OCT i 7 192 Baaaaononooo ooooo ooo ob OGaGaanaaas | GEE6GE6GEGG5606665 SEPTEMBER, 1927 od , on Research Bulletin Ic OF THE National Education Association $ = 7. : “3 a re i 2 + 7 \ ~ | et Fal War a OOOO. 66) 6) 6) 6) The Advance of the American School System GOOGOGOOOOOOGHOOGOOSHHGHOOGHGHGGS PUBLISHED BY THE RESEARCH DIVISION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201 SIXTEENTH STREET NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C. Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. HHOGOGOSHOGOO iIBbBBoaauasansagaas 66660600005 Research Bulletin of the National Education Association Published five times each year in January, March, May, September, and November by the Research Division of the National Education Association of the United States. President, CorNeE.ia S. ADAIR Secretary, J. W. CRABTREE The payment of the $5.00 membership fee of the National Education Association entitles one to receive the Research Bulletin, the Journal, the Annual Volume of Ad- dresses and Proceedings, and certain other publications of the National Education Asso- ciation for one year. One dollar of each $5.00 membership fee is for a year’s subscription to the Research Bulletin. The Research Bulletin may be subscribed for separately at a subscription price of $1.00 per year. Single copies may be purchased for 25 cents, and in quantities at a reduced rate. Those entitled to receive the Research Bulletin regularly are asked to report at once any change of address, giving old as well as new address. Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. Director of Research: John K. Norton. Assistant Directors of Research: Margaret M. Alltucker; Frank W. Hubbard. Executive and Editorial Offices - - 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. World Wide Education Week The Delegate Assembly of the World Federation of Education Associations passed a resolution at its meeting in Toronto, Canada, during the summer of 1927, authorizing its officers to promote a World Wide Education Week. How to Secure Additional Copies Additional copies of this issue of the Research Bulletin may be obtained at the following prices, postpaid if remittance accompanies order: Single copies of this issue 25c 2 to 9 copies—10% reduction 10 to 99 copies—25% reduction. 100 or more copies—33 1/3% reduction. Orders for Research Bulletins not accompanied by remittance are subject to trans- portation charges. Make checks payable to National Education Association. Subscriptions to Research Bulletins The Research Bulletin may be received regularly through a special subscription at $1.00 per year. 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C. ——e ~ — ~~ ae ~ [194] ————— ae ae ae > ~ e * TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Foreword 196 How Shall We Observe Education Week ? 197 What's Right With the Public Schools? 199 Progress in Lengthening and Enriching Life 201 Progress in Providing Adequate School Plants 204 Progress in School Attendance 206 Progress in Lifting Teacher Compensation to a Professional Leve 208 Progress in Developing a Living Curriculum 212 Progress Toward Becoming a Nation of Eighth Graders 214 Progress in Securing Adequate School Support 216 Advance in General School Effectiveness 221 Material for American Education Week 223 LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1.—The Evolution of Our Elementary School Curriculum, and of Methods of Teaching 13 T'able 2.—Indications of Economic Power of the States and Expenditures for Public Schools 218-19 Table 3.—Educational Rank of States, By Two Methods—1910, 1920, and 1924 222 LIST OF CHARTS Page Chart I.—Lengthening of Human Life 202 Chart IIl.—Net Per Capita Expenditures of Cities 30,000 Population or over for Health and Sani tation, 1903-1924 02 Chart IIl—Public Library Books Circulated Per Capita, 1925 203 Chart I1V.—Increase in Value of Public School Property, 1886-1926 204 Chart V.—Progress Toward Adequate School Plants 205 Chart VI.—Average Length of School Term 206 Chart VII.—Opportunity to Attend School and Use Made of Opportunity 20 Chart VIII.—Percent Increase in Average Income, Salary or Wage of Several Groups 208 Chart IX.—Average Salaries of Teachers, Supervisors, and Principals by States, 1925 209 Chart X.—Average Income, Salary, or Wage of Several Groups in 1913 210 Chart XI—Comparison of Teachers Salaries with Earnings and Incomes of Various Groups of Gainfully Occupied Persons in 1926 Chart XII.—Growth in High School Enrolment Chart XIII.—Average Number of Years Children Attend School Chart XIV.—Expenditures of Public Elementary and Secondary Schools per Pupil in Attendance, re Chart XV.—Percent Increase in Cost of Various Commodities and Services, 1913 -to 1925 Figure I1—Do You Know Your Child's Teacher?.. [195] . oe FOREWORD During Education Week America seeks to acquaint her people with the actual work of her schools, with their ideals, their achievements, and their needs. American idealism is advanced through having people in every walk of life—laymen as well as teachers—simultaneously focus their thought on improvement of the public schools and the importance of giving every boy and girl a fair start in life. Other nations have watched with interest the benefits resulting from Education Week and are con- sidering making it world-wide. By action of the World Federation of Education Associations at its recent Toronto meeting, Education Week was recommended for observance throughout the nations of the world. This action has resulted in deepening the interest of our own people, in taking stock of our schools, during the week of November 7-13. This Bulletin presents tersely and graphically data showing the advance of the American public school system. The National Education Association offers this ma terial to speakers and editors with full permission to reproduce. Facts are presented showing for the nation as a whole increasing faith in education as evidenced by progress in length of school term, school attendance, value of school property, training of teachers, development of a living curriculum, and larger financial and moral support for public education. From these data, each state and community can see whether or not it has kept pace with the nation in providing adequate educational opportunity for its children. May these larger issues, rather than the educational tenets of vested interests or particular groups, occupy the attention of thousands of teachers and interested laymen during American Education Week. Facilities will be provided that are completely adequate to the heavy burden placed upon the public schools, when once America whole-heartedly appreciates their importance. This Bulletin pictures the progress which our schoo!s have already made. It points the way towards greater progress. Happily, the American public can be depended upon to continue this program of progress, for “Education has come to be nearer to the hearts of the American people than any other single public interest.” J. W. Crasrree, Secretary, National Education Association. Se es —— or [196] , i1¢ > hi , - ean y oe How Shall We Observe Education Week?’ Education week a _ national institution. Education week has become a national institu tion. It is observed in every state in the Union. During this week school people and laymen alike will focus their attention on the larger educational issues facing the country. During the week of November 7 to 13 public-spirited citizens from Maine to Cali- fornia will be asking themselves: 1. What are the characteristics of the pub- lic school which should be perpetuated ? 2. What are the weak spots in the nation’s schools ? 3. How may the schools be brought to the highest point of efficiency ? The price of good schoo!s is constant vigi- lance. Education Week should be a time of appraisal and stocktaking, of checking up of progress made and of planning for future de- velopment. The local community's part. of American Education Week rests largely; upon the local community. these are the local agencies which cooperated in bringing to the public’s attention the work of the schools—their achievements and their needs: The schools, teachers’ organizations, parent-teacher associations, civic and patriotic organizations under the leadership of the American Legion, churches, public libraries, newspapers and periodicals, motion picture houses, and radio stations. ‘The cooperation of these agencies during American Education Week has done a great deal to strengthen public sentiment for universal education, re- assure and give courage and inspiration to teachers and public school officials, and pro- mote meritorious legislation in behalf of schools, The success In previous years Future educational progress depends largely upon: (1) the understanding which the Amer- ican public has of its school system, and (2) the teachers’ understanding of present-day life. Visit your child’s school during American Education Week so that you may know his teachers and so that they in turn may know you. The outcome should be mutual under- pee Annual Report of the Superintendent Chicago, Illinois. Ppp. 13-14. standing, resulting in the better education ot your child. What happens when teachers and parents talk things over? Usually these are the re sults: 1. Father and mother learn, first-hand, of modern school methods. 2. The teacher has a more intelligent undet standing of the child’s needs—knows better what to expect of him potentialities and and how he can best be helped. 3. Father and mother can judge the teacher for themselves and not be dependent on the immature judgment of a child. Understand ing forestalls criticism. 4. The teacher learns of the parents’ ambi tion for their child. 5. Father, mother, and demands that should be made. the child is never told to do one thing at school and a contradictory thing at home. receives encouragement to do teacher agree on The result is 6. Teacher better work because of the parents’ interest in the school and appreciation of his efforts. 7. Sometimes fathers and mothers do not know what fine children they have until they talk things over with their teachers. Children among comrades of their own age reveal many traits unrevealed in the home, and parents sometimes take a boy or girl so for granted as not to see the real personality at all. other’s impersonal eyes is an illuminating ex Looking at your child through an perience. 8. Your child builds a finer life. Are parents School officials urge parents to visit the schools, ask To illustrate ; welcome at school? questions, and make comments. recently in Chicago, two hundred and ninety one principals used over two thousand placards, placed in the schools where likely to meet the eye of visitors. On these placards were the following announcements :” “To the Public: This school desires to serve you. The principal will be glad to receive your com- ments.” “Citizens Welcome. Tell us what you think.” “America’s service station, a public school.” 1 See page 223 of this Bulletin for sources of material for use during Education Week. f Schools for the year ending June 30, 1926, Department of Education [197] “If you do not like the school or if you do, your suggestions.” please tell us.” “This is your scheol. Help us make it the “We are doing our best. We will appreciate “School is for service, not for self.” FIGURE I Do You Know Your Child’s Teacher? Parents should visit schools for two reasons: First, to understand something of modern school methods Second, to make the acquaintance of the teacher who is so very important in the child’s life. Courtesy Children, the Magazine for Parents [198] ee ee The li 1é bes —ow ee ne ee What’s Right with the Public Schools?’ The American Public Schools Are Built on Sound Democratic Principles It is easy to criticize the schools—to hold them responsible for every ill that appears in the back-wash of the great war. unhts young takes Our educational system people to deal with actual away self-reliance, begets conceit, and draws at tention to what is ornamental than what is present necessities. It rather fundamental. This is from a newspaper editorial of 1884. In that year it was quoted by the President of the National Association in cussing “the matter of the attacks on the com Education dis mon school.” It may be a shock to some to know that the schools of the “good old days when | was a boy” were so bad. But the common schools have been just this bad ever since they began, in the minds of certain carping critics. It is unfortunate that we cannot all have the ex perience of living a little while in each of the past few generations. “Then we would know that “the matter of the attacks on the public matter. ” bd schools” is no new The public school, since its beginning, has been the subject of just such sweeping, unsub But it It has gone on in stantiated attacks as the one quoted. has thrived, none the less. creasing its educational efficiency, opening wider its doors to greater and