VOL. — 4 SEPTEMBER, 1923 oO A ats ase” Research Bulletin io OF THE National Education Association Dy! as ——— ‘ae as — or fa . > a Uwas, = S Sate sale, SLi SL SL >: ae Wwe) 1 WW ae! mb an) oS ype AT Five Questions For American Education Week November 18th to 24th, 1923 1. What Are the Weak Spots in Our Public School System ?............ 259 {72 las “" yu-y- <= = oF TTS Ss SEs Ss, Ss SES <2) 2. What National Defects Result From the Weak Spots in Our ng aL) RE Re ee eae 276 G 3. How May Our Public School System Be Strengthened ?............ 287 4 4, Can the Nation Afford An Adequate School System ?...........0........ 293 PUBLISHED BY THE RESEARCH DIVISION all i OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION : 2 1201 SIXTEENTH STREET NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C. NY Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923 at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103 Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. + eI ete et 2 SEO SO NO HO EO Research Bulletin of the National Education Association Published five times each year in January, March, May, September, and November by the Research Division of the National Education Association of the United States. The payment of the $5.00 membership fee of the National Education Association entitles one to receive the Research Bulletin and certain other publications of the Nationa! Education Association for one year. One dollar of each $5.00 membership fee is for a year’s subscription to the Research Bulletin. Single numbers may be purchased for 25 cents, and in quantities at a reduced rate. Regular subscriptions to the Research Bulletin are accepted only in connection with the payment of the $5.00 membership fee. Those entitled to receive the Research Bulletin regularly are asked to report at once any change of address, giving old as well as new address. Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24,1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. Director of Research, John K. Norton. Executive and Editorial Offices, 1201 Sixteenth Street Northwest, Washington, D. C. HI h: | bf the I pier as oes ars aa ae Pa Fees and Publications of the National Education Association The National Education Association has three classes of membership: 1. The $2.00 N. E. A. Membership entitles one to all of the privileges of membership and to receive The Journal of the National Education Association for one year. 2. The $5.00 N. E. A. Membership entitles one to all the privileges of membership and to receive the following publications of the National Education Association for one year: (a) The Journal of the National Education Association; (b) The Annual Volume of Addresses and Proceedings; (c) The Research Bulletin; (d) Occasional Bulletins, and Reports. 3- The $100.00 N. E. A. Life Membership, which entitles one to the privileges of mem- bership and to receive the publications listed under the $5.00 N. E. A. membership for life. Fees and Publications of Departments of the National Education Association Several Departments of the National Education Association have their own separate membership fees and issue Department publications. One of the N. E. A. membership fees listed above must be paid before one can become a member of any Department of the Association. The payment of one of the membership fees of the National Education Association (see above) does not include membership in any Department a membership fee. The membership fees of the Depart- ments which issue publications follow: 1. The Department of tendence—$s5.00 Membership entitles one to receive for one year: (a) The Y of the Department of Superintendence; (b) The Official Report of the ter Meeting and occasional Bulletins. 2. The Department of Elementary School Principals—$2.00 Membership entitles one to receive for one year: (a) The Yearbook of the Department of Elementary School Prin- cipals; (b) The Quarterly etin of the Department of Elementary School Principals. Membership fees of the National Educativa Association and its Departments, and inquiries concerning all publications should be sent to 1201 ‘Sixteenth St. N. W., Washington, D. C. [254] chools ontinu esses emedic Th as bee alled . ecogni uture | Ye ‘his gr f lack or pur vealth. values. er boy osts 0} values Le \meric Americ whatev brade? yorker: nocrac ll tha’ entime Fi The fas hese ¢ ountry ‘ducat FOREWORD L . HE AMERICAN LEGION in sponsoring American Education Week | has performed a Nation-wide service. This week draws the attention : ff the Nation to education and offers us an opportunity to take stock of our chools; to know where they are strong, so that their strength may be ontinued and increased; to know where they are weak, so that their weak- esses may be corrected and the resulting defects in our National life emedied. The American Public School is one of the foundation stones upon which as been erected the superstructure of our great Democracy. It has been alled America’s greatest contribution to civilization. It has long been ecognized as the chief agency for maintaining present ideals and furthering uture progress. Yet at present a fight is on to reduce school costs and school privileges. his grows out of a general movement to reduce taxes, based on statements bf lack of wealth. At the same time billions of dollars are expended annually or purposes of far less importance than education. There is no lack of wealth. If we really want good schools we can have them. It is a choice of values. Do we place the development of America’s greatest natural resource, er boys and girls, first in our list of values? Do we consider only present osts or do we look to the future and consider the economic and spiritual alues to the Nation of an educated citizenry? Let us face the facts and also consider the following questions. Is every \merican child given an opportunity when over a million native-born white merican citizens confess in the census that they have had no schooling whatever and when half of our children complete little more than the sixth bade? The results are a large percentage of illiterary, poorly trained workers, and an unenlightened citizenry—all of which weaken our De- ocracy. In the light of this can we reduce our public school expenditures? All that is needed to protect our schools is an aroused and enlightened public sentiment, for when we face the facts our duty is clear. Five pertinent questions are asked in this issue of the Research Bulletin. [he facts and figures presented make it possible for the reader to answer hese questions for himself. A citizen can do no greater service to his ountry than by informing himself upon these questions during American ducation Week. J. W. CrastreE, Secretary, National Education Association. TABLE OF CONTENTS. ; I I. What Are the Weak Spots in Our Public School System?. . P i State Compulsory School Attendance Laws Are Not Enfo: orce vd. i. a The One-room School, an Ineffective but Expensive Instrument a E dues ation in oan , e)! Times Still Exists in Great Numbers................... 2.00 cc ee eeees i q ; Untrained, — en and Incompetent Teachers Are Found in Many of the N: ation’s . | : Class-rooms. . A 4 The Salaries Paid in : Many Sections on Too Lew to yoann a ‘Canpeteet Supply of ' Te eac iahe TS Wy Children of the United States Do Not Have an Equal Opportunity to Obtain an Education , ' The Money for the Support of Our Public Schools is Obtained by Obsolete and Discredited Methods. . The State School Equalisation Funds Ame ‘Too ‘Small aad rom Not Prope wily Distribute vd. II. What National Defects Result from the Weak Spots in Our Public School System?. .. . Child Labor Denies Thousands of Children an Educational Opportunity. Millions of Native and Foreign-born Americans Can Neither Read Nor Wr rite. Millions of Foreign-born and Native-born Citizens Lack the Education Necessary lew Inte lli- gent Citizenship in a Democracy... ... Preventable Physical Deficiencies Are Costing the Nation Millions Each Ye ear. hid Retardation Among School Children Makes Us a Nation of Sixth Graders........ What Educational Weaknesses Should the People Correct Acting Through the State?... The People Through A State Law Should Require All Schools to be Open at Least Hight Months Each Year. . The People Through a State Lew ‘Should Reenire F ull Tit ime 5 atemnes ance ‘of All re hildre n of School Age. . : The People Through a . State-Wide Census of all Minors Should ‘Prov ide for the P roper Accounting of the Greatest of Their Natural Resources—their Children. .... .. The People Through a State Law Should Guarantee All Children Instruction thom Trained and Capable Teachers. . The People Through a State Law Should Require All Se heals ts Mee ot Ce ertain Sts tench ar ds- Such as Conducting All Classes in the English Language. . The People Through an Adequate State Equalization Fund Should M: she It ‘Possible ter all Local Districts, Without Levying an Unreasonably High Tax; to Maintain a Schoo! That Meets All State Requirements. . The State School Equalization Fund Should Be Distributed hie the —_ al Distr ricts in a Manner that Guarantees Every American Boy and Girl an Educational Opportunity The People Through the State Should Maintain an Efficient State Department of Edu- How May The People Strengthen Their Schools Acting Through the Local Community?. All Citizens Should Keep Themselves Informed as to Conditions in Their Schools. . . Careful Discrimination Should be Used in Voting for Members of the School Board. See That a Careful Plan is in Effect for the Selection and Retention of Capable Teachers. . School Boards Should Adopt a Salary Schedule that will Attract and Hold Capable Capable Teachers and School Officials Should be Guaranteed Tenure in Office... .... The People Should Consolidate Those School Districts that are too Small to Maintain « Every Community Should Have a Carefully Planned School Building Program. ..... IV. Can the Nation Afford an Adequate School System?............ 2... ...0.0.00000000... I EES The Burden of School Costs Did Not Increase during the War Decade. . PF The Purchasing Power of the Money Expended for Schools was Less in 1920 then i in 1913. ee. ee ae Can Society Meet the Cost?. . fa So See [256] A Shortage of School Seats in Many Cities Requires Thousands of Children to Attend Part- NN RQ NU OO) Table = | able : Table 3 Table T able Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 10.— ll.— 12.— Table 13.— Table 14. Table 15.— Table 16.— Table 17.— Table 18. Table 19. Table 20. Table 21 Table 22. Table 23.— Table 24 Table 25 _ Table 26 Table 27 Table 28.— Table 29. Table 30.- Table 31,— Table 32.— Table 33.— Table 34.— Table 35.- Table 36. TABLE OF CONTENTS—Continued. Let’s Not Be Fooled. Consider Returns as W ell ¢ as 3C osts. Schools do not Receive an Unfair Share of Public E xpenditures. School Costs Are Small When Compared with Other National Expe endituses of Less Im- POranes. . A Nation’s Besources Ma: ay ve: By xpel ended Wi ise ely or Unwise oly. Let's Face the Facts. ... _ Do Good Schools Pay? ’ What Returns Are the § States ‘Messielnd ths at t Hi id Good | Se shuel | Systems a Generation Ago? What was the Rank of the States in Public School Efficiency a Generation Ago? Good Schools Produce a Citizenry in which the Level of Educational Attainment is High. Good Schools Produce a Citizenry which keeps Itself Informed on Public Affairs. . Good Schools and a High Level of Intelligence go Together. ms ; The States with Good Schools Have Produced the Largest Percentage of the Ne ation’s L e lees The Workers of the States That Have Maintained Good School Systems Earn More Per Capita. . eade a The Savings Per W tador ‘Ave Highest i in Those | States Th: ‘a Hi ave ‘ Miadint sined Good School Systems. _ Good Schools are an is Renpertant F; actor in Soci: nial Pr rogress. LIST OF TABLES. Table 1.—State Compulsory School Attendance Laws S Table 2.—Cost of Education in One-room School and Graded School Table 3.—Are All Children in Your State Attending School?. .. Table 4.—Is the One-room School Costly? Table 5.—What Progress has been Made in Your State in Repla wing - the Costly One-room “School with Consolidated Graded Schools? oh eet: ee vs . creme _ orida. . ieee 6 | Nebraska!.. Georgia........ i4 | Nevada.... ace dk ie <- «1 16 | New Hampshire. Illinois . sien eek 16 | New Jersey... Indiana!..... x 16 || New Mexico. . lowa...... “7 eee 16 || New York?.... Kentucky.......... 16 | North Dakota. ae | 16 | North Carolina Louisiana.......... 14 i. Lae This table is based on Child Labor, Bureau Publications No. 93, Children’s Bureau, U. 8. Department of Labor, p. 34 ff. ; 'In these States certain groups of children are required to continue their schooling part time up to the age of 18. Full-time Full-time attendance States attendance required up | required up to age of to age of 17 Oklahoma! 16 16 Oregon '... 16 16 || Pennsylvania. 16 16 | Rhode Island. . 16 16 | South Carolina 14 14 South Dakota 17 16 Tennessee. . 16 16 | Texas. 14 16 Utah!..... 16 16 Vermont. . 16, 16 Virginia. . 14 16 Washington !. 16 16 | West Virginia 16 16 Wisconsin '. 16 17 | Wyoming... 14 14 16 of child protection.—New York Times. [? IS, therefore, something of a shock to learn on the highest authority that child labor has been rapidly increasing in the last year. The statistics quoted in the article are startling, for it is not merely that children are in some cases working under conditions that menace their health and growth. They ace robbed of that to which we have agreed they are entitled—an education. In not more than a third or a fourth of the cases of child labor is poverty the cause. Parents and employers, and the public generally, are blind to the real effects of child labor and to the value of education—“the right kind of work and play.” The country should be ready to give prompt support to such a constitutional amendment as Senator McCormick has proposed. Meanwhile, every State should be urged to do its utmost through the rigorous enforcement of school attendance regulations and of minimum standards children and are not verified by the census enumerators. ‘That is, a parent may conceal the fact that his child is not attending school merely by making a false report. Also, if a child was reported as having attended school but a single day between the dates used by the census enumerators, September 1, 1919 and January 1, 1920, he was recorded as “at- tending school.” Table 3 gives the figures as to non-attendance for each State. Census Understates Amount of Non-Attendance There are probably thousands of children not in school who were falsely reported as at- tendants and other thousands who had at- tended school but a few days during the period covered by the census inquiry. The census figures are therefore an understatement of non- school attendance by children under fourteen years of age. An adequate interpretation of the 1920 census figures indicates that 3,000,- 000 of the 15,000,000 children over seven years of age and under fourteen, one in every five, were not regularly attending a school of any kind. In short, while every State has a law re- quiring school attendance up to the age of fourteen, there are thousands of children in practically every State who are not attending school. As a result thousands of children are learning to disrespect and disobey our laws at an early age, and at the same time are’ reaching maturity lacking even the ele- ments of an education. Citizens of every State should study Table 3 and ask them- selves these questions during Education week: Has my State an adequate compulsory school attendance law? Is this law being enforced? 1 The recent Rural School Survey of New York State showed that 42 per cent of New York’s 8,600 one-room Rural Sc! ten pupils or less in average daily attendance. The one room school, an ineffective py expensive instrument of education jp modern times, still exists in grea; numbers. Experience has demonstrated the ineff ness of the instruction schools. It is teo much to expect the kind o; teaching that will prepare children for life jy our present complex civilization, when ; teacher has children of all ages and grades jp one room. Standard tests of school accom plishments have shown that children in one. room schools generally stand lower than those in the modern graded school. The One Room School Is Costly The one-room school is not only ineffect; but it is costly. Thirty-six pupils per teacher were enrolled in the graded schools of the N tion in 1920. The average enrollment per teacher in the one-room schools of the Natio: is probably less than 20. Many of thes schools enroll less than ten pupils. Accept ing twenty as the average, however, the fo lowing table shows the waste of the one-room school : TABLE 2.—COST OF EDUCATION IN ONE. ROOM SCHOOL AND GRADED SCHOOL given in one-roon Type of School Annual Annual | Annual cost enroliment | expenditure per pupil SP dey per room enrolled I Sir 3 4 One-room school 20 $1600 $X( Consolidated or graded school 36 $1600 $44 Thirty-six pupils in a graded school can b more effectively taught than 20 in a one-roon school. Yet the cost of a year’s schooling assuming the figures given in the table above from getting the real thing.” E MUST not be content just to “put our children in school” without considering whether the school we have put them in is worth anything after they get into it. well be said, plainly and bluntly, that as an agency for really educating a community, « ov: teacher school which attempts to handle all grades and all ages is a delusion and a snare. I am almost tempted to say that such a one-teacher school, handling all grades and ages, has the same relation to education that vaccination has to smallpox— it simply “prevents one In other words, if there were no one-teacher or two-teacher schools, parents would usually find some way really to educate the child. As it is, they send him ‘0 such a one-teacher school and there he gets stalled or mired up in the first three grades and consequently never gets far enough to make his education a real power for widening his vision and increasing his happiness and efficiency.—Clarence Poe. Editor of the Progressive Farmer. And it might as [260] ctive but ication in in grea TABLE 3.—ARE ALL great 3 CHILDREN IN YOUR STATE ATTENDING SCHOOL? ineffective | Total Rank in uVve- number of | Numbe Aggregate one-r P children children 7 ohildret rf of children Agemante a & ar oon he oom outa 7 to 13 ie OF pense | to pool of children number of | days schooling of effi- efficiency he kind of years of age | of age not | of tt peony b ndee on cen 8-5 ~7 Son | - .. life ; _ ve | in school in school | age in 1920 “2 or ae ote life in __|_1920_|__ 1920 __|achool 1920) | in 1920 “ene | “ase when the 0 ited St t | 15, 306. ar oo ‘ | 2 < Mise We. —— . ‘tee nited States....| 1 1,437,783 ee. 5.608 rome . gr ades in a me” 28.939 G4 340 7 . 2.615, 161,151 | 4,436,606,080 59. i oe 48479 10200 os 6 45 45,249 ,141 | 123,080,960 36.8 is ol accom. fal Ame 312°478 ne a 48 7,546,999 | 13,910,560 54.3 35 *¢ eee LL 376303 | 33740 | .. 44 41,170,570 | 90,185,440 15.7 13 Hl IN one- Hil Colorado... .. . 129,178 | 7825 | 5 06 + 83,669,533 | 108,659 ,040 77.0 ie hed : hd 4,520 6.06 19 25 ,197 ,427 37,093,280 | 67.92 15 ’ Ist Connecticut . 180,085 | 9 ,599 5.33 11 epee a 33°707 | 1'371 | - - iy 37 ,664, 549 52,083 ,040 | 72.4 8 District of Col...| 41,665 | 2/703 6.48 25 a ae | 78a "2 tl Florida......... | 151/641 25/452 | 16.8 43 12,400,800 | 75.8 : y Georgia..... 517 ,974 108 ,220 20°9 17 Be ln ae 7 en | ’ 20.$ 7 49 338 ,880 15.4 ineffective tdaho.........+- 68,198 4.5 ; 14,618,460 : : er trac Ilinois.......... 860 |832 5.3 2 334835 ieee | ae 5 er te acher a oa pee 389 445 : a | 12 163 ,348 ,359 250368960 65.2 20 of the Naf feeis«-ccecses 325918 4 on 8 71,216,105 114,043 ,520 62.4 25 al be dat 355°474 4 2 7 70,568 ,658 95 ,666 ,240 73.8 6 iment per 5.46 15 50 ,758 ,820 74,085 ,920 68.6 13 Kentucky....... 