IGESGEGSGGooougg! VOL. V, NO. 3 iz MAY, 1927 ( Research Bulletin OF THE National Education Association The Scheduling of Teachers’ Salaries ~~, ¢ ¥ 1 ‘ \ , ¥ ? ot Px et NS) = o~ ~ x Ss! ea & Oost PUBLISHED BY THE RESEARCH DIVISION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201 SIXTEENTH STREET NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D, C. Ooo ) 5) €) g) Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. 4 sf i - # rr ) —— Research Bulletin of the National Education Association Published five times each year in January, March, May, September, and November by the Research Division of the National Education Association of the United States. President, Francis G. BLair Secretary, J. W. 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Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. [130] ’ The NS) © ) Guide nates Selects TABLE OF CONTENTS lhe Nation’s Ability to Lift Teacher Compensation to a Professional Level. rhe question of economic ability .............. The need for constructive economy recognized........... The need for lifting teacher compensation to a professional level ............ Steps in placing teaching on a professional level ges s bdlievae teed ap ions ata hen Salaries of Public School Teachers in the United States ............0cccecceeeeeees Salaries of ‘Teachers in General............. ie rime of «eee & Median Salaries of Certain Groups of Teachers ... iS ae ere a Incomes of Gainfully Occupied Persons in the United States Incomes of Gainfully Occupied Persons in General . Incomes of Certain Groups of Gainfully Occupied Wages of Manufacturing Industries Earnings of Union Workers .............. CE EIS LE pe oer Routine Clerical Work Performed Under Supervision High Grade Clerical Work ............. Salaries of Employees of U. S. Government............ ; bieedaey Comparison of Economic Position of Teachers and Other Groups of Gainfully Occupied Persons General Comparison of Teachers’ Salaries and of Incomes of All Gainfully Occupied Persons Comparison of Compensation of Teacher Groups and of Certain Groups Among Other Gain- SE Gi dt sew ce base cies sane , é eweaha leans Some Considerations and Conclusions ..... Pavarsia shi atk adeatieee a Obstacles Delaying Adequate Compensation for Teachers . Guides to Salary Scheduling................. Pe aieelienn aed. a re Classification of School Employees for Salary Scheduling Purposes The Single Salary Schedule........ Lye rE Ee eee Definitions of the Classes Recognized in the Salary Schedule . Bases for Fixing the Rates of Salary Schedules eee cre Salary Scheduling a Scientific Process ....... ere Selected, Annotated Bibliography on Teachers’ Salaries Page 135 135 136 136 139 139 139 141 145 145 145 149 149 149 149 149 151 153 155 158 LIST OF TABLES Table 1—Wealth, Income and School Costs in the United States, 1890 to 1926 ................. Table 2—Total Current Income and Average Income Per Person Gainfully Occupied, 1909 to 1926 Table 3—Distribution of Salaries of Public School Teachers, Principals, and Executives in Rura ae is a ae as a Sana dagh hand abasic es. 00.Ob¥00.00 00. 14 Table 4—Estimated Median Salaries Paid Teachers in Rural Communities, Villages, and Towns 0: EE eer oe 142 Table 5—Median Salaries Paid Classroom Teachers in Cities in 1926-27 ............-.000000. 142 Table 6—Median Salaries Paid Principals in Cities in 1926-27 ...........000000 00 cece ec eeeee 142 Table 7—Median Salaries Paid Chief Administrative Officials in City School Systems ......... 145 Table 8—Distribution of Incomes of all Gainfully Occupied Persons and Public School Teacher: Principals, and Executives in the United States in 1927 ............ 0.0 c eee eeeeeees 14¢ Table 9—Incomes and Salaries Reached by Equal Percents of Gainfully Occupied Persons and of! Persons in Public School Work in the United States ...............0 0.00 cee eeeeee, 155 Table 10—Minimum Salaries Paid Teachers in Cities Over 100,000 in Population in 1926-27...... 144 Table 11—Ratio of Median Salaries of Various Groups of School Employees in Cities of Compa ee i os pea ne eee RMS e ASE Wa abetaeasne ees cddanroasaegeess 165 Table 12—Ratio of Median Salaries of Various Groups of School Employees in Cities of Differen: aa crs Vi bss Sa SOON COAMU MRC AE ect 9in5. 6.0 Con peese cess. 16¢ Table 13—Yearly Living Wage for Professional Man and Family—Chicago, Ill. .............. 168 Table 14—Various Index Numbers of Purchasing Power of Dollar and Cost of Living ......... 169 Table 15—Indexes of Cost of Living and Purchasing Power of Dollar ......................... 17 Table 16—Purchasing Power in Subsequent Years of Various 1900 Salaries .................... 172 Table 17—Purchasing Power in Subsequent Years of Various 1913 Salaries ................... 173 Table 18—Amounts Which in Subsequent Years Had the Same Purchasing Power as Various Sala ad o:660.d + 4:50 6d 5 6OREROERENDAN SER AESTS Sco coer sncnsoeees 174 Table 19—Amounts Which in Subsequent Years Had the Same Purchasing Power as Various Sala- ee. eee Sire ones sas PES eMREEO RSS 6S e vee sceeHseeete es 175 Table 20—Composite Wage Index, Cost of Living and Real Wage, 1913 to 1926 ................ 175 Table 21—Salaries and Purchasing Power of Salaries Paid Various Groups from 1890 to 1926...... 17% Table 22—Index Numbers of Actual Amounts Received and of Purchasing Power of Amounts Received by Various Groups from 1890 to 1926 .........-5c cece cece ewww eeeees 177 LIST OF CHARTS Chart I—Wealth, Income and All School Costs in the United States in 1926 ................... 137 Chart I1l—Proportion of Total Current Income Expended for Public, Elementary and Secondary eae aan ss fia b aeons is CEP RACER WOME es Cece seed osedeedecees: 138 Chart I1I—Percent of Urban and Rural School Teachers Receiving Various Salaries ........... 141 Chart 1V—Median Salaries Paid Various Groups of Classroom Teachers 1926-27 ............. 143 Chart V—Median Salaries Paid Various Groups of Principals 1926-27 ..................000055 144 Chart VI—Median Salaries Paid Chief Administrative Officials in City School Systems 1926-27. 147 Chart ViI—Percent of Gainfully Employed Persons in the United States Receiving Various Incomes !44 Chart ViII—Percent of Teachers and of All Gainfully Occupied Persons Receiving Various Yearly i Senin as ee Ln oss os Ca eETERORE MAEACEDU ERD CC Race esa tenderceces: 152 Chart IX—How Much Better Chance Have Gainfully Occupied Persons in General of Reaching Va rious Incomes Than Have Teachers? .. ..........cccccccccccccccccccscscccesscces: 153 Chart X—Percent of Gainfully Occupied Persons and of Public School Teachers Receiving Various EE eicnininh a5 6.5 44060 6n6 SNSEEEOSE ESSERE SS ORS we ee Soc cccceecesecess 154 Chart XI—Comparison of Teachers Salaries with Earnings and Incomes of Various Groups of Gain- Pe ME IED OO BTIG, once cree cesses nescccasccsesscce cecccnsscecss- 157 Chart XII—Amount Required in Various Years to Purchase What $1.00 Bought in 1890 ........ 171 Chart XIII—Increase in Average Income of Gainfully Occupied Persons in the United States— Ch Cc a ree ec cab sy bc bs MURR UN Gea TEMNN ed c6 ceded as dccccccvencesdeccess 178 Chart XIV—lIncrease in Average Income of Gainfully Occupied Persons and Average Salary of Public School Teachers in the United States, 1922 to 1926....... 2.0... ccc ceeeeees 179 [132] aie f T 142 142 142 145 138 141 143 144 147 148 ll Rael Recent Issues of the Research Bulletin Keeping Pace with the Advancing Curriculum. Vol. I11, Nos. 4 and 5, September and November, 1925. 96 pp. Price per copy, 50 cents. Presents in concise and readable form the outcome of recent research and practice bearing upon the problems of curriculum reconstruction. Has been widely used as a handbook by course of study committees and by college classes in the field of the cur- riculum. Includes selected bibliographies on general and special curricular problems, charts, illustrations, and index for Volume III of Research Bulletin. The Ability of the States to Support Education. Vol. 1V, Nos. 1 and 2, January and March, 1926. 96 pp. Price per copy, 50 cents. Presents the most comprehensive data yet made available as to the comparative ability of the various states to pay for their schools, Also compares the states as to effort being made to support the schools. Widely quoted in educational periodicals and in recent surveys of state school finance. Much of data presented in graphic form; selected and annotated bibliography. Efficient Teaching and Retirement Legislation. Vol. 1V, No. 3, May, 1926. 72 pp. Price per copy, 25 cents. Includes the 1926 Report of the Committee of One Hundred on Retirement Allow- ances of the National Education Association, E. Ruth Pyrtle, Chairman, and other material arranged in convenient form for those studying the problem of the retirement and pensioning of teachers. Selected and annotated bibliography. A Handbook of Major Educational Issues. Vol. 1V, No. 4, September, 1926. 72 pp. Price per copy, 25 cents. Presents material for the use of lay and professional groups in studying problems affecting the conduct of public schools. Selected references on many major school issues are listed for those desiring additional information. Major Issues in School Finance—Part I. Vol. IV, No. 5, November, 1926. 32 pp. Price per copy, 25 cents. Presents data bearing upon two questions: (1) Are school costs larger than the economic resources of the nation justify? and (2) Can present expenditures for educa- tion be justified under a policy of economy and efficiency in public expenditures? Much of data presented in graphic form. Contains index to Volume IV. Major Issues in School Finance—Part Il. Vol. V, No. 1, January, 1927. 64 pp. Price per copy, 25 cents. Presents data bearing upon the economic ability of the various states to support educa- tion. Points out and suggests remedies for weak spots in present methods of financing the schools. Lists essentials of a sound plan of state and local taxation. Annotated bibliography of recent studies in state school finance. Salaries in City School Systems, 1926-27. Vol. V, No. 2, March, 1927. 64 pp. Price per copy, 25 cents. Presents data as to minimum, median, maximum, and distribution of salaries paid school employees of all types in cities of all population groups. [133] — ae . i t afity FOREWORD Throughout its history the National Education Association has led the movement to lift teaching to a professional level. This movement has had two closely allied objectives. One has sought to create the tools of good teaching: Courses of study incorporating subjectmatter and activities suited to the needs of all children and teaching technics based upon pooled experience and scientific experimentation. The other objective has sought to secure social and economic recognition for teaching comparable to that of other professions requiring equivalent training, character, and responsibility. It is with the latter problem that this issue of the RESEARCH BULLETIN deals. It surveys the economic status of the teaching profession and presents material needed in the drafting and revising of salary schedules. This and the preceding issue of the BULLETIN, along with the Special Salary Tabulations, prepared for the convenience of superintendents, committees of citizens, and local teachers’ organizations, offer material of a theoretical and statistical nature essential to those responsible for drafting scientific plans for the compensation of teachers. The wide use of this material is recommended to all concerned with the problem of salary scheduling. Such use should do much to forward the movement looking toward “better salaries for better teachers.” J. W. Crastree, Secretary, National Education Association. [134] ~— oie ee The Nation’s Ability to Lift Teacher Compensation to a Professional Level The question of economic ability. The first and most difficult problem confronted by a community anxious to lift its schedule of teachers’ salaries to a professional level has to do with its ability to meet the cost involved. It is true that some local communities if dependent wholly upon their own resources will find it difficult to pay teachers salaries which justify training and service on a pro- fessional level. Such, however, is not the typical situation. In most states, the adequate support of schools including the payment of acceptable salaries to teachers is less a matter of ability than of willingness. The value of tangible property in the United States is approximately 355 billion dollars. The yearly income is close to ninety billions. The nation’s savings accounts now total twenty-five billions. For the purchase and upkeep of passenger auto- mobiles we expend well over ten billions a year. New buildings and houses cost approximately seven billions a year. ‘Theaters, soft drinks, ice cream, candy, chewing gum, tobacco, and similar luxuries annually consume six billion dollars. To say that a nation with such eco- nomic resources and able to afford such ex- penditures has reached the limit of its ability to pay when it expends two and a half billion dollars a year for the schooling of its children is to assign education a low place in the scale of human values.' Tables 1 and 2 present data pertinent to the consideration of the nation’s ability to sup- port its schools. Charts 1 and 2 graphically show the relationship of the nation’s school ex- penditures and its economic resources. The need for constructive economy recog- nized. ‘The foregoing conclusion is not out of harmony with the fundamental principle that no service, public or private, which the nation chooses to support should be allowed any greater proportion of its income than is neces- sary to maintain that service on an efficient basis. The mere fact that the nation is eco- nomically able to spend two and a half billions Division for citation to the reports. ' The figures given in this paragraph are based on reports of reliable statistical agencies. for schools, or even five billions, is no justifi- cation in itself for expending either amount. Only such a sum should be expended for schools as is essential to provide adequate facili- ties for the effective education of the nation’s children. Only such a sum should be alloted for the economic compensation of the nation’s teachers as is necessary to guarantee capable teachers for all classrooms. This brings us to the question whether the schools are expending more than is necessary to accomplish these purposes. As a partial answer we have the following: 1. The provision for school support before the war was inadequate to maintain schools This conclusion is sup- The 1920 census re- of desirable efficiency. ported by these facts: vealed five million “persons who had had no schooling whatever,” the majority of whom were native born. The army draft of 1918 dis- closed that approximately twenty-five percent of our young men possessed an inadequate Thou- with no grasp of reading and writing ability. sands of teachers were employed special training for their work, and often with little general education beyond the eighth grade. Half the nation’s teachers received less than five hundred dollars a year, an average for the full year of less than ten dollars a week. This was but a fraction of the amounts then paid those generally designated as un- skilled or semiskilled workers. 2. The increase in school expenditures over the prewar figures has not been large, consid ering the inadequacy of school support before These facts support the foregoing conclusion: The amount for the education of eacn child in school at the war. annually expended present, measured in dollars of equal purchas ing power, is approximately twenty-five per- cent more than before the war. ‘The increase in school costs over prewar years is less than the increase in expenditures by the federal gov- ernment which has established a reputation for economy. ‘The increase in teachers’ salaries since 1913 has been at a rate but slightly Address the Research [135] éa3s — S83 yang 2 Sones gE 38 sisi SS pa be f ter th | : 23838 be7g wpe Page hg a OS go si c ; a «Ss antes ges ° 3. Pr in gener ' the av a 4 So s tt wage cien esent al. erage i H = ~ y 3° t t sch inc | re) B88: | gies chi oO pr : ool e come Ess =| %™ 22% ildr ovide xpendi e an if - 3° 3 | es 88s a acc it! S heseces 250 4 th Thi cce ire pf ed ° i) ese f h > ptab Sa 4 v Soe ae be ac - is s able f rer g =e es tendi ts: T state faciliti 10t i i) gas saes ing hou ment i ilities sufh e338 3525 dan school sands is s Ss for H wo se 8 “eo 305 gerous s in of child suppor all M 63] S3 $i 328338 57-6 the t s buildi obsol ren ted hb } el | ZS828 aes presage vetoed ae ee ; t - E segs d222 ae ah soe es . a i n $5355 35 os b al sala rainin Ss than ely h: e nd , a 4 ane a S3Re elow ry paid g for the alf of i wl 3823 gases yn § pied the ave id teache their w Resirable 4 fb we “3 FI aa es u A aging rage 1 rs 1S sti ork. ry: ~ ; i 5° 33 E alae 3 > ES nskill ns an ncom ill ¢ lr} } | = a83s 3228 2238 ed a Pagan praene! ie P 8 3 as senesenes Seo The nd semi e aver gainf erably a $ 3gé = «| By ws to need f miskilled age Ww ully oc | gesg*| 3)-|* ee pat wl allay, A cu = «| as gs E pl ofessi iftt ou ot ¥ ” Bz ABBSS &2s3 aces e ssional ng te ps of man\ . } ss es 3°s E increasi l ach wo 4 z 38 3 2 | 8BRe ach d easi evel er co rke if os 2°43 FS cone f ecad ng bu ; Soci mpen - Ss : 2 Sous or su e dem rdens ety sation ”n 3 ~ esses ‘S .-8-] n ecessf and S up each ' Ee aese raat bags eeds of ul livi sa high TIE cehicols o : 8 moves qee8 soci child ving. C er ty sch¢ 2 3 tc Om os ial ba ren Cou ? pe of 0ls v - 3 o at 5054 be . ckgro of varyi rses fi traini al = NASSs 33 ~ given unds rying ‘ tted ing 2 ates tS ae must h an are r 4 intell to ti 4 3% gs in ave a equal equisite i ae “ -_ * - o.e ™ ‘ 3) a2 S2538 Epo at called itional rough tr my- Te: re to ibm gae0@ | 1) ve ea gh ining fo fox 2 54 S8a35 Eves odern t-of-cla equip th They pach : 22385 , B <2 val schoo SS ac — emsel are ;< < 5 S325 uable ls achi ctiviti selves t also 6a ” ted Zen school educati chieve ies thro © super s 2g gS e= and calls f ional some ugh whi ° 2 al ba bod ange with b or teach results. of their _ Vv ht} =g288 os ga Such etter trai ae with Each most vA 4 = ron S S r tea ainl t yea = g ~ | 88858 Sa Fe. ates pai ings Had Pr ed the o st Ss gees mo paid cann r capaci : rc a et-3-1 §.35 ney unskil ot b acity } $5985 5535 b and illed o obo vs e | “3 etw mu lab »bta “A 7) gs een st be or ined a) oS) afi trained the t paid f . Traini at ti $ Sees pray Hs uae son 98 ais on . y g e332 ose in capabl e rew the di costs 3 ~ S828 £33. will other e peo ards ifferer | 8 = $38 So hte qu ij be an i professi ple who received ice a 5 nt $8 20> z alified inade ions is teach by fg o 22853 Su Ea intangi teache quate too and b SSE Pa -he gibl rs, n su grea } fed ane 8 | $53 ma er » nom pply t, tl el 2288 ‘ S535 y ne eward atte of lere 3 35 coal ver s r how pro < = a Bard alized offer of tea oe perly | ie = si : bcs enter by ac the la ching aa are tt , a 3° SES8 “98° if it _ business ertain pe rge fnanci Teachi a AN) mate @. s e ed r: & ~ | 38388 PHP lige Paden ee e —e- 7 ba. = 3 . n a ards Ee a 35838 5 Bee life of . less _— on a er profe those wh: 4 2 Ne bm e + is t dig . ana sound ssions 4 7 $2883 §eivs o the m nity oni n oppo hooks ms, but ; ie | hindi e525 AY aterial rea: rtunit it mus } qe 3 Dis en Sak ] teps in needs sonable y to le ast ) ie » Re : = SE 42 met Th placing t of life satisfacti ad a = ie sea" '2 a5 08 ook ere i eachi ‘ 10n as SS2N8 g<3 28 at ahead t is no re ing on 22222 gees ose neal octal a pro KA ESecz nati rewa time vhy w fessio 55 eh petites - atta ynal the r as suffici on a prof “ teachi ould not i esult m lent ec ession ng servi | ng an ay be onomi al lev ice ) [ undue b accom a See el. The 7 136] urden plished daa } upon soci witho that society ut pl: : y. Ww ac hat ; are and Crs. ton er? some of the steps necessary to lift the tangible nation’s welfare that it should be attempted rewards of teaching to a professional level ? only by those with complete qualifications for First, the public must generally recognize the task. More specifically, no one should that teaching is a service so important to the instruct in an elementary school who has not TABLE 2.—TOTAL CURRENT INCOME AND AVERAGE INCOME PER PERSON GAINFULLY OCCUPIED, 1909 TO 1926 Total current ——— In 1913 dollars Year paren apf ng per person P pol gainfully Total | Average occupied current income | income 1 2 ; 4 0 Ree ; $27 , 100,000, 000 $791 $28, 200,000, 000 $8 ere 28 , 400,000 , 000 809 29,100,000,000 | R29 Ser ‘ 29,000 , 000 , 000 812 | 29,300,000,000 | 821 1912 betavnwens 30,600 , 000 , 000 844 30, 800,000,000 | 850 SES hat.0+.s0s00000 7 32,000 , 000 , 000 864 32,000, 000, 000 864 eee silaatnes . ‘ 31,600, 000 , 000 836 31,300,000,000 | 828 | eer Etre ae 32, 700,000,000 861 32,000 , 000 , 000 843 lee aed as , Ve | 39,200,000, 000 1014 | 35,500,000,000 | 919 1°17 | 48,500,000,000 1232 37, 300,000,000 | 04 1918 56,000, 000 , 000 1386 35 ,500,000,000 | 879 Saaeeee » TT 7 67 , 254,000,000 1669 37 ,600 ,000 , 000 934 err ea ee 74,158,000,000 1851 36, 300, 000 , 000 903 ee ee : | 62, 736,000,000 1537 36, 200 , 000 , 000 887 ae ade aes ‘ 65 , 567,000,000 1586 40, 400,000 , 000 979 Pes Kee cwas Tere 7 ‘ik | 76,769,000,000 1821 46,900, 000 , 000 1113 Lh. Crake ekaw ses soe ae ‘ ‘ 79, 365 ,000 , 000 1840 48 , 400,000 , 000 1121 A eee ae maid | 86,461,000,000 1971 | 51,100,000,000 1165 Secs bese cess ehhh ea eae bd kee rhe 89 682,000,000 | 2010 §2,900,000,000 | 1186 | - rials =. } Figures of this table from News Bulletin, February 21, 1927, of National Bureau of Economic Research, New York City. *Preliminary estimates, | CHART I WEALTH .INCOME.AND ALL SCHOOL COSIS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1926 Estimated, Value of Ail Tangible Property $ 355,300, 000,000 Estimated. Current, lncome # 39,682,000,000 Estimated, Total Expen: ditures Br All Schools $. 