greater num- bers of children, and gaining generally in pub lic esteem. Is it not time that we gave a little attention to answering the question, “‘IWehat's right with the public school?” dence upon which to base an answer. There is much good evi Let us review some of the facts. The American School Is a School for All the People In most countries there are two school sys tems. One educates those who are to rule, the other those who are to be ruled. The edu- cational opportunity that a child receives is determined by birth and social position. The “high-born” are given a complete education in one school system. The “low-born” attend a early age We accept the ideal, even if it is not realized every mentary training completed at an In America, we have a different plan. where in practice, that: “JV hat the best and wisest parent wants for his own child, that must the community want for all its children. {ny other ideal for our schools is narr and unlovely, acted upon, it destroys our demo racy. The American School Is Free and Open to All that ideal is of this We sometimes In our early history, Trew ct uld forget recent origin. obtain a first-rate education who were unable atte ndance at pauper ‘The community to pay tuition. In many places, a free school stigmatized a child as a ‘That time has passed. is the exception, today, that does not maintain free schools to which all parents may be proud to send their children. More than 25,000,000 children were enrolled in free public schools in 1927. At least one person in every f{ the United States is at present attending a fri public S¢ hool. The American Public School Is Supported by Public Taxation We are coming to recognize that the public school is our greatest productive institution Without the lavs the foundation, most of the trained intelligence for which Ou} the school wealth would be impossible. It is refore proper that a small part of the wealth which this institution plays so great a part in creating should be set aside for its maintenance. Yet, this principle has but recently been Less Henry Barnard was threatened with personal violence accepted. than a century ago, for advocating such heresy as the taxation of one man’s property to educate the children of Such an attitude seems ridicu The a matter his neighbor. today. school tax Is levied | Prac ti ally their lous local everywhere as of course. all the states partially support schools through a state-wide tax. The nation is con the support of education money We recognized the principle that the education of tributing for collected through a national tax. have the future generation should constitute a first that dollar of er, : ls _ : cifferent system and receive but a meagre ele- lien against all wealth ever} Parts of this and the following page are reproduced from the September 1924, Resear Bulletin t san [199] et * Sle the nation’s wealth, no matter where it exists, should bear its just share in educating the nation’s children no matter whether they live in the next house or the next state. The American Public School Is Con- trolled by All the People No “upper class” dictates what shall be taught in America’s classrooms. No religious group uses it as an instrument for extending its creed. Since it is controlled by all the people, it enjoys the support and confidence of the great mass of the people. The battle to place the public schools under the control of all the people was not easily won. The victory was a precious one. It must be guarded! Even now the schools are the battle ground of vigorous minorities, supporting forlorn hopes or protecting ancient prejudices. They would legislate into the curriculum subjects to advance their special interests. They would strike out those which threaten their fixed prejudices. The schools must be guarded from such influences. Nothing would so undermine confidence in education as to allow it to become an instrument for the propaga- tion of the social, economic, or religious preju- dices of factional groups. The American School Offers a Complete Education Many of our states have recognized that money invested in high schools and colleges, as well as that invested in elementary schools, brings big returns. They have provided free schools extending from the kindergarten through the university. This is as it should be in a democracy. The arguments against free college education are the same as those advanced against free elementary schools a century ago, and against free high schools fifty years ago. These statements appeared in American pub- lications of the eighteenth century: Reading, writing, and arithmetic are very neces- sary to those whose business required such qualifi- cations; but where peoples’ livelihood has no de- pendence on these arts, they are very pernicious to the poor, who are forced to get their daily bread by their daily labour. Ignorance, or the want of knowledge and literature, the appointed lot of all born to poverty, and the drudgeries of life, is the only opiate capable of infusing that insens bility which can enable them to endure the miserix of the one and the fatigues of the other. It is cordial administered by the gracious hand Providence of which they ought never to be cd: prived by an ill-judged and improper vducatio: It is the basis of all subordination, the support o society, and the privilege of individuals. Those of limited vision no longer extol th. virtues of ignorance, nor warn of the pe: nicious influence of the three R’s generally dis seminated. Now it must be the three R’s and nothing else. Everything else is a fad « frill—as pernicious as the three R’s were former centuries. No state can make a better investment tha: to provide a complete education for all why have the capacity and the desire to obtain Industry and purpose, rather than caste wealth, are the keys that should open the dow of educational opportunity in a democracy. The American Public School Is Getting Results In 1870 three children in every ten, fiv: to eighteen years of age, were in daily at tendance in public schools. In 1927 seven ot every ten children of these ages are in dail) attendance. By attending school children acquire the qualities parents desire in them Denied such attendance children suffer a: almost insuperable handicap. A larger pe: cent of parents each year are willing to mak: sacrifices so that their children may enjoy th: benefits of a complete education. The states with the best schools have thx lowest percents of illiteracy, the highest maga zine and library book circulation and rank highest in characteristics indicative of solid edu cational attainment. The aims of the schools are fundamental! sound. ‘These are the objectives toward whic) 845,000 American public school teachers are daily striving as they work with the nation’ 25,000,000 children:* 1. Sound health; Worthy home membership ; 3. Mastery of th tools of learning; 4. Good citizenship; 5 Vocational efficiency; 6. Wise use of leisure 7. Ethical character. No American institution has nobler pu’ poses or works with greater faithfulness {0 their fulfillment than the American Publi School. 