387 ,388 ; 25 -he Nati Nn] Louisiana... ... | 308 ,507 - = 42 , 148 ,287 112,382,560 | 37.5 a7 ; 8 agen aS | 99 350 24.10 49 38 ,141 714 89 , 208 ,480 42.8 15 of thesell] Maryland. ::. | 196°735 73 a ones | wae) Gel ose . ne te ee A os nas : : 31,477 ,392 7,807 ,520 54.5 36 Accept: achusetts 483 ,762 3.93 l 93 ,265,791 140/017 /440 66.6 | 19 . | Michigan....... 477 ,976 F r, the fol- lamin. 335° 458 S “ R ter Oe 139 ,496 ,960 64.3 21 . " Mississippi... ... 328 ,372 y 46 or eee eke ty 64.1 | = > one-room sme Laan 47] eee * a 46 $1,717 ,804 94 ,576 ,320 33.3 19 a... 77'026 6.64 28 86 ,456 , 266 137 ,484 ,320 62.9 23 ,02 7.16 29 15,271,703 21 975,040 69.5 | ll Nebraska....... 190 ,593 ‘ ‘ i IN ONES] Nona - yo 6.13 21 38,132,533 | 55,109,760] 69.2 | 12 SCHOOL ay ee 5s 9.5. 33 1,774,865 2,467 ,040 71.9 10 New Jersey... .. 426 |665 5.09 10 ob 'taa'les | 1nn'arn'aas as | CU f ia, « oa \ ny 90 ,O13 , 32 22 ,876 ,6 ved 7 Ammual coat | NO™ Mezieo..... oa 7,601 12.6 36 9'807 930 | 17,278"400 fs | 34 per pupil New York 1,307 pd 3 | New York....... » , 158 80 , 2¢ os Orr 7 _enrolied [| North Carolina. . 460 696 30 850 13 O° 38 ae ens 'oee | ibe’ ain’ ono a3 rt ; North Dakota. M1711 8835 2 . 38 63 ,455 ,968 134,215,200 47.3 | 41 _ ae eens «3 ui vit 98835 7.9. 32 21,440,436 31,807 ,840 67.4 | 17 TA ai, 355° ’ 295 4 : S80 b 95 2 133 ,442 ,602 213 ,069 ,600 62.6 24 50:2 14.2 39 59/249'654 | 101'814'400| 58.2 | 32 Oregon...... 5.25 5.27 $44 yee we enee 7 ys 5,250 5.27 13 20 ,759 ,589 28 ,7 iy > yivenia....| 1.242 9.2 3 pod + 259 , 58S 28 ,736 ,160 72.2 9g et ee a Wa ’sis = ; = 16 223 ,890,680 | 360,206,240 62.2 26 South, Carolina, ..| 8155069 40'640 | 12.9 37 38°315-041 | 91°186,500 | 39:8 46 can bd | South Dakota 5,069 640 2.¢ 37 36,315, 91,186 ,560 39.8 16 ool can b 97 ,665 6 ,343 6.49 26 16,518 ,469 28 ,350 ,080 58.3 31 1 one-roo Tennessee....... 390 57 55 7 3 Saph r cnn. a Rt + 34.2 40 61 ,083 ,917 13 ,269 , 280 53.9 37 schooling | Utah........... 74957 a 5.3 42 116,018,343 3987 92320 51.4 8 ot: 74,957 3,346 4. 46 of 16,264,752 21/536, 160 75.5 | 3 able abovell | Virginia... ....:: 382 }533 58241 op sf hese aoe | eel) | B i , 03 , 24 15.2 41 51 ,622 ,137 110,303 ,680 46.8 2 ashington..... 7 5.28 | 7 ss eoandl Ret meg} 2.0m) tas | ut | gzampgmo| wamog| ia | as is hall | Wisconsin 27 a 26 146 } 30-9 | 34 35,596 911 69,413,120 | 51.3 39 Se a a. var) ee] 17 64,623,937 | 109,203,840 | 59.2 28 ‘ 26, 7.2 39 5 ,061 ,320 | 7 ,530 ,880 67.2 18 All r dhe eee Sb Sem Seaed on official 7 Ae en ay reports, as explained below. Column two gives the total peg Rape ply pete - —. and under 14 years of age. Column three, the number of children ss 1919 and Janunry 1, 1920. Column a ON egg. a Saag time between September 1, The Sta centage not attending school according to this definitio ight as A og oceans = Column & ve according to the percentage of children reported in school. The State with The pe’ : 5. ‘ ildren in attendance being ranked one, etc. , @ one- os “ attending wee po any pte dl ny 7 are = > yy the States since a child is credited to a State ut one day or for a full ten months in C: Th ae te oe a year. 2e figures of colum ices sock Gua would have provided - ae Bw ogee ge the number of days se bet sen that Ss, had ates om 5 to 17 years of age, enumerated in the 1920 in one cetually provided school as t pe oy or 160 days. Column six shows the total number of days ps bes Se ‘thas Gare arn fa s a fa peeks ww ao ric my oy these two figures. The State rank- s, 7 ance than those of Column five and are r bl fi -e eason. Rien to tive ty Mk Dine heme ~ TE in school for a reasonable period each — — r figures nm see Vo 14t S. Censr F z see les and State School Systems, Bulletin 29, 1922, U. 8. Bureau o Education, page a” Se pene © Hae Saticticn of ; Vision [261] would be $80 in the one-room school and $44 in a graded school. - Similiarly, to give a year’s schooling to 1000 children in one-room schools would cost $80,000 and but $44,000 in con- solidated, graded schools. 7 Table 4 shows the actual cost per pupil in ; some of the one-room schools of New York as recently revealed by a survey. TABLE 4.—IS THE ONE-ROOM SCHOOL COSTLY? Name of district Average daily | Annual cost attendance per pupil I 2 3 Hancock No. 1........... | 11 $101.13 +e Colchester No. 4........... 7 103 .64 a Hancock No. 14........... 11 112.74 Hancock No. 11.... } 5 114.72 Colchester No. 18........... 5 120.20 Colchester No. 6.... 5 121.40 Colchester No. 30......... 5 125.80 Hancock No.7..... 4 128 .50 A Hancock No. 12.. 5 130.80 Colchester No. 13........... 4 137.25 Hancock No. 10.... 5 154.80 ; Hancock No. 6. «tae 7 165.28 Colchester No. 16.......... 4 166. Colchester No. 22........... 3 173.33 Hancock No. 25........... 3 5. Hancock No. 2............. 1 641 .00 { Hancock No. 27........... 1 762.00 ’ 4 The names and figures given above are not hypo- q thetical. They are taken from table 35, Rural School Survey of New York State by George A. Works, 1922. A The continuance in many States of thou- sands of one-room schools which might be re- placed by the modern, consolidated, graded school is costing the Nation millions of dol- lars annually. The one-room school is an effective means of making poor education very costly. Modern Results Follow Modern Methods In our early history the one-room school served a great purpose. It furnished the type of education needed in a time when the ox. the hand loom, and the single plow we: portant parts of every day life. That day has passed. Letters are no long sent by the occasional passer-by or even pony-express. The express train, the plane and the telegraph have replaced the instruments of communication. Few their own wool or fashion their own Suits today are made in great factories. “A generation ago, a single horse, with a sing], plow, guided by a single man, plowed a sing! acre in a single day. Today, the Ameri tractor, with a single man, will plow 8 to | acres in a single day.”.! Where modern y sults are expected modern methods and instry ments are used. Nineteenth century schools will not produ twentieth century citizens. If modern educa tional results are to be expected the modern consolidated and graded school must replac the obsolete one-room school house. Children cannot be trained for citizenship in the twen tieth century in a nineteenth century school. Table 5 shows that 189,227 one-room schools still exist in the ""~ited States. This § means that approximately 4,000,000 of the Nation’s 23,000,000 children are still being instructed in this relic of a bygone age. These schools inherently make education s) costly that the teachers in them can be paid but meagre salaries. The salaries paid ar hopelessly inadequate to procure competent teachers. It is not reasonable that a person capable of giving a year’s worth-while instru: 1 Julius H. Barnes, The Road We have Come, Nation's Business, August, 1923. Teacher, May, 1919. HE STANDARDIZING of one-teacher schools and the maintenance of ‘‘Model Rural One | Teacher Schools,” are misdirected effort and money which had much better be spent in ) creating sentiment for consolidated schools. This conclusion is reached after making a state- wide study of the rural schools during my two terms as State School Inspector, and after three years’ experimenting in the so-called “model one-room rural school,” in widely different sec- tions or communities. The multiplicity of subjects and the numerous daily recitations after ) : every device for reducing the number of daily recitations is exhausted, leaves a task beyond the physical ability of the best trained teachers. The weakness and inadequacy of the one-teacher schools as a plan of modern education is inherent and cannot possibly be remedied. A few un- usual teachers have done very unusual work in the one-teacher schools. To take such unusual | cases as models and inspiration for the continuance of the one-teacher school is a delusion and . doomed to failure.—S. K. Mardis, Department of Rural Education, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. The Ohio : [262] Mis Mor Neb Nev New New New New Nor Nor Ohic Okls Oreg Pen: Rho Sout Sout Ten Tex Uta Ver Virg he Ox, were im no le nger even the 1eT pir WN suits ries, “A | a single d a sing] American y $ to 10 odern re id instry t produce rn educa- > modern t replace Children he twen chool. one-room ss. This ) of the ill being e. cation s9 be paid paid are ompetent a person : instruc One nt in tate- hree sec- after i the cher un- sual Ohio B teachers in the one-room schools are receiving tion to children of all ages and all grades in During American Education the same room at the same time can be ob tained for a salary of $765. Yet half of the wnnual salaries of less than this amount. TABLE 5. ONE-ROOM SCHOOL WITH CONSOLIDATED, GRADED SCHOOLS? week ever citizen should ask himself this question: What progress has been made in my State in replacing the ineffective but expensive one-room school with the modern, consolidated, graded school? WHAT PROGRESS HAS BEEN MADE IN YOUR STATE IN REPLACING THE COSTLY Total Number of Per cent of Rank in Median sal- number of teachers in teachers per cent of aries paid States teaching one-room in teachers not teachers in positions schools one-room in one-room one-room 1920 1920 schools schools schools 1922 I Z j United States 657 ,646 189,227 28.77 $765 Alabama 12 558 R3 0 BT 7 > Arizona l 950 ; 6 § 55 g i4 Arkansas 0,476 78 16 ¢ California 1.343 66 » 12 7 Colorado 6,991 ) 78 29 ny? Connecticut 7 525 587 80 6 ~ Delaware 134 06 6.10 17 District of Columbia 057 3 } l Florida 6 651 770 * BT 19 Georgia 9, 921 4 32 36 ) Idaho 982 ( 7 .67 Illinois 56 , SOK 0,14 7.72 4 756 Indiana 17 , 209 +. 880 I 36 862 lowa 24 451 40 16 _ 38 ) Kansas 16,989 624 44.87 t1 68 Kentucky $48 6,500 18.69 14 198 Louisiana 8 ,966 837 20.49 l 65 Maine 5,732 ? 309 10.28 57 80 Maryland 6,675 1.602 4 ON 1 Massachusetts 19 ,O85 787 $.13 ) 887 Michigan. . 23.703 7.004 9 55 6 gnR Minnesota. . : 19,575 7,668 39.17 6 691 Mississippi 11 ,962 1,371 36 54 3 318 Missouri. . ; 21,126 8 066 3818 5 6 Montana. * es 6,215 079 19.54 5 874 | Nebraska. .. 14,: 6,284 14.09 39 r Nevada. . ! 50) 7 04 34 New Hampshire 2,594 R80. ) 06 28 739 New Jersey 16,758 654 90 j 03 New Mexico 2:752 | 748 9718 on New York. Re 54,253 | 8 639 15.92 9 870 North Carolina 16 ,852 4,174 4.77 5 374 North Dakota... .. 8 057 4,37 1.26 $7 780 Ohio. . cekess belt . 31,404 | 8.090 5. 76 6 R88 Oklahoma........ aN 15,337 +, 426 8 86 24 g3 | Oregon. . dapiic bees 7,778 2 280 9 31 5 88 1 Pennsylvania ; 44,111 10 , 254 13. 25 13 776 Rhode Island , 2,793 62 2.22 2 844 South Carolina... 9 699 | 3,152 32.49 31 371 South Dakota........ 7,830 | 1,584 58.54 19 874 SE 33> oes ws , 13 ,277 4,766 5.89 32 405 @Xas.. ‘ + eres 29 001 5,490 18.93 11 605 Utah. . ay ; 3.781 137 2 62 3 77 RE, a ; 2,676 1,190 14.48 10 665 WEN ON occ ads 14,27 786 6.53 18 9 Washington........ 9,618 1,747 18.16 10 101 West Virginia......... 11,221 5,415 18 . 26 13 687 Wisconsin . ieee + « ; 16,210 6 ,606 10.75 38 851 Lg | En 2,217 1,289 58.14 18 842 The data of this table were taken from the following sources Columns 2 and 3 from U.S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, | . No. 29, pp. 18 and 20 Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Trends in 1923, Report of the Salary Committee of the National Education Ass p. 91. Column 7 Consolidation of Schools and Transportation of Pupils, issued by U. 8. Bureau of April 17, 1922. The data in column 7 are incomplete since some of the States did not report ns ' Data for 1921. Number of consolidated schools formed in 1920 10 Column 6 from ation, Education, ‘ no) ie a { Untrained, inexperienced, and incom- petent teachers are found in many of the Nation’s class-rooms. The competency of the class-room teacher primarily determines the value of instruction. Improvement in the effectiveness of their pub- lic schools cannot be expected in many States until there has been a general lifting of the qualifications of their teachers. We require that all who vote be twenty-one years of age. Yet thousands of untrained teachers, eighteen and nineteen years of age, each year are given a far greater responsibility than that of the ballot—the training of the children who are the citizens of tomorrow. This crucial school problem has been neg- lected in many States. So little interest is. shown in the qualifications of their teachers in most States that it is impossible to obtain an exact statement of the training and qualifica- tions of their present teaching personnel. Table 6 has been prepared as a rough indi- cation of the situation in the United States, as it concerns the training of teachers. It is undoubtedly an understatement of the num- ber of teachers who are unprepared, The figures in this table show that at least 54 per cent of the Nation’s teachers have less training than normal school graduation or the equivalent—the minimum standard accepted in advanced countries. The situation in the rural schools is much less satisfactory. Nearly one teacher in every four of the rural schools in the -country has less than two years’ training beyond ele- mentary school graduation. ‘Thousands are graduates of an elementary school and nothing more. In addition to being untrained, thousands of our teachers are lacking both in experience and maturity. Table 7 shows that 36 per cent of the rural teachers of the Nation have had less than two years’ teaching experience, whereas 25 per cent are less than twenty-one years of age. No business man would expect to skilled services from untrained, inexperienced and immature employees, yet this very thi, is being attempted in thousands of the \ tion’s class-rooms. Teaching, if it is to }, skilled, and no other kind should be accept able, demands a trained, experienced, and competent teaching personnel. The product of the public school will in many cases con tinue to be disappointing until our children are instructed by teachers properly qualified for this important service. Making good cit zens is a skilled service, and cannot be pe: formed by unskilled workers. Every citizen should ask himself these ques tions during American Education Week: How many class-rooms in my State contain inadequately prepared teachers? What progress is being made in my State in placing a trained and competent teacher in every class-room? The Salaries Paid in Many Sections Are Too Low to Attract Competent Teachers The payment of salaries to teachers can be justified on but one basis—they perform a val uable public service. time no other factor exerts so strong a deter- mining effect upon the service rendered by the teaching profession as the salary schedules maintained by the Nation. Over a long period of Salaries Determine the Supply of New Teachers In every large profession the number of re cruits that will be available is vitally affected by the economic return which that profession promises. Opportunities for trained and com- petent young men and women to render gen uine service at a reasonable return are not dit- ficult to obtain today. It is too much to ex pect that people with vision and power wil offer themselves for service in any profession that promises perpetual financial anxiet) thwarted ambitions, and bitter old age. T if United States Commissioner of Education. WE THINK that educational advantages are the chief reason for the drift of the rural popu- lation to the city. The farmer would not want a dress for his wife made out of material that the city man refused. Therefore we believe that he will not long continue to deny to his boy and girl the advantages of education which the city child enjoys. The same financial sup- port, together with consolidated schools and good roads, will solve the difficulty.— John J. Tiger! [264] to obtain perienced, ery thing the Na is to be be accept. iced, and e product cases con children qualified good citi- it be per hese ques eek: te contain y State in r in every ions Are Teachers rs can be rm a val- period of z a deter- ed by the schedules Teachers ber of re- y affected profession and com- nder gen- e not dif- ich to ex- ywer will profession anxiety, age. If popu- iterial to his | sup- Tigert such people do enter a field of service offering may be expected to prepare themselves so little in return for their best efforts, they escape at the first favorable opportunity. TABLE 6.—ARE THE CHILDREN OF YOUR STATE TAUGHT BY tor TRAINED TEACHERS? Per cent Rank in Per cent of rural percent- of rural teachers age of Total : No. Per cent Rank in teachers with reral : number No. teachers of Per cent | percentage with training teachers State of teachers who are teachers of of training of less with teaching not normal not teachers teachers of 2 years than 2 training positions normal graduates normal normal normal or more years of 2 years in State graduates or the graduates graduates graduates beyond beyond or more in 1920 equivalent ele- ele- beyond mentary mentary ele- school school mentary school 2 3 4 - United States 655,589 354,018 301,571 54 16 23 77 Alabama 12,558 11,302 1.256 on 0 i4 Arizona 1,955 215 740 11 S9 2 7 Arkansas 10,476 9 ,638 838 92 8 15 62 i California 19.343 1.354 17,989 7 ) Colorado 6,991 3,076 3,915 14 6 14.5 7 Connecticut 7,525 753 6.772 10 00 9 17 2 Delaware 1,134 635 499 56 14 19.5 Florida. . . 6,651 6,584 67 99 17 . Georgia 15,921 11,941 3,980 75 25 36.5 j r j Idaho | 3,982 2,310 1,672 58 { 23 15 . Illinois. 36 ,599 21,594 15,005 59 { 24 ys 78 Indiana. . 17 ,209 10 ,325 6,884 60 10 2% 21) ) lowa 24 451 17,116 5 70 0 22 25 Q Kansas | 16,989 | 9 854 f 58 29 9 Kentucky 13 ,348 11,079 83 7 13 1) ) Louisiana 8 ,966 2 ,959 6 ,007 3: 67 10.5 29 Maine 5,732 3,439 2 ,293 60 10 26 7 Maryland | 6 ,675 3,605 3,070 54 16 18 > Q ‘ Massachusetts..| 19,085 2,290 16,795 12 8 4 5 ‘ Michigan |} 23,703 17,777 5,926 75 25 36 24 7¢ Minnesota | 19,575 8,613 10,962 14 6 14.5 11 89 8 Mississippi... . 11 ,962 11,484 478 96 4 16 17 13 Missouri .| 21,126 13 ,943 7,183 66 i 30.5 29 3 Montana. | 6,215 4,102 2,113 66 4 30.5 { 96 & Nebraska. | 14,253 9 ,264 1,989 65 8 17 s Nevada. . ; | 675 236 439 35 65 12 00 New Hampshire. | 1,349 2,594 | 1,245 52 18 17 l 99 New Jersey.... 16,758 3,352 13 ,406 20 80 7 2 18 f New Mexico....}| 2,752 2,257 495 82 18 41.5 8 92 i New York..... | 54,253 9,766 44 487 18 82 6 15 S } North Carolina. 16,852 | 13,482 3,370 80 20 39.5 : 66 7 North Dakota ..!| 8,057 | 5,962 2,095 74 26 35 6 4 0 MNS chien | 31,404 18,214 13,190 58 42 22 34 66 7 Oklahoma...... 15 ,337 12,163 3,174 78 22 38 26 74 ) CS aa 7,778 1,633 | 6,145 21 79 8 10 90 7 Pennsylvania...| 44,111 14,557 29 554 33 67 10.5 22 s ) Rhode Island. . . | 2,793 363 2,430 13 87 5 1) ) SouthCarolina..| 9,699 | 3,880 ¢| 5,819 40 60 13 61 ) 6 SouthDakota...| 7,830 5,170 2,660 66 4 30.5 22 8 Tennessee....... | 13,277 10,622 2,655 80 20 39.5 34 66 ee Oe 29 ,001 19,141 9 ,860 66 4 30.5 5 6o Utah.. ; | 3,781 1,172 » 609 31 69 9 10 ) ] Vermont...... 2.676 1,900 776 71 29 34 1 ) ; Virginia........ | 14,271 8,563 5,708 60 10) 26 22 . 5 Washington. ... .| 9,618 4,809 1’ 809 50 10) 16 29 West Virginia...| 11,221 9,201 2,020 82 18 41.5 10 6 Wisconsin....... | 16,210 9.078 7,132 56 14 19.5 10 7 Wyoming.......| © 2,232 18 5 - an figure is estimated from the report of one division of the State and taken from Bieanial Report fi 919-20 p. 31. The date in the above table were taken from the following sources Figures in column 2 are from U.S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1922, No. 29, p. 18, Col. 11 19 Figures in column 3 are with some revisions from National Education Association, Research Bulletin, Januar 923, p. 43, col. 4. 