9,717, 228,000 iis = bez, Vole 2L ; £27, ) Y. Li ‘7 Sources of data: figures on value of tangible property» from National Induustrial Confefence Board; figures on current income from National Burcaw of Economic Research; figuces on total expenditures for all schools independently estimated, based on reports of U.S, Bureau of Ediccation for earlier years [137] had at least two years’ training for teaching beyond high school graduation, and no one should instruct in high school who has not had at least four years beyond high school, including specific training for teaching. Second, the public must replace obsolete methods of obtaining school money, still ex- istent in most states, by modern forms of taxa- tion suited to present economic conditions. More specifically, the property tax as a prin- cipal source of school revenue should be sup- plemented by taxes suitable to modern eco- nomic organization such as those on personal and business income. Third, the money already available for school support must be more effectively used. The people must abolish the inefficient an wasteful small units for school support an management, such as the district and townshi; and replace them by larger units such as t! county. Methods of distributing state scho funds must be revised so that they decrea rather than increase, as is frequently the ca at present, the disparity between local comm nities in ability to provide acceptable scho: facilities. Fourth, salary schedules must be so devis: and so administered that the best possib teachers will be obtained for a given expend ture. It is with the latter question that th issue of the ResEARCH BULLETIN is con cerned * 1 The following issues of the Research Bu terin will be found suggestive in studying the other three pro mentioned in this paragraph: September and November, 1926, and January, 1927. CHART II HB School Costs PROPORTION 7 TOTAL CURRENT INCOME EXPENDED ron PUBLIC, ELEMENTARY 8 SECONDARY SCHOOLS 1922 ~1926 MM TCurrent, Income of Nation 1922 { | | 1923 | 1924 r 1925 r | 1926 ' 1 1 lL L ‘ | ji l un 30 40 50 6 % 80 90 | Amount in Billions of Dollars 2D . Fisuces oro income are Economic Research. Ripe Education for 1922, preliminary estumates of’ National Buceaw of” on cost of hain ite 6: Bureau of and.1995, other years [138] ee eee a ll The Economic Position of Public School Teachers These questions arise early in establishing or revising the schedule of teachers’ salaries in a community: 1. What salaries are paid teachers in com- parable communities ? 2. What incomes are received by other eco- nomic groups in this and other communities ? 3. How does the economic position of teachers compare with that of other groups of gainfully occupied persons? This section makes available some of the basic data needed by communities seeking answers to these questions. The information presented consists of: 1. Figures as to salaries received by public school teachers in general, and by certain groups of teachers. 2. Figures as to incomes received by gain- fully occupied persons in general, and by cer- tain groups of workers for which data are obtainable. 3. Comparisons of earnings of teachers in general with gainfully occupied persons in gen- eral, and of specific groups of teachers with specific groups of gainfully occupied persons. In comparing teachers’ salaries with the earnings in other occupations it is not implied that teaching and these occupations are neces- sarily comparable as to the training required or responsibilities involved. Nor does the comparison of the incomes of teachers with those of other groups imply that the latter are receiving larger returns for their services than is deserved. Some of the groups for which figures are given doubtless receive less than their service would justify in an ideal situation. Salaries of Public School Teachers in the United States Salaries of Teachers in General. Table 3 gives the distribution of salaries paid the 845,000 members of the teaching profession in public schools of the United States in the school year 1926-27. In this number are in- cluded the following groups: classroom teach- institutions to be initiated during 1927-28. ers, supervisors, principals, and superintendents and their professional staffs, in city and rural school systems and in state departments of edu- cation. other tax-supported learning above the high school level are not Instructors employed in colleges and institutions of higher included, nor are teachers included who are employed in any type of non-tax-supported in- stitution, elementary, secondary, or collegiate.’ From ‘Table 3 one may ascertain the num- ber of teachers employed in both rural and urban communities whose salaries fall in any Column 2 indicates that particular class. 35,320 rural school workers are receiving sal aries between $1000 and $1099, ber, according to column 3, is 7.6 percent of This num- the 464,700 teachers employed in rural commu- nities. Column 4 indicates that a person em- ployed in the rural schools has 393 chances in a 1000 of receiving a salary of $1000 or more. This is the same as saying that 39.3 percent of rural school workers receive salaries of $1000 or more, and 60.7 percent receive less than $1000. A person employed in the country schools of the United States has considerably less than an even chance of receiving a yearly salary of $1000. From Table 3 one may similarly discover the number and percent of rural teachers re- ceiving any given salary, and the number in a thousand receiving salaries equal to or above this salary. For example, 2990 rural teachers, or six-tenths of one percent, receive a salary in the $2000 to $2099 class. In rural com- munities 34 teachers out of a thousand or 3.4 percent yearly receive $2000 or above. ‘The remainder receive less than this. The distribution of salaries paid the 380,300 teachers in urban communities is similarly re- vealed in columns 5 and 6 of Table 3. There are 25,708 urban public school workers re- ceiving salaries in the $1800 to $1899 group, or 6.8 percent. In cities, 456 teachers in a thousand, 45.6 percent, or less than half yearly receive $1800 or more. -The other 54.4 per- cent receive less than $1800. Using Table 3, similar figures may be obtained for any salary 1The Representative Assembly of the National Education Association has authorized a study of salaries in higher [139] =EeV7—— Do TABLE 3.—DISTRIBUTION OF SALARIES OF PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS, PRIN CIPALS, AND EXECUTIVES IN RURAL AND URBAN COMMUNITIES, 1926-27 r Rural Urban Number in Number in Salary classes each 1,000 each 1,000 Number Percent receiving Number | Percent receiving in or } salary in or above class | above class indicated indicated 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 check eh eeetieescneneed seen 23 .005 .05 57 15 1.5 EE OP OTT Or 26 .005 .10 237 06 2.1 5,000 to RR eh a ee 55 .012 oa 719 .19 4.0 Pe: Cs eee ssi see Renwesesesw ener 9 .002 .24 358 .10 5.0 so a6 gt ald een ee we bord 15 .003 oa 465 .12 6.2 hadnt aes ewndneene s-68'sR Sea 65 014 41 495 ye 7.5 CE Er eer errs ee ee 70 O15 .56 619 .16 9.1 I eg 66466 6 6p ck ese tC besine eon 168 .036 .92 857 ey 11 RS ns chen ccc es enemies heeehanss 70 .02 1.1 2,203 .6 17 EE rere errs ee 29 .O1 Bon 2,277 .6 23 ME bos Chaise 6e6.ee acento penewas 259 .05 1.7 2,331 .6 29 566 wkd 60d s 4s week ewe ee 183 .05 2.2 1,617 4 33 St chiri.endtewkss at abinnes Oe 266 .06 2.8 841 - as. Ss 2k in aa awry aides 66-0 ed oes 314 .07 3.5 701 37. iss i Daa eh gly 5.65 oe cainvintes 272 .06 4.1 5,488 1.5 52 ES cra wag ob be chk J000 women 272 .06 4.7 4,660 1.2 64 CER 6 bP Wis- how 08's ose kee ks wed 674 | 6.2 2,986 8 72 ED SR ca 605. +6 46 sree beoceseune 233 .05 6.7 1,784 » 77 i Ce sche caecseacedenaws omen 545 oe 7.9 12,768 3.4 111 on 2. cis os one kaee 6200 eee 506 lil 9.0 4,480 #: 123 DE SE ce nb ccbeeeecheerercneeves 660 - 10. 6,013 1.6 139. Ss cc ehen nde keke ndsn anne 1,315 | 13. 11,017 2.9 168. WG b60d6.6 6045 0debbss vena wes 1,571 Jd 16. 10,182 o.7 195. RS RE ee eee eee 1,266 oo 19. 8,4 2.2 217. Ee yf APR fe ere are 1,864 .4 23. 13,425 3.5 252 a RD £664+ 0 Mhas P46 eN O00 040-8 S18 2,051 5 28. 13,260 3.5 287. ET SE gos 6p eubad ved areas onessee 2,990 .6 34. 22,586 5.9 346. eee ee ee 1,949 .4 38. 15,979 4.2 388. 1,800 to 1,899 5,842 1.3 $1. 25,708 6.8 456. 1,700 to 1,799 4,071 60. 24,179 6.3 519. 1,600 to 1,699. 7,551 1.6 76. 24,772 6.5 584. 1,500 to 1,599. 12,558 7.3 103. 26,647 7.0 654. 1,400 to 1,499. 14,316 2.8 134. 24,504 6.4 718. 1,300 to 1,399. 23,797 5.1 185. 24,467 6.4 782. 1,200 to 1,299. 31,241 6.7 252. 22,921 6.0 842. 1,100 to 1,199. , 482 6.5 317. 17.072 4.5 887. 1,000 to 1,099. 35,320 7.6 393. 14,669 3.9 926. 900 to 999. 54,935 11.8 511. 11,786 3.1 957. 800 to 899... 59,327 12.8 639. 5,802 2. 972. 700 to 42,708 9.2 731. 3,840 1.0 982. 600 to 44,610 9.6 827. 2,441 7 989. 500 to 27 , 569 5.9 886. 2,782 . 996. 0 to 53,061 11.4 1,000. 1,296 4 1,000. Total 464,700 ke een 380 , 300 ES Se ee Read table thus: 23 (column 2) or .005 of one percent (column 3) of the 464,700 members of the teaching profession employed in public schools of rural communities receive yearly salaries of $6, 000 0 or more. One has .05 (column 4) of a chance in a thousand, or one chance in twenty thousand of receiving a salary of $6,000 or more in public school work in —_-s communities. Similarly read other figures for rural and urban communities. Sources of data: The figures given in this table are approximate estimates based on the best available data. Figures as to the distribution of urban teachers salaries as given in column 5 are believed to be in close agreement with the cur- rent situation, since they are based upon the 1926-27 salary study of the Research Division of the National Education Association. This study osttested data as to salaries paid 266,172 teachers of the 380,300 teachers in city school systems in 2,880 incorporated cities 2,500 in population and over in the United States. The estimate as to the total number of teachers in city school systems, 380,300, is based upon United States Bureau of Education reports, giving number of teachers in such systems for earlier years. In the distribution given in column 5 is included all teachers, principals, supervisors, and school administrators, and executives snoevet = city boards of education. In this column are also included state superintendents and their pro- fessional office staff. number of groups of school employees not usually included under heading “‘teachers,”” such as school nurses, janitors, clerical workers, etc., are not included in column 5. The estimates for rural teachers are based largely upon U. S. Bureau of Education, Rural School Leaflet No. 39, janet 1926, ‘‘ Salaries of Rural Tendeess and Length of School Term in 1924.” n the distribution of rural teachers as given in column 2, the deviation from the current situation, if it were known, — . probably be somewhat que than in the distribution of city teachers, since no data for the current year are avail- able ad rural teachers. Included in the figures of column 2 are the following: schools. Teachers in country schools of three or more teachers. Teachers in consolidated schools. Teachers in on schools of three or more teachers. Teachers a: _o school. unincorporated towns, a few of which are above 2,500 in population. County enqetgaasentg sod their professional assistants Dr. Frank yay Chief of the Division of Statistics. U. S. Bureau of Education, furnished some data and many valuable n the course of making these estimates. However, neither Dr. Philips nor the U, S. Bureau of Education veg heh 6 Le Fey Bee Bs a —_ [140] IN class. Chart III based on Table 3 gives the tions for teachers, supervisors and executives facts in graphic form. employed in city schools will be found in the Among the 845,000 public school workers tables of the March, 1927, Reszarcn Butt are a number of groups, the distribution of TIN. whose salaries differ radically from that given Median Salaries of Certain Groups of for all teachers in Table 3. Space does not Teachers. It is possible to give the median permit giving in this Bulletin the distributions _ salaries for a number of the groups included in for these various groups. Such salary distribu- the distributions of Table 1Those not familiar with the term median may look upon it as having, for ordinary purposes, the same sign ance as the familiar average. More specifically, the best paid 50 percent of a group of teachers receive salaries equal t greater than the median salary and the poorest paid 50 percent receive salaries equal to or less than the mediar CHART III _— ah — PERCENT OF URBAN & RURAL SCHOOL TEACHERS RECEIVING VARIOUS SALARIES Salary Classes MMB Urban ISS Rural $2000 to&999 $i 500tefi999 £1000 to#1499 $500 tof9a9 | Se nail — os ~ HAA ADA DSO OO I I Below #500 eseacch Division National Eaucation ASsoctvation Read chact thus : 1.1% of all ucban geac hers and.o9 of one percent of rural teachers Foe we Salaries of #1000 or over Similarly read, > | for other salary classes. SalarieS of principals, superintendents, etc. are included [141] TABLE 4.—ESTIMATED MEDIAN SALARIES PAID TEACHERS IN RURAL Cow. MUNITIES, VILLAGES, AND TOWNS OF LESS THAN 2,500 IN POPULATION Country schools with: Villages and small towns Consoli- Principals of — Type of school dated =a One Two Three or schools teacher teachers more Teachers Combined teachers Elementary | elementary High schools an schools high schools 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 y 9 Median salary......... $755 $763 $874 | $1,066| $1,194 $1,591 | $2,008 $2,2 Approximate number in | Gs 6.600.645 cs tensce 170,167 35,449 17,551 60,444 110,099 1,997 8,755 2,6 Read table thus: The median salary paid 170, 167 teachers in one-teacher rural schools is $755. Similarly rea figures for other groups of rural teachers. Sources of Leaflet, No. 29, January, 1926. he term “median” is explained in footnote on page 141. data: Medians of this table are estimates, based largely upon U. S. Bureau of Education, Rural Sch TABLE 5—MEDIAN SALARIES PAID CLASSROOM TEACHERS IN CITIES IN 1926-27 Elementary Junior school Senior high schoo! school teachers teachers teachers Population of city -— Median Estimated Median Estimated Median Estimated salary num salary number salary number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 rrr $1,176 27,048 $1,346 3,703 $1,550 13,025 BOD Ps cocccsecctcscces , 281 22,930 1,440 3,476 1,671 11,148 10,000 to 30,000................. 1,381 32,895 1,575 5,732 1,806 12,643 30,000 to 100,000. ............055. 1,565 32,871 1,804 81654 2,060 10,452 fl Seer 2,008 86,524 2,213 11,691 2,583 27,021 Approximate number in group. .|............ DEE. Beecacssccces SG a awa ca céuaen 74,289 table thus in footnote on page 141. of data: Medians based on ate given in the Research Bulletin of the National Education Association, Vol. V, No. 2, March, 1927. Read : The median salary paid 27,048 elementary school teachers in cities 2,500 to 5,000 in population is $1,176. Similarly ‘read figures for other groups of teachers and other sized cities. The term “median” is explained TABLE 6.—MEDIAN SALARIES PAID PRINCIPALS IN CITIES IN 1926-1927 T Supervising Senior high pon... elementary principals school A. a school principals Population of city Median | Estimated! Median (| Estimated| Median | Estimated| Median | Estimated salary number salary number salary number salary number I 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9] 2,500to 5,000........ $1,485 ae $2,319 268 $1,779 268 $2,333 903 5,000 to 10,000........ 1,517 1,573 ,229 412 2,068 207 2,821 607 10,000 to 30,000........ 1,722 1,938 2,250 1,094 2,609 227 3,424 497 30,000 to 100,000........ 2,300 880 3,017 1,476 3,580 271 4,438 233 Over 100,000............. 2,700 620 3, 3,877 4,238 247 5,010 403 Approximate number RR eer ae | arr. a “Etsecipdatiws a Rssersween 2,643 Read table thus: The median paid 1,390 teaching elementary school principals in cities 2,500 to 5,000 in Sources of data: Vol. 5, No. 2, March, 1927 salary " v, sad figures for other groups of principals and other sized cities. The term median is gp pose 14 fs on data given in the Research Bulletin of the National Education Association, [142] COM. ON CHART IV MEDIAN SALARIES PAID VARIOUS GROUPS * CLASSROOM TEACHERS 1926 ~ 1927 COUNTRY SCHOOLS ne Teacher Schools eV ee Two Teacher Schools $ (63 Three or More mee Teacher Schools Consolidated, Schodls bLOGS6 VILLAGE SCHOOLS Village and Small Towrt Schools CITIES 2500 to 5000 Elementary Schools HB$ ] 176) HishSchools ie 1550) CITIES 5,000 t®LQ000 Elementary Schools i$ 19,8] | Hish Schools 1671 CITIES 10,000 to 30,000 Elementary Schools HS 1381) HishSchools FIS0c) CLTLES 30,000 tel0Q000 ElementarySchools MRE§ 1565) High Schools (Wvle}=ie) | CITIES 100,000 and over | Elementary Schools High Schoole iF 9584) lal . Research QDwiswh — ce Ee lS ok. ANatconaal CML akon BSSL} [143] ——ee ee t—‘“‘-figures of Table 8, graphically show the economic dis- advantage of teachers as compared with the mass of the nation’s gainfully employed. Table 9 indicates incomes which occur with an equal percent of cases among the nation’s 44,600,000 gainfully occupied and among the 845,000 members of the teaching profession employed in public schools. Referring to Table 9, statements such as the following are justified: A person who goes into the open market of gainful employment and whose earning power turns out to be very much below the average may expect an income of $700; if he enters teaching and is equally un- successful in this field, he may expect an in- come of $475. 1 G93 | Average salary of routine clerical employees works ing under supervisor Average salary of | hugh arade clerical i$ 1505 | workers Average salary of U. S. Government Employees Average Salary of teachr ecs, principals, and S rinke os itt a & esearch D VESLON public schools National S&ducation Association Read table thus: The average income of the 44,600,000 sain- fully occupied persons inthe United, States in 1926 was 2010. Similacly read figures for other gtoups of workers. Sources of data: These figures based upon a number of income and wage investigations cited in the May, 1927 Research Bulletin of’ the National Ediccation Association. [157] ~ ERs 2 lati of the systems of taxation in some states will be necessary.’ Obstacles Delaying Adequate Compensa- tion for Teachers The greatest obstacles to placing teaching service on an appropriate economic founda- tion are the obsolete ideas still held by some in regard to teaching. At one time, teaching was looked upon as a transient occupation, appropriately engaged in by an_ untrained personnel composed of indigent old women, indentured servants, and strolling ne’er-do- wells. The type of service expected of teach- ers today can be performed only by people who enter the profession as a permanent career so long as they engage in gainful work, who possess sound training, and whose ability and character are above reproach. The need of such qualifications for teachers is every- where recognized by citizens of vision. Teach- ers’ salaries in many communities, however, are still fixed with the earlier conception of the teacher partly in mind. As the necessity of the teacher with high qualifications is more generally accepted, appropriate salaries will be paid. Teachers of the kind demanded by the problems placed upon the modern school will then be found in all classrooms. Another serious obstacle to lifting the com- pensation of teachers to a proper level, is the fact that the product of teaching is deferred. A man employed in the manufacture of auto- mobiles creates a product which can immedi- ately be sold and upon which a money return can immediately be realized. Society sees the direct connection between his labor and the resulting product. The automobile cannot be bought unless the price is paid. The wage received by the worker is in close agreement with the value society places upon the product of his labor. In teaching the situation is different. The product of teaching service is not realized for many years. The product of teaching is valuable one, not only on the spiritual side but on the economic as well, but it is not realized immediately. It is apt to come more in the form of the general social and economi: welfare than in the material form of an objec: to satisfy some immediate personal need 0} the individual consumer. As a result of these facts, the great worth) to society of the service which first rate teach ers perform is underestimated by some. [pn some cases this is the result of selfishness, an “after us the deluge” attitude—gratification of one’s appetite to the limit, with little thought of the obligation to maintain and improve the social and economic organiza tion upon which civilization depends. |» other cases ordinary lack of vision results in an under-estimation of the value of teaching service. It is assumed that people will learn to read or write whether school keeps or not. The fact that American workers are suff ciently intelligent to be able to cooperate readily in the complicated types of industria! organization which makes them from two to thirteen times as effective economically as the workmen of other countries, is taken as « matter of course. All of the fundamental! contributions of the school, without which civilization would have been powerless in erecting the present complicated social struc ture, are looked upon, like air and sunshine. as gifts of a kind Providence. Nothing could be farther from the truth. The education of the race, for which the school lays the foundation, does not just hap pen. Trained minds in great numbers do not evolve naturally. They must be bought and paid for. Salaries paid teachers is one form in which the payment is made. The product received will accord with the price paid. If the price is low, the product wil! be mediocre. In the long run, only a first rate price will command a first rate product, it matters not what is being purchased. * See page 42 and following: The Essentials of a Sound Plan of State and Local Taxation, Research Bulletin, Janu ary, 1927. [158] Ore nic By a salary schedule is meant a plan for the payment of school employees formally adopted by the Board of Education or School Committee, which to a large degree auto- matically determines the beginning salary, the amount and number of yearly increases, and the maximum salary received by various groups of teachers, principals and other em- ployees with specified qualifications. It is coming to be generally recognized both in theory and in practise that the adoption of a salary schedule by a school system is a step in the direction of increased school efficiency. Practically all large cities and approximately seventy percent of all cities over 2,500 in pop- ulation have adopted salary schedules. A salary schedule as a basis for teacher compensa- tion has many advantages.’ Certain evils may arise from the adoption of salary schedules particularly if they are made too automatic. Salary schedules which place every employee of a school board under a machine-like scheme of compensation from which there can be no deviation in dealing with exceptional individuals or in meeting special situations which arise are to be avoided. The welfare of the schools demands that all salary schedules have a reasonable degree of flexibility. A salary schedule should be the reflection of the school board’s policy with reference to the economic compensation of those responsible for the schooling of the children of the community. Its provisions should be an out- growth of a careful balancing of matured ex- perience, the indications of the best available statistical data, and an intelligent attitude toward the welfare of the community as it is bound up in the lives of its children. That there are dangers which may grow out of the salary schedule plan of compensat- ing teachers should be frankly admitted. If the schedule is too inflexible, if it does not include provisions which put a premium upon training and the effort to keep abreast of ad- vancing education, stagnation is likely to be the result. Whether it has a salary schedule 1See the following reference for a statement of the advantages of salary schedules: Lewis, FE. E. Problems of the Teaching Staff, pages 279 and following. [159] Guides to Salary Scheduling or not, every school system should put into operation a broadly developed plan designed to keep its teachers young in spirit and con stantly striving to improve the knowledge and teaching skill they bring to the classroom. Where such a plan is functioning, the adop- tion of a salary schedule will not have a stultifying effect and it will protect the teach- ers and children from influences which, in the absence of a schedule, are likely to seri- ously undermine school efficiency. The drafting of a salary schedule is not a simple task. It involves a_ balancing of a number of factors if the best results are to be obtained. The subsequent paragraphs will deal with a number of the more important problems encountered in drafting schedules and will present data and suggest methods useful in intelligently meeting them. Classification of School Employees for Salary Scheduling Purposes In a salary schedule school employees are generally divided into a number of groups for each of which the schedule fixes the mini- mum and maximum salary and the amount and number of yearly increments. The groups most frequently recognized are: 1. Elementary school classroom teachers. In this group are usually included teachers from the kindergarten through the grades to the beginning of the secondary school. Once it was common practice to differentiate be- tween teachers of the kindergarten and the various grades. A first grade teacher would be on a different schedule than a sixth grade teacher. The practice of having all teachers begin in the lower grades at relatively low salaries, later to be promoted to the upper elementary grades at better salaries is now recognized as a wasteful procedure. When all grades are on the same schedule, a teacher can work in the grade in which his service is the most satisfying and effective. 2. Junior high school classroom teachers. This group includes the teachers of the junior high school in the cities having this adminis- Personnel = Zee pie ay ha —> = ow Fe te ; 4 : ° trative unit, which usually includes grades seven and eight or seven, eight and nine. There is some tendency to include both junior and senior high school teachers in one group working under a common schedule. Actual distributions of salaries paid, however, show a distinct difference between the salaries paid junior and senior high school teachers in practically all cities * 3. Senior high school classroom teachers. This group usually includes teachers of grades nine to twelve, or in cities with junior high schools, grades ten to twelve. 4. Principals of elementary schools. This group usually includes the principals of schools housing kindergartens and grades of the elementary school. Many cities differ- entiate this group into several classes, first, as to whether they are teaching or supervis- ing principals and second, as to either the number of teachers, or the number of pupils in the school. Such differentiation is fre- quently necessary. Ideally, however, the schools of a community should be so organized that all building units are sufficiently large to make it financially practical to pay a first rate salary to a supervising principal. If this is accomplished then there is less need of differentiating principal’s schedules on the basis of size of school. One schedule for elementary school principals makes it unneces- sary to shift a principal to a large school for promotion purposes and makes it possible for each principal to be placed in the locality where he may best serve. The adoption of one schedule for elementary school principals does not preclude making adjustments to meet special and exceptional conditions which will be encountered in all school systems. 5. Principals of junior high schools. This group usually includes the principals of schools housing the seventh and eighth or more often the seventh, eighth and ninth grades. 6. Principals of senior high schools. This group usually includes the principals of senior high schools; grades nine or ten to twelve. Some school systems, particularly the smaller ones, recognize fewer groups than those listed above. Some, most often the larger ones, recognize many other groups. The recent schedule proposed by the New York Citizens 1See tables of: Salaries in City School Systems, Research Bulletin, March, 1927. [160] Committee suggested separate schedules {, each of these groups: 1. Senior High School Teachers . Elementary School Teachers wh of Grades 7 to 9 4. Teachers of Atypical Children 5. Training School Teachers 6. Senior High School First Assistants. 7. Elementary School Principals 8. Senior High School Principals 9. Junior High School Principals 10. Assistants to Elementary Principals 11. Assistants to Junior High School Principal; 12. Teacher clerks 13. Clerical or Laboratory Assistants 14. Library Assistants 15. Positions in Special Schools 16. Attendance officers 17. District Superintendents 18. Examiners 19. Associate Superintendents 20. Superintendent of Schools Ne one answer can be given to the question How many and what groups should be treate« separately in fixing the various minima, maxima and similar features of the schedule? Salary schedules should be simple, which argues for keeping the number of separatel, treated groups as small as is practical. When the group is small in numbers it may be treated as a special case or arbitrarily given the classification of some other group recog nized in the schedule. When the group is larger, and when its duties and qualifications but slightly differ from one of the recognized groups, it may be placed on the schedule ot this group at a slight increase over that provided in the schedule. For example, man, cities instead of adopting a separate schedule for senior high school department heads pro- vide that this group shall be on the classroom schedule plus two hundred dollars or some appropriate amount. There is always justification for recognizing any group which has a special identity eithe: because of training possessed or type of serv- ice performed and which includes a reasonable number of persons. The Single Salary Schedule A considerable number of cities have adopted single salary schedules in recent . Junior High School Teachers and Teacher. ‘ | cal no of pa tei scl hi qu sil hers als years! By a single salary schedule is meant a schedule which pays the same salary to teachers with equal training and experience regardless of whether they teach in elemen- tary, junior or senior high school. Such a schedule introduces one new basis for classify- ing teachers—the amount of training pos- sessed. It does away with classifying teachers for the scheduling of salaries on the basis of the grade or school in which they teach. Those who wish to give further study to the single salary schedule principle will find a selected bibliography on this subject in this bulletin. The single salary schedule has been advo- cated as a measure that will make it eco- nomically practical for elementary school teachers to secure adequate training. ‘Too often in the past only the high school schedule paid salaries justifying sound training for teaching. Such a situation is unfortunate. Some have contended that the single salary schedule has a leveling effect on teachers’ salaries—the result being a reduction for high school teachers. In studying this question 52 cities were selected, 26 with single and 26 with regular salary schedules. These cities were matched as to population and geographic location. ‘The distributions of salaries paid elementary and high school teachers in each group of 26 cities were com- pared. There was found to be no significant difference between the medians paid elemen- tary and high school teachers in the two groups of cities. ‘There was approximately the same difference between elementary and high school medians in cities with single schedules as in those with the older type of schedule. Whether such a situation would continue after the full effect of adopting single salary schedules has been felt cannot be predicted. Definitions of the Classes Recognized in the Salary Schedule When the basic groups recognized in the schedule have been named then they should be carefully described as to training and other qualifications. The fact that this important step has often been neglected in drafting salary schedules has lead to much hazy think- ing.” School systems have been the victims of a vicious circle: First, they fix a schedule too low to attract the type of teachers needed to render effective service; second, they criticise the inferior teachers which the schedule at- tracts, because they do not produce better educational results; third, they decide that the schedule in effect pays the teachers it attracts “all they are worth”; fourth, they refuse to lift their schedule to a level which will at- tract teachers who can render the type of teaching service desired; and fifth, they begin the second lap of the vicious circle by con- tinuing the old schedule in effect. The law of supply and demand determines that in the long run one gets about what he pays for. If a person or a community in pur- chasing commodities or human services insists on a low price his purchase will generally be of comparable quality. The wise purchaser fixes his offer at an amount which will obtain goods or services of the quality he desires insofar as his means allow. The same policy is a wise one for a community when purchas- ing teaching service. It should fix its salary schedule in terms of the quality of teacher desired. The statement is sometimes made in local school systems that: “The teachers are paid all they are worth.” ‘The statement is merely a recognition of the economic law that the price paid regulates the quality of the pur- chase. It is equally true that: “What teach- ers are paid largely determines their worth.” Here is the basis for the contention that each group recognized in a salary schedule should be clearly described as to its qualifications and characteristics. Unless one knows what he wants he is in a poor position to state the price he is willing to pay for it. In fixing the salary schedule for each group of teachers, a community should definitely state the qualifications and specifications the group is to possess. ‘The method of defining a particular group may be illustrated using elementary school teachers as an example. 1 For a partial list of cities with single salary schedules see: Resvarch Bulletin, Vol. III, Nos. 1 and 2, January dM an —_ 1925, pages 59 and 60 he specifications of the various classes in the Federal Service given in Class Specifications for Positions in the Departmental Service, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1924, will be suggestive to those dealing with this [161] problem. , : ; ' The qualification of this group should be defined under such heads as: 1. Training. Some communities still ac- cept the idea that anybody can teach young children and are willing to accept any teacher able to qualify for the lowest grade teaching certificate. Others recognize the well demon- strated fact that sound, professional training for teaching enhances a person’s teaching ef- fectiveness no matter how great his natural aptitude for this work may be. Such com- munities accept no teachers with less than two years of work in a teacher training institu- tion above high school graduation. Some states and cities have raised this minimum to three years, and many cities now select their elementary school teachers from those with four years of specific training for teaching. 2. Native ability and personality. These qualities are difficult to measure. Yet the possession of ability, average or above, and of a well-founded personality are generally agreed upon as prime essentials in the make- up of a first rate teacher. Teachers with these qualities are always in great demand. The city with a low salary schedule recruits and holds few of them. They migrate to cities offering an economic return which more nearly approaches their worth. Each community should face these facts. It should definitely specify whether its ele- mentary classroom teachers are to possess be- low average, average, or more than average ability and personality. The personal inter- view by one or more experienced school ad- ministrators, and a standard intelligence test have been used effectively as means of judg- ing personality and ability of teacher appli- cants. 3. Teaching Experience. The value of ex- perience to a teacher is universally recognized. It is generally accepted that teachers seldom reach high efficiency in the classroom until they have taught for a period of between four and seven years. Hence teachers of success- ful experience are in great demand as com- pared with beginners. Does a community wish its classrooms to be the proving grounds for inexperienced teachers who move to other school systems as soon as they have demon- strated their worth, or does it wish to be in a position to attract and hold its fair share o{ teachers with maturity and experience? Ever, community should accept a fair percent of in experienced teachers each year so as to bea: its share of the burden of giving experience to new recruits to replace those retired by o|: age and other causes. ‘The acceptance of this responsibility, however, should be clearly dit ferentiated from the policy of regularly re cruiting a majority of the teaching staff from the ranks of beginners, who move on as soon as they have served their apprenticeships. Residence and family responsibilities. \y some communities it is the policy to emp|o) “home girls” only, who usually live with their families. This policy is sometimes in sisted upon by politically ambitious men to whom the employing of teachers is a matter of offering favorites the opportunity to feed at the public crib, rather than of seeking teachers best qualified to instruct children. When the policy of employing “home girls’ is carried to the extreme, as it is in many communities, inbreeding and stagnation is the inevitable result. No community can live to itself, least of all in its schools. The school system is indeed unfortunate whose teachers are never exposed to the vivifying influence which comes from employing outside teachers with fresh community and educational view- points to fill a fair percentage of the vacancies occurring each year. ‘This does not mean that “home girls” should be barred. It merel) means that the schedule should not be so low that only “home girls” can afford to teach. When this is the case, teaching is a parasitic occupation, the members of which receive part of their support from their occupation and the rest from their parents. A salary schedule should be such that a school board can ex- pect to attract a fair percentage of teachers who maintain their own homes. Bound up with this issue is the question of dependents. Many cities assume that none of their teachers are to have dependents. ‘The recent New York investigation showed that more than two out of every three women, elementary school teachers, have one or more dependents, while more than one out of ever) three have two or more dependents. ‘Tlic Minneapolis study showed that women teac!i- 1See Table XII, p. 238 of: James R. McGaughy. Teachers’ Salaries In New York City. Final Report of Cit eachers’ Salaries. zens Committee on T ity, 1927. Bureau of blications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York [162] teat pen sibi sch tor pay wh pen pra cul ter har tum per the dey tail is 1 po! in set thi per vel Rel Tec IL P ot very -in- ear nce old this dif- Te- om von In loy ith to ers of that city average 1.58 dependents.’ Unless, therefore, a community wishes to re- strict its field for the recruiting of elementary teachers to those who either do not have de- pendents or who have dodged their respon- sibilities in this regard, it will fix a salary schedule for a person with some responsibility tor dependents. This does not mean that schedules should pay varying amounts to individual teachers who are alike except as to the number of de- pendents. Such a plan is believed to be im- practical. Even if one could solve the diffi- culty of finding some practical means of de- termining the number of dependents, it would have the opposite than the hoped for effect in times of financial stress. Even in normal periods school boards would tend to favor the unencumbered teacher, while teachers with dependents would find it more difficult to ob- tain or retain positions. What should be done is to recognize that elementary school teachers do as a class have some responsibility for sup- porting dependents and to fix a salary schedule in the light of this fact.? Attitude toward work. Some communities set up specifications which recruit teachers of this description: Untrained, immature, young people who look upon teaching as a con- venient means of earning spending money for a year or two until preparation can be com- pleted either for marriage or some permanent occupation which stands on its own feet. Teaching in such communities comes to be looked upon as a seasonable job; during the off season the teacher either “lives off” his parents or gets a summer job of some kind. There is no particular advantage in increasing his teaching efficiency beyond the meager mini- mum that is essential to qualify for a job for two or three seasons. Other communities set up specifications call- .ag for teachers of a different type: Profes- sionally minded people who look upon teach- ing as requiring years of careful training before skill is attained and as offering a future which justifies its being regarded as a_per- manent life interest. “Teaching in such com- munities is a full time job which gives sufh- cient return so that vacation time can be used for summer school attendance, travel, recrea- tion, or other activities directly contributing to increased teaching efficiency. One may contrast the specifications set up for elementary school classroom teachers as is illustrated below. Specifications for other groups. ceding paragraphs deal with the specifications for elementary school teachers. A community should similarly set down in definite form, under the heads listed and others when it seems desirable, the qualifications which it expects The pre- 1See Table 1, p. 10 of: Meeker, Royal. A Study of Costs and Standards of Living of Minneapolis Teachers in Relation to Their Salaries. Central Committee of Teachers Association, Minneapolis, Minn., 1926. 