f i / ( \ Proceedings of the Rational Education ^Association 1 939 Courtesy Worcester Museum This year , 1939 , marks the one-hundredth anniversary of the founding of the first state normal school at Lexington , Massachusetts. The illustration pictures the old building that was leased for the first th ree years of its existence. Today there are nearly two hundred four- year teachers colleges. The entire teaching profession has joined in celebration of this notable anniversary . NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES PROC DING OF THE SEVENTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING HELD IN SAN FRANCISCO JULY 2-6 1939 VOLUME 77 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES WASHINGTON, D. C. - FOREWORD This book comprises the seventy-seventh annual volume of Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association of the United States. It contains the papers delivered at the meetings of the Association and its de¬ partments in 1939 and the official records of the Asso¬ ciation for the year 1938—39. In the preparation of this volume it has been neces¬ sary to abstract many of the papers, particularly those delivered before departmental sessions, owing to the abundance of material and the limited space available. Wherever abstracting has been done every effort has been made to preserve the essential ideas the speaker conveyed in his complete address. Where the material for a given department exceeded the space available for that department, the officers of the department were asked to indicate which addresses to include. In a few cases addresses were received too late for inclusion in the volume. Willard E. Givens Executive Secretary Contents of previous volumes of Proceedings of the National Education Association may be found by consulting the Education Index. CONTENTS VESPER SERVICE A Tribute to the Late R. E. Offenhauer of Ohio . — Saunders . A Tribute to the Late Charles O. Williams of Indiana . — Mooney . A Tribute to All Departed Members . — James . The Tower of the Sun . — Brother Leo. .. PROFESSIONAL EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS Financing the National Education Association . — Saunders . Report of an N.E.A. Department . — Fahy . Work of an N.E.A. Committee . — DuShane . The Educational Policies Commission . — Carr . Planning N.E.A. Programs for State and Local Meetings.. — Thalman . All-Inclusive Membership . — Gayman . Local Affiliated Associations . — Joynes . Work of a State Classroom Teachers Association . — V an Winkle... Program and Problems of a State Association . — McIntosh . Use of N.E.A. Exhibits . — Barnes . Programs and Problems of Local Teachers Associations... — Remy . Programs and Problems of Local Teachers Associations. . . . — Dial . Programs and Problems of Local Teachers Associations ... . — Batdorf . The Work of the Representative Assembly . — Shaw . GENERAL SESSIONS Greetings . — Rossi . Address of Welcome . — Dexter . Greetings . — Brady . Address of Welcome . * . — Caulfield . Response . — Dahl . Responsibilities of Our Profession . — Shaw . Recognition of Secretaries of State Education Associations. — Givens . It Is Happening Here . — Mason . Are We Going To Lose Our Heritage of Civil Liberties. . . . — Thomas . Estimates of Lincoln — A Son of American Democracy . — Campbell . Education for Democracy . — Conklin . The Motion Picture in Education . — Hays . Presentation of Award to Caroline S. Woodruff . — Shaw . Address by the New President . — Hinrichs . MORNING ASSEMBLIES Bringing the World into the Classroom . Intelligence — Its Nature and Nurture: A Symposium Intelligence — Its Nature and Nurture . — Freeman Relationships in Mental Development . — Jones ... Problems of Presentday Youth Vocational Guidance and Education . — Rutledge Youth in a Changing World . — Reeves Career Training for American Youth . . . — Williams DISCUSSION GROUPS Civic Education for a Democracy Social Justice . — Knezevich Social Activity . — Jones .... 