2 See page 222 and following of the October, 1927, JournAl OF THE Natronat Epucation Association for illustrat of how the schools are attaining these objectives. [200] aoa nsi rie ot de ion ; oF ee Se oe ee Progress in Lengthening and Enriching Life’ Life expectancy of American children at birth today is over twice that of their great grandparents. Pasteur assured us that, “‘It is within the power of man to rid himself of every parasitic disease.” ‘The chart on the following page shows the progress that is being made in the lengthening of human life. Life expectancy in the sixteenth century for a child born in Geneva was twentyone years; in the seventeenth century, twentysix years; and in the eighteenth century, thirtyfour Data collected in 1921 in those states where births and deaths are registered, and this in- cludes the great majority of states, show that a child bern in the United States has a life expectancy of fiftyeight years. The work of the school is fundamental to solid progress in preventive health work. Health as a rule is a purchasable commodity and the price is education. ‘The steady ad- vance in public sentiment relative to health needs is shown by the increasing amount per capita which the larger cities spend annually for health and sanitation. The growing ap- preciation of the importance of health is one result of the work of the public schools. An adequate child health program demands a closer accounting and the erection of stand- ards based upon healthful living rather than upon death rates. Thomas D. Wood esti- mates that of the children who live to be six years of age, less than ten percent suffer from physical and health defects at birth. He further estimates that ninety percent of chil- dren who reach the age of six have some form of physical or health defect. Universal health education is the only solution to this problem. Scientists are securing facts as to preventive health measures. However, “knowledge is without influence until it is given to the public. it is without power until it is accepted by the public.” New discoveries, relative to health- ful living, unless incorporated into the lives of the people through proper health habits and attitudes toward hygienic regulations, are of little practical value. The foundation essen- tial to progress in health work is laid in the public schools. They popularize scientific, preventive health work and teach children how to keep well. The cost of adequate health instruction is paid for many times over in the resulting savings to sociéty. years. a See suggested program for Health Day, JourNnaL oF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION [201] * Compare this chart with Table 3, page 222. Louis I. Dublin, writing on “The Eco nomics of Health” in Harper's Magazine fo: November, 1926, estimated the yearly eco nomic loss due to sickness and postponable deaths as $8,250,000,000. He also estimated the yearly economic gain due to increased expectation of life as $3,500,000,000. What the lengthening of individual lif: means to social well being. Saving in dollars and cents is only a small part of the good resulting from increasing the span of human life. According to one writer, “each indi vidual and each generation takes part in the great relay race of human evolution and each retires at the end of a short period.” The American public school has the task of re placing the million and a quarter trained men and women over twenty years of age who die each year. Each year added to the individual's life expectancy means that less of our annual educational effort need go to providing “re placement education.”” It means that once a man is trained, he has a longer period in which to use that training, to profit by experience, and to contribute ideas and materials for the social well being. When one contemplates the tremendous contribution that each genera tion could make if it had even one year longet of life that was trained, experienced, healthy, and socially productive, he gets a new vision of the productivity of health education. Education is a life-long process. Merely extending life without broadening and enrich- ing it would be futile. “The public schools recognize that schooling is merely the begin- ning of education. Making a nation literate the first step toward educating it. During the is only Education is a life-long process. period of school attendance, the tools and technics of learning should be acquired and life-long interests established. ‘This ideal is being realized, as shown by the increase in the number of books circulated by our public libraries. Chart on shows that usually those states which rank highest edu- cationally also rank highest in the number of public library books circulated per capita.’ What progress is your community making, not only in lengthening life but in broadening page 203 and enriching it? : Association, October, 1927, page 2 LE ee CHART I The LENGTHENING of HUMAN LIFE \ NUMBER OF YEARS EXPECTATION OF LIFE AT BIRTH . | 16th | CENTURY wee GENEVA 4 cphithy sa | 18th | CENTURY Kes f 1789 Kim MASSACHUSEITS{ 1890 ren (1897 re , , (1900 UNITED STATES 1910 (ALL states reporting ) | 1920 1921 Sescatch Duriswon, Aalional Ldecation Assh Source of data Irving’ Fisher ,* The Lengtherung of Human Life in Retrospect and Prospect," Amerwan Journal of Puiblic Health January ,1927 CHART II NET PER CAPITA EXPENDITURES CITIES 50,000 POPULATION °®OVER ®*® HEALTH ane SANITATION, 1905 -1924. - #12) 3135 $150 $162 *.77 8r75 $86 #193 $234 4325 45 1903 1905 1907 1909 ia i9i3 1915 1917 igig9 1922 1922 ) Research Diunsion, National Education Assn ; ° ‘ Statistic: Data from Dept of Commerce, Bureau of the Gensus, Financial of Gities, 1924 L —— Recteinatiatnatind. eS ieee Se Sen... ——————————————————— | | CHART III PUBLIC LIBRARY BOOKS CIRCULATED PER CAPITA , 1925 United States Ree