7 tlhe in columns 8 and 9 are from Teachers’ Salary and Salary Trends in 1923, Report of the Salary Committee of the National Education Association, pp. 100-101. ERRATA :—Headings of columns 8 and 9, Table 6, should be reversed. Salaries Affect the Quality of Service Rendered through travel soon drops into a rut n The quality of service rendered by those which only the exception escapes. The day T already in the profession is likewise largely - js past when our future citizens can be t fd neg by “y: salary schedule. he by people of limited training and narrow sel re ee OD ROCKEty to success ur tacts. The foundation for successful citizen IS teaching cannot be an accompaniment of a dis- - ques : : ship in the greatest democracy of the wo: parity between income and necessary outgo. d 1 | co : ‘ ‘ a democracy, perplexed by class, rac Nor must the income be only just sufficient to ov 7, Sen by class, race, class cover the necessities of life. The teacher ‘éligious prejudices inherited from the who is unable to continue her study and to world—can be laid only by teachers of sound - gain some contact outside of her community training, broad contacts, and growing vision. § TABLE 7.—WHAT EXPERIENCE AND MATURITY HAVE THE TEACHERS IN THE RURAL SCHOOLS OF YOUR STATE? : Rank in Per cent Per cent percentage Per cent Per cent Rank in of rural of rural of rural i of rural of rural percentage State teachers teachers | teach teachers of teachers with less with 2or | with 2 years || less than 21 years 21 years of Unit than 2 years | more years ormore || 21 years of age age and (lat teaching teaching teaching | of age and over over Aris experience experience | experience \ 4 - 2 3 4 Lae val 5 q 6 i ( ali 36 64 “Oe Bee < ge 75.00 Col 35 65 29.5 20.59 79.41 Cont 8 92 1 ee: e < 41 59 40 |} 25.13 74.87 30 Dist 23 77 6.5 5.38 94.62 Flor; 31 69 19.5 || 14.18 85.82 g ra 22 78 4.5 || 34.93 65.07 ’ ‘dah 33 67 22 | 15.34 84.66 9 tilin 33 67 22 1} 18.30 81.70 14 Indi: 30 70 17.5 | 24.77 75.23 6.5 ee 34 66 25 | 23.61 76.39 13 Kan 33 67 22 20.88 | 79.12 20 Kent 45 55 42 | 36.19 63.81 $2 S Loui 50 50 47 36.38 63.62 13 Mair 27 73 aa 27.23 72.77 34 Mar 29 71 15 19.30 80.70 8 Mas: 25 75 9 | 18.99 | 81.01 Mict 17 83 3 1} 13.22 86.78 Mint 25 75 9 13.62 86.38 f Miss 45 55 42 | 36.39 63.61 1 Miss 39 61 36 34.19 65.81 Mon EE ee eee _34 66 25 17.5 82.44 Neb Missourl. ER Be reik ay aecOhe «+ n8g' a8 45 55 42 36.51 63.49 { Neve SESS ES, eee rere 35 65 29.5 25.77 74.23 + SS ee eee 50 50 6 44.26 55.74 16 Now tae TU b's ig SPAS A aoe seas 39 61 36 11.43 88 .57 New New Hampshire...................-- 30 70 17.5 | 24.77 75.23 26 New ES SS CN snc kigie's sath ve wales se 35 65 29.5 i 29.73 70.27 38 Nort} New Mezico.................22.222! 27 73 2.5 || 15.68 84 Nortl a Scat ols wad pigin'd, emai amie 29 71 15 Ht 19.05 80.95 17 Ohio SS Pee ee) 25 75 9 11.73 | 88 . 27 | Oklal North Dakota...................... 48 52 45 \° 27.20 | 72.80 33 Oregc ED os ca tpemwssceds es 35 65 29.5 HI 28 . 59 | 71.41 36 Penn: STE ical cecssss+s ++. 37 63 33.5 | 27.83 72.17 35 Rhod EE OT rere 38.5 i} 17. 1¢ 82.90 South I REG dw bv asa ce cesses ks 35 65 29.5 i 22.75 77.25 South 1] EE ee eee 16 84 2 |} 25.00 75.00 29 Tenn South ie oie wh wn clam oe nie 34 66 25 | 9.02 90.98 Texas EE Gi oa.g he ges one's vbiele see 37 63 33.5 Hl 26.68 73.32 Utah DENS A alors nc a sb ode e oa cees 40 60 38.5 34.43 65.57 Verm ED ois Cow kilns Gh ds bell 0 haere 29 71 15 18.96 81.04 Virgir SE oe 22 78 4.5 13.65 | 86.35 Wash MG Det dedeejaasdesccssccce 23 77 6.5 23.93 | 76.07 West NES Scheie 39 61 36 2386 76.1 Wisec W: Leet ey a Redeaes anon 6 31 69 19.5 16.25 | 83.75 Wyon West Virginia...................004. 25 75 il 22.48 77.52 2 Se ae ey oe 35 65 29.5 29.54 70.46 MOEN 167 S 1.5 14 14 Kansas A 26 , 257 , 009 2 1.8 OR 0 iQ Kentucky Ter , — 8,117,074 39.7 22.1 S 12 Louisiana 11 ,366 ,934 25.6 10.6 & 10 Maine ace. . 6,403 ,673 36.3 63.7 9) Maryland........ é 8 ,242 ,399 11.8 8.2 0 Massachusetts...... 40 ,908 , 94 11.7 88 19 Michigan.......... 47 ,683 ,763 18.7 81 Minnesota.......... 35 734,096 17.8 82 9 Mississippi Se 5,474,796 61.8 28.6 9.6 Missouri “aaa 28 ,707 ,190 11.5 ! 88 } POGMGRMA. ......... 12,207 ,631 3 13.3 16.4 ) OOOMEEM. woke * 20 , 580 ,069 4 L.2 97.5 17 Nevada , 1 383 ,850 0 64.4 1) 6 6 New Hampshire... . 3,810,669 9.1 90.9 11.5 New Jersey alee « 40 ,909 ,827 8 l 64.1 New Mexico.......... Tey 4,139 ,597 90.1 9.9 New York........ 106 ,045 ,319 12.1 87.9 36 North Carolina. , 12,147 ,856 31.6 36.9 31.5 8 North Dakota........... 12 ,883 ,443 2.8 6.6 90.6 10 _ * ety ae s7 5 5.4 7 7 36.9 1] Oklahoma... 3.3 13.4 83.3 Oregon 9, 4 26.2 73.4 29 a sie de id ¢ 29 Pennsylvania... . . 3, 16 6 83 ; + Rhode Island......... 4 4 6 . oS 4 46 South Carolina ace 6 ,6 15 2 21.8 63 0 21 South Dakota....... 11 ,592 ,896 3 9.7 1 Tennessee a 10,141,374 18 0 63.8 18 2 5 . ee Mare a 33 ,606 ,210 46.1 53.9 18 Utah... 8,239 ,829 28.6 71.4 27 SRS al 3,588 ,098 31.2 68.8 25 Virginia. 12975 ._089 35.5 13.1 1.4 16 Washington ethdi 20 ,595 ,360 13.0 18.8 68.2 23 West Virginia... ||| ; 11,402,488 4.5 ‘ =P 4 Wisconsin 27 , 255 ,056 15.0 11.8 73 18 WOME tlibe........ 3,741,793 30.6 69.4 26 of State School Systems, Bulletin 1922, No. 29, U. 8 The figures in the above table were taken from Statistics a | 7) Equalization Funds Should Be Wisely Distributed The creation of a substantial equalization fund, however, does not guarantee of itself that all children in a State will have a fair educational opportunity. This may be accom- plished only if the State equalization fund is wisely distributed among the school districts of the State. Some of our States, such as Maryland and California, have adopted meth- ods of distributing their State school money, that guarantee all children in these States a reasonable educational opportunity. Most of our States still cling to obsolete and discredited methods of distributing their State money. In some States it is distributed on the basis of a census of school population, others distribute it on the basis of the num- ber of children enrolled in school per district. These and similar methods of distributing State school equalization funds fail completely in accomplishing the purpose for which they exist. Often the richest districts receive a large amount of State aid, while poor districts, unable even with a high tax to maintain a school system which meets minimum stand- ards, receive relatively little aid. In addition to creating a substantial State equalization fund, many States must wholly revise their methods of distributing these funds before all their children will be guaranteed reasonable educational opportunities. Citizens interested in bringing the school systems of their States to the highest efficiency should ask themselves these questions, during American Education Week : PL my State an adequate school equalization ? L Are the methods whereby this fund is distributed among the schools of the State such that every child is guaranteed a reasonable opportunity to obtain an education > A Shortage of School Seats in Many Cities Requires Thousands of Children to Attend School Part-Time. Superintendents of 261 cities of 5000 popy. lation or over reported at the beginning of the fall term of 1923 a shortage of 345,153 schoo] seats. Since a shortage of one seat means that two children must share a single seat, each attending part time, at least 690,306 children in cities over 5000 in population are attend school part time at the present time. number is probably considerably larger than this since only about two-thirds of the cities of this size reported. The figures are g’ by States in Table 12. In practically ever State in the union there are cities with more children than school seats. What are the evil results of part-time at tendance? We suggest the following. parents know others from experience. 1. The number of pupils forced to attend school part-time is double the number of miss- ing seats. 2. Daily recitation periods are shortened, or their number reduced; and supervised study is eliminated. 3. There is a decided loss in the school’s supervision of each pupil’s time. 4. Teachers’ personal contacts with pupils are lessened and effectiveness in teaching is re- duced as a result of the stress of two “shifts” of pupils per day. 5. Juvenile delinquency is increased when the amount of time spent in school is de- creased and the amount spent on the streets is increased. ‘ Ing h ii€ ven oome During American Education Week every citizen should ask himself: Has every child of school age in my community a seat in school for a full-day Session? type. \Yus THE past few years there have been advances in knowledge concerning proper lighting, ventilation, sanitation, fire prevention and artistic design which have caused many communities to abandon school buildings structurally sound and usable and erect in their places others which conform to modern standards. The life of school buildings erected from now on should be much longer than those of an earlier period if the proper attention is paid to essentials at the time of erection: (1) Location of the school building in the proper relation to the general city plan and trends of population, (2) sufficient school grounds for adequate play space, light and ventilation covering possible future additions as well as present needs, (3 for future additions which will not interfere with good design, light and ventilation. (4) adequate lighting, fire resistive material, etc., and (5) architectural design of simple, effective —Survey of School Buildings and Equipment, Chamber of Commerce of the United States. [274] 1 Many Children 00 popu- ng of the 53 school eans that eat, each children attending ie. The ger than the Cities ire given lly every ith more -time at r, Some o attend of miss- tened, or study is schoc 1's th pupils ing is re- “shifts” ed when yl is de- streets is ry citizen ool age in | full-day TABLE 12.—ARE TOO MANY SCHOOL CHILDREN IN YOUR STATE ON PART-TIME ATTENDANCE? Number cities Total enrollment | Seats available Shortage of Number of States reporting short- in cities report- in cities report- seats in cities pupils on age of seats ing shortage ing shortage reporting part time I 28 =i ; ; } United States 261 3,754,789 3,421,503 345,153 690,306 Alabama : l 14 UUU 34,5 9 500 19.000 l », 498 2 446 nas Ri 2 20 , 27 i 602 675 1,350 fornia Aik : 2 173,696 145.13 28 52 57 054 57 Colorado Connecticut........ re 3 7 32 43 , 3 654 Delaware . : 16, ls, : { 288 District of Columbia... . [llinois Indiana lowa Kansas 1 900 Kentucky. ‘ ’ 14.900 Louisiana " +4 M ane Maryland Massachusetts. . . Michigan Minnesota. . Mississippi. . . Missouri Montana... Nebraska... . Nevada ; — New Hampshire New Jersey....... New Mexico... . 6 eee North Carolina... . North Dakota....... ; ae £ ; Ges. «tas keen € 2: 249 655 Oklahoma . ; f 38 .650 Oregon... . : 7) : ,885 Pennsylvania....... , 26 351 ,963 Rhode Island 3,600 } 3.950 South Dakota............. 000 y= : 42 500 Texas. . in : 2 2,450 Utah 2 2 O50 | ee ia 3,000 Virginia as Bree 2 140 Washington.......... 32 ,453 West Virginia...... ' f 30,616 We. ccadecucw ss f 15,570 Wyoming ae 5,000 Table 12 was prepared from data given in a table in Colliers Weekly Magazine of September 8, 1923, p. 9 This table listed the shortage of seats reported by superintendents of 261 cities in the United States A Question naire was sent to the Superintendent of schools in all cities of over 5,000 population (1467 cities) Approximately 100) replied; 261 reporting shortage in seats. iw EVERY possible way the public’s attention should be centered on educational problems: the need of better buildings, libraries and equipment, playgrounds; better attendance; better- paid teachers; longer school term; better vocational education; better understanding of the form and fundamental principles of our government and better and universal use of the English language.—The American Legion, American Education Week, Bulletin No. 16, 1921. What National Defects Result From the Weak Spots in Our Public School System? The School’s Influence on the Coming Generation Children today, :itizens tomorrow is one of the subjects listed in the program of the Ameri- can Legion for American Education Week. The truth of the phrase is everywhere appar- ent in our national life. There exists one great constructive, publicly controlled, institu- tion through which one generation may work to improve the next generation—the public school. The school’s influence on the coming generation cannot be over emphasized. In the schools is laid the foundation for successful citizenship. When the school does its work well and completely a strong, well rounded citizenry results. When the school partially fails in its work, weak spots in the national life are the direct result. What are some of the defects in our Nation which are the result of weak spots in our public school system? Child Labor Denies Thousands of Chil- dren an Educational Opportunity One of the direct results of the lack of proper compulsory school attendance laws and the non-enforcement of those that do exist is a great army of child workers. According to Table 13 the 1920 Census lists over one mil- lion child laborers from ten to fifteen years of age. This number does not includé any child workers under ten years of age. Some stud- ies have revealed that there are as many child laborers in some communities under ten years of age as there are over ten years of age. Nor does this number include those employed dur- ing the summer vacation. A large percentage of these million children are engaged in full time work and are often denied all school op- portunities. Table 13 also reveals one of the direct results of child labor. Illiteracy, which can result only from the denial of practical}; all school opportunity, is high among the chil- dren of those States having high percentages of children engaged in child labor. Compare the ranks of the States in the percentage of chil- dren who are not engaged in child labor, col- umn 5, with the ranks in the percentage of children who are literate, column 8. Child labor and illiteracy among children go hand in hand and are both the direct result of the non existence or the improper enforcement of com- pulsory attendance regulations. Should not child labor and illiteracy among children be eradicated in your State by an adequate compulsory school attendance law? Millions of Native Americans can Write Illiteracy a Blot on the Nation Neither Read Nor Time makes illiterate children into illit- erate adults. There are three million native- born illiterate citizens in the United States to- day. ‘They are the direct result of weak spots in our public school system of a generation ago. Illiteracy has been outlawed in most of the advanced nations of the world. Witness these quotations: “In some of the more advanced European countries illiteracy is so uncommon that ques- tions regarding it are not included in the gen- eral census enumerations.’—Thirteenth Cen sus of the United States, Vol. 1, page 1194. and Foreign Born? ever, beyond New York Times, September 2, 1923. ON OF the most serious aspects of child labor is the illiteracy that usually accompanies it. There is nothing accidental in the connection between the two. largest proportion of child workers have the smallest of school attendance among children 10 to 15 years and the highest rate of illiteracy among the genera! population. does attend school he is far behind the grade he should have reached. Lax school attendance laws in some parts of the country no less than inadequate enforcement of good laws in others must be a part of the responsibility for the limits to which child labor has grown. In thirty-seven States in the Union a child may be legally employed before he has completed a common school education. In some States the law makes no educational requirements what- that before going to work a child must be able to read and write.— //« Communities with the When the child worker TA Sout Sout Tenr Texa Utah Vern Virgi Was! West Wise Wyo [276] lic nool Op- e ot the , which actically ‘he chil- tages ot pare the of chil- OT, col- tage of Child hand in the non- of com- / among adequate . Born d Nor to illit- native- tates to- ak spots ion ago. t of the Witness uropean at ques- the gen- th Cen- 1194. TABLE 13.—HOW MANY CHILD LABORERS IN YOUR STATE ARE BEING DENIED SCHOOL OPPORTUNITIES? r 2 e Per cent of Rank in Per cent of Rank in Population Child children per cent of Number of | Native born | per cent of 10 to 15 Laborers 10 to 15 children Native-born | population native born years of 10 to 15 | years in not en- illiterates 10 to 20 population, age years of child gaged in 10 to 20 years ofage 10 to 20 age labor labor years of age illiterate years of age literate ead a ; 3 ; United States... 1,060,858 531.077 Alabama 84 397 - 19.418 A{nizona ‘ . ; 3 2.711 3] 899 Arkansas : 259 , 593 18.140 } 1 29 360 California 304 ,320 9 .057 > ¢ 1379 Colorado ae oe P 104,790 t 558 54 | 1.204 Connecticut 3 ,267 11,559 ‘ 35 615 Delaware 23 , 806 1,406 5.9] ‘ Dist. of Col 35 a 871 Florida ‘ ; 864 Georgia ; ; ; 427 , 23: ,934 Idaho... . 54,6 1.608 Illinois ,933 Indiana lowa Seales Kansas. . awl 211,706 Kentucky “ee 318 ,408 Louisiana 258 ,052 Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska. . . ph 155 ,920 Nevada... 6,715 New Hampshire 5 New Jersey.... New Mexico New York..... | 1,059,635 North Carolina...... 373 ,484 North Dakota....... 87 ,883 Ohio on 596 ,741 Oklahoma............ 289 ,533 Oregon... . 81,500 Pennsylvania. . | 996,916 Rhode Island oa 63 ,739 South Carolina 260 , 204 South Dakota 78 ,427 323 , 548 642 ,586 60 ,675 Vermont.... 38 ,579 Virginia 311,915 Washington 138 ,645 West Virginia 191,299 RS cceuates v0 00 308 ,468 Wyoming 20 ,387 The figures of this table were taken from the 1920 census T= CITY children who do contract labor at home for factories are mostly children of foreign- born parents, whose standards of living are lower than the American standard. Yet ina study made by the Children’s Bureau of 1,350 children working in oyster and shrimp canneries on the Gulf Coast, all except nine of the children come of native stock. Illiteracy among these little folk is as high as 25 per cent, while for children of the United States as a whole it is only 4 per cent.—The New York Times, September 2, 1923. “The Statistical Yearbook issued by the regular decrease. If present conditions cop 7 Norwegian Government does not contain any tinue illiteracy bids fair to be a problem 9; Am information as to percentage of illiteracy in our national life for at least a century. qua Norway, there not being any people in Nor- In twelve States of the Union the number BH com way who can not read and write, but those _ of illiterates increased between 1910 and 19? stat suffering from certain mental or physical de- in spite of the fact that immigration was at» BE stov fects.” —H. Bryn, Norwegian Minister, 1922. low ebb during this period. havi “The only German illiterates are mentally »sprp 15.—INCREASE IN THE NUMBER or & Fed deficient people or idiots..—Dr. George — ILLITERATES IN TWELVE STATES toro To & sliz! Kartzke, Amerika-Institute, Berlin, 1922, a to YEARS AND OVER) —1920 as a i “As far as England and Scotland are con- i cerned, illiteracy is practically unknown, ex- States | Mliterates | Illiterates | Increase | 7 if cept among a few quite old people who did - | 1820 18 wal aa not enjoy the benefits of compulsory education Massachusetts .....|__ 146,607 | 141,541 | : . . ” Connecticut........| 67 , 265 | 53 ,665 @ which has been in existence for some years.”— | New York.....9..|| 425/022 | 406/020 ae | British Library of Information, New York, | Nv’... | mms) fe { ‘ 1922 | Sere | 131,006 124,774 6 i. Z ae See Ehbe.« 0818 yO we 7 =e 5, f — ichi ceua se eon ,046 44,8 . The table below prepared from the latest = senna | 206;844 | 282904 i figures available by Mrs. Cora Wilson a 31,312 South Carolina... ; 220 667 South Dakota............ : 8,109 (i — a 182,629 Te anc to» «> 295 844 i ogee 6 , 264 LC eee 8,488 , Si an 195,159 Washington............ 18 ,526 West Virginia....... 