19 20 21 22 26 28 30 32 33 34 36 37 40 41 42 44 45 46 48 49 50 51 52 53 61 63 67 72 76 80 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 95 97 98 [7] 8 National Education Association Critical Judgment . — Tolerance as a Factor in Civic Education . — Social Applications of Science . — World Citizenship . — Law Observance . — Economic Literacy . — Devotion to Democracy . — Social Services and the Schools Social Services in American Life . — The Sphere of Educational Service . — Community Library Service . — School Health Program . — Welfare Program of the Schools . — General Policies in the Administration of Social Services— Cooperation in the Improvement of Teacher Education Cooperation in the Improvement of Teacher Education— Work Projects Administration Education Program Responsibilities of the Public School for Adult Education- Public School Action in Providing Opportunities for Adults . — Can America Afford To Educate Her Children Must States Choose between Schools for Youth and Pen¬ sions for the Aged . — Reducing the Financial Inequalities between Urban and Rural Schools . — Shall School Budgets Be Determined by Independent Boards of Education or Shall They Be Submitted to Other Governmental Bodies? . - How Important Is the Safeguarding of Local Initiative in the Whole Program of Financing Education? . - What Federal Aid Means for Public Education . - Cooperatives and Credit Unions Current Legal and Legislative Trends in Cooperative Work . - Operating Problems of Teacher Credit Unions . - Salaries and Economic Status of Teachers The Nationwide Salary Situation . - Estimating the Cost of a Proposed New Salary Schedule- The Single-Salary Schedule . - Tenure Hearing The Tenure Program in New York State . - The Tenure Situation in Pennsylvania . - Problems in California . - The Tenure Problems That Idaho Faces . - The Status of Tenure in Connecticut . - Retirement What Constitutes a Good Teacher Retirement Law?. What Part Should Teachers Take in a Campaign for Retirement Legislation . - What Is the Teacher’s Responsibility in a Retirement System ? - What Is the State’s Responsibility in a Retirement System? . - Evaluation of Secondary Schools by the Methods of the Coop¬ erative Study of Secondary School Standards From the Point of View of a Large High School . - From the Point of View of a Classroom Teacher . - ■Tighe . 99 ■Thurston . 100 -Rodes . 101 ■Woodruff . 103 ■Aseltine . 104 •Hunt . 105 ■Avery . 107 -Pence . 108 -Adams . 109 -Coolidge . 110 -Bauer . 112 -Cohn . 113 -Allen . 114 -Bigelow . 115 -Alderman . 117 -Putnam . 118 -Larson . 119 -Morgan . 122 -Muller . 124 -Samuelson .... 126 -Dawson . 127 -Taylor . 130 -Stout . 131 -Davis . 133 -McTaggart ... 134 -Baxter . 137 -Weeks . 138 -Ferguson . 140 -Everett . 141 -Snyder . 142 —Harrington . . . 143 —Brown . 145 —Hayes . 146 —Merchant . 147 —Helms . 148 —Jensen . 149 —Southworth ... 150 Contents 9 From the Point of View of an Accrediting Association . — Moe . 152 From the Point of View of a State Department of Edu¬ cation . — Emerson . 153 MORNING ASSEMBLIES Enlightened Public Support for Education as a Professional Responsibility Enlightened Public Support for Education as a Profes¬ sional Responsibility . — Hunter . 155 Support of Education: A Professional Responsibility.. — Samuelson ... 158 Enlightened Public Support for Education as a Profes¬ sional Responsibility . — Sears . 159 Relationships with Central and South American Countries The Role of Education in International Cultural Relations — Cherrington . . . 160 Trade Relationships . — Mears . 164 The Use of Motion Pictures in Forming Attitudes of Children The Use of Motion Pictures in Forming Attitudes of Children . — May . 165 LIFE MEMBERSHIP DINNER Historical Note . 168 Eleventh Annual Life Membership Dinner . 169 Progress thru Teacher Education . — Woodruff . 169 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Historical Note . 176 Educational Progress during 1938 . — Good . 177 The School and the State in American Democracy . — Counts . 178 The School and the State in American Democracy . — Kilpatrick .... 180 Report of Advisory Committee on Education and Impending Legislation . — Reeves . 182 Report of Advisory Committee on Education and Impending Legislation . — Stray er . 183 The Responsibility of Education to the State and to Democracy — Burton . 184 What Shall Be the Relation of the School to the State in American Democracy? . — W eersing . 187 The Relation of the Teacher to America’s Changing Pattern — Phelps . 189 The Relation of the Teacher to America’s Changing Eco¬ nomic Pattern . — Frasier . 190 Secretary’s Minutes . 191 ADULT EDUCATION Historical Note . Why Adult Education . Some New Directions in Adult Education . Organization of Education for Literacy . Selection of Teaching Personnel for Adult Classes.. Program of Counseling for Young Adults . The Place of Consumer Education . Report of Legislative Committee . Report of Consumer Education Committee . Report of the Committee on Resolutions . . . 