California, wrass Massachusetts MEEEECED Oregon wks Connecticut Me Asi Newk shire SHCA Vermo mewefs indiana, me frco} Washi ry Pet) Rhode fs fe Praia) Ohio [3.05] Utah a Keva Wisconsin C57) ew York Cor) (Illinois ST) Michigan Coo) Minnesota WKS Wyomt t @x-f1 Colora do Brat} lowa seo] Dist.of Columbia JEICZSS) tlaine WK Nebraska __ See New Jersey mae Delaware CSS) Montana masa Missourt TiS) idaho ers South Dakota Bw Kansas mek iI Pennsylvania amr) CLZONA CiIS) Nevada, aes O ma t ’ Nor ta Kentcuc. Tennesséc 3 lorida corsa. . North Carolina Aé Texas AS5 New Mexico - 40 Louisiana 22 Alabama, 27 Virs iris’ 36 Carolina §iE-2 6 West Virginia 26 Mississippi 26 Arkansas as y% » 4 D ‘ , > , c y LIP LS GO} TAL0GR AL LA LCA Source of data, American Library Association, Library Exteneior, 1926 [203 ] OE ———ao~”-~-~-—-~S-—‘“—< Progress in Providing When people travel now they use the auto- mobile, the train, or the aeroplane. Shank’s mare and the covered wagon are interesting historically. We no longer use them if we really want to get anywhere. Progressive communities are recognizing that if they really want to get anywhere educationally adequate school buildings must be provided. Modern educational results can- not be expected from an antiquated school plant. The modern school building is sup- plied with equipment similar to that found in the modern home, office, and shop. It is placed on a spacious site. Forty percent of the elementary school sites purchased since 1920 are five acres or more. With such sites a community can offer its children the citizen- izing influences of a well planned playground in place of the demoralizing influences of the vacant lot and back alley.’ The chart on the opposite page is indicative of progress made by the various states in providing modern school buildings and sites. It shows the average value of school prop- Adequate School Piants erty per pupil enroled by states in 1920 and 1925. In 1920 the average value of scl property in the U. S. per pupil enroled \ $112. By 1925 it had increased to $1 Much of this increase was necessary to cat up on school building programs which w: practically at a standstill in many communi: during the war. Part of the increase rep sents real advance in providing better sch: plants for each pupil enroled. In the last forty years the capital invest in school property has increased from $27| 000,000 to $4,265,000,000. Part of ¢! increase is apparent rather than real. It due to the loss in purchasing power of + dollar. If we translate the value of scho property in recent decades into dollars with purchasing power of 1913, the value school property, stated in dollars of 1913 pu: chasing power, increased from $358,000,000) in 1886 to $2,431,000,000 in 1926. Has your community and state kept pc with the nation in providing modern sch plants for the housing of its children? 1 For further material on this topic see: An Adequate School Plant, page 199, September, 1926, Research B CHART IV INCREASE IN Current dollars (mullions of’ dollacs) ors oo #455 1906 1916 1926 VALUE OF PUBLIC SCHOOL PROPERTY 1886~1926 {913 dollars (millions f dollars) $358 1886 $628 1896 1906 1916 1926 Csearch Divnisiatr, National Education, Assi Department. of’ Labor Based. on data ftom US Bureau of Education and U.S [204] CHART V id ee a he 8 | yh | | W b q 1 Ib: & | PROGRESS TOWARD ADEQUATE SCHOOL PLANTS at | 1920 to 1925 te AVERAGE VALUE OF SCHOOL PROPERTY PER Y PUPIL EN BVCOLED iti | pre ho : United States 530m aS as j New York xi07™ Wns SESS ISS 7. «OE Nevada. CErzs SEI Wi oh Dist. of Columbia S vem Ws El SJ th New Jersey = vem SSA MERZ t ; re rua, = t=-m | higan re) S S ™ | Conneticut RIES WN hoo! ' Hinnesota act S SA MEZEECES th a tlassachusetis a: 942748 = me. tex of Montana a + RANE FF WAAAY North Dakota TEIEI WN 7 RR om [ilinois om SS OOO Pennsylvania a itm New Hampshire Sik ome bace WLSCOnSLIL £50) SS WY S \ SSA44 | 7 lowa Sitcom SiS SSSI hool Colorado = stems RSAwETSE SSS ; a 30; ; aS’ OSs pg = 35-8 SETSS 3S | Watts mu = $m TEES Indian& 5 C/o SS Siss FS | Nebraska Sik SSIERIEZ SS Idaho Cai SSETZE ES Utah & 5C>am SJ $173 Kansas Sli. DOE 9 6CNVY 7 Maine © \etomm SSCEEZEEESSS Arizona = se SERIE ESS j Rhode Island Cees $158 ' tlissouri 3am SURES I Delaware ‘2 WAXa 37 ESS s South Dak ota ‘ $St-e NBS : Vermont 3-4 EQ $ 140 4 West, Virgina x51 SSETEE ESS . Ohio SSE FE ERRASSSSASHAISHq ]) La Honda = i-omm RQ cee RS : ; i Vy = iom WQS s $7 BMY } Texas eon | Wis £67 2 WO i Oklahoma =i SSTRITE ESS , New Mexico ——— SEIOZ SS Average Value of School MESSS . y , 50) Bee LOO ~ , — = Sapa Per Pupil Encoled 1995 F North Carolina SCE ESCEET NS Average Value of School Jim ; ky eer S 4 Atal Tcnan We neee Property Per Pupil Enroled 1920 South Carolina [IC CEERCESI ‘ Mississippi (EES Wessn Georgia Es. Wierd Arkansas Ce25 ee Tennessee FIs $40 = ’ Kescarch Duisiwon Aational Educatioty, ASSh Data, from U.S. Bureaw of Education [205] Progress in School Attendance Unless schools are kept open, and unless children are regular in attendance they are denied a fair school opportunity. Some com munities still keep their schools open but a few each But progress being made. ‘lhe average length of the term increased in the United States from 130 days in 1880 to 135 days in 1890, 144 days in 1900, 158 days in 1910 and 170 days in 1925. ‘This progress is graphically presented in the chart at the bottom of the page.’ The chart on the opposite page shows the months year. is school average number of days schools are open in the various states and the average number of days children actually attend. school term in the United States in 1925 was 170 days, or eight and one half school months. The children of the nation on the attended 137 of these 170 days, or 81 percent The average average of the time the schools were open. ‘This fig represents progress. In 1880 the nation’s ot the attended but 62 schools were open; in subsequent decad rose as follows toward the pe! 1890, 64 percent; 1900, 69 percent; 1910 percent; and 1920, 75 pe The pe of the school term not used in 1880 was 38 1925, 19. As population density the back lot and the alley becom: dren percent present rceent. increases in numbe: wholesome environments for the nation’s dren. Longer school terms and greater larity of attendance is one means whereb schools meet the changing conditions. Does and state a school year of adequate length? Is maintained ’ community pr your percent of school attendance l See page 204 and following of the September, 1926, Research Bulletin, for further facts to school att n the United States. CHART VI 1880 1150 | | 1890 LAB | 1900 LL | 1910 Bist: 1920 AVERAGE LENGTH of SCHOOL TERM 1925 120 j i i ‘6 l 1 1 1 1 i 1 l 4 al eS eT 0 OW 2% 3 40 60 %0 1 8 90 WO UO 190 130 40 0 160 170 Average Number Days Schools Were in Session sscarch Qwision National Ghiucation ISS! Based on figuces of U.S. Bureau of Education. 