2 The procedure of the New York study will be of interest to those studying this problem. See: McGaughy, J. R Teachers’ Salaries in New York City. ILLUSTRATING THE POSSIBLE RANGE IN SPECIFICATIONS FOR TEACHERS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS High school graduation, and from two to four years work in a first-rate teacher training institution. “Training in service’ continued throughout teach- Average and above, including a considerable per- centage of people with first-rate ability. Dy- namic personalities—which inspire confidence and suggest emulation to adults and children. Teachers of experience, who have clearly demon- strated that they are successful teachers, and a small percentage of the most promising beginning A wise mixture of “home girls’ and experienced teachers from other communities, possessing a broad educational outlook capable of supporting themselves and of meeting, without undue sacri- fice, responsibility for such support of dependents as may fall upon them. - A full-time, permanent occupation, calling for ex- rofessional preparation and offering an avenue for a satisfying career. i ———__— | Qualification City No. I Training Elementary School graduation, and an intensive coaching course of a few weeks preceding an exam- ination for the lowest grade teaching certificate. ing career. Native Average and below in general ability. Weak and ability colorless personalities who cannot long hold the ped respect of any group—either adults or children. ty - = Teaching The least promising beginners with no teaching ex- experience perience along with a sprinkling of those whose teaching experience has been mainly ‘‘Unsuccess- ful.” teachers. Residence | Immature “‘home girls” only, with the narrow educa- and family tional outlook resulting from residence in but one — community, partly supported by their parents, es with no responsibility for the support of depend- ents. Attitude A transient, seasonal occupation, requiring little toward skill and offering no future, to be escaped from at tended teaching the first opportunity. [163] - ae each group recognized in the schedule to pos- sess. When a community has defined for each group of teachers, principals and other em- ployees provided for in the schedule what it expects in the way of training, native ability and personality, teaching experience, residence and family responsibilities, attitude toward work, and such other specifications which it cares to include, then it is in a position to begin fixing minima, maxima, and the other features of its schedule. Bases for Fixing the Rates of Salary Schedules In determining the minima, maxima, amount and number of salary increments for a par- ticular group, various criteria may be accepted as a guide. The Criterion of common practice. Ac- ceptance of this criterion would result in fix- ing the minima, maxima and other rates of a schedule to agree with the averages or medians generally paid in communities of comparable population. This criterion has the advantage that it brings mass judgment to bear upon the problem. It is definite and easily under- stood. It undoubtedly should be given some weight, but it would be a mistake to give it too much weight, for a number of reasons. First, there is no guarantee that mass judg- ment is the wisest judgment. Progress is made by trying something different from ordi- nary practice. Too strict conformity to the average results in the judgment of mediocrity and in stagnation. Second, communities comparable in size are often not comparable as to other characteris- tics. A small community located near a large city will have to compete with the large city rather than with cities of its size for its teach- ers. Cities similar in population vary as to specifications set up for teachers of any par- ticular class. Standards of living differ in communities otherwise comparable. Table 10 gives the minimum or beginning -salaries now being paid teachers in cities over 100,000 in population. There really is no common practice as to the minimum salary for elementary teachers in large cities. Column 3 lists five cities with minima of between $1500 and $1599 for elementary school teachers ? Table 10 and similar tables ~salaries paid will be found in the Research Bulletin, M while three pay less than $1000 minima. ‘I median minimum falls in the $1200 to $1- group, but considerably less than half ot t 58 cities listed report minima for elementar school teachers in this group. mon practice? Which cities approach $1400 or the fifteen paying minima $1100. Tables such as number 10 should What Is cc ym nearest to the ideal, the ten paying beginning salarie, to elementary school teachers of more th) bel: not be W allowed to exercise too much influence in {ix ing salary schedules. in When they give data assembled from cities comparable on points having an important bearing upon the rates which should be fixed in a schedule, they de serve careful study, but frequently it wil! be desirable to give more weight to other factors. Practice can also be accepted as one guide in determining the differentials between \. rious classes of school workers. quently a difficult problem and when handled results in lowered morale. \ This is tre- por I TABLE 10.—MINIMUM SALARIES PAID TEACHERS IN CITIES OVER 100,000 IN POPULATION IN 1926-1927 indicated for > > Number of cities reporting minimum Kinder- | Elemen- este garten tary teachers] teachers| School teachers i wn o|™ haneniatetede teeth ne) . nn 333 i 38883 33 3338552 SSSSSSSSSSESS % ee ee et et et et et ee DD DD ~ High schoo! teachers 5 te > & Oe OO me UI DO 58 $1,233 | $1,450 $1 , 436 other columns of this ta i4i. Read table as follows: 5 cities over 100,000 in ype reported a minimum salary of between 1,500 and $1,599 for kindergarten teachers, 5 cities reported a minimum of between $1,400 and $1,499, etc. The median for kindergarten teachers reported by 53 cities of this size is ai. 233. Similarly read the ae medians given int ne table are figured accord- to the method described in footnote 1 on page [164] for other groups of school onstaren, giving distributions of minima, maxima and act lai ~~ i te et) m« the sul T/ The 1299 f the ntary com- arest aries than elow it be | fix- data DINts rates - de- 1 be tors. uide va- fre- orly \ID sal a a Tables such as 11 are useful in deciding upon the differences in the schedules of various groups of teachers. ‘This table is based upon the medians given in Tables 5 and following. It gives the ratios between the medians paid different groups in various population classes. The salary of elementary school teachers, the largest group, is taken as a reference point and is given the value 100. Column 4 of Table 11 indicates that in cities of 10,000 to 30,000 in population, junior high school teachers generally receive 114 dollars and senior high school teachers 131 dollars for every 100 dollars received by ele- mentary teachers; that is, in cities of this population the median salaries of junior and senior high school teachers are 14 and 31 per- cent higher, respectively, than the median salary of elementary school teachers. Column 7 of Table 11 indicates that salaries paid the groups listed below are higher than those paid elementary teachers to the percents indicated: Junior high school teachers................ 13% Senior high school teachers............... 31% Teaching elementary school principals..... 30% Supervising elementary school principals... 82% Junior high school principals.............. 88% Senior high school principals.............. 140% The advantage of data such as those in Table 11 is their objectivity. They probably offer a better basis for scheduling than the more or less biased opinions of members of the teaching groups concerned. The danger of Table 11 is that it will re- sult in a blind following of common practice in situations where deviation is desirable. Special situations in some communities might make it desirable to establish a schedule which translated into index figures would radically differ from Table 11 as to the ratio of the salaries paid groups of teachers. There is also the danger that the data of Table 11, if accepted with too little discrim- ination, will lead to stagnation. School efh- ciency would be increased in some communi- ties by raising the qualifications of classroom teachers. In other places, school efficiency would be increased by bidding for a higher type of leadership to fill the principalships. In the first instance, it would be desirable to make the salaries of classroom teachers rela- tively higher than those suggested in the table. In the second case, it would be desirable to make the salaries of principals relatively higher. Present common practice may not represent ideal practice. Wise policy may dictate the desirability of differentials radically different from those of Table 11. Table 12 reveals the differences in the salaries of various classes of teachers in cities of different populations. For every $100 re- ceived by elementary teachers in cities 2500 to 5000 in population, $109 is received by elementary teachers in cities 5000 to 10,000; that is, salaries of elementary teachers are nine percent higher in the larger than the smaller cities. One should be cautious about applying fig- ures such as those of Table 12. ‘The last column of this table indicates that salaries various TABLE 11—RATIO OF MEDIAN SALARIES OF VARIOUS GROUPS OF SCHOOL EMPLOYEES IN CITIES OF COMPARABLE POPULATION Cities with population of eT Se mY Sat LE ped Teaching grou all groups - 2,500 to 5,000 to 10,000 to | 30,000 to Over 5,000 10,000 30,000 100,000 100,000 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 | Elementary teachers. . 100 100 100 100 100 100 junior high school teachers 114 112 114 115 112 113 igh school teachers 131 130 131 132 129 131 Teaching elementary principals.................. 126 118 125 147 134 130 Supervising elementary principals................ 197 174 163 193 182 182 junior high school DER Gauss (aoenss vaees 151 161 189 229 211 188 I ac cdicctcsncorecesscves 198 220 248 284 250 240 Read table thus: In cities 2,500 to 5,000 in population the median yearly salary of elementary teachers is $1,176 (see Table $). If this is given the value 100, then the median salary of junior high school teachers, which is $1,346 (see Table 5), has a value of 114, or is 14 percent higher than that of elementary teachers, and the median salary of senior high school teachers, which is $1,550, has the value 131, or is 31 percent above the elementary median. Similarly read figures for — groups, The ratios or index numbers of this table are based on the medians given in Table 5 and fi / [165] paid in cities of the populations listed below are higher than those paid in cities of 2500 to 5000 in population, to the percents indicated: Bee Gr MRR ci ccuosdecase 8% Pe OF Fc when ee eewes 23% se eee rere 54% 100,000 and over.............. 85% Table 12 indicates common practice as to salary differentials on the basis of population. In this case common practice is probably poor practice. Do children in small and large cities receive equal opportunity when the salaries available to employ teachers are twice as high in large as in small cities? Can we expect elementary school teachers of similar ability in large and small cities when the median salary in one case is $1176 and in the other $2008 ? Some have defended wide differences in salaries paid in cities of varying populations, on the basis of differences in cost of living. Although few data are available to support or disprove the statement, it is probably true that living costs increase with size of city. Other tactors, however, which weigh heavily with teachers work in the opposite direction. ‘The opportunities for cultural growth and profes- sional advancement are generally greater in large than in small cities. Most teachers would prefer to teach in large than in small cities even if the salaries paid were equivalent. Children in small communities generally are offered school opportunities inferior to those in large cities—at least insofar as the type of teacher employed is concerned. ‘This York, 1926. 223 p. fact is an inevitable outcome of the situation re vealed in Table 12. tion from an article in the magazine of \Va!! Street indicates the public’s recognition of the situation: One disadvantage of living in a small town | will confess: the schools are usually only fair, The principal trouble is the continual changing o{ teachers. The town can only afford small salaries. so that the good teachers come to us young, and after wearing off their rough edges on us, pass on to better positions elsewhere. Magazine of Wall Street, July 30, 1927, Vol. 40, No. 7, page 610. Even if one accepts as desirable the policy of paying smaller salaries in smaller cities he should not accept Table 12 too blindly. There are small cities located close to large ones which must pay salaries at least equal to those in the larger cities if they are to hold their teachers. The cost of living in suc! small cities is often as high as in the large one near at hand. In such special instances it would be folly to accept ‘Table 12 as a guide to salary scheduling. The criterion of the economic demand on teachers. The acceptance of this criterion means that the cost of living of a group wil! exercise considerable influence in determining the rates of the salary schedule for that group. What is meant by cost of living? ‘The term is frequently hazily defined. Those who wish to make use of the cost of living as a criterion in drafting salary schedules should consult some of the available publications deal- ing with the subject.* 1See for example: The Cost of Living in the United States, 1914-1926. National Industrial Conference Board, New TABLE 12.—RATIO OF MEDIAN SALARIES OF VARIOUS GROUPS OF SCHOOL EMPLOYEES IN CITIES IN DIFFERENT POPULATION CLASSES men- Junior High eaching pervising Junior Average Population groups | le ae, school a. pe ten oa, ae. ~ teachers | scachere | teachers | principals | principals |. thcipais | Principals | °3'}2 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 & 9 2,500 to 5,000....... 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 5,000 to 10,000...... 109 107 108 102 96 116 121 108 10,000 to 30,000...... 117 117 117 116 97 147 147 123 30,000 to 100,000... .. 133 134 133 155 130 201 190 154 | 100,000 and over... . . 171 165 167 182 157 238 215 185 | Read table thus: The mage an | salary of elementary school teachers in cities 2,500 to 5,000 in population is $1,176 (see Table 5). If this salary is given the value 100, then the median salary of elementary teachers in cities 5,000 to 10,000 in popatiee. which is $1,281 (see Table 5), has the value of 109, or is 9 percent higher than that of elementary teachers in ci 2,500 to 5,000 in population. ly interpret other figures of column 2, and similarly compare salaries of other tios or index numbers of this table are based on the medians of Table 5 [166] The following quota- — aes * By cost of living is not meant the amount necessary to bare existence. It is the amount necessary to meet a specified and acceptable standard of living for a particular group. Between 1917 and 1920 thousands of teach- ers left the teaching profession for other lines of work. They did not change their occupa- tions because it was actually impossible to exist on the depreciated purchasing power of their salaries. Rather, they left teaching because Wall their salaries would no longer buy the things 0. essential to the standard of living demanded. Other occupations did, so they left teaching. After 1920, society corrected the situation. Salaries were increased and the dollar ap- preciated somewhat in purchasing power. Teachers could again purchase those things essential to an acceptable standard of living. The classrooms were soon filled by former teachers and new recruits. To have definiteness, the term cost of living should be related to a homogeneous group. As has been pointed out: On re- Juota- Wall of the wn | The ig ot aries, , and olicy ities, idly, arge qual hold such arge NCes uide | estimates of the actual cost of living are likely to be the most exact which are related to a specified standard of living, for a given group . in a definite locality in a specified period of ime. Those are most misleading which generalize about heterogeneous groups in a wide area, or which assume that standards or costs prevailing at one time and place are equally applicable at another time and place. There is no such thing as the cost of living or the minimum cost of living for any but the most homogeneous groups, in a _ limited area, within a specified period. } on rion will ing up. Phe vho Sa uld -al- Speaking exactly, there is no such thing as the cost of living, that is, an acceptable stand- ard of living for teachers in general. ‘The term has definite significance only for a group possessing common characteristics. No definite meaning could be attached to a figure giving the cost of living for a group including individuals in such diverse situa- tions as the young, single woman just grad- uated from a two-year normal school and living at home, and the mature man, holding a master’s degree from a standard college, with a wife and two minor children. The first step in determining cost of living, therefore, is the selection of a group the individuals of pages 26 a! 5 See the studies cited in the succeeding paragraphs. 2 See page 47 of Teachers Salaries in New York City. which are sufficiently comparable so that the final result will have some meaning. After the group has been defined, different procedures may be used in arriving at an esti- mate of the cost of living. Facts collected as to actual amount being spent by representative members of the group for all items entering into their living costs. ‘The cost of living may be derived directly from these figures, or they may be reviewed by ex- may be perts and certain items revised either upward or downward as the science of budgeting may suggest. The cost of living has been used as one point of reference in a number of salary investi- gations. ‘The recent New York study mated the cost of living of teachers in that city by collecting facts from 11,000 teachers esti- as to the annual expenditure for the two items, food and rent.2 These important items were accepted as reliable indices of the total cost of living. Studies have revealed that the typical teacher spends between 40 and 50 per- cent of income for food and rent. The New York study, since rents are relatively high in that city, accepted 55 percent as the proportion of total expenditures of teachers credited to food and rent. Fifty percent or less would be a more defensible figure in many communities. The figure doubtless varies with different groups. ‘The proportion expended for food and shelter decreases as the salary increases.