report on Teacher Rating by a committee of the National Education available. human servative attitude toward such use. Association is now This report suggests the following principles for a teacher rating system: 1. A rating plan must have as its main purpose the guiding of teachers into better service. The chief purpose of any system of teacher rat- ing is the improvement of teaching; for this rea- son a rating plan should be inspirational and in structive. 2. Teacher rating should afford each person rated a definite and concrete basis for the systems improvement of his efficiency as a teacher. How much of the right relationship between the rating official and the teacher is dependent upon the procedure which precedes the giving of the rat ing? Should the recording of the rating be pre ceded by: (a) Personal conference between the rating official and the teacher? (b) Written sug gestions to the teacher showing where his work needs improvement and how he may accomplish this improvement? 3. The methods used in arriving at a rating of teaching efhciency should be as objective and scien tific as educational progress permits and should be understood by all those rated. A teacher should be fully informed, in advance, upon beginning service in any school system, what requirement will enter into the estimation of his work, and also how that estimation of his work will be recorded. 4. The results of ratings when completed should be automatically transmitted to the teacher rated in written form for his information and guidance. | If the chief purpose of rating is the improve- ment of teacher be informed of his weak points as well as instruction, is it not necessary that a of his strong points? 5. There should be one official who is the final rating authority. Principals, supervisors of special subjects and special divisions may be advisory to this rating official. 6. A result of mutual agreement by administrative, super rating system should be arrived at as a visory, and classroom staff.’ 1 Pages 6-7 of reference No. 11, cited on page 245 of this bulletin. TABLE 17—RATING OF TEACHERS quality of service rendered eet |Num-| Per- ber cent ber | imerease; and 3 cities did not answer this question. population | 66 Cities | 161 Cities | over 100,000 | 30,000 to | in population 100,000 in Teachers definitely rated as to | Num-_ Per- cent | ber cent ber cent | ber cent ber cent 1 ' @ 3 4 5 Yes.. ies “— | 47 71.2 103 | 64.0 SA - ; | 18 27.3 56 | 34.8 | No report | 1 1.5 2 1.2 Ee er 66 (100.0 | 161 |100.0 Teachers rating directly and auto- | is ipa dl “. matically determines the | amount of salary increase for | the following year: || IO Pees ss a:0d.b 6:0 1 1 16 15.5 as ss | 43 91.5 83 | 80.6 | | es | 4 4] 3.9 heh d sins wie ae | | 47 |100.0 | 103 |100.0| 121 100.0 | 165 100.0 | 221 100.0! 657 100.0 Read table as follows: Of the 66 cities over 100,000 in population replying 47, or 71.2 percent definitely rate teachers as to quality of service rendered; 18, or 27.3 percent do not rate teachers, and 1 did not answer this question cities which rate teachers, 1, or 2.1 percent, reported that rating directly and automatically determines the amount of salary increase for the following year; 43, or 91.5 percent, reported that rating does not determine the amount of salary Similarly read data for other population groups. Tabulation is based on replies to questions 12 and 13 of the inquiry blank, reproduced on page 250ff | —_ | 326 Cities 397 Cities | 582 Cities 1,532 Cities 10,000 to | 5,000 to | 2,500 to over 2,500 30,000 in 10,000 in | 5,000 in | in population population population population |Num-| Per- |Num-/| Per- |Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- 6 7 & 7) 10 il 12 13 121 37.1 165 41.5 221 38.0 657 42.9 196 | 60.1 225 | 56.7 343 58.9 838 | 54.7 9 2.8 7 1.8 18 3.1 37 2.4 326 |100.0 397 |100.0 582 (100.0 |/1,532 |100.0 | 21 17.4 20 12.1 9 4.1 67 10.2 88 72.7 115 | 69 7 162 73.3 491 74.7 12 9.9 30 18.2 50 22.6 99 15.1 Of the 47 [239] i aimee: > — cl a Efficiency Ratings and the Supermaximum Some cities use the efficiency rating in con- Years of service Rate nection with a supermaximum salary. In SAAR AR cede wen ds . 