69 413 i ae 50.397 ) Ee 3,149 Ages—-10 years and over Rank in Rank in number Percentage percentage Population illiterate illiterate illiterate 6.0 5 t9.315 f fh ] , 5 6 f Q 4 1) > 8709'S (4/7 ,4380 5 IS 4 ‘Yu ; is 40) 8 7 Q 9.6 51,787 1 2) f fF .t } i s ’ r X se ) ) 6 396 , 4 x 7,434 } 066 r 5.6 ne 69 , Oo 6 18 j § 17.2 o> , ( $0 i 5 ; { 42 70) > Oo ~ f 9) 1 r 5.1 t , 24¢ \ l 6 O74 1 R 4 786 ] 8 l } v4 2 ] ) ) 0 2 ~ } nH a) ,.8 2e l 5,9 1.5 47 638 .9R7 16 4 6.769 322 6.5 5 123 7RR 18.1 2 1,219 6 ; , Q ] 13 ) 10 10 1,770,762 8 14 614 f 9 j 51 030 3.0 3 284 ,472 :) 2 ) 445 S865 ( 1.7 +4 l 1,929 6.4 6 OSS ..34 2.4 6 2 069 , 567 19 2.1 10 5), 993 Illiteracy In The Draft the country. The figures below summarize During the draft, in connection with the the results: oa psychological test, men were segregated into Number of men examined.......... 1,552,256 lan two groups, literates and illiterates. A total i Sent SEiterape.... 20 2--+2.-.... 24.9 of 1,522,256 men were given this test during The meaning of illiteracy, according to the pat the draft. These men were distributed among census, has been explained above. The mean. era twenty-eight camps, located in every section of ing according to the draft was a lack of the TA TABLE 18.—ARE THERE TOO MANY NATIVE-BORN ILLITERATES IN YOUR STATE? Native-born I!literates, 10 years of age Native-born White Illiterates, 10 years of age and over and over : States = Number Percentage Rank in per- Number Percentage Rank in per- illiterate illiterate centage literate illiterate illiterate _| centage literate Fe 3 4 5 6 > Need RRC aap 2: RE ar 16.1 46 65 ,394 : aaa 13 — 3.3 30 3,233 2.1 24 9.3 39 41,411 4.5 9 0.49 12 8,747 0.4 5 1.46 26 8,624 1.4 OR 0.559 14 2,927 0.4 nate 4.5 34 2,427 18 2.5 31 640 0.3 9.7 40 13,169 2.9 6 15.3 45 66 ,796 5.4 0.34 2 914 0.3 5 ~ 1.04 24 30 ,907 0.8 24 1.55 28 27 ,929 1.3 27 Con 0.560 15 8,275 0.5 16 Alal 0.886 21 7,179 0.6 18 Ariz Ark 8.4 38 112,206 7.0 45 Cali 21.8 49 81 ,957 10.5 | 4s Cok 1.6 29 8 ,396 1.6 | 30 4.8 35 15,368 1.8 33 Con 0.507 13 7,780 0.4 8 Del: Dist 0.75 19 14,172 0.7 20 Flor 0.44 10 5,955 0.4 14 Geo! 17.0 47 22,242 3.6 38 2.6 32 47 ,066 2.0 32 Idah 0.360 1,067 0.3 3 Illin Indi. 0.45 11 3,360 0.4 12 lows 0.391 5 157 0.4 Kan 0.73 18 1,973 0.7 22 0.885 20 9 696 0.6 19 Ken 11.4 43 25.519 11.6 49 Loui Mai: : 0.58 16 28 ,406 0.5 17 Mar. Caroli 13.0 44 104 ,844 2.3 | 47 Mas: North Dakota........... ate 0.394 a ay 0.4 7 lea RNS WR sie ec sees 441 1.2 5 726 0.9 26 Mic Oklahoma............... 44 ,623 3.1 33 30,418 2.3 35 —_ 4 } VL 188) dk aaceseeredins 2,079 0.3930 7 1,990 0.4 10 Missi Pennsylvania............ 53,515 0.990 23 38 ,870 ° 0.8 25 Mon Rhode Island........... 3,094 0.991 22 2,255 0.7 23 South Carolina.......... 220 , 164 18.1 48 38 ,742 6.5 44 Nebr South Dakota........... 1,525 0.392 6 1,490 0.4 11 Neva New Tennessee............... 181 ,341 10.3 41 101 ,809 7.3 46 New ES « « otidt'n'y slo wei ,696 5.7 37 80 ,643 3.0 37 New eso 984 0.363 4 925 0.3 6 J Vermont................ 3,641 1.50 27 3,613 1.5 29 New Virginia. ...........005. 192,797 11.2 42 70,475 5.9 42 Nort Nort We nia eg Eee, a 2,624 0.31 1 2,379 0.3 2 Ohio. West ES ,837 5.4 36 44 ,324 46 10 Oklak Wisconsin............... 10,631 0.66 17 10 ,449 0.7 21 Wyoming............... 487 0.3934 8 421 0.3 1 Orege enns Rhod The Figures in the above table were taken from the U. S. Census, 1920. Pees Tenne Texas Utah. . r LL THERE be a purpose in all your legislation to recognize the right of man to be well born’ Virgis well nurtured, well educated, well employed, and well paid. This is no gospel of ease and Weill selfishness, or class distinction, but a gospel of effort and service, of universal application. — West Calvin Coolidge. Wen = ‘2 $$$ [280]. of age a per- literate’ ‘nm? nd and to language. [Table 17 below makes it possible to com- pare illiteracy figures resulting from the Fed- eral Census and Army draft. TABLE write using the “ability to read and understand newspapers letters,” 17.—FEDERAL CENSUS AND ARMY DRAFT ILLITERACY English No Illiteracy in 1927 It is important that the Nation be protected from the influx of foreign born illiterates. It is equally important that the Nation protect itself from born illiteracy. If the American Legion’s objective, no native illiteracy in 1927, is to be reached we must strengthen at nce the weak spots in our educational sys tem that have resulted in three million native Percentage of Illiteracy All Native Foreign , one Ss "or : Federal Census—Army adults | born- born- Negro DOTN illiterates in the nited States. Draft White | White on a A Citizen’s Duty Toward the Uneducated Federai census (21 years af a 4 cca and over)........ 7.1 3.0 7 | 27.4 lable 18 shows the illiteracy problem by Army Draft........ 24.9 14 if) 50.5 ; : - States as it exists among native born Ameri- TABLE 19.—HOW MANY FOREIGN-BORN RESIDENTS HAS YOUR STATE? 1920 Census, Vol. III Per cent of Rank in per Total Rank in total total cent of total Total States foreign-born foreign-born population population population population population foreign-born foreign-born - d 4 Continental United States 13,712,754 13.0 105.710,620 Alabama 17 ,662 OR 8 174 Arizona 78,099 28 23.4 6 334,162 Arkansas 13,975 1 0.8 13 1.752204 California 681 ,662 19.9 10 } 426 861 Sree 116 ,954 12.4 4 939 .629 Connecticut 376 ,513 fe 80.631 Delaware _— 19,810 8.9 ) 992 O03 District of Columbia 28 ,548 6.5 33 137 571 ee eae 43 ,008 1.4 37 068 .470 Georgia 16,186 0.6 16 2 895 832 Idaho 38 ,963 9.0 28 12] 866 ae 1,206 ,951 18.6 13 6,48 80 Indiana 150 ,868 5.1 26 2930390 Iowa 225 ,647 9.4 27 2,404 ,021 Kansas 110,578 6.2 { 1.769 257 Kentucky 30,780 1.3 $2 2,416 ,630 Louisiana 44,871 2.5 39 1,798 ,509 Maine. . 107 ,349 14.0 18 768 ,O014 Maryland 102,177 7.0 32 1,449 ,661 Massachusetts 1 ,O77 ,534 28.0 2 852 ,356 Michigan 726 ,635 6 19.8 11 3,668 ,412 Minnesota 486 , 164 } 0.4 8 2 , 387 , 125 Mississippi 8,019 17 0.4 17 1,790 ,618 Missouri. . 186 ,026 0.5 ; 104,055 are 93 ,620 2 17.1 6 889 eT eee 149 ,652 8 11.5 26 1,296 .372 RS nEin'ab-0-5 60 « 14,802 1 19.1 12 77,407 New Hampshire... . . 91 ,233 6 20.6 7 _ 443 ,083 New Jersey.......... sein 738 ,613 23 155 900 New Mexico...{........ 29 ,O77 8 8.1 30 560 , 350 3. eee gees 2,786 ,112 l 26.8 } 10 385 227 North Carolina........ 7,099 18 0.3 49 oo tan North Dakota........ 131 ,503 19 20.3 9 16 4 NEN RR Por ; 678 ,697 8 11.8 ) ) » 294 a ae 39 ,968 i 2.0 40 028 ,~85 Oreetes 6. iiss is... 102,151 24 13.0 19 783 , 380 Pennsylvania........ 1 ,387 ,850 2 15.9 17 8, £20,017 Rhode Island........... 173 ,499 16 28.7 1 604 , 397 South Carolina............ 6,401 19 0.4 48 | ,683 , (24 South Dakota........... 82 ,391 24 2.9 21 626 ,547 So 5 A 15,478 14 0.7 45 1 i 4 EE titres Hehiw Gide a oka00 5 360,519 2 7.7 2 Bee eee NEUE DEES ca kinse. cbs se eis ee 56 ,455 30) 12.6 23 449 ,396 SES Be ee are 44 ,526 2 12.6 22 3 2 4 28 _ “feet ea 30,785 36 1.3 41 309 ,187 Ee ve 250 ,055 13 18.4 14 1 ,356 ,621 West Virginia.................-. 61/906 29 4.2 38 1,463 , 701 Ne ns i ecl 460 ,128 10 | 17.5 | 15 2 ,632 ,067 WO STEIN 6065s occu ccecccccce 25 ,255 40 13.0 20 194 ,402 [281] cans. During American Education Week every citizen interested in stamping out illit- eracy in his State should study this table and ask himself this question : : Should not the weak spots in my State school ak system that have made possible its native born illiterates be irradicated? Millions of Foreign-born and Native-born Citizens Lack the Education Necessary for Intelligent Citizenship in a Democracy. The war showed us that in two many in- stances the “melting pot” had failed to melt. There is no magical process whereby the mere residence in the United States of a non- English speaking, illiterate immigrant makes that immigrant an intelligent citizen. An immigrant is unlikely to become an intelli- gent citizen if he lacks the ability to read and , : write. The Problem of the Foreign-born in Numbers There are now within the borders of the . | United States nearly fourteen million foreign- & born residents. Table 19 shows the dis- tribution by States. This great number of } immigrants is being added to each year. 4 During the year ending July, 1923, 522,919 yi immigrants entered the United States. The additional number over the quota of 358,000 fixed by the Immigration Act gained admis- sion through certain exceptions that are provided for in the Act. i] Some of our foreign-born have already become good American citizens. Millions of them, however, have not had the educational opportunity that is fundamental to qualifi- cation for citizenship in a Democracy. | Facts About our Foreign-born Great numbers of our foreign-born resi- dents are from countries in which education is atalowebb. One-half came from Eastern and Southern European countries, where TABLE 20.—PERCENTAGE OF ILLITERACY IN COUNTRIES FROM WHICH NEARLY HALF OF OUR 14,000,000 FOREIGN-BORN CAME Country Per cent Countr Per cent illiterate . illiterate . Russia........ 87.3 Roumania..... 61.2 4] Serbia......... 78.9 epee PHAR Fy 58.7 Mexico........ aed — re a3 Portugal... ... ; ungary...... 4 Bulgaria....... 65.5 SG Sina 37.0 from 37 to 87 per cent of the population js illiterate. Nearly one and one-half million of oy, foreign-born residents are unable to speak English and 1,763,000 are unable to read oy write in any language. The number of illiterate or non-English speaking immigrants, however, is only a partial measure of the need for Americani- zation. To understand and read English js but the first step towards intelligent partici- pation in our National affairs. The failure of most of our States to make adequat provision for the education of foreign-born adults makes it impossible for millions of our residents to become intelligent citizens. The Native-born and Americanization It is not only among the foreign-born that there is need for Americanization. ‘There were over two and one-half million native- born adults who confessed that they were illiterate in the 1920 census, or 5.3 per cent of our total native-born adult population. Table 21 gives the number by States. Being native-born these citizens have the right of the ballot without going through the for- malities of naturalization. The problem of giving millions of native-born sufficient education so that they may become intelligent citizens ranks in importance with that of Americanizing the foreign born. Has your State adopted a program of adult edu- cation that will make it possible for all of its resi- dents both native and foreign-born to take the first step towards becoming intelligent citizens? Preventable Physical Deficiencies are Costing the Nation Millions Each Year Physical inefficiency strikes at the Nation's effectiveness whether it be engaged in the pursuits of peace or of war. The results may be less apparent in peace than in war, but they are no less real. The War’s Unrecorded Casualties The damage done to our armed forces in the World War by the enemy’s shells and poison gas was a mere incident to the havoc wrought by a foe of our own creation. for every man put out of action by the enems, five never got into action. They were citizens rejected for general military service on account of physical disabilities. Some of those rejected for “general military service [282] cou capa right of st mitt TAB Mas: Mich Minr Miss’ Miss Mont Nebr Neva New New New New Nort! Nort! Ohio Oklal Oregc Penn: Rhod South South Tenn Texas Utah Verm Virgis Wash West Wisex Wyor i . ak ad or pez glish ily a cani- ish is rtici- uilure juate -born yf Our ys that There itive- were cent tion. seing ht of . for- m of Izens come with . It edu- $ resi- e first are par tion's n the ; may re but “es in ; and lavoc For lem\, were ‘e on ne of "vice could be used in the army in a “limited” In the Prime of Life capacity, but the majority were rejected out- What a commentary on our National in- right, since they “‘possessed physical defects telligence!_ One in every four of out young ot such degree as to prevent their rendering men between the ages of twenty-one and military service of any kind. thirty-one unfit for general military service TABLE 21.—HOW MANY NATIVE-BORN ADULT ILLITERATES ARE THERE IN YOUR STATE? ‘ 1920 Census, Vol. III States I Continental United States Alabama Arizona Arkansas lifornia ( Colorado Connecticut Delaware . District of Columbia Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missour Montana Nebraska. . Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico. . New York om North Carolina North Dakota Ohio oF Oklahoma NES a Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee. . Texas....... a See Se oP ae Vermont. . Virginia. . Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Native-born—twenty-one years of age and over Rank in Rank in Number number Percentage percentage Population illiterate illiterate illiterate literate 4 2,553,656 5.3 48,137,216 226 .666 2 P| ] if é ,US6 2,672 39 4 21 OR , 20¢ 11 11.5 10) 853 ,97 8 7 0.55 619,71 Q ( : 2 156 , 887 , 20/ 4 0.69 192 ,444 e 7 9 997 & Q ) 0 . 9 ] io4 6 18 Of 3 ROE 16 0.414 | 7 _ 18 } 5 ‘ f 0 0 639 S Q 0.70 f 648 ) 14 R90 1 OR 0 06 9.918 oak f } 5.0 R82 040 7 2 86 sO 32 j 6 Q 768 379 gS 2H 28 0.62 $19 ,853 14,784 0.95 1 ,548 ,314 + } 0.54 } 6 180 20.8 8H, “OD ) 19 3.2 s¢ 641 15 0.411 } 27 ,617 ) 56 45.190 14 ) 0.40 } +4 2 1.785 0 OO ) is SOY 1.026 { 1.15 1,221 ,177 21.820 14.2 t 033 1g 5S 91 0.74 975 396 01 .9CF { 16.8 199 3 ar 14 0.49 LYS GSi 4 f 17 1.5 2,934,814 ; ) 9 961.076 1,7 | 0.46 8 } 13 418 { 1.2 3, 762 ,834 ) R 31 ; 1.470 179 6 23.1 re 73,785 { ( 47 ) > ) 151.299 g 12.7 j 0 , 5% 144 ,497 9 6.7 6 2,161,980 774 47 0.44 f (2.419 3,370 16 1.88 28 i8,(34 160 , 11° 7 13.6 $2 1,175,903 2 { 10 0.36 , 607 . 296 47 "RQ 1m 6.8 7 696 ,786 9 933 6 0.85 S 1 ,087 ,991 { 48 0.45 7 90 ,690 1916. pS. CHOOLING SUPPLEMENTS but can never replace worldly wisdom and experience; nevertheless, the ability to read and write is fundamental, and lack of this equipment is such a handicap that illiteracy implies ignorance. Some ignorant persons may be illiterate, but most illiterates are ignorant.—Adull /iliteracy, by Winthrop Talbot; Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 35, capacity. TABLE me S FOR PHYSICAL DIS- ILITIES AND CASUALTIES UNITED STATES ARMY—WORLD WAR unfit at the period in life when a man is sup- posed to be at his best. One in every six of our young men unfit for any type of military service—so far below par physically as to be a liability rather than an asset to our military effectiveness, even if used in a “limited” Army recruits Number Per cent I 2 3 Total number of men accepted for EARS keeEda be da.o 6 0.0 0% 4,650 ,500 77.60 Number of men rejected for x. sical disabilities. . 1,340 ,623 22.40 men accepted and ‘rejected . .| 5,991,123 100.C0 Rejected for physical disabilities. .| 1,340,623 84.40 Casualties—killed, died of wounds, OMG wounded... .........00-: 248 ,170 15.60 Total—casualties and rejected... .| 1,588,793 100.00 These figures furnished by the Adiutant General, September, 1922, are described as ‘the most reliable yet compiled.” Physical Standards Lowered Was this high percentage of unfitness due to the use of unreasonably high standards in the physical examinations by the draft boards? The opposice was the case. Dur- ing the war the standards used by examining boards were lowered by official action. At the beginning of the draft high standards were used, those that military men had agreed upon in time of peace as necessary in recruiting an effective Army. Our young men could not meet these standards. Their physical defects were such that a high standard could not “‘be exacted” and men with minor defects had to be accepted. There was a necessity for great numbers! Why Were the Men Rejected? Tabulation of the principal causes of rejection reveals the nature of the disabilities. Heart disease, responsible for more deaths in our general population than any other one cause, is listed as the first cause for rejection. Tuberculosis also stands high. These are not minor defects! They are the same diseases that are striking deepest at the peace-time efficiency of the Nation. Is the Nation Physically Decadent? Do the tabulated causes of rejection jp- dicate that the Nation is physically deca. dent? Are there forces in civilized life tha; are tearing down man’s physical resources forces over which we have no control? [he weight of authoritative opinion is to the contrary. One authority states: ! An analysis in detail of the causes of rejection clearl indicates the preventable nature of these impairments, and also clearly points the way to remedial and pre- ventive work. Physical Inefficiency Widespread From every State came large numbers of men unable to pass the army test. Table 23 indicates the number and percentage of men rejected by States. This is not a complete report but includes enough men to be indi- cative. The Cost of Physical Incompetency The physical disabilities of our young men seriously threatened our military effective- ness in the World War. Had the war con- tinued we would have felt the full effect of these disabilities. They would either have cut down our man power or we would have enlisted men below par physically. Either would have meant a great loss in our military efficiency. But the real lesson of the war’s physical examinations has yet to be learned. Men unfit for “general military service”’ are also unfit for general peace-time service and in the long run ineffectiveness in peace is more likely to retard National progress than in- effectiveness in war. Wasting a Billion Dollars The tremendous cost in peace time of pre- ventable sickness and premature death has recently been pointed out by a committee appointed by Herbert Hoover to investigate “Waste in Industry.” ? This report estimates that: The economic loss from preventable disease and death is $1,800,000,000 among these classed as gain!'!l) employed . there is experimental basis for the statement that this loss could be materially red iced and leave an economic balance in the working popu- lation alone over and above the cost of prevention o! at least $1,000,000,000 a year. Lessons From the Draft Examination, Eugene Lyman Fisk, M. D., in Journal of the American Medical Associ’ mae & 2, ay 4 ty Martone oover. McGraw-Hill, 1921, Committee on Elimination a in Industry of the Federated American Engineering Soc\ [284] TAB Unit Nebr Nev: New New New New Nort Nort Ohio Okla Oreg Penn Rhod Sout Soutl Tenn Texa: Utah Verm Virgi Wash West Wisce Wyor ( ers of le 23 fF men plete indi- r men ctive- con- ct of have have ‘ther itary y sical Men > also nthe nLOTe f pre- " has rittee igate TABLE 23.—DOES THE PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF THE MEN OF YOUR STATE QUALIFY THEM FOR THE DUTIES OF PEACE? Rank in per : Disqualified Per cent dis- cent of men Divisions Men for general qualified for qualified for examined military general mili- military service tary service service United States 3,208,446 949.419 29 59 Alabama 69 284 15 567 - Arizona ss i9 +. 038 14.97 S 8.928 12,368 10.98 67 77 26 ,637 9 ) 87 12,318 10.94 13 Connecticut 8 631 15.910 t Delaware 7.008 2 404 34 District of Columbia 1 + 3.469 297 68 Florida 32 780 8,121 24 Georgia R4 9] 22 , 664 oF Idaho 15,871 4.621 29 [llinois 127 61 ,620 4 Indiana 74.356 20 545 27 .6 iowa 78,272 17 ,908 22 . 87 Kansas 12 RAO 10°52] 16 Kentucky 75,024 16,668 Louisiana 66142 15 571 Maine 2 646 7,881 4.8 38 Maryland 38 309 12,155 31.65 Massachusetts 1O8 .356 16,140 12 S58 Michigan. . ] 112 44 686 IS 7 10 Minnesota , 81 862 19 663 | 24.02 6 Mississippi re eie 12939 99 0] f Missouri 115.030 31,C81 27 .{ Montana 31,547 8 388 26 .60 8 Nebraska 41 646 9.091 91 22 Nevada. . . } 489 1.075 0.87 New Hampshire 12,258 4,465 36.43 39 New Jersey 93 964 31,475 33.50 { New Mexico. ee 11,983 2 ,687 22 New York ; 315,536 23 ,225 39.05 j North Carolina + 75.498 20 , 283 26 . 86 9 North Dakota ' 5.151 5,653 22.48 l Ohio 166.177 16 035 27.71 * Oklahoma. . . 65 ,374 11,229 17.18 Oregon... sent 23 .996 7,414 30 .90 ++ Pennsylvania....... 246 , 884 75,783 30.70 } Rhode Island bide , 15 395 7,131 16.32 19 South Carolina ‘ 40.197 12,106 30.12 South Dakota 25 806 6,088 23.59 Tennessee Beatie 70 ,367 19 ,048 27 .07 Ps vans Sidhe ase Ris 131,586 29 ,724 22.59 ee Raves 13 ,844 4,092 29.55 0) RS eee 10,761 4,705 43.72 16 NIUE hab dat.0.a os 6 68 ,177 19,03 27 .92 27 Washington. ........ 