4 [206] ew - | | | Based. on data of’ U.S. Bureau of Education CHART VII OPPORTUNITY ATTEND SCHOOL AND USE MADE OF OPPORTUNITY AVERAGE LENGTH OF SCHOOL TERS AND AVERAGE NUMBER OF DAYS ATTENDED PER. PUPIL ENROLED Averase Number of Days BEES > ye Schools Were in Session Average Number ot Das xm Atteaded Per Pupil Enroled, United States mkya New York. CTSaa) y New Jer Sty mB U s Georgia, —_Z+s Vinxinia. —_z xs South Carolina me va Teanessee =_-t+s Alabama, om -t-7:3 Arkansas =r Mississippi _—t7-s Kesearch Quiswa Natwtuadl Lduculion Assh Based. on data from U.S..Bureau of Education [209] little consideration to differences in compensa- have training equivalent to normal sch tion to be expected, when all careers under graduation, than there are teaching positi consideration promise an income well above in the United States.’ the level of a living wage. The matter of These statements sum up the recent hist: compensation becomes a matter of growing of teachers’ salaries and incomes of gainfu consideration, however, as it approaches nearer occupied persons in general : to the level of subsistence. 1. In the pre-war period teachers were t A reduction in teachers’ salaries, which was lowest paid of any group of workers for wh the virtual result of the loss in purchasing figures are available. power of the dollar around 1920, caused a 2. Salaries and wages of the population rapid loss in normal school enrolments. general have substantially increased over p: Thousands of the best teachers left the pro- war figures. fession. They could no longer maintain the 3. Teachers’ salaries have been substantia standard of living teaching required. In- increased over pre-war figures. creases in teachers salaries since 1920 has 4. Teachers’ salaries still occupy a dis resulted in a growth in attendance in teacher vantageous position when compared wit training institutions. those of other groups. Recently it has been stated there is an 5. Further increases will be necessary over-supply of teachers. There is an over- teachers salaries to lift them to an appropriate supply of people who are willing to keep place in the economic scale. school, but there is not an over-supply of Are the salaries paid teachers in your trained teachers. There are fewer people munity such as will attract the type of per ready to offer their services as teachers, who you wish to instruct your children? 'See page 175 and following of the September, 1926, Research Bulletin, for further evidence on this point CHART X AVERAGE INCOME, SALARY,OR WAGE OF SEVERAL GROUPS ® 1913 U.S. Governme i Employees o Ministers Mgr All Gainfully Occupied. Persons Factory Workers —_—_—— Teachers | Ceseatcl Diwision Nationa Education Asst | | Based on data from Table 21, flay 1927 Research Bulletin of the | National Education Association. | [210] : C—O vith In Din CHART XI COMPARISON of TEACHERS SALARIES | WITH EARNINGS AND INCOMES OF | VARIOUS GROUPS OF GAINFULLY | OCCUPIED PERSONS INI926 | Average income of all saintly occupied. persons Average income of all persons having incomes i> 1 OOS | of less than $3000. deveeiiags earnings of workers in 25 man fills TOS a facturing industries. Average earnings ot’ trade union members ib 250Y, | Average salary of routine | clerical employees work: ing under supervision Average salary of — out hugh grade clerical '$ 1908 | workers Average salary of | U.S. Government | Employees | | | Average Salary of teach: ers, principals, and s erintendents irl - & esearch oP) VESCOL2 public schools National S&dhication Assocation Read table thus: The average income of the 44,600,000 sain fully occupied. persons inthe United, States in 1926 was 2010 Similacly reac figures for other groups of workers. Sources of data: These fisuices based upon a number of income and wage investigations cited in the May, 1927 Research Bulletin of’ the National Education Association. [211] Progress in Developing a Living Curriculum health work; and the school by the expression subjects. of these subjects shows that the twentieth ce: tury has given us a new conception as to ¢ A new curriculum suited to children of all levels of ability and to present-day-life needs. Hundreds of school systems are striving to build courses of study broad enough to meet the needs of all children, varied enough to serve the interests of the individual child, and related definitely to the problems of contem- porary living. ‘These new courses are se- lected, not on the basis of tradition, but on the basis of (1) the needs, abilities, and interests of particular pupils; (2) results of occupa- tional or job analyses; (3) pooled judgments of thoughtful men and women as to the human abilities and characteristics which are most desirable for adult citizens; and (4) findings of research as to the best educational practices and the relative social value of various cur- riculum materials. The table on the opposite page shows the evolution of our elementary-school curriculum and of methods of teaching. Cubberley * classifies the studies which now characterize the elementary school as follows: Drill Subjects Reading , Language Writing Spelling Arithmetic Content Subjects Geography Manners and Conduct History Nature Study Agriculture Health Work Expression Subjects School Gardening Vocational Subjects Plays and Games Auditorium Activities Civie Activities Literature Civic Studies Kindergarten Work Music Drawing Maaual Arts Domestic Arts The order of arrangement above, according to Cubberley, is not oniy almost the order of historical introduction of the different subjects into the elementary school, but the three groups also represent the three great periods of our elementary-school development. The earlier school was characterized by drill subjects ; the period from 1860 to 1890 by the content sub- jects, with the exception of agriculture and modern elementa: A revie function of the public school. Now it is ey pected to offer opportunity to practice life, + develop skills and habits, to create attitucd and to train in reflective thinking and analys: High school curriculums have gone throu; a similar evolution. Formerly