6. 7. KIMBALL, C 8. Lewis, E. E. Presents single salary schedule one feature of which is a supermaximum salary incre- ment to be paid after four years of service to those earning the Master of Arts degree. Rating as a ment is rejected standards of basis of awarding this incre- lack of and the in- due to objective teaching ability fluence of irrelevant factors which it is claimed render rating plans of doubtful validity. RABBS, LELAH Mag. Measuring Efficiency in Supervision and Teaching. ‘Teachers Col- lege, Contributions to Education No. 176, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1925. 165 p. Describes a_ practical program of supe! based on measurement and seeks to technic for the evaluation of a program. Outlines the teacher rating methods. applying Franzen teaching efhciency formula to urban and rural vision evolve a such development of Describes results of teachers. CUBBERLEY, ELtwoop P. Public School Ad- ministration, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1922. p. 255-7, 264-9. Among essential features a good salary schedule names “further salary increases be- yond the common maximum to progressive and capable teachers, the payments being so arranged as to stimulate basis for such industry, encourage individual improvement and reward exceptional merit.” that a salary schedule based only in part on Declares years of service and with additional rewards for growth and efficiency offers one of the best means for stimulating growth. The use of rating plans as a basis for fixing teachers’ salaries is described as in accord with principles of efhciency and economy. professional FLoRENCE. Teacher Rating in the United States. Minneapolis Grade Teach- ers’ Association. Minn., 1923. 19 p. A survey of teacher rating the United States based on replies to ques- tionnaire received from hundred and fifteen superintendents. Presents table indi- cating bases of salary increases and rela- tion of rating of teachers to salaries in twen- ty-five large cities. Summarizes provisions of fifty-four printed plans. of educators in favor of or opposing rating. Minneapolis, practices in two Quotes opinions Personnel Problems of the Teach- ing Staff, Century Co., New York City, 1925. p. 190-213. Reports results of Buckingham’s study in 1922 to the effect that among superintendents of 156 school systems who were questioned, [245] 9. 10). more than ninety percent declared teac should be rated, and while in 7 percent school systems a definite scheme of rating was in operation, less than half of the super intendents used rating plans as a basis for promotion, salary increases, transfers mination of teachers’ services McGaucuy, JAMES R. and OTHERS Teachers Salaries in New York City, Final Report of Moore, Z Cs, W Teachers Salaries Publications, Teachers College New York City, 192 Citizen’s Committee on Bureau of Columbia University, p. 115-18, 136, 137-9, 192-3 Describes supermaximum feature of pr posed salary schedule and defends commit tee’s action in introducing this feature based on teacher’s professional preparation. R« jects teacher rating as a basis of promotion to the supermaximum schedule due to the subjective nature of rating plans thus fa: devised. Since we are not yet able to de- fine, much less to measure the product ot education, the possibility of measuring ob jectively teaching efficiency in turning out that product is denied. “The 1 me rican S¢ hooal 1927. Rating of ‘Teachers Board Journal, §:49: De cember, Names tics of good rating plans objectives and gives characteris States le that whi value of rating is dependent upon local school situation, in many school systems it may prove a useful administrative device. ATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION, COMMITTE! OF ONE HUNDRED ON CLASSROOM ‘TEACHERS PROBLEMS. Report on Teacher Rating Na tional Education Association, Washington D. C., July, 1925. A summary of the teacher rating situation in American schools. Arguments