37 , 581 16,781 44.65 17 West Virginia........ 51,473 11,426 22.19 r Wisconsin é ey 90 ,517 25 ,938 28 .65 28 ES = 8,279 1,751 21.15 ! The figures for this table cover examinations from December 15, 1917 to September 11, 1918, and were taken from the Second Report of the Provost Marshall General to the Secretary of War, p. 417. * The majority of these, 16.25 per cent of those examined, ‘‘ possessed physical defects of such degree as to prevent them from rendering military service of any kind.” [* IS actually a fact that we give less attention to the health of our school children than we do to crops and livestock. Hardly one American school in a hundred has an ordinary scale which can be used by the teachers to weigh their pupils, with the idea of discovering which of the children show evidences of malnutrition. It is a sad commentary on our present health efforts that we have so carefully weighed the baby and later permitted the school child to go with no attention in this respect.—Floyd W. Parsons, The World's Work, March, 1923. ae ae) = . vised play and emphasize athletics. At least a billion dollars a year wasted! Here alone is enough to pay the Nation’s yearly bill for public education. Yet nearly five years after the war, but a fraction of our States have taken the first serious step toward improving our National physique— the enactment of an adequate State-wide physical education law. The money loss is the least of the losses resulting from ill-health and premature death. We also lose vast dividends of happi- ness and improved National morale, that would come from eiiminating this waste. Physical Education Not Provided For Are the States taking the steps calculated to improve the Nation’s physical condition? Bulletin 1922, Number One of the United States Bureau of Education shows that twenty States have not as yet enacted physical-education laws. Many of the twenty-eight State laws that have been passed are inadequate. Only twelve of the twenty-eight State laws emphasize hygiene instruction. Only nine provide for super- Only eleven provide for a State director of physical education and appropriate State money for the support of physical education. In short, but few of the laws contain pro- visions that guarantee any substantial im- provement in the physical condition of the next generation, Has your State adopted a program of physical education that will guard the future generation from preventable physical deficiencies? Retardation Among School Children Makes Us a Nation of Sixth Graders We are a Nation of sixth graders. During the war fifty-nine per cent of the white draft and twenty-four per cent of the colored draft reported that they had progressed in school as far as the seventh grade. That is, about half of our soldiers had had schooling up to the seventh grade or beyond, the other half reported sixth grade schooling or less. The census tells us, however, that ninety per cent of our population are in school up to twelve years of age and eighty-one per cent until fourteen. This means that ap- proximately ninety per cent of our people should finish the sixth grade before they leave school. That is, a child entering school at 1 Rural School Survey of New York, George A. Works, Ithaca, New York, 1922. [286] six and progressing one grade per yea, should finish the sixth grade when he is twelve. Similarly, approximately eighty- one per cent of our population should finish the eighth grade since they are in school until they are fourteen years of age. Actually, little more than half of our popu- lation finishes the sixth grade and about on third completes the eighth grade. Retardation is the Cause Large numbers of children are retarded jn their school progress, that is, they progress less than one grade for each year in school. Retardation among school children and the consequent low level of educational attain- ment of our population as a whole is a direct result of weak spots in our school system. Irregular attendance due to improper enforcement of attendance laws is one of the principal causes of retardation. Untrained teachers in many districts prevent children from making the progress that would be possible under skillful teachers. The one- room school is clearly a cause of much re- tardation. The recent Rural School Survey of New York shows that over thirty-six per cent of the pupils in one-teacher schools are retarded from one to four years in their school progress. Less than twenty-five pei cent of the pupils in the graded schools are similarly retarded. This survey states: “it is clear that retardation of pupils is much more pronounced in the country school than it is in the grades of union free schools.” ! The Cost of Retardation Retardation is costing the Nation vast sums each year. Millions of children are “repeating” work that they would have covered the first time if it had not been for irregular attendance, poor teaching, and poorly organized schools. More important, great masses of our population are missing the training in citizenship offered in th seventh, eighth, and ninth grades that would be theirs had they made regula progress through school. Every citizen should ask himself these questions during American Education Week: Can we afford to remain a Nation of sixth graders? Should the level of school attainment in my State be lifted by correcting the educational weak spots that result in retardation in school progress? Nat a di W eak Cl fects and | como syste! Nati taine Th streng our p things oppor Divisi M: becau schoo! politi progr erly « betwe It i the pe educat boy a Some this by cation: child. Thi ity she in all ——— N cit fie Ste ‘ish 100] ize. pu- one vast are ave for and ant, sing the -hat ular 1eSse eek: sixth uf in peak ress? How May Our Public School System Be Strengthened? The outstanding defects that threaten the Nation’s welfare can exist only so long as we are willing to allow them to continue. Many of them have arisen and continue to exist as 4 direct result of the failure to correct the weak spots in our public school system. Child labor, high percentages of physical de- fects, illiteracy, great numbers of uneducated and unintelligent citizens, do not exist in those communities that maintain effective They might be eradicated in the school systems. Nation as a whole if all communities main- tained adequate school systems. The strengthening of the public schools means the strengthening of the Nation as a whole. How may our public schools be strengthened? What specific things must be done to make equality of educational opportunity a reality? Division of Responsibility Between the State and the Community Many of the weak spots in our schools exist because of unwise division of the functions of school control between the large and small political units. No greater step in educational progress can be made in a State than by prop- erly dividing the functions of school control between the different political units. It is through their State governments that the people will ultimately make “equality of educational opportunity for every American boy and girl” something more than a hope. Some of the States have already recognized this by enacting laws establishing certain edu- cational minima that are guaranteed every child. This does not mean that the local commun- ity should not continue to control the schools in all essential details. It does mean, how- ever, that the people of a State are unwilling to have any child denied a fair opportunity regardless of where he happens to be living. WHAT EDUCATIONAL WEAKNESSES SHOULD THE PEOPLE CORRECT ACTING THROUGH THE STATE? The People Through a State Law Should Require All Schools to be Open at Least Eight Months Each Year In the States where this has not been done already tremendous differences exist in the length of school terms. Some communities keep their schools open but a few days or In others the schools are A State law should require all schools to keep open for at weeks each year. open practically the year round. least eight months or one hundred and sixty days per year. Do all children in your State have an oppor- tunity to altend school at least eight months each year? The People Through a State Law Should Require Full-Time Attendance of All Children of School Age A State compulsory attendance law should require all children to be in school every day. Exceptions should be allowed only for such reasons as illness or mental and physical in capacity. Some State compulsory attendance laws are useless because of the numerous ex ceptions that they allow. Employment, for example, should not be sufficient grounds for exempting a child from school attendance. There is a better way of relieving the poverty of a family than by denying its children a A Nation that per- Adequate chance to go to school. mits child labor lives on its future. million named by the census of 1920. The New York Times, Se)tember 2, 1923. N° ARE America’s child toilers confined to any one geographical section of the country. They are to be found bending to their tasks in the tenements of New York and other Eastern cities, in the textile establishments of New England, in the cotton mills of the Carolinas and the fields of Texas, in coal mining regions, in the oyster and shrimp canneries of the Gulf Coast States and in the sugar-beet growing areas from Ohio to California. There is no doubt that the number of child workers in this country now far exceeds the This census was taken not only while the second Federal Child Labor Law was in effect but also at the beginning of a period of general industrial depression when thousands of children were temporarily released from work. These census figures include also only child laborers of from 10 to 15 years of age. tions as agriculture, domestic service, street trading and factory work done at home are un- recorded. They would probably augment by thousands the million children of the 1920 census. Those under 10 working at such occupa- compulsory school-attendance laws will pre- vent one of the worst effects of child labor— the denial of educational opportunities to many of the Nation’s children. School Attendance in Pennsylvania The recent experience of Pennsylvania af- ter adopting the policy of rigid enforcement of attendance laws is revealed in the table below; during 1920 the attendance laws were laxly enforced, during 1922 they were effectively enforced. ENROLLMENT AND ATTENDANCE IN- CREASE—1920 TO 1922 Numerical Per cent increase increase School Census.................+. 66 ,638 | 3.75 Rs 63 oie date eek wes oe 146 ,271 9.18 Average daily attendance......... 196 ,795 15.75 ‘ During this two year period while the num- ber of children in existence as recorded by the Census increased 66,638, the number of chil- ; dren enrolled in school increased 146,271. t The increase in the average daily attendance representing both an increase in the number of children enrolled and in their regularity of attendance was 196,795. This result was obtained in a State which in 1920, according to Table 2, was above the average in school attendance. Would the proper enforcement of a school attendance law in your State give similar results? The e Through a State-wide Census of Minors Should Provide for the Proper Accounting of the Greatest of Their Natural Resources—their Child- ren No great business is run without the help of accountants. Every dollar, every bit of mate- rial of value is carefully accounted for: Elab- orate cost accounting systems make available to executives the facts that they need for their guidance. Waste is preventec. When we deal with our most valuable as- set—our children—we too often make no ac- counting. In some States a child may never see the inside of a school and he will never be missed. The foundation of an adequate system of child accounting is a carefully worked out cop. tinuing State Census of all children. By mak ing this Census State-wide, a uniform method of recording the existence of children js pro- vided. Local communities are provided with exact knowledge of how many children the, have both of school age and of pre-school ave. and make this a basis for building programs and the intelligent determination of schoo! plans. But most important of all, a perma- nent, continuing census of all school children is essential if every child is to be guaranteed an opportunity to attend school. Is your State among those that have established a State-wide, permanent, continuing census of all children? The People Through a State Law Should Guarantee All Children Instruction from Trained and Capable Teachers This may be done by passing a State law placing the certification of teachers in the hands of the State Department of Education. This law should specifically set up the quali- fications which every person must have before being granted a teacher’s certificate—the privi- lege of instructing the next generation’s citi- zens. The law should require from prospec tive teachers evidence of the following: 1. Good character—vouched for by respon- sible persons. 2. Physical health—vouched for by a li- censed physician. 3. Satisfactory training—completion of a four-year high school plus normal school, or college graduation, or the equivalent. All advanced Nations except the United States require that their teachers possess these qualifications. Some of the outstanding weak spots in our school systems and the Nation would be automatically corrected if more care were shown in the selection of those into whose hands is placed the training of the Nation's future citizens. Does an adequate and properly administered law for the certification of teachers protect the children of your State from instruction by unprepared and incompetent teachers? The f ye] ~) C The justifie that al The S basic | should adequa gram sche ols. Has Nation’: Some guarant tunity | adequat poorer ¢ meet th they les The ta: poorer ¢ to provi ments. employ when it attract $s) a local d eight m«¢ wholly o things an districts education ilar defec afford to The e zation Fy NC wit to say let us prope! taxatic earnin Univer, ———— The People Through a State Law Should Require All Schools to Meet Certain Standards—Such as Conducting All Classes in the English Language The welfare of the State and the Nation ‘ustifies the enactment of State laws requiring that all schools shall meet certain standards. The State should require that English be the basic language of instruction. All should give instruction in citizenship. An adequate health and physical educational pro- gram should be a part of the work of all schools schools. Has your State set up standards vital to the Nation's welfare, that must be met by all schools? The People Through an Adequate State Equalization Fund Should Make It Possible for all Local Districts, Without Levying an Unreasonably High Tax, to Maintain a School That Meets All State Requirements Some States have failed in their efforts to guarantee all children an educational oppor- tunity because of their failure to provide an adequate State Equalization Fund. The poorer districts in some States are unable to meet the minimum State requirements unless they levy an unreasonably high school tax. The tax limitation law often prevents the poorer districts from levying a tax sufficient to provide a school that meets State require- ments. It is useless to say that a district must employ only trained and competent teachers when it is too poor to pay a salary that will attract such teachers. It is useless to say that a local district shall maintain a school term of eight months when it is too poor to do so wholly on its own resources. Yet unless these things and others are guaranteed in all school districts children will be denied reasonable educational opportunities. Illiteracy and sim- ilar defects will be the result. No State can afford to allow such defects to continue. The existence of an adequate State Equali- zation Fund based on a tax of the wealth of 1 the whole State is fundamental to the equal zation of educational opportunities. Some this. Cali State-wide tax paid on public service corpora tions, that are exempted from local States have realized tornia a taxation each year raises thirty dollars per child in at The State Equalization Fund in this State in 1922 amounted to over $17,000 000. Substantial State Equalization Funds are provided in New York and Wisconsin a State-wide tax on incomes. The tendance. creation adequate school equalization funds is the first step in guaranteeing all children a fair educa tional opportunity and in removing our pres ent outstanding National defects. Money for the State Equalization Fund Should be Collected by a Statewide Tax. This tax should be levied on those new sources of wealth which modern civilization has produced. Income, inheritance, and busi ness taxes should be the sources of future addi tions made to State Equalization Funds, rather than an extension of the property tax. Prop erty should be left free from taxation by the State in so far as is possible to do so. It is sufficient to tax property in the local district Such a procedure will be a wholly new one in many States. It will involve reorganization of the methods of obtaining a complete for the support of public enterprises. badly mone} Such a reorganization is needed in The the people of the Nation grapple with this problem and effect an intelligent solution the sooner will many of our present governmental complete most of our States. soonel! weaknesses disappear, among them the inade quate schools maintained in so many of our communities. The problem of how to obtain through economical and just methods an adequate share of the Nation’s great wealth for the support of public schools at present transcends all other educational issues. On its successful solution rests the continued progress of the Nation’s schools. No citizen can do the public school property tax will linger. University. - OTHER words, the reason why our revenues are inadequate is because we are tinkering with an outworn and irremediably defective machine. to say that there are not States in this country which are more agricultural in character than, let us say, New York or Massachusetts or Illinois, where for some time perhaps the general But I do mean to say that the sooner we realize that the real basis of taxation, the real criterion of ability to pay has changed from property to produce, or yield, or earnings, or profits, or income, the better for all concerned.