* The Minneapolis study estimated the prin- cipal items of the budget of various groups of teachers using this method: The facts upon which the suggested budgets for teachers have been based were obtained in part from the schedules returned by teachers, in from the quantity budgets already worked out, especially the budgets established by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, and the budget for a professional or business woman published by the Ladies Home Journal. ‘This wealth of in- formation based upon the study of a large number of individual and family budgets, was discussed at length with teachers, social workers and others in Minneapolis and the kinds, qualities and amounts of commodities and services indispensable or desirable for teachers finally agreed upon. Prices of articles were obtained from the shops of 1 Cost a Living in the United States, 1914-1926. National Industrial Conference Board, New York City, 1926, *See Table 2D, page 26, Income in the United States, Vol. II, National Bureau of Economic Research. [167] part *. - ere = b-.9 een Pte * Senet 7 LF eRe oe Seen date sgt - ey Seta ts oe Minneapolis by personal interview and in case of standard articles, by telephone. * The Cincinnati study collected data on living costs for all important items for several groups of teachers as a basis for the total living costs of these groups and the percentage dis- tribution of the various items of their budgets.? In Chicago a citizens’ committee obtained a number of intelligent estimates of a living wage for a professional man in Chicago. Four experts in economics also prepared budgets. Guided by these figures the com- mittee submitted estimates of a living wage for a professional worker in that city. These results are given in Table 13.° The criterion of wages paid unskilled labor. Moehlman has suggested the wages paid un- skilled labor in a community as the base upon which schedules should be built. He argues that wages of unskilled labor come nearest to approximating the cost of existence and are therefore most sensitive to fluctuations in price levels. Some evidence is offered that in recent decades wages of labor and teachers’ salaries have shown similar fluctuations. It is suggested that teachers of two years’ professional preparation should egin at salaries 1.5 times, and proceed by annual incre- ments to a rate of 2.2 times, that of unskilled labor. ‘Teachers with four years’ professional Salaries, p. 23. preparation, the equivalent of college grid. uates, would begin at a salary 1.75 tines and proceed to a maximum 3.0 times that o{ unskilled labor. Upon this basic schedule {.,, teachers, resting upon preparation and ey perience, certain additional increments are s\\» gested. Moehlman’s suggestion deserves care‘! consideration. In communities where relia}|e data for unskilled labor are readily available this criterion may prove a valuable one. ‘| he relative weights given to unskilled labor and teaching service, insofar as they are based upon past conditions, might be questioned, un|ess one accepts that teaching service has been as highly rewarded in the past, when related to unskilled labor, as it deserves. This objection, however, does not invalidate the method. Wages of unskilled labor could be taken a; the base and different weights, higher or lowe: than those suggested, could be used. The criterion of the real wage. The ac- ceptance of this criterion involves the ad just- ment of salary schedule rates so that they do not lose in purchasing power due to fluctua- tions in the value of the dollar. Table 14 shows that the purchasing powe: of the dollar is much less at present than in 1890. The index of wholesale prices in column one indicates that if we assume that 1 Meeker, Royal. A Study of Costs and Standards of Living of Minneapolis Teachers In Relation to Tie 2 Report of the C: qa on the Study a Salaries in the Cincinnati Public Schools, 1926, p. 35. * Research Bulletin, Vol. A Handbook of Major Educational Issues, p. 186. * Moehlman, Arthur B. Pubic School Ties Rand McNally and Company, 1927, p. 140ff. TABLE 13—YEARLY LIVING WAGE FOR PROFESSIONAL MAN AND FAMILY~— CHICAGO, ILL. Average of A of | four bu Committee's 26 budgets made by recommen- experts dation economics iat WRENS. Cedi cdaddecens s tes mee nde cisdebovoccccsccocnonignesenseess $1,079 $1,110 $1,000 Electricity, RES . Co Reheudk ohn net bGs se ccecb oesue dhe cal unbee il 125 Food, ice, _. TTD Seine: As nats Sumpemenvess n+ srinens lense ooeensis od = 900 Replacement of furniture Ce ieaiiidvsecavetars des cevenebeae 100 Laundry and domestic help (eunaiensl dl ail axis deka sees alte h ie ae 182 275 200 eee i EEE a, eee eRe ese s vale beccccecwicccesenbanes vass 577 87 ; 600 GS 6 oie ccna ns wh Ob 0S000scdecer cos omsiepecend« 4 50 Church, charity, public it. se th ihavcneekns s< existed at that time. The schedule of salaries existing in a particular city may have been far from ideal at that time. In comparing the purchasing power of 4 1927 schedule with that of a former schedu\; one tends to accept conditions existing in the past which may have been far from ideal, For example, if one were to select 1920 as his base year, he would be dealing with a yea; when teachers were leaving the profession }, the thousands because salaries were too low TABLE 15.—INDEXES OF COST OF LIV. ING AND PURCHASING POWER OF DOLLAR Index of Purchasing Year cost of Power of living dollar | a SS Ee ee | 75.9 $1.32 EE 3 Sahay btn aa eae ee 6 | 73.7 1.36 Ee eae Oe 74.5 1.34 et tam Re iene, © 0 0 73.0 1.37 OE aes eee 70.8 1.41 Cet oie 6 bunk oe awe nee 70.8 1.41 0 EE eee 72.8 1.38 RS is oo 51g 6508 we 73.0 1.37 EE a a ee ee 73.0 1.37 EN Mae iin a diddcay tle a vee ace 74.5 1.34 a Wik beach oid a6 aa e 77.4 1.29 ee aia n'a D6. 0 Oe Boe 78.8 1.27 0 Ee eee 81.0 B.29 RES net ee 84.7 1.18 ie 5 ink io Kae eek oe 83.9 1.19 j ao dseecekee ee exe be 4 83.9 1.19 DAT tx\wkea Wedd aee ns obo 86.9 1.15 Se ee ee 92.0 1.09 Sts oid ak eaiate bees s «'s 88.3 1.13 ET iihis Gnas alee #64 0% b:dc0s 88.3 1.13 EE ota tes ae 93.4 1.07 ala a wsa.d ony eee, ad 0 © 96.4 1.04 RT aiet Sanka. 6 nse ne ria so 97.1 1.03 EE tiie Aglaia 64.0 hk wine 100.0 1.00 Gyan diwes ar cee e ees « 103.0 .97 ho ho d.< beso nthe 24's s 105.1 .95 Ee Ere aie er eae 118.3 .85 ES eee 142.4 .70 Git ink bk ca bpd Boe ae 174.4 $7 SE cited aie aah ea oe a1 188.3 .53 SD ox os che debe C26 Caos 208.5 .48 ES o<:c'6narebuen wad Ue tad 177.3 .56 Ds ) BD bbe ***"OZ61 Olt 669'¢ 887 ‘¢ LL8‘°Z 9967 $s0'Z oss'T bPo'T 6£F'T £f7'T 87Z0'T 77s L19 IIb 907 & Be eae i Ott 966'¢ zss‘¢ 80l'¢ $99°7Z 02Z‘*Z 866'T 9LL'T bSs'T wee‘ Olt 888 999 ber t7Z Ee phe ***"ST6r set's 768+ She '+ sog‘¢ T9z‘¢ 81L‘Z OFF 'Z PLI'Z Z06'T Te9'T se't £80°T sig brs TLZ BE baie “L161 Ors'9 988 'S wez's 8LS'F b76'¢ OLZ‘¢ £F6'Z 919°Z 687 °Z 796'T £9'T 80€'T 186. ¥s9 Lze eto oS **"O16T Poe's 879'°9 768°S SSIt'¢s 6Ib't z39'¢ tie'¢e 9F6'°Z 8LS'°Z 607 *Z 1t8'T £Lb't sor't 9€L 89g | Be eee as. *"SI6r a | O1S*z 6SL'9 800°9 L£87'¢ 90S "+ ssi‘¢ ose ‘¢ +00 '¢ 679 Z £S7°Z 828'T cost L7t't 1SZ oLe te PI6I 24 OPL*L 996'°9 z61‘9 Sits btO'F Ol8‘¢ £8h'¢ 960'¢ 601°Z cze‘z Se6'T StS‘T TOIT PLL L£8¢ a. ee else ce £161 — | 016‘ ELT‘ L 91¢'9 6LS‘¢ t8L‘ $80 '¢ L8S‘¢ 8sI‘¢ 061°7 16€‘Z £66‘ ros‘T 96T'T L6L 66£ SABE ptdae: v5 ZI61 67Z0'8 97Z'L ezb'9 079°¢ List $10'+ £19'¢ Ziz‘¢ O18 ‘Zz 60% ‘Z L00‘Z 909 'T F07'T £08 10% oe, parr ses *“T16T 067'8 Tons z£9'9 £08'¢ FL6'F Stl'> lel‘¢ gle'¢ 206 *Z L8b‘Z £10°Z 8s9o't bbz 'T 678 Sit Rae eeheeee. O16! 99L'8 688 / Zi0'L 9f1°9 6S7‘S fst ‘+ Sto'¢e 905 ‘¢ 890'¢ 0£9°Z 161‘Z fSL't si¢'r 418 StF £88 SS te ee 6061 991'8 688° 1 z10'L 9f1'9 6SZ‘S £se'r st6'¢ 90S ‘¢ 890'¢ 0£9'Z 161'Z €Sz‘t st¢'t 118 Sth tp BD cht “8061 £lt's TLS*L 0fL'9 688'S 8h0'S L0z'& 98L‘¢ soe'e St6°Z b7s‘z £01 ‘Z £89°T z9z'T 18 ca 4 oe > dy miltgben oe L061 016'8 610'8 8Z1°Z LEZz‘9 ore's SSb't 010+ tos'¢ 6ll'¢ £19'Z 877 ‘7 78L‘T Lee't 168 OFF o Fe 5° ** +s Seay 9061 $7Z'6 £08 '8 Ose’ Z 8St'9 ses's £19'F ISl'+ 069'¢ 677 '¢ 891°Z 90f °Z Sts‘ pert £76 19F 6'¢8 Jit ** $061 $7Z'6 £0f'8 Ost z 8St'9 ses‘s £19'+ Ist‘+ 069'¢ 677'¢ 89L‘°Z 90 Z SPe'i bse’ £76 19F 6'¢3 i 8E1'6 27'S Ties L6£°9 £8P's 69S't ZIl‘t sso'¢ 861 '¢ Thi ‘Z S87 ‘Z 878 'T Ize" +16 LSb L’+s RE pe ** "S061 |} 098°6 ¥09'8 8¥9'L 769'9 9€i's O8L'+ z0e ‘+ b7s'¢ ore'¢ 898 °Z 06 ‘Z z16°T bert 986 Blt o'ls ct So ee | @28'6 Ors '8 8S8"L 91£8'°9 £68's 116'+ O@F + 676'¢ sft '¢ L¥6'Z 9st 'z ¥96'T fle‘ 786 16b 8°82 ye aan 000°01$ | 000°6$ | 000's$ 000°L$ | 000'9$ | 000's$ OOS 't$ | 000'$ | OOS‘ Es 000"e$ | OOS‘z$ | 000‘z$ LOs*I$ | 000'I$ oos$ wl “""""" "0061 dl or SI oI eI ZI II ol 6 8 Z 9 s a e z T 000°01$ | O00'6s | o00'ss 000°4$ | 000'°9$ | o00'ss OOS'+S | 000° Oos"es | O00'ss | oos‘zs 000'7$ | oos‘I¢ 000‘I$ oos$ Es flor Jo 3809 se0x | 0061 U! AreTes yo yunoury JO xepuy SHIMV TVS 0061 SNOINVA 40 SYVHA LNandagsans NI 4aMOd ONISVHONNd—91 aTaVvL . — oa . . Re ae ‘ae Se tinny a - ee ~ < iad - ~ a inten tetiienteinmenn ee s ee em t. * - eG ena re-or ~*~ . TA ATT ‘) most communities constitutes an inadequate basis for fixing present salaries. Few com- munities can afford to place their salaries today ipon as low a basis as existed before the war. Most communities should have granted in- creases in recent decades not only to preserve, hut also to enhance the purchasing power of the teacher’s income. ‘This brings us to the next point. The criterion of the standard of living. The use of this criterion implies that the rates of a salary schedule should be adjusted as changes in the standard of living take place. The standard of living in the United States has tended to increase throughout our history. In recent years this increase has been rapid. As Herbert Hoover states in his last report: “ . , the country was able to maintain the highest standard of living in its history, a standard far above that in most other countries of the world at this or any other time.”—Report of Secretary of Commerce, Year ended June 30, 1926, Wash- ington, D. C., page 42. This statement is supported by various wage indexes. Carl Snyder’s recent composite index of wages may be cited. This index is arrived at by weighting and combining in a single index figures as to income received in years since 1913 by a number of economic groups. The salaries and incomes of these groups were used and weighted as indicated: Groups Weight Agricultural wages .........:... 5 Eo wbevccccccceces 5 TORE GRIND onc sce sccees 5 PUI, bs vinidennscccecres 40 BOM NUD. oie ccc csdicweeee 15 CR vivo ivcknsccvcves 15 Unskilled labor wages........... 10 The resulting composite index of wages in the United States is given in the first two columns of Table 20. Wages throughout the nation between 1913 and 1926 increased at a rate more rapid than the cost of living. While the wage index rose from 100 to 219, or 119 percent, the cost of living index rose from 100 to 175, or 75 percent. The index of the real wage, that * Snyder, Carl. “An addition to the New Composite Index of Wages in the United States.” Journal of the American Statistical Association, June, 1927, page 229. | SQuUMOT-OoCSor DOV S | | 2OeoarrMnArt-FwHoo0 2 is | OCRMNFOKRMNOS 2 9 ome S “| Cooder nntnnnnnnn e| ls l cen Raid ae eae de | SSSSRSLZILSSRASE © | SRMHEMHKK MOSMAN SS gi [| geen ess enanaane } | | —— ——————_-— ’ | |e5egeresragesess “oO = Or 5a } S|, | SXSXSHARRRSEMRS ”n Si“ lonneomndtemetttets ea) 3 | — _ ae Pe - = } CON CHORD He Tor < DSM m mK MH FWOAROHAM Bi | a eee ee ae ee eo oe eee | n | at] of | 2) at ma +tTOSMMNS = | S88SS gah e23r58¢s fo) len | DROntHOMNnHn tts —e-—l(<é‘(”’ 21°. as ae es ss oe fF SCM MMHEMMOMAMMMMMOM ” 3 | > Oo | orrnmnmwootaers pa | Su Areessesoies % a | SOR NMBOMBMARARO WH < B * | Bet tmicinininicininaicie > | | ANAtOSOMDHDONCAAH onl lee SSSSRSESSESSS fe) = | AMANDHMMHHOCCHMNM pe vale alee scoiaermeenaee < I i oe we 3 | S$8eSSSSSSSFER8 | ea) 8 o DOAHODNAHANMMMANM —- . wees he ee oS 8 6 a es. eo. 8 . ~ — rile TFOMMAANN RS NNNANAS - i = g | 2. = Ss a - eialial Zz 8 mi) § Sessesseressose 5 < 8 ABBAS SLOROSSR ARS ro 2 oe YOANN reed mene ” MMOROMAANMTHOBAS m 8 SBESRSeSeeeear =m WH FO i fe Pe Pe Po Pw 4 | g|* | ganede---<---~- se} - | e| |sseessssezseass ety — ~% 8 SISmKVSlsSSsssss } a NANA eee YQ | 3 o > ak Te ~~ (e) AMVs Or NAWDCONBDAM 8 SSSStSosses 2s" Q CROC F HOD Me Hee Oo 3 Sl cncumsmaneres waheeieeeews ” Z Ss ied —_— ~” S82 ee se. ose arrow WMUOCHSORKFOALRMHO < i AFAIOCOHR~DDWDDHHSH Tr s gust 1S) | % -— ae — He MAMHOTOMOOR = | ~-HFOKMDOCAHSHOrr-~ A, e AQeOrunnrTMwMnnnwnwn > ~“ | | a > . ! ~ ——) — ——— — SSSSSR2BBR MOMer oon? mAMDOAFDAADADBOH 1c} | H SBSIesssehasese 4 niall Na — ~ oS wo COnKM TEM MMOnRNRAT noe Sea ag Behe fare ee . OMONTOOM SH OMMM 322 " S332sr38 ORR eee 53 —— pp et ee 5 my PSE oP ae es ~ BPO eT eet ee MAMO- BOOK NM TMH Or BaaSaaaoO oo aD005 Fb hh hhh hh he Accumulated loss for 14 $48 969 $44,072 Ss ) $39.1 $34,278 $29, 381 $17,139 | $19,587 | $22,036 | $24,485 $14,690 41 12,2 346 $9.79 / 7 $ $4,89 $2,448 years. 1914, $476 in 1915, etc. 1 $2,448 between 1913 and 1927, due to the depreciation in the value lations of columns 3 to 17 are A salary of $500 in terms of 1913 dollars had a purchasing power of $500 in 1913, $485 in $500 depreciated in purchasing power to $485 in 1914. purchasing power of a salary of $500 was reducec umulated at } ne T jumns Similarly read other « Read table thus: yllar of the di ywer as $1.03 in 1914, hence bo a =| e e ~~ ” > - & o & ? based upon index numbers of column The index numbers of column 2 are from T: Sources of data: Calc ble 14, page 169. €161 Ut Aseyes yo JUNOUTY a a jo xopuy a SNOINVA,SV — €l6l NI GVH SHIAV ITVS YHMOd OMISVHOAUNd ANVS AHL GVH SAXVaA IN = SO —o— * aNOaASANS NI eee = HOIHM SLNONOWY—'S6I AIAVL ae 7 “€T6T OF OOGT WOIZ g UUINIOD puke {761 07 ET6T 103 F UUINIOD ‘gg] aBed ‘PT PQe wor are Z UUINIOD UI SIEquINU xepUT ayy “ON6T ul WY4BNog §7U9d H'22 WEY aseydInd 0} [O6T UI sqUId g’gy YOO} 31 3eU} e7eIIPUT YOY *Z UNOS JO Si9quINU XepUT ay} UOdN paseq are s] 07 € SUUINIOD jo SUOTFRINIeD -oyop fo saranog “SUUIN[OD J9YIO Pwal A[ILTIMTIG “OOS$ JO AreTeS OOSI & jO Jemod Zulseyoind 3y} urequreul 07 Japs0 Ul Aressa00U SEM O6F'R$ JO BSRaIOU! paze;NuNsoOR ue ‘L761 pue 0067 9emIEq SIVA {7 JO POHAd ay} BUEN “OO6T UI! OOS$ JO Are[es v se Jamod BuIseyINd aules ay) PLY ‘232 ‘EOGT UI LFS$ ‘Z06I Ul ETS$ “TOT UI GOS$ JO Arejes YW :smyy 27qD; poay 886° 69T$| S96°ZSI$| OL6'SETS) FL6‘STIS| S16‘ 10I$ 186'F8$ | O8F'9L$ | $86‘L9$ | SBF‘os$ #86'OS$ | O6F'ZFS$ | ZOL‘Ee$ | COP‘ SZ $66'9T$ | 96b'S$ [°° °° °°" * “SIRad 47 BU -Inp Jamod SZurseyos urezureur 03 Aiessa.0u eseaioul paenunsoy £0‘ 7Z £91 OZ £76‘ LT 789°ST Tht el ZOz ‘TT 180‘OT 196'8 T#8°L 1Z7L‘9 109'¢ 18t't oor ‘¢ OFZ ‘Z OzT'T a Te L761 $€9°7Z ZLE‘07Z 801 ‘ST St8'st 18s‘ eT Steir 981 ‘OI +S0'6 776'L 16L‘9 6s9'S Lis‘t soe ‘¢ £97‘Z zer‘t a ) 9761 00L ‘77 O£b ‘07 O91 ‘SI 068 ‘ST 0z9'¢T ose ‘It SIZ‘Or 080'6 St6°L O18'9 $L19's Ost sor ‘e O0L7‘Z Ser‘ By ipabgretccs, Sz6l S0'7Z 6F3 6 £9 LT SEF ST 7E7' ET L70' 11 $76'6 7778'S 6IL‘L 919°9 fis‘s Tlt't sof ‘¢ $07 ‘Z £01'T Sak eee. bzol £60 °7Z +886 FL9°LT SOF'st 9Sz' eT Lt0'1T 746'6 L€8'8 €fL‘L 879°9 ezs‘s 6It't ble'¢e 607 °Z SOt‘t Be ileal "e761 S19°1z £Sb ‘6 767‘ LT OfT' ST 696 ‘ZT L038 ‘OT L7L'6 9t9'8 S9S‘L b8t ‘9 bor 's £7e'F wez‘¢ 191 ‘Z 180‘T £°L91 oe 761 £06‘ 7Z 91907 97f ‘SI se0'9I FEL‘ ET est it 80 ‘OT £916 L10'8 zL8‘9 L7L‘S 18$‘t oeb'e 16z‘Z StI‘T sD eed ““1Z6r 8£6 ‘97 bbZ FZ Oss‘ 1Z LS8 ‘81 fOr‘ Or 69F ET zzz SLL‘OI 87b'6 180°8 FEL‘9 L8e's 160° $69'Z Lte'T ae fe ee 0761 8ZE FZ S68 1Z £9F 6 O£0° LT L6$‘F1 POL ZI 8F6'O1 1£L'6 sis‘8 867‘ L 780°9 998 't 6t9'¢ £fh'Z 9IZ'T > 2a epee 6161 7ES “ZZ 6L7' 07 970'8I €LL‘St 61S‘ eT 997° II 6£1 ‘Or £10'6 988° L 091°9 £¢9's 908 't ose '¢ €S7‘Z 9z1'T 2 . 2 eee ee SI6r 86E ‘SI sss ‘or SIL‘ tI 6L8°71 6£0' TT 661°6 6L7'8 6St°L 6£t'9 6Is's 66S 'b 089'¢ 091 °Z ORT 076 i; SD abba: LI6I P8Z7‘SI OSL‘et £7771 669 OI OLT'6 TH9'L 818'°9 tIl'9 6te's S8S't 1z8‘¢ Lso‘¢ £67 ‘Z 87ST FOL eh etheede.. 9161 6LS‘€I 17z‘71 £98 OI sos ‘6 LtI's 681°9 Orr's wer’ s £SL'F $10'F soe'e 9IL‘Z L£0°Z sse'l 619 -y. ay beeen: St6t Loe‘ et LL6‘I1 9F9'OI SIf 6 b86'L $S9'9 886'S eze's 899'F 766'¢ Lze'e 199°Z 966'T Tee*T $99 KO Se peaking: Priel 076‘ZT 879'TT ore ‘Or bt0'6 TSL‘L 09F 9 Fis's 89I's 77st 9l8‘¢ oft‘ ¢ pes'z 8£6'T 76z'1 9r9 SP abpanaion £t6r Sts ‘zt 16z‘ TT 9£0'OT 78L°8 L7S‘L £L7'9 sro's 810's T6£'t £9L'¢ fle 608 ‘7 7881 tsz'T £79 a fe cI6r Sst‘zt 607° IT $96'6 81Z°8 €Lb'L L7z‘9 $09's 786°? ose 't 9fL'¢ bil'e 166 ‘Z 898 'T Stz'T £79 S| Re tages - 1161 190°71 098 °OT +$9'6 Let's OFZ*L £09 oft's L78't £77 ‘+ 0z9'¢ L10'¢ fitz os‘ 207 ‘1 £09 ——— of ee O16! BOF IT | L9Z‘OT | Lz1'6 986'L St8'9 FOOL'S rel's £98‘ £66'¢ zzr'e 7S8‘7Z 787‘Z Tz‘ Iet't oLs ED, cages ** 6061 OF IT L97'O1 L716 986'L st8‘9 OLS tel's £9S'F £66'¢ wzb'e 7S8°Z 787 ‘7 TiL‘t TeI'T ols £°88 “""""*"806T O88‘ IT 869 ‘OT 60S '6 oze'8 (43 oes £to's 6be's SSL't 091+ 99s'¢ Z716'Z LLE‘Z £8.‘T 681‘ 6s 0°% = ** 1061 L7Z' 11 SOT‘Or 786'8 6S8'L 9€L'9 tI9's zs0's 166‘? of6'¢ soe '¢ L08 °Z Sb7‘Z $89'T £71't 19s oa «foe 9061 Ors OT 9SL'6 z19'8 SBS ‘Ll vos 9 OzF'S 818 °F off + tOL'¢ zwsz'¢ O1L‘z 891'Z 979'T +80'T ces cs AR heehee. $061 Ors ‘OT 9SL'6 zL9'8 88S Ll ros 9 O7F'Ss 818 °F oft 'F bole zwsz'¢ O1L'Z 8917 979'T $80'T zs — *“~O6T £F6' OT 6F8 6 SSL‘8 099°L 99S '9 wLt Ss b76'F LLE'b o¢s'¢ £87'¢ 9EL°Z 681‘Z 19'T $60'T Lvs RD) ipa £061 Sor ‘Or 61F'6 ZLe'8 97f'L 6179 £e7's 60L'+ OBI F £99'¢ ofl'e 9197 £60°Z oLs‘T 9F0'T £7s He bbde 7061 181 ‘Or £91'6 Stl's LZU‘L 601°9 060 'S 18s F 710 + fos ‘¢ $S0'¢ Sts ‘Zz 9£0°Z Lzs't s10'T 60S a. 1061 000°OT$ | 000‘6$ 000‘ 8$ 000° L$ 000 '9$ 000° S$ 00S ' t$ 000‘ +$ oos ‘¢$ 000 ‘¢$ 00s ‘z$ 000° 7$ 00s ‘T$ 000° T$ oos$ J. Se Vabedet 0061 dt or st Lal eI rat It oI 6 8 Z 9 s % £ z I 000°OT$ | 000°6$ 000‘8$ 000‘L$ 000‘o$ 000‘s$ 00s*+$ 000‘+$ oos*es 000‘¢$ oos‘z$ 000‘z$ oos‘ I$ 000°T$ oos$ JO 3809 reo Aivyes jo yunowry jo xopuy SNOIAVA SV YAMOd ONISVHOUNd AWVS 0061 NI GVH SAIMV IVS aHL GVH S4vaA LINanNdasans NI HOIHM SLNNOWVY—S8!I ATAVL [174] R AS“VARIOUS Pre POWER PURCHASING > EE —_—_—=—_- AME TABLE 19.—AMOUNTS WHICH IN SUBSEQUENT YEARS HAD THE o — SALARIES HAD IN 1913 $85 ,060 6,554 / $ $68 ,048 ? $59.54 ~ = c Pa 4 x mn ~ OL c & A 3) wi re al me St | $51,036 , 530 ? $4 $38,281 sh indicate that it took $1.03 in 1914 to purchase what $1.00 bought in 1913, etc. $34,024 whic 29,775 > | por the index numbers of column 763 | $17,012 $21,169 | $25,518 | $ 12, ‘ sk | | 'escsssssssscess | =AFFHAMNMSERRANS 8 np | SMMONTHOR KR AOMMM | SClmlooonenwonennnner -_ tt rt rt ret ett et ee | 8) |e ScorecerMrrennmne | SentH-aronnso-csce © | SNTEWOARNASCMMaANS | mle l ona cnH OEM 8 | ly tk et ad tt et et wt ot to Ee Ee - } | SCwrtantorroooon | | SSSSSeszezege=s } wn | SNFAFMASOSHMOCOCSCOH mlm loom anmnotmmm ttm & 8 pads 5 hte be be he | Sone manmnn— AX+ 0 | SSMDOSDAG Mm HFAO™ | GF | SARMNANKSKMFEMAANAN 4 "| grrecsidsssccsss 5 o Ho fs be bo bebe be eco Sor7OOMDMOANANAN Ss | sesesssesse +-—c ~ SaMOnFanssonannns si“ | ooorwmonnocos = $i" 13 SaVAzSSVse Be CmmoonNnnwuonnocoeo SRMARRIGS SSS RSS a SNDKHRTHTOMMNHE KO yl MMMM EDASCWDOWHMONHD 3a a = QYS322"9 Onan tH s MANOTE-ORANADONDS ” Sj | REM MFOFMANOGOCANH a zs ” Bren Sone er nnn ~ ; iaibiesmadiane ep SPNCONSANSCABMBMWOS a | NSMAM~OMAPADCINAIS YH o HAMSANWMSODWDOSO 3 zx “let eHororooornrs s an ¢—— - 3 QQOssstarVeeyesase io} S = FTDWDOAASHO-MMS fi o RSOGCKAaqSHANBHADHAHS < 2 Boerrroorommmcoce SERSRSIBVSSSACKS CwTR OTH HK KONE HO gs © SSH MNANONMO KH KH NAN 23 QAIMMIMMOMMMNNMN SMNMHSSHOMMMNOMSOM Ss SCrenanmooconMOroanm win MWMNOCAMWMMEN PK ANMMH 3 Qrrarrttntsssses Newmnmovouovotts+8 SSSFSSSFFSSzE$ - HMO HIM HHH + 3 Qaaaanrasamammmen Sa> SESS8SSsssss Frm M RAN -“oomnneo 8 * WM HK OCDKSHHHOOCS = SSRN NNMNNANN NNN a * Rb ae Ba by haba fp PB. MONATOHO~~HOMM™ + Con the DONOR RRR = ee “A Sseasesseses ~ SAD SF PTOM HH Oo 4 * 39 A FG DH © WH 00 00 GH G0 00 00 8 _ = Ow “° SCOHeHM std Mnnnmornrat &o" a SVVeareererovue Zor Coe ts DOM ORR ERNE gco- ee ee ee = z — ‘ ‘ oe as i > eee see ss - MMO DACHAM ATMO padhanh-ai-ahadboadh-nha km ho ion ho hon hot Ran] AAAAAAAARAAAAGAAD i A ce ce cee i ee ee ee Ree ee ee ee ee el is, what the wages would purchase, rose from 100 to 125. This indicates that wages re ceived in 1926 purchased 25 percent more in 1926 than the wages received in 1913. Ac cording to these figures any group whose typical wage did not increase 119 percent be tween 1913 and 1926 was in a position rela tively lower on the economic scale in 1926 than in 1913, Table 21 gives the average salaries or wages of a number of groups between 1913 and 1926. The actual amounts received are given in columns 2 to 7, and the purchasing power of the amounts received after corrections for change in cost of living is given in columns 8 to 13. Table 22, by converting the figures of Table 21 into index numbers, makes it possible readily to study the percent increase of the amounts received by the various groups, and the percent increase of the purchasing power of these amounts. For example, Table 21 indi cates that the average yearly income of gain fully employed persons between 1913 and 1926 increased from $864 to $2,010. In Table 22 these figures are converted to index numbers on the 1913 base, so that the pet cent increase may be seen. Column 2 of this table shows that the index of the average income of gainfully employed persons rose TABLE 20.