for and against rating and fundamental principles and data on prevalence of rating plans are presented. HITNEY, Freperic L. The Growth of Teach- ers in Service, Century Co., New York City, 1927. p. 42-55, 143-53, 207-12 Discusses methods of teacher rating. Sug gests method based on activity analysis and the “trade-test” form of arrangement of mate rial as being most helpful. States that in a number of school systems rating plans in connection with schemes for basing salaries on merit are being tried out in advance of any relation to changes in salaries while in others the idea of relating teacher improve ment to the doned. salary schedule has been aban Summarizes details of reports on teacher rating plans. in thirty-one school sys terms under 5000 in population and seventy school city systems as to items of technic and gives tentative ranking of methods in order of value. Salaries of Men and Women Teachers Table 19 gives facts as to the present prac- Seventy-seven percent of the cities over 1(() tice affecting the payment of salaries of men 000, and 52 percent of those from 30,000 + and women teachers. Of the 1532 cities re- 100,000 reporting, answered that they did no: plying, 908 or 59 percent indicated positions have positions in which men receive high: in their school systems in which men receive salaries than women of equal training and higher salaries than women of equal training experience. and experience. This percent is not rep- Table 19 also reveals the positions in whic! resentative for the larger cities, however. differentiation is made between the salaries TABLE 19.—DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN SALARIES PAID MEN AND WOMEN IN SCHOOL SYSTEMS 66 Cities 161 Cities 326 Cities 397 Cities 582 Cities 1,532 Cities | over 100,000 | 30,000 to 10,000 to 5,000 to 2,500 to over 2,500 | Are there oo ee in which men | in population | 100,000 in 30,000 in 10,000 in 5,000 in in population receive higher salaries than population population population population women of equal training and experience? | | | Num-/| Per- Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- |Num- | Per- | Num- Per- ber | cent ber cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber cent 1 2 3 eis 6 7 8 9 10} a | a2 | 433 ER. es, 9 14 , =e 83 51.6 206 | 63.2 259 | 65.2 346 59.5 908 | 59.3 Ore Ae 51 77.3 | 75 | 46.5 112 | 34.4 135 | 34.0 219 | 37.6 592 | 38.6 D> I cen he is| 3 | 1.9 8] 2.4 3 ‘8 17| 2.9} 32] 2.1 es Reh bax teks 66 (100.0 | 161 |100.0 326 |100.0 397 (100.0 582 100.0 1, 532 ‘|100 0 Positions in which men are paid | | higher salaries than women of | equal training and experience: Elementary school teachers... . tn Me dake 7 Sea 3 ae | 2 ee | 2 ee 101 |.. | Junior high school teachers... . 1 an 2 ee | se et ies «ss 95 ie | Senior high school teachers....|} 12! |...... eae 3 Raa | ee eee a ee | Elementary school principals.. . SF [|| ae op See ey Wis dae a ee 299 |i... | Junior high school principals. . . ee 3 a OD Tedaws's 3 See _ fF SRES- 177 |... | Senior high school principals...) 4 |...... I once ae 100 |... |... 149 |... 334 | = Cities ey rules en omy | salaries of men and women | | equal training and experience | holding similar positions: } To be the same.............. 37 56.1 $2 | 32.3 91 | 27.9 77 | 19.4 110 18.9 366 | 23.9 Be BO MR cos cele cccncccs 4 6.1 19 | 11.8 43 | 13.2 33 8.3 20 3.4 119 | 7.8 | Be GU £464 cn ced ah awewnece 3 24 36.3 87 | 54.0 188 | 57.7 285 | 71.8 436 | 74.9 |11,021 | 66.6 | Sr ae, 1 1.5 3 1.9 4 1.2 2 ct 16 2.8 26 1.7 | WE: (seKeekeaasdehcnen 66 (100.0 161 |100.0 326 |100.0 397 (100.0 582 |100.0 |1, 1,532 1100.0 Nature of statute or rule effect- ing salaries paid men and women: | | EE eer 16 39.0 24 | 33.8 54 | 40.3 50 | 45.5 64 | 49.3 198 | 40.8 CID nis nib ab vba hk 1 22 See er ee: Oe Fe ee ite Facts 1 | 2 Rule of the board of education. 5 12.2 14 | 19.7 23 | 17.2 18 | 16.4 18 | 13.8 78 | 16.1 Local salary schedule......... 17 41.5 31 | 43.7 48 | 35.8 38 | 34.5 32 | 24.6 173 | $3.7 CN othe GMa s cecerscaee 2 4.9 2 2.8 9 6.7 4 3.6 16 | 12.3 35 ya OR Sacticns