—Prof. Edwin R. A. Seligman, Columbia You can’t patch it up. I don’t mean 289] system of his State a greater service during American Education Week than by informing himself on the issues that underlie the ade- quate support of our public schools. The progress that has been made in such States as New York, California, Maryland, and Wis- | consin deserves the study of all citizens. The State School Equalization Fund Should i be Distributed Among the Local Dis- i, tricts in a Manner that Guarantees if Every American Boy and Girl an Edu- Hi cational Opportunity The creation of an adequate State Equaliza- tion Fund is not sufficient to guarantee equal- ity of educational opportunity. Unless this } fund is wisely distributed it will fail to ac- complish its purpose, 4 No local district should be able to draw money from the State school fund until it has = levied a reasonable local school tax, that is, has made an effort on its own resources to main- tain schools that meet minimum standards. by In the State of Maryland, which has one of 1g the best methods of distributing State school money that exists in the Nation, no county may receive State aid for its schools until it has levied a county school tax of sixty-seven cents on each one hundred dollars of its as- sessed valuation which the State legislature sets up as a reasonable school tax. When a county in Maryland has levied such a tax and is still unable to meet the State’s minimum educa- tional requirements, the State pays to it from the State Equalization Fund the difference nec- essary to maintain a standard school. The State of Maryland has not only specified cer- tain minimum educational opportunities that shall be guaranteed all its children, but has made it possible for all districts to meet these requirements. Most of the States, however, do not possess an effective method of distribut- ing such money as is available for the equali- zation of educational opportunities. The in- equalities that mark the educational systems of most of our States are the result. Has your State by the creation of an adequate State ion Fund, and by the adoption of a proper method of distributing this fund to the local districts, recognized this fundamental principle— the wealth of the State shall educate the children of the State regardless of where the wealth is located and where the children reside? The People Through the State Should Main- tain an Efficient State Department of Education Every State should maintain an eficien: staff of educational experts in its State De partment of Education headed by the Star, Commissioner or Superintendent of schools. The control of education unde: governmental system legally rests in the hands of the State. The State delegates to the loca! community most of the work of maintaining schools. In thus delegating this duty, how ever, it should not neglect to see that all chi! dren in the State are guaranteed an educa tional opportunity through the enactment of A Stat Department of Education is the instrument through which the will of the State should b laws such as have been enumerated. carried out. will be intelligently enforced if its State D: The laws effecting education partment of Education is headed by a compe tent State Superintendent of Schools supported by an adequate staff of educational experts. These leaders should have the training and experience that will qualify them to aid t local districts in making their schools more effective. The research and necessary to the efficiency and progress of our local school systems often will be absent un less provided under State auspices. ‘This does not mean that the State should not continu to delegate to the local districts the duty « supervision s running their own schools. It does mean it however, that every State should exercise s ficient control in all districts so that no chil dren in the United States will be denied th right to an education. It does mean that al! States should provide a source of voluntar leadership in educational matters to which th: local districts may look with confidence in thei efforts to maintain effective schoo! systems. Has your State an efficient State Department of Education headed by a capable State Superinten- dent of public instruction, supported by a slaff % trained and experienced educators? [290] HOW TH LO Ci 1f OU schoo replas zens | public catior peopl. All c f Th Natio the h exist ¢ iar Wl One being once a room Parent have ; comm«e Have y Hov of the may be school ing the papers sensatio even ir supplen the rep Careful vot Lack allows | bilities j board. efficiency board e determir lection | other sck means tl of the sg exercised (ain- it of ublic our lands | 10¢ ining how > chil- Im pe , orted r and | the more does tinue ntar\ h the their HOW MAY THE PEOPLE STRENGTHEN THEIR SCHOOLS ACTING THROUGH THE LOCAL COMMUNITY? Constant vigilance is the price we must pay if our public schools are to be efficient. No school law or administrative machinery can replace a real interest on the part of the citi- zens of the community in the welfare of their public schools. Many of our outstanding edu- cational weaknesses will be corrected by the people acting through their local school boards. All citizens should keep themselves in- formed as to conditions in their schools The proper training of the children of the Nation requires a close cooperation between the home and school. This cooperation can exist only when parents are thoroughly famil- iar with school conditions. Visit Your Schools One of the best means of knowing what is being done is to visit the schools. At least once a year, every parent should visit the class- room in which his child is being instructed. Parents, principals and teachers will come to have a much better understanding of their common purposes as a result of these visits. Have you Read the Last Report of Your Superin- tendent of Schools? How many citizens read the annual report of their superintendent of Here may be found authoritative information as to school conditions. ‘The information concern- ing the schools which appears in the news- papers may have been selected because of its sensational value. The school news available even in the most reliable papers should be supplemented by the information provided in the report of the superintendent of schools. schools ? Careful discrimination should be used in voting for members of the school board Lack of interest in school elections too often allows individuals unworthy of the responsi- bilities involved to gain a place on the school board. The local school board determines the efficiency of a community’s schools. This board exercises the ultimate authority in the determination of school policies and in the se- lection of the superintendent, teachers and other school officers. An efficient school board means that wise policies will govern the work of the schools. It means that care will be exercised in the selection of the superintendent staff. It that capable teachers will be placed in the class of schools and in his means rooms and that modern school buildings wil! be provided at the lowest possible cost. board are in if they are more interested in their own welfare than the welfare of the If the members of the schoo] dividuals who have “‘an ax to grind,” children, none of these things may be expected. Beware of the School Board candidate whose only platform is an intemperate criticism of the cost and con duct of the schools. Scrutinize the qualifica tions of the “grudge candidate,” perhaps dis gruntled because he has lost a school contract or because his child has had trouble with a teacher. Look for the candidate whose only interest is to make the school more efficient through constructive effort. A citizen can render no more effective services to the schools of his community, than by seeing that capable, honest, unselfish men and women are placed on the school board. See that a careful plan is in effect for the selection and retention of capable teachers Few things exercise as strong an influence upon the efficiency of the schools of a com munity as the plan whereby teachers are se lected. The should be delegated to the superintendent of schools and his staff by the board of education. Their training fits them to perform effectively this difficult vidual board members attempt to select teach- responsibility for selecting teachers educational function. If indi- ers, favoritism rather than teaching ability too often determines the The should limit itself to see that the plan for selecting teachers is a good one, and that it is selection. board effectively applied by the superintendent of schools. The board member who insists that he must personally select the teachers of a school system is more often interested in the advancement of his own political welfare than in seeing that only capable teachers are em- ployed. School Boards should adopt a_ salary schedule that will attract and hold capable teachers The payment of salaries to teachers can be justified on but one basis—they perform a val- uable public service. ‘The only sound justifi- [291] ee “ : 7 cation for the existence of a salary schedule is that it promises to improve the quality of service rendered by the teachers of the Nation to the children of the Nation. The majority of all American cities and towns have recognized the wisdom of adopting salary schedules. Through a properly worked out salary schedule a School Board is enabled to: 1. Secure and retain an adequate supply of competent and desirable teachers. 2. Encourage growth and more efficient work on the part of all teachers. 3. Place the raising and expenditure of school money on a business basis. Capable Teachers and School Officials Should be Guaranteed Tenure in Office A number of States and many cities by - adopting teacher tenure measures have recog- nized the desirability of guaranteeing contin- ued employment to capable teachers. Few things can do more to keep competent people in the teaching profession than the adoption by Boards of Education of rules that will guaran- tee a community the continued services of the teachers who have demonstrated efficiency. The lack of continuity of tenure in the office of Superintendent of Schools is one of the weakest links in the present conduct of our schools. A Nation-wide survey has just re- vealed that the tenure of the majority of the school superintendents of the Nation, is three years or less in any one community.! The continuance of this condition will greatly de- crease the effectiveness of the public schools. Three years is too short a time for a superin- tendent to work out and put into effect in a community a carefully planned educational program. Lack of continuity, waste, and a confused teaching staff are the most likely re- sults of a frequent change in the superinten- dent of schools. Many School Boards are at present failing in their most important duty—the selection and retention in office over long periods of time of capable superintendents of schools. Those who would strengthen our schools can do so by insisting that Boards of Education exercise extreme care in the selection of the superin- tendent of schools and that they do all in their power to retain his services for a reasonable period of time. The People Should Consolidate Those School Districts that are too Small to Maintain a Modern School The small local district with its one or two teacher school comes down from an earlie; time. Communication was slow and difficul; educational needs were simple and the little red school house served a great purpose. ‘That day has passed. ‘The small district capable of supporting but a one or two-teacher schoo] is no longer effective. Where it exists in large numbers, poor teaching, school terms of but a few weeks, and illiteracy abound. Educational progress in many States: waits upon the time when modern, consolidated graded schools replace the obsolete, ineffective but expensive one and two-teacher schools. In our cities such ineffective school plants are no longer tolerated. Their existence in thousands of rural communities need not be continued. Good roads have removed the greatest obstacle to school consolidation. There is no reason why the percentage of native-born illiteracy in rural comunities should continue to be four times as high as in the cities. What progress has been made in your State in replacing the expensive and ineffective one and two- teacher schools with modern consolidated schools? Every Community Should Have a Carefully Planned School Building Program Hit and miss methods are no longer ade- quate in providing school buildings, nor neces sary. School building needs in some cities are predicted with great accuracy. Buildings are properly distributed to take care of present needs and to allow for probable growth in population. They are planned with the edu- cational objectives of the city in mind. Noth ing is guessed at that can be known. There is no reason why the knowledge that is readily available of how to plan school building programs so that there will be the least possible waste of money and loss in schoo! efficiency should not be applied in all cities. A Board of Education that fails to have such @ plan worked out for its present and future guidance in housing the school children of the community is failing in an important duty. Has your School Board a building program that promises to provide every child a sec: in « modern school building at the least possible cos!’ 1 The Status of the Superinten lant, Department of Superintendance, First Yearbook, National Education Association. (2R2i We svstel comm Millic denie: births millio 1920 1 ever” The easily we alt decad that | of ma tunity and gi a slog: The N Tho Nati Nati Savi Educ | and T 1904 ¢ Juuua States Natio! Natio! in the The es Leo D to the T per it is to p Edit e in two- 5? ully ide- ities ings ram nd Can the Nation Afford an Adequate School System? Weak spots in our present educational systems keep the public schools in many communities at a low level of efficiency. Millions of American children are being denied the opportunities that should be their birthright. The confession by over three million illiterate, native-born Americans in 1920 that they had had “‘no schooling what- ever” proves the statement. The weak links in our school system may easily be strengthened. The knowledge that we already have if put into action would in a decade obliterate every one of the weak spots that lower the efficiency of the public schools of many communities. “ Equality of tunity in education for every American boy and girl,” can be made something more than Oppor- a slogan. The Nation’s Wealth Is Adequate Those who would hold back because of the cost of 2ood schools re fuse to face the facts. No Nation in the world compares with the Sehool costs represent but an insignificant part of United States in wealth and income. the Nation’s annual income. The cost of public / hools rep nis @ Of Lléss than one half Of one per nt on the Nation’s total wealth and requires less than per-cent of the Nation's annual income. The cost of all public elementary ana yndary schools in 1920 was less than s n percent of the amount of money lying in the “ savings accounts’ of the Nation’s people in 1921, a year when the recent business depression was most acute. These facts give little support to the contention that the wealth of the United States is inadequate to meet its school costs. \ moderate degree of faith in the efficacy of the public school as an instrument of social progress would fully justify present- day school expenditures. TABLE 24.—THE NATION’S WEALTH AND EDUCATIONAL EXPENDITURES National wealth in 1920 National income in 1919 National income in 1920 Savings Deposits in 1921 Educational Expenditures in 1920 Juuuary, 1923, p. 194. States in 1920 place it at over $350,000,000,000; see W. R in the field. to the U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1922, No. 29, p. 42 The estimate of National wealth in 1920 is based upon the last Census estimate of wealth, that of 1912, Wealth, Debt and Tazation Vol. 1, assuming that the increase between the eight y« 1904 and 1912; see J. A. H. Keith, Educational Opportunity as Related The estimate given is probably conservative since other estimates of the wealth Ingalls, Wealth and Income of the American People, p. 3l National income in 1919 is the figure issued by the Notional Bureau of Economic Research in Income in the United States, National income in 1920 is independently estimated on the advice of one of the best informed economists at pre It is $2,000,000,006 lower than an estimate recently made by the National Industrial Conference Board, The estimates of savings deposits for 1921 is that given in the Journal of the American Bankers Association, July Leo Day Woodworth. Educational expenditures include the cost of 66, 252,601,000 70,000 .000 . 000 16,618,595 000 1,036,151, 209 irs following 1912 was as great as between the years to School Revenue, Pennsylvania School Journal, of the United sent working 1922, by all public elementary and secondary schools according But when reduced to its lowest terms T= SUM spent on education sounds “enormous.” the cost to each individual—it seems very small. Taking the country over, it is about 3 cents per person per day. It seems hardly fair to charge education with the excessive burden of which it is such a small part. We are able to give without “sorely taxing” our ability what is needed to provide adequate school advantages for all, if only we regard the education of our children as a primary duty of the State. It is a matter of priority of interest and not a question of ability.—From Editorial in New York Times for September 10, 1923. The Burden of School Costs Did Not In- crease During the War Decade The percentage of the Nation’s income devoted to education in 1918 and 1920 was practically the same as that expended in the years preceding our entrance into the World War. The figures in Table 25 give little support to the belief that there was a ten- dency for the relative burden of school costs to increase between 1910 and i920. It is true that school costs measured in dollars have increased in recent years. A dollar, however, no longer has its pre-war value. The inexorable effect of the deprecia- tion of the dollar has not been felt by the school alone. The operating costs of com mercial concerns have greatly increased as a result of the same factor. In order to com- mand a day’s labor in 1920, $6.66 was neces- sary when $3.00 would have obtained the same amount of labor in 1914 according to a study by the Russell Sage Foundation. The cost of building material similarly increased and requires double the expenditure per unit of construction. The Purchasing Power of the Money Fx- pended for Schools Was Less in 1920 Than in 1913 Public schools cost $521,546,375 in 1913. In 1920 the public schools cost $514,604, i, stated in 1913 dollars. Public school officials when they went out into the open market to buy human services and the material equip- ment necessary to maintain schools wer $6,941,541 poorer in 1920 than in 1913. The decrease in the purchasing power of the money appropriated for the schools would have had a far less harmful effect jf the purchasing power of the money availab); to other National groups had not increased If the school superintendent, the manu- facturer and the merchant had all lost equally in their ability to buy, the schools relatively would have been as well off as ever. But when the money at the command of the schools loses in purchasing power while that at the command of other institutions in- creases, the results are that the best human material goes into other fields of work than teaching and other buildings than schools get first call on labor and building materials. 1 See Research Bulletin of National Education Association, March, 1923, p. 69 ff. for the complete tabulations upor these figures are b: TABLE 25.—NATIONAL INCOME AND SCHOOL COSTS Yow National Income sa — al Em 1 2 3 4 1910 $31,400,000, 000 $426, 250,434 1.36 19.2 33 ,000 ,000 ,000 482,886,793 1.46 1914 33,200,000 ,000 555,077,146 | 1.67 1916 45 , 400,000,000 640,717,053 1.41 1918 61,000,000 ,000 763 ,678 ,089 | 1.25 1920 70,000 ,000 , 000 1,036,151,209 1.48 The National income estimates are those issued by the National Bureau of Economic Research in Income in the | States, except for 1920. This figure is independently estimated as explained in Table 24. It is two billions below the est” mate of the National Income for 1920 given on page 30 of Tazation and National Income, recently issued by the Nationa! Industrial Conference Board. The educational expenditures are those officially issued by the U. S.Bureau of Educat and include the cost of all public elementary and secondary schools. IT is true that the educational budget has increased more rapidly than the popula- tion, it is not true that it has increased more rapidly On the contrary, it may be affirmed, with little fear of contradiction, that from the economist’s point of view the growth of prosperity in the United States as a whole has been so enormous as to make the proportion of educational expenditures to the real wealth of the community actually smaller than it was in past decades.