—COMPOSITE WAGE INDEX, COST OF LIVING AND REAL WAGE, 1913 TO 1926 | a Wage | Index of Index ear tadee | cost of of real living | wage I | 2 3 | 4 1913 | 100 100 100 1919 } 174 188 93 1920 | 207 208 100 1921 194 177 110 1922 189 167 113 1923 205 171 120 1924 | 210 171 123 1925 } 214 | 176 122 1926 219 175 125 A salary of $515 in 1914, $526 maintain and 1927 an accumulated increase of $4,257 was ne purchasing power dur- | increase Sources of data: Calculations of columns 3 to 17 are based u The index numbers in column 2 are from Table 14, page 169. Read table thus: necessary to mt BG WONG. 06k cctces Accumulated Read table as follows: The composite index of wages rose from 100 to 219 between 1913 and 1926, that is, wages in general increased 119 percent. The cost of living rose from 100 to 175 in the same period, that is the cost of living increased 75 percent. The index of the real wage (purchasing power of wages received) rose from 100 to 125, that is, the typical wage re- ceived in 1926 would buy 25 percent more than the typical wage received in 1913 would purchase. Source of data: Column 2 from Journal of Ameri- can Statistical Association, June, 1927, page 229 Column 3 from Table 15 of this Bulletin. Column 4 is obtained by dividing the index cf column 2 by that of column 3 and multiplying the quotients by 100. from 100 to 233 between 1913 and 1926, or Table 21 corrects for depreciation of the do! an increase of 133 percent. Column 8 of _ lar and shows that the average income of gain TABLE 21—SALARIES AND PURCHASING POWER OF SALARIES PAID VARIOUS GROUPS FROM 1890 TO 1926 salary | Average eesin | teachers Actual amounts received Purchasing power in 1913 dollars of amounts received Average Average annual annual of Average of Average Average | Average | clerical annual Average | Average | clerical annual income | annual | and low-| Average| salary | Average | income | annual | and low-| Average per wage in | salaried | annual | of gov- | annual per wage in annual | of gov- Year | person | manu- | workers; salary | ernment| salary | person | manu- | workers ernment - factur- | in man- | of min- | employ- of - | factur- | in man-| of min- | employ- y ing in- | ufactur-| isters ees in | teachers ly ing in- | ufactur-| isters em- | dustries | ing and Wash- em- | dustries | ing and Wash- ployed trans- ington, ployed ington, D.C. porta- ° tion in- tion in- dustries dustries 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 A $439 Pe Baatenaes on eee $578 | $1,159 | $1,046 |........ A Spee 442 888 ae |, ae 600 , 205 SS 2 a eee 446 906 793 1,096 eee 599 1,216 1,065 1,471 ee Es ovcanat 420 939 809 1,101 RO Bowes cee 575 1,286 1,108 1,508 Se: a's. cheated 386 955 824 1,110 tee Fee 545 1,349 1,164 1,568 a 416 980 787 1,104 7?) er 588 1,384 1,112 1,559 1896 406 998 764 1,084 90 Beicecdas 562 1,380 1,057 1,499 gle SRNR 408 1,015 750 1,087 1k 559 1,391 1,027 1,489 Ry SPREE" 412 1,026 739 1,025 _. * eee 564 1,406 1,012 1,404 ee Biss cn aad 426 1,026 722 1,017 fee Se 572 1,377 969 1,365 a a 435 1,029 731 1,033 Leer 562 1,330 944 1,335 6eeeaon 456 1,036 730 1,047 ff Ee 579 1,315 926 1,329 : oa as ake Za 473 1,050 737 1,061 | 584 1,296 910 1,310 Seer 486 1,060 761 1,067 et eee 574 1,252 898 1,260 ag) ES 477 1,074 759 1,066 eer 569 1,280 905 1,271 { A aaa 494 1,112 759 1,072 EP ee 589 1,325 905 1,278 SD ee 506 1,129 773 1,084 og St Ee 582 1,299 890 1,248 Sey $22 1,150 831 1,094 ee Pee 567 1,250 903 1,189 et 475 1,150 833 1,102 a ae 538 1,302 943 1,248 - 1909 791 518 1,151 831 1,106 465 896 587 1,304 941 1,253 1910 809 558 1,189 802 1,108 485 866 597 1,273 859 1,186 : 1911 812 537 1,229 856 1,116 491 842 557 1,275 888 1,158 1912 844 550 1,249 878 1,126 500 869 566 1,286 904 1,160 1913 864 578 1,278 899 1,136 §12 864 578 1,278 899 1,136 1914 836 580 1,289 938 1,140 525 812 563 1,252 9il 1,107 1915 861 568 1,291 984 1,152 543 819 540 1,228 936 1,096 1916 1,014 651 1,360 1,019 1,174 576 857 550 1,150 861 992 1917 1,232 774 1,435 ,069 1,263 606 544 1,008 751 887 1918 1,386 980 1,746 1,186 1,385 635 795 562 1,001 680 794 1919 1,669 1,158 ¢. 1,238 1,520 739 886 615 1,012 657 807 1920 1,859 1,358 2,159 1,468 1,648 871 892 651 1,036 704 790 1921 1,537 1,180 2,128 1,556 1,656%| 1,100 867 666 1,200 878 934 1922 1,586 1,149 2,093 1,622 1,665% 1,166 948 687 1,251 970 995 1923 1,821 1,254 2,104 1,620 1,674 1,199 1,065 733 1,231 947 979 1924 1,840 1,256 2,141 1,678 1,741 1,227 1,078 736 1,254 983 1,020 1925 1,971 1,293 2,141") 1,712% 1,786 1,252 1,122 736 1,219 974 1,017 1926 2,010 1,309 2,1411) 1,744% 1,809 1,275* 1,147 747 1,222 995 1,033 $332 annual Salary of 445 460 460 503 522 519 509 515 512 510 517 487 426 364 392 418 620 697 701 719 713 728 1 Estimated at same rate as in 1924. * Estimated, assuming rate of increase after 1924 was same as that for teachers. : | wv arwee f from figures for 1920 and 1923. These incomes had a yyy power in 1913 dollars of and purchasi 21, 1927. Columns 3, 4, 5, and 6 from Paul H. ency; the Budget, 1927, p. A82 and Ibid, 1 given in columns 8 to 13 are those given on page 169 of this bulletin. 7 are estima ted based on the average week! wages for those years : Industrial Conference Board, Wages in ¢ "United States, 1926, Table 3 or p. 36, and the ar average worker in manufacturing industries works 48 weeks in the year. of by U. S. Bureau of Effici Drage gs os 1926 are from ome of the President of 1 A103, respectivel igures of column 7 for the years 1890, 1895, 1900, 1905, 1910, 1913, 1914, 1915, 1916, 1918, isto: 1922, 1924, and ised are: from U. S. ae of Education; figures for intervening years are independently estimated. The index numbers used in calculating the purchasing power ‘of amounts received as Read table thus: The average income per person gainfully employed was $791 in 1909, $809 in 1910, etc. (column 2). $896 and $866, respectively (column 8). Similarly read salaries for other Sources of date: Colume 2 fom th the News Bulletin of the National Bureau af Economie Research, No. 23, February . ‘The Movement of Real Wages and Its i a American Economic Review, Vol. XVI, No. 1, Supplement, March, s a A. > of column 4 for the years 1925 and 1926 puted on basis of aueetty averages of National bitrary assumption that the column 6 for 1923 and 1924 furnished tes Transmitting Economic Significance, [176] — ee ees oo fu — ee peeneneentiGaaa fully employed persons, stated in 1913 dollars, was $864 in 1913 and $1,147 in 1926. ‘These figures are converted to index numbers in column 8 of Table 22, which shows that the index of average income for this group, stated in 1913 dollars, rose from 100 to 133 between 1913 and 1926, or increased 33 percent. data are given for several other Similar groups in Tables 21 and 22. For example, according to columns 3 and 9 of these tables, the average wage in manufacturing industries was $578 in 1913 and $1,309 in 1926. This numbers of If the in represents an increase in index from 100 to 226, or 126 percent. TABLE 22.—INDEX NUMBERS OF ACTUAL AMOUNTS RECEIVED AND OF PUR- CHASING POWER OF AMOUNTS RECEIVED BY VARIOUS GROUPS FROM 1890 TO 1926 Indexes of actual amounts received | Indexes of purchasing power of amounts received 1913=100 1913=100 Average Average annual | } annual salary | } salary | ot | | Average | of Average | Average | Average | clerical | | annual | Average | Average | clerical | } annual | income | annual! | and low-| Average| salary |Average income | annual | and low-| Average| salary Average | per wage in | salaried | annual | of gov- | annual per wage in | salaried | annual | of gov- | annual Year person | manu~ | workers| salary | ernment) salary person | manu- | workers| salary | ernment) salary 4 factur- | in man-| of min- | workers| of gain- | factur- | in man-| of min- | workers| 0 ully ing in- | ufactur-| isters in teachers| fully ing in- | ufactur- isters in | teachers em- dustries | ing and | Wash- em- dustries | ing and | | ash- ployed trans- | ington, | ployed trans- | ington, } porta- i mee | porta- | D. C, tion in- | tion in- | dustries | } | | dustries | se 2 3 4 ee e. 20 | * | etm} # 13 a fae 76 69 88 a: 49 100 91 | 116 65 i RS 77 70 88 | 51 104 | 94 119 } | 69 At ee 77 71 88 97 52 104 | 95 118 | 129 | 70 8 he 73 74 90 97 54 99 101 123 133 73 GS seer 67 7s | 92 98 55 04 =| 106 129 138 «| 78 - . 72 77 88 97 so |. | 102 | 108 124 137 | 79 De. Bexéeoee< 70 78 85 96 57 | 97 | 108 118 132 78 Eee 71 80 84 96 58 | 97 | 109 114 131 | 80 eh See 71 80 82 90 60 |} 98 | 110 113 124 82 A) = aa 74 80 80 90 61 | 99 | 108 108 120 82 See Bxedase«s 75 81 &1 91 64 ee ; 97 104 105 118 82 De. Miers daes 79 81 81 92 66 = wt Je 103 103 117 84 Oe Ssveawen 82 82 82 93 | 68 } 101 101 101 as | Dy eet 84 83 85 94 71 é | 99 98 100 111 | 8&3 es eee 83 84 85 94 a, SRS 98 100 101 112 | 87 ] See 86 87 85 o4 . ge OS | 102 104 101 113 | 90 epee 88 88 86 96 79 ; 101 102 99 110 91 M, Bedeee aaa 90 90 93 96 83 | 98 O8 100 105 90 Eee 82 90 93 97 87 = 93 102 105 110 | 98 1909 92 90 90 93 97 91 104 102 102 105 110 | 103 1910 94 97 93 89 98 95 100 103 100 96 104 101 1911 94 93 96 95 98 96 97 96 100 99 102 |} 100 1912 98 95 98 98 99 98 101 98 101 104 102 101 1913 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 1914 97 100 101 104 100 103 94 98 98 101 98 100 1915 100 98 101 109 101 106 95 94 96 ; 104 97 | 101 | 1916 117 113 106 113 103 | 113 99 95 90 96 87 95 | 1917 143 134 112 119 111 118 100 | 94 79 84 78 8&3 | 1918 160 170 137 132 122 | 124 92 | 97 78 76 70 71 1919 193 200 149 138 134 144 103 | 106 79 73 71 | 77 1920 215 235 169 163 145 | 170 103 113 81 78 70 8&2 1921 178 204 167 173 146 | 215 100 «| 115 94 98 82 | 121 1922 184 199 164 180 147 | 228 110 | 119 98 108 88 136 1923 211 217 165 180 147 234 123 } 127 96 105 86 | 137 1924 213 217 168 187 153 240 125 | 127 98 109 90 140 1925 228 224 168 190 157 | 245 130 127 95 108 90 139 1926 233 226 168 194 159 249 133 | 129 96 111 91 } 142 Read table thus: The index of average income per person gainfully employed in 1913 was 100; in 1909, 92; in 1910, 94, etc. (column 2). The index of the purchasing power of income received was 100 in 1913; 104 in 1909, 100 in 1910, | etc. (column 8). In other words, while the income per person gainfully employed in 1909 in actual amount received was | but 92 per cent of, or 8 per cent less than that received in 1913, the purchasing power of the income received in 1909 was 4 per cent greater than that of 1913. | Sources of data: The figures of this table are obtained by dividing each figure in each column of table 21 by the 1913 | | figure of the particular column concerned. [177] — a “aan «. ————— — come of this group is converted to 1913 dol- lars, it rose from $578 to $747 in this period, which represents an increase in index numbers of from 100 to 129, or 29 percent. The figures of Tables 21 and 22 are in gen- eral agreement with the composite index of wages given in Table 20, which rises from 100 to 219 between 1913 and 1926. A com- posite index computed by weighting the wage increases of the groups represented in Tables 21 and 22 gives index figures for the same years of 100 and 217.? The figures of Tables 21 and 22 may be ac- cepted as representative of what happened generally to incomes, salaries and wages throughout the nation. Chart XIII reveals substantial increases in the average income of gainfully employed per- sons in the United States in recent years. Since the dollar changed but little in purchas- The weights used for the groups in columns 2 to 7, Tables 21 and 22, were respectively: 45, 25, 15, 5, ing power between 1922 and 1926, the in- creases in this chart may be accepted as real. Chart XIV shows that the average salary of teachers recently, that is since 1922, has increased less rapidly than has the average in come of gainfully occupied persons. Tables 21 and 22 show that salaries and wages generally have not only increased in actual amount, but have increased in their ability to buy. The real wage of the nation’s gainfully employed has _ substantially _ in- creased, that is, the standard of living has in- creased, The importance of giving attention to the trend of the real wage or of the standard of living in scientific salary scheduling is appar- ent. In those communities where teachers’ salaries have been adjusted in recent decades merely to keep pace with the increased cost of living, teachers have lost ground economic- 5 and 5 CHART XIII 1922 $1586) 1923 L$ 1521 | 1924 #1840 | 1925 Ese wst 1926 Lo 2 O 1] © | INCREASE IN AVERAGE INCOME | OF GAINFULLY OCCUPIED PERSONS | IN THE UNITED STATES~1922 1926 | Rese, Dausiwon National Es tite ASshe. Based on preliminary estimates of National Bureau of | Economic Research. {178} ally wh in | sug tre! gro a d am] teac ally. Their standard of living has stood still while that of the nation’s gainfully occupied in general has substantially increased. A study of the data of Tables 21 and 22 suggests certain conclusions concerning the trend of the incomes of teachers and of other groups: 1. In the pre-war period teachers occupied a disadvantageous economic position. For ex- ample, in 1913 the average salary of all teachers, supervisors and administrators em- ployed in the United States was $512. None of the groups of Table 21 then received so low an income, even though the groups listed include several with relatively low incomes. 2. Salaries and wages of the population in general have substantially increased in recent decades. ‘The amounts received are much greater than before the war. real as well as apparent, since it is great enough to more than offset the decreasing pur This increase is chasing power of the dollar. CIIART XIV Aver, CLAGC Lnoa RZ) 1929 1923 1925 1926 INCREASE IN AVERAGE INCOME OF GAINFULLY OCCUPIED PERSONS 4x> AVERAGE SALARY” o PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS «ste UNITED STATES 1922 ~1926 scl On “pled le 0S £ POLO | NS SA SALAGC SZ lacy a a LOLLC Soh. IAL LEACHNECLS | ara) , Duc SC Be ; Naki Bs ZY Mh tatiolo A 4 Based. on ge estima’ CS ale tesof the National Buceawe of’ oe Researc eet. che aco & for teachers’ salaries ffom LL. S. Bureau of Ediccation. for 1923 and, 1926 are [179] — - —- 3. Teachers’ salaries have been substantially increased in recent decades. The rate of in- crease has been more rapid than that of wages and salaries in general and consequently the relative position of teachers in the economic scale has been improved. 4. Teachers still occupy a relatively disad- vantageous economic position. ‘The average salary of teachers in 1926 is still lower than that of any of the groups of Table 21, even though the groups listed include several with relatively low incomes. ‘Teachers’ salaries are much lower than those generally received for professional service. 5. Further increases in teachers’ salaries will be necessary to lift them to an appropri- ate place in the economic scale. Although teachers’ salaries have increased during the last decade somewhat more rapidly than wages in general, they are still lower than seems justifiable. It will be necessary to continue to increase teacher’s salaries at a rate some- 'Sé particularly reference No. 35 in the bibliography. what more rapidly than wages and salaries in general if they are to be brought to a level which will make it economically practical to provide all classrooms with teachers of ac ceptable ability and training. Salary Scheduling a Scientific Process The preceding paragraphs indicate some of the criteria which may well be considered by those responsible for drafting teachers’ salary schedules. Recent years have seen much progress in the direction of basing salary schedules on sound principles and reliable sta- tistical data. The procedure of a number of salary committees has represented a decided advance over the rough and ready procedures of the past. The science of salary schedul- ing is still far from perfected. It has been sufficiently developed, however, that it should no longer be ignored by those conscientious]; striving to create schedules which promote school efficiency. [180] eee ee” “a of. Publi Ass 1. Ba 1 Publ are liste ee San cad altar line. _— Selected, Annotated Bibliography on Teachers’ Salaries Publications of the National Education Association in the Field of Teachers’ Salaries’ 1. BaLLou, Frank W. Salary Schedules, 1920- 1921, Cities of the United States of 100,000 Population or Over. Bulletin No. 19. Na- tional Education Association. January, 1922. Summarizes rates provided for by sched- ules of 48 large cities. Compares minimum and maximum salaries paid by cities to teachers, supervisors, principals and other school employees in elementary, junior high, and senior high schools. 2. BoyKIN, JAMEs C. AND KING, ROBERTA. Tan- gible Rewards of Teaching. Compiled for the committee on Teachers’ Salaries and the Cost of Living of the National Education Association. U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 1914, No. 16. Whole Number 589. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1914. 470 p. Presents tabulations of actual salaries paid teachers, supervisors and administra- tors in city and rural schools and in univer- sities and colleges and state normal schools. Also contains digest of state laws relating to teachers’ salaries and bibliography. (Out of print.) 3. EvenDEN, E. S. Teachers’ Salaries and Sal- ary Schedules in the United States, 1913-19. Commission Series, No. 6. National Edu- cation Association, Washington, D. C. 169 p. An analysis of the salary situation in the United States in 1918. Presents and inter- prets data based on reports of city and county superintendents, teachers, and state superintendents. Gives data on cost of liv- ing and wages paid in other occupations. Describes typical salary schedules in opera- tion, discusses elements to be considered in making salary schedules and proposes sched- ule with suggestions for its administration. 4. Facts on the Cost of Public Education and What They Mean. Bulletin One. Research Department, National Education Associa- tion, Washington, D. C. June, 1922. pp. 14-53. Contains distributions of salaries and minimum, and maximum salaries of ele- mentary, junior high and high school prin- cipals in cities of three population groups and other salary data. Presents also data on cost of living and purchasing power of teachers’ salaries. Describes recent ten dencies in salary schedules and gives par tial list of cities in which some form of single salary schedule has been adopted 5. “Handbook of Major Educational Issues.” Research Bulletin, Vol. IV, No. 4, Septem ber, 1926. National Education Association, Washington, D. C. 72 p. See pp. 180-187. Emphasizes need of higher salaries to at- tract competent people to teaching profes sion. Gives salary data by states for ele mentary teachers in cities of five population groups and for rural teachers. Briefly de- scribes procedure followed in recent salary schedule construction in Chicago. Names characteristics of adequate salary schedules. Norton, JoHN K. “The Teachers’ Standard of Living.” Journal of the National Edu cation Association, Vol. XV, No. 2. Feb ruary, 1926. pp. 45-46, A comparison of salaries paid teachers and school administrators, 1924-1925, with charts showing percentage increases in cost of living, wage rates and public school salaries, 1913 to 1925. Would have entire profession unite in urging increase of teachers’ salaries at all levels. 7. Report of the Committee on Salaries, Tenure and Pensions of Public School Teachers in the United States. National Education As sociation, Washington, D. C. July, 1905. 466 p. Includes figures for average yearly sal- aries of teachers and principals in cities of 8,000 population and over, minimum, maximum and average salaries of teach- ers in typical cities of less than 8,000 popu lation and yearly salaries of teachers in typical, ungraded rural schools. Presents comparative data for weekly wages of skilled and unskilled labor. 8. Report of the Committee on Teachers’ Salaries and the Cost of Living. National Education Association, Washington, D. C. January, 1913. 328 p. Discusses increase in cost of living and economic, social and professional status of teachers in certain cities. Data presented on average salaries, percent of teachers’ in come derived from other sources and com- parison of teachers’ salaries with those of other workers. Includes an analysis of salary schedules in effect. 9. “Public School Salaries in 1924-25.” Research Bulletin, Vol. Ill, Nos. 1 and 2. January 1 Publications of the National Education Association dealing with the single salary schedule are not included here but are listed under the heading “References on the Single Salary Schedule.” [181] a ee a ee iene ane a i - 0 Cir ae ia. —_ — and March, 1925. National Education As- sociation, Washington, D. C. 72 p. Contains extensive data on salaries paid all groups of school employees in 1924-25; gives information as to trend of teachers’ salaries; sets forth five reasons for ade- quate salary schedules; and presents pro- visions and special features of salary sched- ules in 1924-25. 10. “Salaries in City School Systems, 1926-27.” Research Bulletin, Vol. V, No. 2, March, 1927. National Education Association, Washington, D. C. 64 p. Presents in summary form facts as to sal- aries paid 295,063 teachers, principals, ad- ministrative and supervisory officers and other school employees in 1435 city schoo! systems. 11. SaArceaAnT, Ipe G. Report of Committee on Salaries.” Bulletin of Department of Ele- mentary School Principals. Vol. V. No. }, October, 1925, pp. 35-41. Commends methods of Chicago Board of Eduction in formulation of recent salary schedule. Stresses importance of adequate salaries for principals. 