they includ: only college preparatory subjects. In additic: to these, they now often include journalisn public speaking, business English, bookkeepin, typewriting, stenography, penmanship, con mercial law, arithmetic, mechanical drawing, agriculture, general science, shop mathemati electricity, machine shop, auto shop, printin, sheet metal, home management, dietetics, nu: ing, band, orchestra, chorus, free-hand dra\ ing, design, hygiene, and physical education The twentieth century has given us a: conception as to the function of the pu/ schools. Formerly the work of the schoo! \ complete when the child had attained ability to write a legible hand, to read, and ' perform simple mathematical calculati Today the child acquires the valuable sk known as the three R’s and becomes more | ficient in them as he applies them in the st of such subjects as hygiene, history, science, music, and art. ‘Through these jects he comes into possession of habits thought and action that mold his character | public service. The child of the old-time school memoriz: certain facts and acquired a few simple ski!|: Such an education does not fit a child for m ern life. To illustrate: It is not enough tha 2 child be able to read aloud in a halting voic He must learn to read silently, accurately, and with rapidity. He must acquire the habit 0! reading. He must be given the ability, insot.: as his innate capacity permits, to discriminate between trash and literature. No lowe: ideals than these should be accepted in teaching of reading if the foundation for i: telligent citizenship is to be laid. And so is with every subject in the curriculum. 1! 1 Cubberley, Ellwood P., An Introduction to the Study of Education and te Teaching, Boston, Houghton Mifflin ( 1925, p. 18. [212] mt ‘9 er ee modern school seeks to create an environment made up of real life situations. The new course of study calls for the mastery of life as it is today and is to be tomorrow. One of the public school’s greatest virtues is its flexibility. ‘The American public school’s ibility to modify its organization and the con- tent of its curriculum stands out as unique in the history of educational systems. ‘The public school is recognizing that the educational methods which sufficed in the eighteenth cen- tury will not do for the twentieth. It is true that the public school is not achieving its growth without growing pains, but these should not be mistaken for organic disease. He who condemns the school for its efforts to adapt its organization, methods, and curriculum content to the needs of an age of rapid change condemns the school for one of its greatest virtues. It is this characteristic that has enabled the school to hold and strengthen its position as a constructive institu- tion. A static school in a dynamic civiliza tion soon loses its influence. A quick means of determining the ideals and purposes which actuate a school system. The examination of the course of study of a school system is a reliable means of determin- ing the ideals and habits of conduct which the school seeks to develop. When a board of education adopts a course of study, it is shap ing the thinking of the future citizens of that community. Does the course of study in use in your school system pool the best thinking of your teaching staff, the advice of experts, the find- ings of educational research? Is it adapted to individual and social needs? TABLE 1 THE EVOLUTION OF OUR ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL CURRICULUM, AND OF METHODS OF TEACHING’ | History U.S | | Sewing and Knitting. | ] ! subjects. *=New methods of teaching now employed. Boston, 1925, p. 17. 1775 1825 1850 READING. . | /READING* READING Declamation |\DECLAMATION Spelling... .. ‘ | SPELLING* SPELLING eee | {Writing oy | WRITING {Catechism. . .|\Good Behavior | {Manners \BIBLE.... ; | Manners and Morals .|\Conduct Arithmetic... .. | ARITHMETIC*.. MENTAL ARITH.*. } |\CIPHERING ; | Bookkeeping. | Bookkeeping | GRAMMAR | {Elementary Lang |\GRAMMAR.. Geography Geography | Object Lessons CAPITALS =Most important subjects. Jtalics =Subjects of medium importance. Roman=Least important 1 Cubberley, Ellwood P., An Introduction to the Study of Education and to Teaching. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1875 1900 READING READING* Literary Selections LITERATURE* SPELLING Spelling PEN MANSHIP Writing* Conduct ; |{/PRIMARY ARITH ARITHMETI¢ ADVANCED ARITH ORAL LANGUAGE Grammar Home Geography \TEXT GEOGRAPHY* History Stories* (TEXT HISTORY* Oral Language* GRAMMAR Home Geography* TEXT GEOGRAPHY U. S. HISTORY Constitution Nature Study* Elementary Science Object Lessons* Elementary Science* Drawing* ; Drawing* | Music* Music* | Physical Exercises Play Physical Training* || Sewing | Cooking || Manual Training [213] = Progress Toward Becoming a Nation of Eighth Graders A decade ago we were “A Nation of Sixth Graders.”” We have made progress since that time. Now we are a nation of seventh graders. ‘The chart on the opposite page shows that the average number of years of school life in the United States is 6.92, or nearly seven years. If all children were pro- moted a grade for every year they attend we would be just short of being a nation of eighth graders. Since all children do not make a grade for each year of attendance, we are probably just barely in the seventh grade. Some states have definitely gotten out of the grammar school. Massachusetts, Utah, New Jersey, Maine, and a few other states seem to have reached high school. Some states are still fourth graders. The southern states since 1870 have had to build a school system from the ground up for a large percent of their population. As a result most of these states on the average give their children but four or five years of schooling. The nation as a whole is making real prog- ress toward providing its children a sufh number of years of schooling to prepare t! tor successful living in a great demo ' The chart at the foot of the page shows a t mendous increase in high school enrolm« The high school is not only becoming a peo; college as to number enroled but as to typ: opportunity offered. It serves all classes the few who go to college. If the population of the nation had incré as rapidly between 1880 and 1925 as school enrolment, we would have had a | ulation of 1,660,507,508 in that year. M pupils were enroled in high schools in « of the following states in 1925 than in whole nation in 1880: California, [llin: Indiana, lowa, Massachusetts, Michig New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, ‘Texas Wisconsin. Is your community offering its chila sufficient schooling so that they have start in the race of life? In what graa } your state? CHART XII 1880 | 110,277 1900 519,251 1920 GROWTH » HIGH SCHOOL ENROLMENT 1880 t 1925 1925 13,650,903 esearch Divusioa , Aatwonal Education. Assin Based on data of U.S. Bureau of Education. [214] nie a A. de CHART XIII AVERAGE NUMBER OF YEARS CHILDREN ATTEND SCHOOL. United States Wevejat Massachusetts 26):3 Utah New Jersey Haine lowa New York Oregon New Hampshire Lllinois Wiscon6sin Dist.of Columbia {dah oO Rhode Island Fennsvivania Ohio Washington Vermont Michigan Kansas Nebraska North, Dakota Nevada Missouri Montana, Minnesota California Delaware indiana Wyoming Macylan Colorado Connecticut New Mexico South Dakota Texas Oklahoma West Virginia Tennessee Virginia TS) Florida wr North Carolina a S901 Louisiana wera Arizona : ears Georgia 4 emer Arkansas ers Kentucky a ; ra) South. Caroli na. wera Mississippi C22) Alabama PI On) Re Based. on Data ftom U.S Bureau of Educcat A ) a = Progress in Securing Adequate School Support’ Early in its history the nation recognized that sound financial support was essential to effective conduct of important public services. The army and navy, the postal service, road building and other primary public functions have long been conducted on a sound financial basis. The nation less promptly recognized the necessity of adequate financial support for pub- lic schools. In some states the schooling of children was at first a charitable activity. Only paupers attended public schools. The last vestige of this idea has disappeared in progressive communities. One state after an- other is taking action to place school support cn a firm foundation. The chart on the opposite page shows the expenditures in 1925 for public elementary and secondary schools per pupil in attendance for all purposes, both current expenses and buildings and sites. The average cost of a year’s schooling for a child is $76.24. In 1925 new buildings and sites cost $21.86 per pupil attending. These figures are remarkably low when one compares the cost of educating a child for a year under private auspices, but it represents a real advance over the meagre sup- port provided in our earlier educational history. Some have criticized the schools because of the increases in school expenditures in recent years. Such critics frequently disregard the fact that much of this increase is due to growth cf attendance and loss in purchasing power of the dollar. School expenses require more dol- lars now than in former decades because more children are in school and because each dollar expended purchases less of the things essential to school maintenance. The increase in cost of a given quantity of schooling has not been out of proportion to the increase in the cost of other services or commodities. The chart at the foot of page 220 shows the percent increase in the cost of various commodities and services since 1913. Comparable amounts of food and house fur- 2 American Statistical Association Journal, September, nishings cost 62 percent and 66 percent m in 1925 than in 1913. The cost of labo: creased 138 percent during this period, wh the average income of the nation’s gainfu employed persons increased 133 percent. During this period the average cost of ed cating one child one day in the public elem: tary and secondary schools of the United Sta: increased 112 percent. Considering that ¢ financial support of education was on a re tively low level before the war, this incre does not appear excessive. ‘The standard living has substantially increased since 19 The average income of gainfully employ. persons has increased 133 percent, and capita income 134 percent, since that y: During this same time the cost of educati: children has increased 112 percent. A democracy cannot afford to allow standard of living to increase more rapid than its standard of educating. At present school costs require but a min fraction of the nation’s economic power. lL: less one conceives of education as a matte: minor interest, he would not wish to redu the financial support accorded the scho: The ability of the nation to meet present greater educational costs if school efficien demands is clearly evidenced by the figures the table on pages 118-119. Looked at from any but a short-sight viewpoint, the money spent for schools is first-rate investment. ‘This is recognized authoritative economists. Willford King, estimating the increase in capital and savin; in the United States, lists increases in produ tive power resulting from education as one four factors that mean greater producti power. He states: Some of the most expensive and important forms of saving are not tangible but consist of su: things as accumulated scientific knowledge and t): training of the human mind. Savings of the la: mentioned variety are extremely perishable, sin they are constantly being lost through the dea of the persons possessing the education.” 2 The November, 1926, and January, 1927, issues of the Research Bulletin contain material on this topic. 1922, [216] ; . mo while ful oved — CHART XIV EXPENDITURES * PUBLIG ELEMENTARY Am’ SECONDARY SCHOOLS ** PUPIL '™ ATTENDANGE, 1924-25 United States §EVETT Nevada WEIAEE ‘omin i223. 33) rn ee [3120.95] Ypsd: Galifornia CEULSEDS iia Newdersey BESSE ae EZ ps ii at Wh VA 9465 Soloeds = TESA Lill Nil pean —— - Yur MOY Michigan CEERI) Massachusetts MBA28.235. Washington [257 55) So.Dakota [soe on) 7 : lowa OEE Yikei Connecticut tiem oe WEA Kansas cLIa-cz “a re ‘mil Idaho Lo IeeE : Illinois CELE ‘ No.Dakota ._ 2a: cae Nebraska Esa NewHampshire PEZZE32) Oregon [SBS 48 | Ohio e54.75) 7, SLAP a tay atais Wii 8 V7} ar Gea Indiana 377582) oo Vermont CeEATE Wisconsin CATS GUETG Utah [e716 Kioce} Maryland Crees Ue LacwYu New Mexico #EESe355 7, 62.6: “ Rhodelsland 9Feesr5 G i-tt3Y Maine fF e7.04) To Texas #6). 66 | rwei Missouri 12 60-6! We 83) West Virginia PEZEE IC) [ibBi57 ——— CAP es 38 5 27 Florida CIE xa Ye ees Louisiana [EXECS =| xPenditures per Virginia FI0. 40 Vcc vay ee cere No.Garolina Chi Aka as oe Kentuck Chines W7* 5.46 Expenditures ro So Carolina CREME Ri ay pupil for capital Tennessee (S+ae ZA# 5.55 outlay Alabama Cem La Yo422 Georgia ures ZlEEe Arkansas terstm YEO Mississippi ee 2 6 20 @D . x esearch Diviai n, National Education Ass'r Mata from US. 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