—Edwin R. A. mae Trained Men, December, 1921, page 205. than the wealth of the community. [294] schoo gettin promi teac hi hous { school 1S be in At the Whi sum ¢ execut attend same facturt cent al and sche ols Changi The place g was wh educati Now m comes streets | with a over m the sch WV than mon form the s the t mon thing of in reors the r gene prog! line | The ourse of or the p tender LT [hese very things have happened. Normal school presidents complain that they are setting a decreasing percentage of the most promising high school graduates to train for teaching, while millions of housed in temporary shacks or else attend school but part time each day. The school is being outbid all along the line. children are At the Same Time Attendance Rapidly Increased While the purchasing power of the total sum of money at the disposal of school executives decreased between 1913 and 1920, attendance increased 22 percent. Thisisthe same as ordering a manager of a manu- facturing concern to increase output 22 per cent and then reducing the amount of labor and raw material at his disposal. The schools had more to do, but less to do with. Changing School Conditions Make Greater Demands on the Schools The whole tendency of modern life is to place greater burdens upon the school. Time was when the life of the farm furnished many educating influences to the Nation’s children. Now much of the child’s out-of-school time comes under the evil influence of the city streets unless the school steps into the breach with a play ground. The home is turning over many of its former responsibilities to the school. As a result, the school has an ever increasing share of the job of raising the Nation’s modern life requires a longer and more care- ful training of the youths of the Nation than did the relatively simple life of the pre- children. [he complexity. of industrial era. The part of this increased training and education that is gained in the school is growing each decads New Responsibilities Require Additional Expen- ditures The amount of money placed at the dis- posal of school officials so long as present tendencies continue should show a gradual This should not be The total must represent an increase in purchasing More dollars that purchase less are increase. merely a dollar increase. amount spent power. no different than more rubles or more marks that purchase less. It is buying power that counts. Decreasing the purchasing power of the school’s money and increasing the school’s work can have but one result—the school will become less and less efhicient. If the schools are to become more and more efficient in preparing the children of the Nation for successful citizenship, the ability of school officials to obtain capable teachers, and suitable school buildings and playgrounds must increase, not decrease with each de cade. monsense to spend that dollar collectively. the things it wants less. of indiscriminate public expenditures. the rate set during the last decade. general problem. line of the battle. tendence Year-Book, National Education Association. \ \ JE SHOULD do publicly all those things which we can best do publicly. can be obtained by using a dollar’s worth of economic effort in collective public action than can be obtained by leaving it in the pockets of people to be privately spent, it is merely com- But the point is that we have run close, perhaps dangerously close, to the limit under our old forms of organization and with our obsolete machinery. The old forms creak and groan under the strain. The community is unable to distinguish clearly between the things it wants more and As a consequence there is waste in the sense that we spend much public money for things that are not worth the cost, and refrain from spending public money for certain things we want very much indeed because of fear lest such expenditures may open the floodgates There is a vast unfinished task of political and economic reorganization which must be attended to if we are to continue to increase public expenditures at The problem of educational finance is a part of this wide It cannot be solved satisfactorily until the general problem is solved. progress is being made toward a solution, and school men are among those who are in the front But the character and magnitude of the task is still only faintly perceived. The issue in the battle is perhaps the very life of democracy itself. ourselves to a study of our political and governmental forms with the object of evolving new types of organization, which wil! make it possible to secure intelligent clear-cut decisions as to what the people really want in the way of education and other public activities. If greater returns Some We must then reconcile Department of Superin- papas amar oe ee ee “2 ee Can Society Meet the Cost? Modern civilization has rapidly increased the percentage of the supply of human services and material available to the Nation after the elemental necessities—food, shelter, and clothing have been provided for. A larger and larger per cent of the Nation’s income is available for those things that make life more liveable. The common man has things that the king of yesterday could not afford. If this were not true the United States would not be able to keep its 13,- 000,000 automobiles going. It is, therefore, perfectly feasible to grad- ually increase the percentage of the Nation’s income that goes for the higher things of life, few of which are more important than our schools. This is not only feasible, it is necessary, if the schools are to do more and more work for society and do it well. Why Single Out the Schools for Short Rations? If the Nation’s productivity were actually decreasing there would be some justification for decreasing school costs. Then the whole Nation would have to go on short rations, the schools along with the rest. But the Nation’s productivity increased more rapidly _ between 1914 and 1920 than did school costs. Measuring them both in dollars, National income increased 111 per cent from 1914 to 1920, while expenditures for all public elementary and high schools increased 87 per cent. Let’s Not Be Fooled The demagogue who takes advantage of the fictitious increase in school costs that has resulted from the depreciation of the dollar, to berate the extravagance of schools— making no reference to the fact that school costs have increased no more rapidly than other costs—is no friend of the Nation. The politician who warns that school expenditures will “bankrupt the Nation,” while he neglects to mention that the Nation’s income has increased more rapidly than school costs when both are measured in dollars—is more 1 See What the schools do in relation to what the Education Association, for the Squres in this and su! coins ost, Herbert S. Weet, Report of the Department of Superintendence, paragraphs. interested in his own wellbeing than in th, of the Nation’s children. ing from $1000 to $2000 for one year education, while he supports agencies th,; issue misleading statements about the cog of public education, which gives a year’s schooling for less than $100—is no champio of the public welfare. Let’s not be fooled by the fact that th, school tax seems large because we pay for jt all at once. We are paying larger amounts for less important things without complain- ing because the payments are made in smal sums as we go about our daily lives. When the increase in school costs see-ys large remember that the 15 cent magazin now sells for 35 cents. Remember that tly loaf of bread that now costs 8 and 10 cents is none other than the old familiar 4 and 5 cent loaf. Consider what you get for you school taxes. Five hours of schooling fo; your child costs 40 cents. What does fiv: hours at a motion picture show cost?) Which is worth more? All public elementary and high schools cost approximately 3 cents per day pel person. Does the same expenditure in an other field bring as large a return? ia often each day does everyone of us toss away many times 3 cents for benefits much less valuable than the maintenance of public schools, without even the hint of a wry face? Consider Returns As Well As Costs For $450 a child is given six years of in- struction in our best public schools in the fundamentals—resulting in the ability “‘to read. and write and speak correctly the English language and to know and use th elementary processes of arithmetic.” ' Six years of instruction in health and per- sonal hygiene—the type of instruction that actually carries over into life and results in better care of the teeth and appreciation of the laws that govern the well being of th: whole body—costs but $12 a year, or $72 in all. [296] The rich ma who sends his children to a private school —pay. } tion are t: found the ( the SO demos you Pp some | Ad hased portal agenc\ the pi suppo! of acct Schoo! Py The but a TABLE AN Expendi ties, e Expendi E3 eludi cordi the York in th Expe Bure Expe are p tiona gove! catio! the te are a‘ the re this t time. educa fracti T auto mate land regu wast ment econ yello can t they the p adjust for it ounts plain- small seems raZine at the nts 1s und 5 youl io for s five Vhich hools pel any How toss much ublic face For $12 a child receives a year’s instruc- n geography, history, and civics! These -+ ion are taught in such a way that they lay the foundation for good citizenship. the child the ability to assume his share in the social, civic and industrial order of such a They give What equal benefit can Yet democracy as ours. you purchase for your child for $12? some accuse the schools of extravagance. \ decrease in school costs must either be based upon a belief that the relative im- portance of the school as a constructive agency of modern life is decreasing or that in the past the school has enjoyed too much support. Both of these conclusions are out of accord with the facts. Schools Do Not Receive an Unfair Share of Public Expenditures The cost of public education represents but a small fraction of all public expendi- TABLE 26.—EDUCATIONAL EXPENDITURES AND OTHER EXPENDITURES IN 1920 Expenditures for all Governmental Activi- ties, except Education Expenditures for Education 1920 $8 884 .614,7 1 ,036 Expenditures for all governmental purposes, in- eluding education in 1920, was $9,920,766,000 ac- cording to Taxation and National Income, issued by the National Industrial Conference Board, New York City, page 14. The subtraction of school costs in the same year results in the figures given here Expenditures for Education for 1920 taken from U.S Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1922, No. 29, p. 42 Expenditures for both of the items given in this table are not available for years later than 1920. The Na- tional Industrial Conference Board estimates all governmental expenditures in 1921, including edu- cation, at $9,373,595,000. No reliable figures as to the total cost of public education subsequent to 1920 areavailable. Just what changes have taken place in the relative amounts expended for the items listed in this table cannot, therefore, be stated at the present time. It can be stated with certainty, however, that educational expenditures in 1923 constituted a minor fraction of the total expenditures for public purposes 1920, the last year for which Sear ' hgures are available, but twelve cents out of tures. In every dollar expended for public purposes went for the maintenance of elementary and high schools Is this too large a percentage to devote to a public service of such para- mount to the Nation education of its children? importance as the School Costs are Small When Compared With Other National Expenditures of Less Importance Phe Nation greater sums for purposes much less likely each year spends vastly to advance the public welfare than education. TABLE 27.—ESTIMATED ANNUAL EXPENDI- TURES FOR LUXURIES, 1920. Cand $1,000,000,000 [Tobacco 2,111,000,000 Soft Drinks 350,000,000 Perfumery and Cosmetics 50,000,000 Admissions to theatres, dues, etc SUU,000 000 Ice Cream 0,000,000 Cakes, Confections, et« 50,000,000 Luxurious Services } 000,000,000 Luxuries in hotels and restau- rants 50,000,000 Luxurious food, etc 5,000,000,000 Joy riding, races, pleasure re- sorts, etc. 3,000,000,000 Cost of Luxuries $17,361,000,000 School Expenditures 1 036,000,000 The figures as to the expenditures for luxuries are taken from a statement issued by the Treasury De partment, June 11, 1920. The figures as to the cost f education are the same as those given in Table 26. Che food value of candy is high. Its con- sumption in large quantities probably makes life more liveable. Who would argue, how- single feast. T= SAVAGE squanders his all and wastes the patrimony of the next generation in a The inheritor of his culture squanders billions annually on superfluous automobiles, loads his women with the spoils of a province, and gets his only form of approxi- mate intellectual satisfaction from the weekly devastation of many square miles of wood- land. It is useless merely to deplore the evils of the day and worse than useless to attempt to regulate them by taxation or other forms of legal control. waste will be saved only by generating in the masses a culture which seeks more rational enjoy- ment and which eventuates in a better sense of values. economic and social problem for the liberal arts as was identification and control of the germ of yellow fever an economic and social problem for the student of biological science. can be solved, first, by equipping teachers for the secondary school with the actual culture which they are intended to impart and, second, by developing and training students of distinction for the production of genuinely cultural material for popular reading. adjustment of Our Fundamental Schools, The School Review, Sept. 1923 In the end, our billions of luxurious That seems to me exactly as vital an The problem Henry Clinton Morrison, The Re- Mm ™“s po Si moti ph prellaca : ~ ever, that the billion spent annually for candy brings as much benefit to the Nation as does the billion spent for education? Twice as much money was spent for to- bacco in 1920 as for the support of all public elementary and secondary schools. One may not wish to deny tobacco to adults who feel able to pay for it and who gain satisfaction from its use; but who would care to argue that the general good is advanced as far by the expenditure of $2,000,000,000 for tobacco each year as it is by the expenditure of $1,000,000,000, for education? A Nation’s Resources May Be Expended Wisely or Unwisely A certain percentage of a Nation’s re- sources must always go to the provision of the primary necessities of life—food, shelter, and clothing. Modern civilization has lifted man above the place when all of his energy must be expended in providing these neces- ‘sities. A large supply of human energy and the products of human energy exist above and beyond that necessary to provide the mere necessities of life. The destiny of a Nation is determined by the wisdom which it shows in the use of this surplus. It may be used for the provision of great armaments, for the construction of good roads, for the provision of gladiatorial contests, for the maintenance of schools, or for any of a thousand institutions capable of satisfying human wants. The Support of the Public School Is a Wise Ex- penditure Among those purposes for which a Nation may expend its resources, none promises a greater return in worthy human satisfaction No Nat better able to support adequate pub! schools than the United States. The public school, supported and trolled by all the people, free and open to al! children, subservient to no race, sect. 0, political group, is America’s greatest cop. than does the public school. tribution to modern civilization. It is th, keystone to the Nation’s remarkable prog. ress. It holds the best promise for futur development. Let’s Face the Facts The issue is one of priority, not of ability Our resources are sufficient to give us every- thing we want in public education, if we de- cide intelligently what we want and want it badly enough. The problem is one of social values and choices. Does the Nation want race-tracks more than it wants adequate playground facilities’ Are we more anxious to provide an unlimited supply of pleasure-cars than we are to pro- vide buses to carry children to schools mad effective through consolidation? Do billions spent for “luxurious food” bring greate: dividends than thousands spent to provid the children in slum sections with enough food so their starved bodies will respond to the efforts of the teacher? These are th choices that must be made. When we face the facts, there is but on choice that we can make and be true to the welfare of the Nation. That choice 1s adequate support for our public schools. We have the knowledge which put into use will make all schools good schools. We can afford to give every American boy and girl the educational opportunity that will best develop their capacities Are we going to do it? there shall be Strayer, Journal of Education, November, 1923. F WE believe that the American ideal which suggests that every individual should have an for making the most of himself is more important than amassing wealth, more important than any other governmental enterprise, then we shall certainly support our schools . . » « We must seek to develop that standard of values which places opportunity for individual! growth and development above any other good which can be secured. We must help our public to stand fast and to work, yes, even to sacrifice, in order that the day may come in America when teed to all ‘a fair start and an equal chance in the race of life.’’—George ) [298] Wh maint [he re \mer! to no super Russia lesson It h educat in tim ment 1 deavor educat have f markec the foll EDUCA A Wi Stk Hi, Co Th by Gr gan \ The more th success What | ing 1 a Ge The { have m reaping The evi relations the deg: possess t T? and ¢ we pr cellar bette Comm ity int it } cial more ities? nited pro- made lions eatel vide ough id to tne rT one q) the “¢ 1S e will ord to tional cilies f marked success in life. Do Good Schools Pay? What evidence is there that it pays to maintain good schools? much. lhe resourcefulness and initiative which the \merican soldier showed in the last war was to no small degree dependent upon his education. Russia’s illiterate horde lesson to all the world. It has long been assumed that superior There is superior was an object education similarly increased effectiveness in times of peace. Superior accomplish- ment in practically every line of human en- deavor is an accompaniment of superior education. Those of superior education have a far greater chance of achieving A recent study gives the following typical results: EDUCATION AND CHANCE OF ACHIEVING DISTINCTION Amount of education Chance of achieving distinction Without education | 1 in 161,290 Sth grade education 1 in 40,841 High schoo! education 1 in 1,606 College education 1 in 173 The figures in this table were taken from a study by George P. Hambrecht and J. G. Childs, Sheboy- gan Vocational School, Madison, Wisconsin The man with a college education has more than 900 times the chance of achieving success than has the man without education. What Returns are the States Receiv- ing that Had Good School Systems a Generation Ago? The facts indicate that the States that have maintained good school systems are reaping large returns on their investment. he evidence comes from a study of the relationship between school efficiency and the degree to which the people of a State possess the desirable qualities often credited The helplessness of to the influence of good school Let us hirst consider the relative stand ig of the school S\ stems of the several Otates a genera- tion ago. What Was the Rank of the States in Public School Efficiency a Generation Ago? Table 30 shows in column two the efficiency of the school systems of the States in 1900 as Avres’ a simple method whereby the effectiveness measured by Ayres’ Index. Index is of the school systems of the States may be compared. This index rates a school system on the following ten points: 1. Per cent of school population attending school daily. 