12. SmirH, Payson. “What Progress Has Super- intendence Made?” Volume of Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1925. pp. 671-672. Shows increases in average salary of superintendents of schools in eighteen rep- resentative cities of from $2520 in 1869, to $6736 in 1914 and $8750 in 1923. 13. Special Salary Tabulations. Research Divi- sion, National Education Association, 1927. Tabulations giving by individual cities distributions of salaries paid 295,063 city school employees. Two sets of tabulations for each of five population groups, one for teachers, principals and certain other school employees, and one for administrative and supervisory officers, are included. These tables have been prepared for the conven- ience of those wishing to make special salary studies and are available at $5.00 per set to cover part of the cost of repro- ducing and mailing. The cost of cellecting and tabulating the data given was paid for by the National Education Association. 14. Teachers’ Salaries and the Cost of Living. Report of Committee on Teachers’ Salaries, Tenure and Pensions. National Education Association, Washington, D. C. July, 1918. 73. p. Discusses crisis in teaching profession produced by war and accompanying rise in prices. Estimates average salary in 1918, in order to permit maintenance by teacher of proper standard of living, should be $1428. Appendix contains tables showing [182] maximum, minimum and median salaries ; cities of 10,000 population and over, creases, by states, required to meet w conditions, etc. 15. “Teachers Salaries and Salary Trends 1923.” Research Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. May, 1923. National Education Associa, tion, Washington, D. C. 116 p. Presents extensive data as to teachers salaries and salary trends in 1922-1923 gives provisions of salary schedules operation; lays down principles and stand ards involved in making and administra tion of teachers’ salary schedules. 16. “A Vote of Confidence.” Journal of the Na tional Education Association, Vol. XVI, N 2. February, 1927. pp. 53-54. (Reprint: from the Official Bulletin of the Cincinnat Teachers’ Association, Vol. 6, No. 3, N vember, 1926. pp. 10-12.) Brief discussion of program followed securing revision of salary schedule, a increase in teachers’ salaries in Cincinnat schools. Points out significance as influen ing general educational morale in Cinc nati. References to Recent Literature in the Field of Teachers’ Salaries 17. ALMACK, J. C., AND Lanc, A. R. Problems of the Teaching Profession. Uoughton Mittin Company, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1925. 235 p. See Chapter XIII. Recommends placing salary schedules scientific basis, and presents method working out a schedule according to princ ples of subsistence, training, experience, improvement, teaching load, and efficienc) Summarizes steps of a salary campaign 18. Burcess, W. RANvbovtpH. Trends in School Costs. Russell Sage Foundation, 130 |! 22nd Street, New York City, New York 1920. 142 p. See Chapters II, III, IV, pp 46-87. Also Chapter VI, pp. 107-109. Computes index numbers to show trends in teachers’ salaries. Compares trends wit! cost of living changes and teachers’ salaries with wages in other occupations. Finds closer relationship between wages paid dif ferent types of workers than between wages and cost of living. 19. CHANCELLOR, WILLIAM EstTAsRooK. ‘“Teach- ers’ Wages from the Viewpoint of Eco- nomics.” American School Board Journal Vol. 71, Nos. 5 and 6, November, 1925, p; 37-39, and December, 1925, pp. 38-41. In twe articles. Discusses teacher’s sala ries in relation to national wealth and i: come. Argues that wages of teaching are not controlled by law of supply and cd: mand nor value of economic returns, bu! 23. Co 25. C caps aga CONNELL, Cook, KATHERINE M. . CorNELL, C. B. 23. CoTTERMAN, Hi. R. 24. CROMWELL, LINCOLN AND OTHERS. 25. CUBBERLEY, ELwoop P. are by ability of community to pay, tradi- tion, purchasing power of dollar and pro- fessional opinion. Names signs in school system of adequate ‘eacher compensation. W. W. “The Winfield Schedule.” American School Board Jour- nal, Vol. 74, No. 2, February, 1927. pp. 53 136, 138. Salary Describes schedule for Winfield, Kansas, as applicable to needs of other places of similar size. Salaries determined by stand- ards of preparation and experience with in- creases based on preparation and profes- sional growth. Constructive Tenden- cies in Rural Education. U. 5S. Education, Bulletin 1925, No. 25. ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C See “Salaries of Rural Teachers,” pp. 13-16. Bureau of Govern- Emphasizes need of increased salaries in rural schools in order to attract teachers who will qualify on same basis as those of urban _ schools. Present table salary trends. showing “Salaries or Wages?” American School Board Journal, Vol. 74, No. 3, March, 1927. pp. 45, 161. Describes salary schedule as essential ad- ministrative device, compatible with best business practice in other fields. Names four criteria for classification of teacher in average salary schedule. Names means by which professionalizing of teaching may be accomplished. “Salaries of the Rural High School Superintendents in Ohio.” Educational Research Bulletin. Ohio State University, College of Education, Vol. V, No. 7, March 31, 1926. pp. 135-139. Presents salary data for 788 rural high school superintendents in Ohio. Slight cor- relation found between salaries and ex- perience, and salaries and training. Report of the Committee on Teachers’ Salaries. March 14, 1927, New York City, New York. 21 p. Submitted by Mayor’s Committee of New York City. Concludes higher salaries are not justified on basis of living costs or com- parison of New York teachers’ salaries with those paid in other large cities and in other occupations. Recommends substan- tial increases to recruit better teachers and improve those in service. State School Admin- istration. Houghton Mufflin Co. Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1927. 773 p. Chapter XXIV, pp. 651-658. Discusses low level of pay for teachers and efforts of a few states to remedy situa- 28 30. 31 [183] tion by adopting state salary schedules Outlines principles and problems of sched ule construction. Describes various methods of basing salary increases on teaching ef ficiency. DEFFENBAUGH, W. § Some Recent Move ments in City School Systems. \ S. Bu reau of Education, Bulletin, 1925, No. 2 Government Printing Ofhce, Washington, . “How Much is a Teacher Worth?” HuGues, W. Hupp, J. L. . “Increments.” D. oF pp. 4-6. Discusses salary trends, with particular attention to single salary schedule. against salary Argues discrimination according to sex. Presents schedules for the District of Columbia and Denver, Colorado. Educational Notes and News.” Society, Vol. 25, No. 637, p. 316. School and March 12, 1927 Reports revision of Rochester, New York, salary schedule for elementary school teach- ers. Additional increments after twenty years or more of service and for increased preparation provided for. Sterra Educational News, Vol. XXI, No. 10, Decem ber, 1925. p. 657. Quotes data showing each of thirty-nine teachers retired at age of 70 in October, 1925, to be worth $2,430,000 to San Fran- cisco and communities touched by her pu- pils. HARDIN. “Comparative Study of Salaries Paid Teachers and Other School Employees.” Educational Research Bulle- tin, Vol. 4, No. 1, September, 1925, Pasa- dena City Schools. pp. 5-22. Gives salary data for 1924-1925 in 12 California cities of 30,000 or more popula- tion. Charts show distributions for high school, elementary and kindergarten teach- ers. Presents revised Pasadena schedule for 1925. salary AND Heck, A. O. “Public School Salaries in Fourteen Ohio Cities.” Educa- tional Research Bulletin, Ohio State Univer- sity, Vol. V, No. 10, May 12, 1926. pp. 197- 204. Reports detailed study of salaries paid in fourteen Ohio cities of from twenty thou- sand to forty thousand population. Makes recommendations for adoption of definite salary schedules recognizing outside service and training and increasing elementary school salaries. The School Index, Vol. XII, No. 5, Cincinnati, Ohio, October 2, 1925. p. 33. Resume of report by E. S. Evenden to Elementary Principals’ Club of Cincinnati. Recommends fewer but larger increments, based on additional training. Argues for 37 single salary schedule. 32. KeeLinc, Henry A. “Some Typical Califor- nia High School Teachers’ Salaries.” Sierra Educational News, Vol. XXII, No. 6, June, 1926, San Francisco, California. p. 411. Table giving range of salaries for high school teachers in twenty-seven districts, with data on increases, presence of salary schedules, and credit for outside experience. 33. Kipp, Donatp M. ano CiemM, O. M. The Salaries of Superintendents of Schools and Mayors in Cities of 100,000 Population and Over.” The American School Board Jour- nal, Vol. LXXIII, No. 3, September, 1926. pp. 49-50. Gives comparative data on average, median, minimum and maximum salaries for school superintendents and mayors. Median salaries for superintendents found to be $8000, and for mayors $6000. 34. Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the 1 Teaching Staff. The Century Company, i New York, 1925. See Chapter XIV, pp. | 275-303. 457 p. A discussion of the advantages of schedul- \ ing teachers’ salaries and basic principles 4, of salary schedule construction. Gives at- tention to special educational problems in- volved in adopting a new schedule. Pre- sents eight principles upon which a “unit” schedule should be based. 35. McGaucuy, JAMes R. AND OTHERS. Teachers’ af} Salaries in New York City. Final Report of Citizens Committee on Teachers’ Sala- Ss ries. Bureau of Publication, Teachers Col- s lege, Columbia University, New York City, 1 New York, 1927. 256 p. i Presents results of fact-finding investi- 40 % gation of teachers salary situation in New 4 York. Analyzes professional and economic status of New York teacher as revealed by data on cost of living and purchasing i power of present salaries, and comparison ‘ of salaries with those of teachers in other f places and of other employed groups in New York. Names acceptable bases of fix- 41. ing salaries and proposes interim schedule with recommendation for ultimate adoption of single salary principle. 36. Marsu, Artuur L. “Teachers’ Salaries in Washington in 1925-26.” Washington Edu- 42 E cation Journal, Vol. 6, No. 7, March, 1927. ik pp. 205-6. Compares salary increases with increases in cost of living. Finds increase in “real” salaries small in relation to increase in value returned as measured by improved ; preparation of teachers and greater teach- ing load. Shows salary situation by coun- 43. ties in 1925-26 as compared with 1924-25. [184] 39. 7. MEEKER, RoyaL. A Study of Costs and Sta ards of Living of Minneapolis Teachers Relation to their Salaries. Prepared for Central Committee of Teachers Asso tions, Minneapolis, Minnesota, Septem! 1926. 39 p. An analysis of the cost and standard living of 649 Minneapolis teachers 4 school nurses based on data for avera, salaries, expenditures, training, number o{ dependents, and position held. Gives bud gets prepared for single men and wom teachers, and for standard family. Reco: mends higher maximum salaries. 38. “The Minimum Salary Law.” The Oh) Teacher, Vol. XLVI, No. 9, May, 1926. 397. Considers flat rate for beginning teach ers in Ohio inadequate for those with sp: cial teaching ability. Would withhol guaranteed minimum until teacher proves worth. Suggests increase of minimum upon proof of successful experience. MOEHLMAN, ARTHUR B. Public School Fi nance. Rand, McNally Comppany, 1927 508 p. See Chapter IX, pp. 118-154. Deals with importance of salaries as a: item of school budget, trend of salaries as reported by Burgess, and problems and principles of schedule making. Describes types of schedules now in use setting forth advantages and disadvantages of each Presents data to show more direct relation ship exists between wages of labor and teachers’ salaries than between wages, o: salaries, and cost of living. Favors wages of unskilled labor and value placed by s: ciety on service of teachers, rather than cost of living, as criteria in fixing salar) levels. . MoEHLMAN, ArTHUR B. “Some Considera tions in Building Salary Schedules.” Jour nal of Educational Research, Vol. 14, No 4, November, 1926. pp. 256-269. Presents a part of material contained in Chapter Nine, of author’s Public School Fi nance. See reference No. 39. “New Salary Schedule at St. Louis.” Ameri can Educational Digest, Vol. 45, No. 4, De cember, 1925. p. 158. Presents salary schedule for teachers and supervisors of St. Louis schools. . “News of Chicago Schools.” Chicago Schools Journal, Vol. VII, No. 10, June, 1925. pp 389-391. Reports resolutions adopted by the fF) nance Committee of the Board of Educa tion, April 18, 1925, concerning proposed new salary schedule. Picktes, C. E. “Salaries and Professiona! Growth of Teachers in North Dakota. — eS SS 44. “4 43, * a! = 48. | 49. ] ais ————— ~~ = 44. 46. 47. 48. RoGers, “Proposed Roe, WARREN A. The North Dakota Teacher, Vol. IV, No. 8 April, 1925. pp. 4-7. A study of salaries and _ professional growth of North Dakota teachers fron 1913 to 1924 with data on cost of living, salaries, purchasing power of salaries, and teacher certification. Increase _ for Teachers.” School and Society, No. 630, January 22, 1927. p. 101. Reports salary increases recommended by Superintendent of Schools according to plan similar to that recommended by him and approved by Board in April, 1925, but later reconsidered and abandoned. Chicago Vol. 25, Salary “The Report of the New York Citizens’ Com- School and October 2, Salaries.” No. 614, mittee on Teachers’ Society, Vol. XXIV, 1926. pp. 419-420. Describes rates proposed by Citizens’ Committee involving raise in salary for every member of teaching and supervisory staff, and recognition of principle of single salary schedule. “Report of Committee on Teachers’ Salaries.” Journal of the Louisiana Teachers’ Associa- tion, Vol. 3, No. 5, January, 1926, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. pp. 20-22. Outlines results of survey of salary situa- tion in Louisiana and other southern states. Quotes report of salary committee of Na- tional Education Association. Recommends larger state revenues and adoption of salary schedule contingent on larger state aid. “Report of Committee on Salaries.” Bulletin of the Department of Elementary School Principals, Vol. 6, No. 1, October, 1926. pp. 55-57. adequate compensation for prin- cipals and superintendents in interest of educational leadership. Cites efforts of Chicago and New York to establish schedules competitively attractive in com- parison with salaries in business. Presents data showing average salaries of superin- tendents in 1925 and suggests “reasonable” schedule for 1926-27. Urges Don C. “Chicago’s Unique Salary Campaign.” American School Board Jour- nal, Vol. 71, No. 6, December, 1925. p. 90. campaign for adoption of Presents salary and school Describes salary schedule. finance data. 49. Rocers, Don C. Trend of Teachers’ Salaries. University of Iowa Extension Bulletin, No. 88, April 1, 1923, lowa City, Iowa. 29 p. Presents data on teachers’ salaries in Iowa in 1923. Compares salaries of World War and Civil War periods. of living data. Includes cost [185] $0. Report of Committee on the Study of Salaries 51. 5 54. “The Salary Question.” 55. > Cincinnati Public Schools, May 24, 192¢ 78 p. on basi schedule construction such Presents data for Cincinnati factors of salary as preparation and experience of teachers and cost of living. Discusses provisions of proposed single salary schedule and esti mates cost of putting into operation. Rural Teachers’ Salaries. Michigan State Teachers’ Association, Bulletin No. 5, Part I, February, 1925. 35 p. Presents data on rural teachers’ salaries “Salaries of in Michigan during school year 1923-24. Teachers in the Public Day Schools of Massachusetts, 1926.” The Com- monwealth of Massachusetts, Bulletin of the Department of Education, 1926, No. 5. 45 p. certain administra- Includes maxima for teaching positions, and teachers in and tive and average elementary men and Also data teachers, salaries for women and women teachers in high schools. on training and ratios of men to changes in teacher personnel 1925. junior high schools, experience of women teachers and A Salary Increase in the Philadelphia Ele- School and Society, Vol. 515. mentary Schools.” XXIII, No. 591, April 24, 1926. p. Reports salary elementary teachers in Philadelphia. increase affecting 2500 public schools of The Pasadena School December, 1925, Bulletin, Vol. Pasadena, California. IV, No. 2, pp. 6-7. Presents in brief work of the Chicago Board of Education in establishing salary schedule, vailing in Pasadena. with comment on conditions pre- “Some New Proposals on the Teacher Salary School September, Imerican No. 3, Editorial, Vol. 73, Question.” Board Journal, 1926 pp. 68-69 Advocates fixing of teachers’ salaries on basis of value of professional work rather than on social needs or on operation of law of supply and demand. 56. Bulletin of Information, State Department of Education, Augusta, Maine, February, 1926. pp. 24-27. Gives salary data, 1925-1926 for teachers in towns of 5000 or more population, with data for women teachers jn towns of 500 Gives experience of totals or more population. high school teachers distributed by for all schools schools, and according to size of 57. “State Salary Schedule.” 60. “Teachers’ Salaries.” Tennessee Educa- tional Bulletin, Vol. VII, No. 2, April-May- June, 1926, Nashville, Tennessee. pp. 3-4. States school funds should be so dis- tributed as to increase revenue of rural schools. Urges more pay for rural teachers to prevent shifting to better-paid urban positions and experience, or professional improvement, as foundation for salaries and salary increases. 58. “Statistical Studies on Teachers’ Salaries— Oregon Schools, 1925-26.” Oregon State Teachers Association Quarterly, Vol. VIII, No. 1, March, 1926, Salem, Oregon. pp. 55-62. Gives salary data for town and rural ele- mentary school teachers in Oregon, men and women high school teachers, superinten- dents and principals, with averages, rank- ings, and summarizing tables. 59. Summers, Atex. Salaries of Country Teach- ers in 1923. U. S. Bureau of Education, Rural Schocl Leaflet, No. 24, April, 1924. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 34 p. Analysis and tabulation of data repre- senting 1864 counties and covering salaries of 191,421 teachers and 12,500 principals in country schools. School and Society, Vol. 25, No. 639, March 26, 1927. pp. 375-6. Quotes comment by New York Times on report of Mayor’s Committee on Teachers’ Salaries advocating substantial increases for the purpose of attracting more desirable applicants, holding them in service and stimulating professional growth. Good of child said to be basic consideration in com- mittee’s recommendations. 61. “Teachers’ Salaries and the Cost of Living.” The Illinois Teacher, Vol. 14, No. 9, May, 1926, Bloomington, Illinois. pp. 163-164. Gives data on teachers’ salaries in IIli- nois, wages and costs of living since 1913. Finds improvement in teacher preparation many times as rapid as increase in teachers’ salaries as measured by their purchasing power. 62. “Teachers’ Salaries in Seven Large Cities.” American School Board Journal, Vol. LXXIII, No. 3, September, 1926. p. 56. Table giving data collected by Citizens Committee on Teachers’ Salaries of New York for salaries in Philadelphia, Cleve- land, Detroit, St. Louis, Chicago, Kansas City and New York City. 63. U. S. Bureau or Epucation. Biennial Survey of Education in the United States 1916-1918. [186] 65. WARREN, JULE B. 66. Witey, Witt E. Vol. III, p. 164, 1918-20; “Statistics,” p 1920-1922, Vol. II, p. 45. Gives average annual salaries of tea: for years covered. 64. U. S. Bureau oF EpucaTion. Statistics State School Systems, 1923-1924. Bulle: 1925, No. 42. Government Printing Offic: Washington, D. C. 1926. 43 p. Contains advance figures from Biennia Survey of Education, 1922-1924. Gives average annual salaries of teachers dece; nially, 1870 to 1890, and quinquennia! 1895 to 1920, and for 1924. Bulletin co; taining statistics for 1924-25, in press. “Attack on the Salary Schedule.” The North Carolina Teache Vol. 1, No. 10, June, 1925. p. 293. Discusses need of salary schedule in stabilizing teachers’ salaries. Declares that without it immediate reduction of rural salaries, and discarding of training and ex- perience as basis of teacher payment, with consequent inequality of educational portunity would occur. “Teachers’ Salaries Teacher Surplus.” American School Board Journal, Vol. 73, No. 4, October, 192¢ pp. 47-48. Suggests raising of professional require ments as simplest method of regulating teacher supply. Sees need for elimination ot incompetent candidates. Believes reduction of salaries will not solve problem of teacher surplus. Presents schedule applicable Washington or Oregon. 