2. Average days attended by each child of school age. 3. Average number of days schools wer kept open. 4. Per cent that high school attendance was of total attendance. 5. Per cent that boys were of girls in high schools. 6. Average annual expenditure per child attending. 7. Average annual expenditure per child of school age. 8. Average annual expenditure per teache! employed. 9. Expenditure per pupil for purposes other than teachers’ salaries. 10. Expenditure per teacher for salaries. The standing of a State in these ten items is combined in a single figure. lhe ratings thus obtained for the several States in 1900 are given in column two, of Table 30. The rank of the States in public school efficiency is given in column five. This ranking roughly indicates the relative ethciency of the school systems of the States a generation ago, when our present adult population was in school. T= GREAT conception of America that every man should be given an equality of opportunity to take that position in the community to which he is entitled by virtue of his character We must preserve it as the most precious thing we possess, for when all is said and done the finer flowers of civilization do not grow from the cellars of poverty any more than they grow from the palaces of extravagance. bettering the comfort and well-being of the whole of great peoples. and ability, is the keystone of our structure. Commerce in the “Nation's Business,” June 5, 1923. They grow from Herbert Hoover, Secretary of [299] Sy een Good Schools Produce a Citizenry in Which the Level of Educational Attainment is High The percentage of the native-born, white population that is literate is a rough indi- cation of the general level of educational attainment of a State. Column three of Table 30 gives the percentage of literacy among the native-born, white population of each State in 1920. The rank in literacy of each State is given in column six. There is a close agreement between the efficiency of a State’s public school system a generation ago and the level of educational attainment of its citizens today. The States whose school systems ranked high a generation ago, rank high today in the percentage of literacy and the States whose schools were poor a generation ago rank low in the percentage of literacy. The five States that ranked highest in school efficiency in 1900 have an average percentage of literacy in the native-born, white popula- tion of 99.6. The five States lowest in public school efficiency have a percentage of literacy of 94.6. Or stated in terms of illiteracy, the five States that have main- tained poorest school systems have 13 times as high a percentage of illiteracy among their native-born, white population as do the five States that have maintained the best school systems. TABLE 28.—SCHOOL EFFICIENCY AND LITERACY Good Schools Produce a Citizenry Which Keeps Itself Informed on Public Af- fairs. To be well informed, a citizen must po: only be able to read, he must use that ability. Literary Digest, because of the character o| The circulation in a State of th, this magazine, may be accepted as a rough indication of the efforts of the people of that State to keep themselves informed on questions of the day. Table 30 in column four gives the per- centage that the circulation of the Literary Digest is to the population of the several States. States in educational efficiency in 1900 and A comparison of the rank of the the circulation of the Literary Digest today may be made using the figures in columns five and seven. Those States that ranked high in public school efficiency a generation ago, rank high in the percentage of Literary Digest circulation, and vice versa. The average percentage of Digest circulation to population in the fv States with the best school systems in 1900) is 2.11 in the five States with the poorest school systems it is .66, or less than one-third of the former. Lite rary TABLE 29.—SCHOOL EFFICIENCY i900 AND ects toechest | Sataen of LITERARY DIGEST CIRCULATION 10922 efficiency native-born Ayres’ ae | (arog Genera! information 1900 e 1920 Rank in in public affairs States school per cent of Literary J 2 3 efficiency | Digest circulation to a ae fh ocd ave w ; pF _ population Endy «.5kh ob : District of Columbia. || "| 3 99.7 x _ z—| - California................ 4 99.6 Res cs: Seeeanes * : 1.4 7 i ew Yor 2 20 Connecticut.............. 5 99.6 Dist ict ‘of Columbia. 3 : 4 _ a a 96.4 Connecti Ra anys Obs uae 83.7 Arkansas...........--. 45 6 : Mississi n.. North Carolina........... 49 91.8 Sout Cerolina vn sy 7 4 ov ondbpapdeomoaet meee North Carolina ..\:-\| 49 | Average of five States with best | | Average of five States with poorest school | school systems...........206..-. | 2.1 Average of oe 5 States with poorest } ee 6b wep ndiok age vpedamaramagye yee rs | State as measured by the percentage of liter dni Midaiindets ade pogiation ab Stas as it should be? Are the citizens of your State as well informed on public affairs as those of other States? [300] TABL Michig Minne: Mississ Missou Monta Nebras Nevad: New H New Je New M New Y North | North Ohio Oklaho Oregon Pennsy Rhode South ¢ South I Tennes: Texas. . Utah Vermor Virginis Washin West V Wiscon: Wyomi 1) and today slumns public rank Digest terary } ne Nive n 1900 woorest p-f hird o AND 22 —__——_—— "mation airs jiterary ation to on TABLE 30. AND INFORMATION ON PUBLIC QUESTIONS EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT INFORMATION PUBLIC ON PUBLIC PUBLIC SCHOOL EFFICIENCY, GENERAL LEVEL OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT ation, The ranking of the States in columns 5, ®, and 7 is based med on ; The figures given in column 4 were obtained by dividing tl in The Work They Do and Where They Live, 1922 Circulation at n the figures given in columns £ mn figures of the Literary D the Literary Digest, p ! 9 at, DY SCHOOL measured by QUESTIONS F i i : States EFFICIENCY percentage of ee by —_—= —— he on according to white per cent that school tional at tion on Ayres’ Index native-born circulation of efficiency tainment public 1920 population Literary Digest questions literate 1920 is of population Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 United States 33.68 98.0 1.287 Alabama 19.50 93.7 ] 18 Arizona {0.17 7.9 f ) Arkansas 20.99 ) California 14.80 ). 58 } Colorado $1. 5S 8.6 Q Connecticut 13.13 9 50 Delaware 30.10 2 9 District of Columbia 14.90 99 67 6 ; Florida 12.45 97.1 10 Georgia 21.54 94.5 6 { Idaho 29 . 25 99 678 { Illinois 37.18 19 9 ; Indiana 36.33 8.7 1) Ps lowa 34.49 99.505 9 P Reneni 31.54 99.4 10 Kentucky 25.23 0 4 q33 Louisiana . 21.55 89.5 WR | 9 Maine 33.70 98.4 a) Maryland . 35.49 98 22 ) Massachusetts 49 52 99.612 ) Michigan. . ; 35.60 99 .33 x2 \ Minnesota 35.41 99.57 @ " Mississippi 20.89 96.4 3 16 Missouri 31.65 97.09 R ry f Montana 39.51 99 67 7 0 Nebraska 36.11 99 60 128 ; Nevada 12.37 99 64 679 7 . New Hampshire ’ 33.82 99.3 8 6 New Jersey 40.26 99 42 77 ) F New Mexico 24.86 88 .4 10 r New York 46 . 57 99.5 } ? North Carolina 17.51 91.8 8 19 { North Dakota 34.83 99.61 2 j ) Ohio...... 37.34 99.1 2 Oklahoma. . 23.27 97.7 39 Oregon... ; 32.04 99 .622 28 ) Pennsylvania 36.97 99 25 } Rhode Island : 43.05 99 ) 6 South Carolina 20.75 93.5 600 17 South Dakota 33 .99 99 .620 ) ; f Tennessee. . 22.23 92.7 79 1] Texas...... 24.43 96 .96 SS 3S ( " = 37.51 99.658 100 l 4 Vermont... . 35.44 98.5 20 ) f Virginia . 21.69 94.1 ) 12 4) Washington 37.14 99.71 7 1 West Virginia ; 27 .07 95.4 76 5 Wisconsin at 34.31 99 35 58 | Wyoming 31.91 99 .657 76 9 f The standing of the States in public school efficiency as given in column 2 was determined by using thod given in “An Index Method for States School Systems,’ Leonard P. A Russell Sage Foundation. 8 99 for a brief description of this method The percentages given in column 3 are taken from Vol. IIT, ) census generation. Idaho Teacher, January, 1923, page 220. T® GREATEST obligation that any generation owes is the obligation that it owes to the next That obligation we discharge through the function of education. Paysan Smith, 301 kk ) Good Schools and a High Level of General Intelligence Go Together The results of the army intelligence test give data whereby the States may be com- pared as to the general intelligence of their white male adult population. In column three of Table 33 is given the average score made by the white troops of each State on the Army Alpha intelligence test. The rank of a State in public school efh- ciency in 1900 as given in Table 33 column five may be compared with the rank of its white troops in the army intelligence tests given in column six. Those States that had good school systems in 1900 made high scores in the army in- telligence test. How much one is the cause of the other may be disputed, but that there is some relationship few would deny. The five States with the best school systems in 1900 made an average score of 73.3 on the army intelligence test; the five States with the poorest school systems made an average score of 43.9. Men making scores of 73 in the army test were classified as having “average intelligence.”” Men making scores of 44 were classified in a lower group desig- nated as “low average intelligence.” In short the difference between a score of 73 and 44 in the intelligence test was recog- nized in the army as a significant difference. TABLE 31.—PUBLIC SCHOOL EFFICIENCY AND GENERAL INTELLIGENCE The States With Good Schools Have Pro. duced the Largest Percentage of the Nation’s Leaders The book known as Who's Who lists th, names of most of the Nation’s leaders men and women who have gained promi- nence in various fields of National endeayo Column four of Table 33 gives the per- centage of the population of the States j; 1870 that is now listed in Who’s Who Most of the men and women in Who’s Who were born in the decade following 1870, and we may assume that for most part they wer educated in the schools of their native State. the efficiency of which between 1890 and 1900, when these men and women were i: school, is indicated in column two. A comparison of the rankings of th States in public school efficiency and in th percentage of their population listed in Who’s Who may be made, using the figures in columns five and seven. Those States that maintained the best school systems when the men and wome: of today were in school have produced th: largest percentage of the Nation’s leaders, while those that maintained the schools have produced few leaders. The five States with the best systems in 1900 have .11 per cent of their population in 1870 in Who’s Who, while th five States with the poorest schools have but .03 per cent of their 1870 population in Who’s Who, or approximately one-fourth of the former. TABLE 32.—PUBLIC SCHOOL EFFICIENCY AND THE PRODUCTION OF MEN AND WOMEN OF LEADERSHIP poore st | school Was the general inteiligence of the white troops of your State as high as it might have been? Rank in Average score of public white troops in Rank in Percentage of States school general intelli- States public population in efficiency gence 1918 | schoo! 1870 now in I 2 3 efficiency Who's Who Massachusetts.......... 1 71.6 a | et i aes 2 64.5 Massachusetts. . 1 District of Columbia. . . 3 78.8 New York..... 2 O08 Saye 4 78.1 District of Columbia. . 3 Connecticut............ 5 73.6 California i 4 0 Connecticut. . 5 Arkansas.............. 45 41.6 — Mississippi 46, 41.2 SS See 45 South St ee 47 47.4 Mississippi. nav eee 46 Alabama...... 48 46.3 South Carolina......... 47 North Carolina......... 49 43.2 ‘eke’ 48 0 North Carolina......... 49° ( Average five States with best school ——— CITB: ow Bhaevie-s ows Keme iinet. coe’ 73.3 Average of five States with best se chool Average five States with rest school oe ee ee oe lca aa 0 43.9 Average of five States with poorest school Is your State producing its proper share of the Nation's leaders? [302] TABL! — Kentue Louisia Maine Marvla Massac Michig: Minnes Mississ! Oklahor Oregon Pennsy! Rhode | South ¢ South I Tenness Texas Utah Vermon Virginia Washing West Vi Wiscons Wyomir rix lor wh the sch Uni e Pro- of the ere | yt the in the ed in best vome!l d the ade rs, oorest school ; their ile the ve but ion in rth of [ENCY AND age of ion in yw in Who oF the TABLE 33. PUBLIC SCHOOL EFFICIENCY, GENERAL INTELLIGENCE AND LEADERSHIP IN NATIONAL AFFAIRS States United States Ajab Arizona \rkansas (a rma ( do Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Flonda Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming The standing of the State given in ‘An Inder Method for States School PUBLIC SCHOOL EFFICIENCY measured by Ayres’ Index 1900 33.68 My OO 10 26 24 86 for a brief description of this method The scores given for the States in column 3 white troops in the Army Intelligence examinations as given in tab Vol. XIV, 1921, p- 682 The figures in column 4 were obtained by dividing the total of persons native to that State listed in Who's The ranking of the States in columns 5, 6, and 7 is based upon the GENERAL INTELLIGENCE measured by score of native whites in army intelligence test 60.6 6 1.6 P > ‘ hH ( ) 78.8 5 4 { j ) H4 8 wi 1 4.4 hH ; 4 ) 5.2 67.0 56! 71.6 63 64.0 11.2 ~Q = 68.5 66.2 64.4 61 9 iS. 7 60 .{ 64.5 13.2 a7 1 67.3 9 Vs ) 79.9 65.1 62.9 1/4 58 17.2 50.9 9 9 79.2 5.6 6.5 77.8 3 in public school efficiency as Systems,"’ Leonard P Who are calculated fr LEADERSHIP IN NATIONAL AFFAIRS public measured by school percentage of population in Who's Who Rank in efficiency Column 0558 66 ‘ fh ia) } 6 7 ) & 16 ) , ? 6 ) }ON 6.5 2 ) > i > 40) WO4 & 1536 O66 6 I 17 > O28 U t » IQ ) 0 1 19 + j 0626 14 OS578 4 WSR 1) olumn 2 was determir j Ayres, Russell Sage Found the distributions of the 10 in Memoirs Natio opulation of the State in figures in columns 2 Rank in general intelligence Column DD scores r | 870 int , and 4 \/ ae THE last quarter of a century we have come to see, with a clearness of vision not approached before, that education is our nation’s greatest constructive tool, and that the many problems of national welfare which education alone can solve are far greater than the school masters of two or three decades ago dreamed. United States, p. 10. E. P. Cubberley, Public Education in the The Workers of the States That Have Main- tained Good School Systems Earn More Per Capita Table 36 gives in column three the income per person gainfully employed according to the latest figures available. A com- parison of the rank of the States in income per capita with the rank of their school systems in 1900 may be made, using the figures of columns five and six. The figures show that the men and women of the States with good school systems are generally receiving much higher returns for their work. The average earn- ings per worker in the five States with the best school systems is $994.20, while that of the five States with the poorest school systems is $516.46, or little more than half as much. TABLE 34 —SCHOOL EFFICIENCY AND EARN- ING POWER St _—> t pom | ates y efficiency — 1900 1920 7 2 3 Massachusetts.......... 1 $976.58 O'S SS. aa ae 2 1,079.98 District of ae.. 3 1,025.53 California......... 4 978.45 Connecticut............ 5 910.45 ee eer rr Tee 45 $509.43 Mississippi............. 46 469 .94 —_ aotae et > ee 47 603.12 rss dihied ac 48 468 . 22 North Carolina a eailtid 49 531.58 Average of five States with best school MIEN, Sls Sadeghi ce osc oeaces soc $994.20 Average =e five orem with haere school systems. . ‘ $516.46 Is the earning power of the workers of your State lower than it should be? The Savings Per Worker Are Highest jp Those States That Have Maintaine; Good School Systems The total savings bank account per worke; by States is given in column four of Jah), 36. The rank of the States in thrift is o in column seven. By comparing these ranks with the State’s rank in school efficiency th, correspondence between the two may }y estimated. The figures show that workers in thos States that have maintained the best schoo! systems generally have substantiall) savings accounts. the savings account of the workers in th, five States with the best school systems 1900 was $378.39, while that of the fy States with the poorest school systems was only $46.44, or less than one-eighth of th: former. TABLE 35.—SCHOOL EFFICIENCY AND THRIFT AS MEASURED BY SAVINGS DEPOSITS ] larger The average amount of Rank in Account in a public savings hank States school per person gain- efficiency fully employed os 2 1921 uy) ae seat a Massachusetts l $41 New York ; 2 $18 District of Columbia. ..| 3 131 California keel 4 39 Connecticut 5 166 Arkansas. . ; 45 $27 09 Mississippi. 46 Qf South Carolina al 47 Alabama... _ sa hp 48 7 North Carolina , 49 sf Average of five States with ~or sc hooi systems. $378 Average of five States with poorest school systems. x place in American life. = IS another change more fundamental than any of those mentioned heretofore, the development of education, which is one of the most remarkable revolutions that has taken This wide spread development in education has distinct significance: In the first place, our earning power is being augmented; more people are earning money with which to buy mer- chandise. In the second place, there is an increasing appreciation of good merchandise; a greater number have increased ability to understand such a message as you have to give them, to under- stand the value of paint, to understand differences in quality. the nuniber of people who can be reached witb a printed message is vastly increased. Up to the present time only a relatively small part of the population has been able to ¢«' enough impact from a printed message to be vitally influenced by it. not read at all. Some people who do read have not sufficient intelligence to get an impulse from it which is strong enough to lead to action. These people buy through imitation, or they bu) what merchants urge upon them, or their more intelligent neighbors recommend. But ever) year our schools are turning out a larger number of people who can think for themselves an. to whom you can appeal with your message in a way which will enable you to build markets. Charles C. Parlin, Merchandising in 1922, Curtis Publishing Company. In the third place, it means that A great many people do [304] Unitec aho Illinois Indian lowa Kansas Kentuc Louisis Maine Mary!s Massac Michig Minnes Mississ Missou Monta: Nebras Nevads New H New Je New M New Yi North ¢ North | Ohio Oklaho: Oregon Pennsy| Rhode South ( South I Tenness Texas. . Utah. . Vermon Virginia Washin, West V; Wiscons Wyomi: ‘St in tined TABLE 36.—PUBLIC SCHOOL EFFICIENCY, EARNING POWER AND THRIFT —_ EARNING THRIFT PUBLIC POWER measured by SCHOOL measured by account in Rank in Rank in States EFFICIENCY | yearly income Savings Bank school earning Rank in according to per person per person efficiency power thrift Ayres’ Index gainfully gainfully 1900 employed 1919 | employed 1921 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 United States 33.68 800.73 $200.00 \labama 19.50 4168 .22 Arizona 30.17 868 A{rkansas 2). 99 509 California 3.80 978 Colorado 59 803 . 3: Connecticut = 13 910 Delaware : 30.10 986 . 9% District of Columbia 90 1025.53 Florida. . 22.45 540 Georgia 54 531 799 O57 722 lowa 887 . 2: Kansas 762.7 \VINGS ff | Kentucks 35.38 515 : Louisiana 21. 564 Maine 33.70 72 Maryland ; ‘ 862 Massachusetts 7.92 976. 5s nt in a is bank Michigan 891 son gain- Minnesota 738 mployed Mississippi , 469 .¢ d Missouri iavaevi é 3S 665 Montana. Palas | f 667 Nebraska. . . : , 898 .2 Nevada. ... p 2.¢ 1029.5 New Hampshire , 33.82 | 730.8 New Jersey. . eee } 959 New Mexico... + 24.86 549.7 New York ‘ome 46.! 1079 North Carolina 17. 531 North Dakota... A 34.8: 708 Ohio. . . ts < 3 857 Oklahoma. ..... ice : 23.27 715 Oregon rere 3: 871 Pennsylvania , 36 880 Rhode Island... .. 43 .0! 899 South Carolina : . : 603 South Dakota. 33 . Of 904 Tennessee. ...... nt ere 22 . 22 482.2 ; (Nee i cabal 24.42 706 Utah ds : 37. 700.7 . ‘ , 35 655. 5% Virginia a ens on 6 P : i 566. Li. ee 37 . 1¢ 967 .46 West Virginia. ... 27 605. 24 12 Wisconsin .