67. WinsLow, Isaac O. “The Salary Enigm The American School Board Journal, \ LXXIII, No. 3, September, 1926. pp. 4 167. Raises objections to flat schedule, sing! salary schedule and general salary increas: for all teachers in school system. Suggests that competent supervision may provid: basis for payment and promotion; and supermaximum serve to reward superio! service. 68. Woopy, CLIFFoRD, and others. Report Committee on Teachers’ Salaries. Michi gan State Teachers Association, 192: 67 p. Part I contains data on salaries of el mentary, intermediate and high scho teachers, and living costs of teachers elementary schools. Part II presents sam data in condensed form and discusses ge! eral tendencies revealed. References on the Single Salary Schedule 69. BaLtou, Frank W. “Salary Differences, Any, Based on the Rank or Class of th ~I nm ~ 70. BICKNELL, / 72. CONVERSE, 74. Denver “ Teacher.” Volume of Addresses and Pro- ceedings of the National Education Associa- tion, 1921. pp. 840-841. Points out undesirability of placing all superior teachers in upper grades. Con- cludes that salary schedules should be based on amount, character, and quality of prepa- ration, and teaching experience. Tuos. W. President’s Address. Volume of Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1884. p. 49. Expresses belief that in future best pri- mary teachers and best high school teach- ers will receive equal salaries and that sliding scale of salaries will be adopted, based upon qualifications and experience. 71. “A Campaign for a Single Salary Schedule for Greater New York Elementary Teach- ers.” School and Society, Vol. XXII, August 22, 1925. p. 237. Presents recommendation of Greater New York Kindergarten for schedule providing increases for elementary teachers. Recom- mendation based on belief that conditions under which elementary school teachers work are severe because of range of sub- jects taught, strict supervision, and physical strain encountered. “Experience with a Volume of Ad- of the National pp. 942-943. FRANK E., Single Salary Schedule.” dresses and Proceedings Education Association, 1924. Describes single salary schedule as one based on educational preparation, training, successful experience, and _ principle of equality of service in different levels of instruction. Considers single salary sched- ule practical and constructive, in its influ- ence upon teaching staff. Public School Monograph No. 5, January, 1923. “Salary Schedules.” Board of Education, Denver Public Schools. schedule as providing Represents Denver salary attracting superior teachers by adequate remuneration, definite professional standards, and recognition for the elemen- tary school teacher. Schedule also gives credit for teaching experience and improve- ment in service. The Denver Single Salary Schedule a Suc- American Educational §%, January, 1923. cess in Operation.” Digest, Vol. 42, No. pp. 223-224. Gives salary schedule for Denver teach- ers and elementary principals, with system used for evaluating experience. Reports schedule sufficiently flexible to allow for increase in maxima upon increase in train- ing, and to give justice to old teachers. Notes influence in improved morale of teaching. [187] “The Des Moines Salary Schedule.” Downes, F. E. “Equal Pay for Equal Hosic, JAMES. 79. JACKSON, JULIA. . Journal KRUSEN, School and Society, Vol. XV, No. 373, February 18, 1922. pp. 203-204. Describes single salary schedule adopted for Des Moines 1921. data showing effect of schedule upon im- provement of teachers in service. teachers in Gives “Foundation Principles for Grading Salaries. A Pennsylvania Plan.” Volume of Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1921. pp. 823-824. Describes principles of Harrisburg sched- ule with regard to: (1) Education and experience of teachers (2) improvement in service (3) tenure and promotion, and sex differentiation. Service.” American Educational Digest, Vol. 45, No. 4, Novem- ber, 1925. pp. 113-114. Presents the arguments of Kansas City School Men’s Club against “equal pay for equal service” slogan of women teachers. Opposes adoption of single salary schedule failure to on grounds of increased cost, attract capable men to the profession, ete “The Single Salary Schedule in Practice.” Volume of Addresses and Pro- ceedings of the National Education Associa tion, 1924. pp. 371-377. See also: School and Society, Vol. XX, August 2, 1924. pp. 135-139. See also: Teachers College Record, Volume XXVI, December, 1924. Summary of replies to questionnaire con- cerning administration of the single salary Discusses minima, maxima, factors determining evaluating merit, etc. practice, places teacher on schedule in ac- cordance with his preparation and experi advance him on regular scale, increments for additional schedule. salaries, methods of Concludes general ence and with additional preparation. “Another Phase of the Salary Question.” Journal of the National Educa- tion Association, Vol. XIV, January, 1925. p. 27 A general discussion of the single salary schedule as a means of securing profes- sional advancement, and a factor ing justice for elementary school in secur- teachers of the National Education Associa- tion, Vol. 12, No. 2, 1923. p. 48. (Extract from American Education.) February, Considers salary discrimination in favor of high school teachers consideration of teaching Toad and profes- sional spirit of elementary school teachers. unjustifiable in ALMA. “How the Single Salary Schedule Appeals to the Teacher.” Depart- ment of Superintendence, Official Report, February, 1926. pp. 222-226. Defines single salary schedule as one based upon principle of equal pay for equal preparation and experience. De- scribes Denver schedule. Reports Denver teachers in favor of schedule adopted. 82. Lewis, E. E. “The Single Salary Schedule.” Department of Superintendence, Official Re- port, February, 1926. pp. 213-217. A discussion of the single salary schedule as involving equal pay for equal work, merit, length of service and_ training. Summarizes arguments in its favor. Favors single salary schedule for classroom teachers as basis of schedules for other groups. 83. MacGaucuey, V. “The Single Salary Sched- ule.” School and Society, Vol. XX, July 5, 1924. pp. 9-13. Points out defects of former salary sched- ules. Believes that newer schedules at- tempt to secure increased teacher training, tenure, and improvement in service. 87. “The Problem of the Single Salary Schedu|; Communication of the School Men’s ( of Kansas City, Missouri, to the Board Education. The American School B Journal, Vol. LXXI, November, 1925. Disputes “equal” argument for sin; salary schedule on grounds that men ha heavier extra-curricular load than wom and that preference is shown by pat: for men teachers. Concludes benefit public would not be in proportion to c were a single salary schedule adopted. 88. RicHARDSON, Dio. “Single Salary Schedules Journal of the National Education Asso tion, Vol. XI, June, 1922. pp. 225-226. A study of the practical operation single salary schedules as revealed in plies to a questionnaire sent to school sup: intendents in nine cities. Concludes tha: some provision of extra pay for ext preparation is desirable, and that influenc: of single salary schedules is far reaching in regard to teaching efficiency, preparatio morale of teaching staff, and the eliminati of class distinctions. 84. Morrison, Cora B. “Single Salary Schedules.” 89. SHARP, Russet, A, “Disadvantages and Falla Volume of Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1924. pp. 480-486. See also: The Colorado School Journal, Denver, Colorado, Vol. XL, October, 1924. pp. 5-12, Colorado Education Associa- tion. See also: “A National Report on the Single Salary Schedule Prepared by a Com- mittee of Classroom Teachers of the N. E. A.” National League of Teachers’ Asso- ciations, Yearbook, 1924. pp. 26-32. Gives results of inquiry concerning single OF ot VR em +4 interest in plan. Presents arguments in favor of single salary schedules based upon importance of work of all teachers, ir- respective of grade. 85. Newton, Jesse H. “Salary Differences, If Any, Based on the Rank or Class of the Teacher.” Volume of Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1921. pp. 841-843. Advocates salary schedule that is the same for teachers of equivalent prepara- tion and ability, in order to secure improve- ment of elementary schools. States that in future, some practical pian of grading sal- ary according to merit must be worked out. ate eet ell Sh 86. NEwLon, Jesse H. “The Single Salary Sched- ule.” Los Angeles School Journal (published weekly by the Principals’ Club), Vol. VII, No. 13, December 3, 1923. pp. 9-11. General review of single salary princi- ples involving recognition of importance of elementary school teaching, and estab- lishment of minimum standard of profes- sional training. Refers to schedule adopted in Denver. [188] cies in the Single Salary Schedule.” | partment of Superintendence. Official R port, February, 1926. pp. 217-221. A criticism of established schedules | grounds of unattractive differentials pro vided and lack of financial stability. Grants that work of the elementary school teache: is as important as that of high schoo! teacher, but questions desirability of a: tempting to equalize salaries. salary schedule. Reports an_ increasing 90. SmiTH, Harry P. “The Salary Schedule of th: Lawrence, Kansas Public Schools; [ts Operation and Effect.” Educational 414 ministration and Supervision, Vol. X, \ vember, 1924. pp. 524-532. A description of the Lawrence Sala: Schedule with data showing practical sults of schedule and its effect upon th: rating system. States principles on whic schedule is based. 91. STAFFELBACH, ELMER H. “Some Economic Implications of the Single Salary Schedule American School Board Journal, Vol. LXX No. 2, February, 1925. pp. 41-42. A study of cost and factors involved i: ( | | | the adoption of single salary schedule, with special reference to California. Grants that service given by elementary schoo! teachers is on a par with that of high schoo! teachers, but questions whether returns to society would justify increase in school ex- penditures. Concludes that more than thre: years’ training beyond high school is un- necessary for elementary teachers, and, therefore, policy of requiring preparation equal to that of high school teachers is wu! sound. Near a STEELE, 94. THOMPSON, ANNA M, 95. THomMpson, ANNA M. 96. WepsTER, Wo. F. 97. “Webster on Principals’ Salaries.” Harotp. “Salary Determination in Saginaw Schools.” American School Board Journal, Vol. LXX, February, 1925. p. 40. Gives three Saginaw unit salary sched- ules based on the salary should not vary according toe teaching level, and that teacher’s worth is based on prepa- ration, experience, and personal traits. principle that 93. “Teacher Rating and the Single Salary Sched- Teachers’ Asso- April, ule.” National League of ciations, Bulletin of the President, 1923. pp. 17-26. Describes the economic and educational principles underlying the construction of a salary schedule for Berkeley, California. Believes ordinary schedule three fundamental errors in its failure to recognize importance of early stages in a child’s development; to motivate improve- ment in service, and to recruit capable teachers. Presents plan for modification of proposed schedule. salary shows “Report of the Commit- tee on the Single Salary Schedule.” Volume of Addresses and Proceedings of the Na- tional Education Association, 1925. pp. 372- 375. See also: School and Society, Vol. X XI, February 7, 1925. pp. 180-181. Summarizes results of inquiry by Depart- ment of Classroom Teachers concerning status of single salary schedule in practice. Reveals favorable attitude as shown by re- plies. Cites objections raised, due to difh- culties of administration. Points in favor based on recruiting of trained teachers, improvement in morale of teaching staff. “Report on Single Sal- ary.” The First Yearbook, Department of Classroom Teachers, July, 1926. pp. 42-44. Briefly reports results of inquiry on single salary schedule in practice. Gives. argu- ments for and against and copy of single salary questionnaire sent out in May, 1926. “The Single Salary Sched- Department of Superintendence, Of- pp. 226-228. ule.” ficial Report, February, 1926. Gives salary schedule in Minneapolis. Would have salary increases based on professional improvement secured through cther means than academic courses. operation in American School Board Journal, Vol. LXXIII, No. 3. pp. 56, 167. Records suggestion of single salary sched- ule for principals, with three elements con- sidered necessary in_ establishing plan, namely: (1) Education of the public con- cerning work of elementary principals. (2) Study of elements in composition of efficient principal. (3) Establishment of definite, equivalent educational qualifications for principalship. References to Related Material in Other 98. 99, 100. 101. 102. [189] Dousc! A3, N N N N Fields “The Movement of Real Significance.’ X V1, pp 17-$3 Paut H. Wages and its Economic Economic Review, Vol March, 1926, supplement. I1merican No. 1, Computes index numbers for changes in cost of living, 1890-1924, and on this basis movement of real shows earnings over same period. Tables give figures for prob able average money earnings, and relative real earnings, 1890-1924, for wage earners and clerical and low-salaried workers in manufacturing and indus ministers, teachers, government em these transportation tries, postal employees and all workers combined. ployees, ATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH Income in the United States. .lts Amount and Distribution, 1909-1919. Vol. I, Har court Brace and Company, New York City, New York, 1921. 152 p Estimates amount of national income by sources of production and by incomes re ceived and submits final estimate based on combination of results obtained by both Reduces final estimate to dollars purchasing Contains chapter on distribution of methods. of constant power. income among individuals ATIONAL BureEAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH. Income in the United States. Its Amount and Distribution, 1909-1919 Vol. II. Na- tional Bureau of Economic Research, New York City, New York, 1922. 440 p. Reports in detail procedure and sources of information used in arriving at estimates more summarized presented discussed in form in Volume One. See reference No. 99. ATIONAL BurEAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH. News Bulletin, No. 23, February 21, 1927. 474 West 24th Street, New York City, New York. 4p Gives estimates of income, total current and per capita, and per person gainfully occupied for years 1909 to 1921 and prelim- estimates for years 1922 to 1926, in Defines inary current dollars and in 1913 dollars. “gainfully occupied “current income” and person.” ATIONAL INDUSTRIAT, CONFERENCE BOARD. Clerical Salaries in the United States, 1926. National Industrial Conference Board, 247 Park Avenue, New York City, New York, 1926. 59 p. An analysis of salaries received by 27,376 ofice workers in 427 establishments in 18 ee ae 4 _—_ cities. Tables give range of salaries and median salaries according to sex of worker and type of work performed. 103. NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL CONFERENCE BOoarp. Cost of Living in the United States, 1914- 1926, with Supplement for the year, 1926. National Industrial Conference Board, 247 Park Avenue, New York City, New York, 1927. 266 p. Presents a summary and critical analysis of previously existing information on cost of living and cost of living changes in United States. Gives index numbers to show changes in cost of living, July, 1914, to December, 1926. Data for the year 1926 in supplement. 104. NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL CONFERENCE BOoarp. Wages in the United States. National In- dustrial Conference Board, 247 Park Ave- nue, New York City, New York, 1926. 153 p. A survey of the major trends in indus- try as revealed by the movement of “real” wages, hours and employment, since 1914. Covers twenty-five manufacturing indus- tries, railroads, public utilities, anthracite mining, and the building trades. 105. Personnel Classification Board. Class Specifi- cations for Positions in the Departmental Service. Government Printing Office, Wash- ington, D. C., 1924. 156 p. Gives minimum qualifications, duties and typical tasks and range of compensation for positions in departmental service as pre- scribed by Personnel Classification Board, in accordance with Section 3, of Classifica- tion Act of 1923. Includes copy of Act. 106. Snyper, Cart. “A New Composite Index of Wages in the United States.” Journal of [190] the American Statistical Association, Vo\ XXI, new series, No. 156. pp. 466-470. Describes index of wages computed by author, based on new information. Reports average wages for country, as shown by composite index to be one-third higher than at close of war in spite of lower prices and higher profits. For table giving index num bers 1919-1926, see “An Addition to the New Composite Index of Wages in the United States,” Journal of the American Statistical Association, June, 1927, p. 229. 107. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. “Changes in Cost of Living in the United States.” Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 24, No. 2, February, 1927. pp. 168-181. Gives index numbers for changes in cost of living, using average for 1913 as a base, from December, 1914, to December, 1926. Indices are for specified items and al! items in specified cities and for all items in United States as a whole. 108. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Union Scale of Wages and Hours of Labor. Bulletin No. 431, May 15, 1926. Government Print- ing Office, Washington, D. C. Reports hourly union wage scales as of May 15, 1926, for 824,313 members of or- ganized trades in 66 cities. Gives average rates for several trades and groups of trades and average hours per week. 109. U. S. Internal Revenue. Statistics of Income from Returns of Net Income for 1925. Pre- liminary Report. Government Printing Of- fice, Washington, LD. C., 1927. Based on returns for 1925, filed by indi- viduals and corporations, up to September 1, 1926. Table 1, p. 5, gives distribution by income classes of net income of individ- uals, showing amount of net income, number of returns, etc. — = Sea Special Salary Tabulations Additional Salary Data are Now Available Supplementing in Detail the Data Presented in this and the March, 1927 Issue of the Research Bulletin The cost involved precluded the possibility of issuing a printed report giving salary data for individual cities. It was found possible, however, to reproduce photographically the typewritten tabulation sheets giving information for individual cities. These sheets have been arranged in sets entitled, Special Salary Tabulations. ‘Two sets of tabulations are available for each of the five population groups as indicated below, one for teachers, principals and certain other school employees, and one for administrative and super visory officers—ten sets of tabulations in all. The price is $5.00 for each set of tabulations. This charge covers only the cost of reproducing and mailing the material. The expense of collecting and tabulating the data given was paid for by the National Education Association. Tabulations I-A. Salaries Paid Teachers, Principals and Certain Other School Employees Cities over 100,000 in Population. Tabulations II-A. Salaries Paid Teachers, Principals and Certain Other School Employees Cities from 30,000 to 100,000 in Population. Tabulations III-A. Salaries Paid Teachers, Principals and Certain Other School Employees Cities from 10,000 to 30,000 in Population. Tabulations IV-A. Salaries Paid Teachers, Principals and Certain Other School Employees Cities from 5,000 to 10,000 in Population. Tabulations V-A. Salaries Paid Teachers, Principals and Certain Other School Employees Cities from 2,500 to 5,000 in Population. Tabulations I-B. Salaries Paid Administrative and Supervisory Officers—Cities over 100,000 in Population. Tabulations II-B. Salaries Paid Administrative and Supervisory Officers—Cities from 30,000 to 100,000 in Population. Tabulations III-B. Salaries Paid Administrative and Supervisory Oficers—Cities from 10,000 to 30,000 in Population. Tabulations IV-B. Salaries Paid Administrative and Supervisory Officers—Cities from 5,000 to 10,000 in Population. Tabulations V-B. Salaries Paid Administrative and Supervisory Officers—Cities from 2,500 to 5,000 in Population. [191] HE AVERAGE PAY of teachers in 1914 was cruelly below the average of pay in = other vocations calling for equal stand- ~| ards of education, character and per- sonal outlay. The increase has not re- stored the parity. The teacher’s work is basic. Upon it rests the nation’s future. As home and church decline in old-time authority, the school assumes new re- sponsibility. It is not enough to rely for good teaching on bare pay patched out with intellectual and spiritual contacts. The teacher’s indispensable function must be lifted to the plane of economic as well as social justice.—Editorial, Seattle Post-Intelligencer. [192] Hoonna oeg re ED EEN EN IS I I OID OCG CVE) €) 6) 6)