198 — Alderman . 199 — Cartwright . . . 200 — Wiese . 203 — Travers . 204 — Griffin . 206 — Snyder . 207 — A it on . 208 — Buckhart . 209 . 210 10 National Education Association AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR HEALTH, PHYSICAL EDUCATION, AND RECREATION Historical Note . President’s Message . — Cozens . . . Youth in a Democratic State . — Williams In the Front-Line Trenches in School Health Work . — Nyswandcr The Challenge of Recreation . — Romney Recreation, the Municipality’s Responsibility . — Lloyd. .... Facts and Fancies about the Dance in Education . — Shelly Criteria of Success . — Scott . Social Hygiene Education — Discussion . The Administration of Health Education . — Shankland Scientific Principles underlying Instruction in Health, Physi¬ cal Education, and Recreation . — Cureton The Responsibility of the Schools for Recreation . — Samuelson Secretary’s Report . 212 213 214 215 217 219 221 223 224 225 227 228 229 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS Historical Note . A United Profession . — Givens ... Changing Conceptions of Educational Administration . — Strayer . . . The Relation of Administration to Instruction . . — Hall .... Human Resources and Their Development . — McAndrew Conservation and Democracy . — Ickes .... American Youth Looks at Its Future . — Day . Greetings . — Shavu . Presentation of the Yearbook . — Corning The Village Revue . — Hatch . . . The Dilemma of Democracy . — Masaryk . Secretary’s Minutes . Resolutions . 232 233 238 248 252 260 269 276 279 287 307 315 319 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS COLLEGES Historical Note . A Century of Teacher Education . — Smith Committee Reports . Report of the Secretary . — Hunt List of Accredited Institutions — 1939-40 324 325 334 357 370 AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ASSOCIATION Historical Note . The Stanford Social Education Investigation . — Quillen Hearing: An Educational Problem . — Spencer Science Education and Pupil Prejudice . — Gilbert Comparisons between Classmates’ Estimates and Self-Esti¬ mates of Personality during Adolescence . — Tryon Secretary’s Report . Report of the Auditing Committee . Brief Report of the Committee on Awards . 376 377 381 386 387 388 395 395 ART EDUCATION Historical Note . Creative Design in Bauhaus Education . — Moholy-Nagy . . The Function of the Museum in the New Art Education — Munro . The Young Art Teacher and the Community. . — Myers . 398 399 400 401 Contents 11 Art at Greeley, Colorado, State College of Education . — Baker Art among the Liberal Arts . — Pepper Presentday Tendencies in Elementary Art Education . — Glenn Training Tomorrow’s Art Teacher . — Poore . Art in the Village . — Church 402 403 404 405 406 BUSINESS EDUCATION Historical Note . Opening Address . — DeBrum Social Responsibilities of Business Education . — Kyker .... Frauds and the Consumer . — Tsvetkoff Will the Pieces Make a Pattern in Consumer Education?. . — Cassels . . . Educated Consumers Make Better Citizens . — Montgomery Trends in the Merchandising Curriculum . — Kenealy ... Vocabulary Building for Secretarial Students . — O'Leary Illustrations and Hints on Making Secretarial Practice Equip¬ ment Where None Is Available . — Seale . An Integrated Program of Distributive Education: Its Social and Economic Significance . — Shaw . The Teaching of Transcription . — Bowman .. Special Class Projects in Shorthand . — Sundwall Nonvocational Aspects of High-School Bookkeeping . — Clevenger Lost Horizons and Business Education . — Slaughter The Voice of Business in Education . — Jones . What’s Ahead in Business Education . — Blackstone Business Education on the Junior Level . — Travis . . . Testing and Grading . — George . . . Secretary’s Report . 408 409 411 411 412 413 413 415 416 417 418 419 419 419 420 420 421 421 421 CLASSROOM TEACHERS Historical Note . President’s Report and Recommendations . — Dahl .. Analyzing Propaganda . — Graham Rural Teacher Honored . . Report of the Committee on Academic Freedom . — Rockwell Secretary’s Minutes . 424 425 428 431 431 432 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Historical Note . : . Report of 1939 Editorial Committee . — Fertsch A Philosophy for Elementary Education . — Heffernan Social Interaction and Implications for the Elementary School . — McSwain The Crisis of World Affairs . — Silver . . . Democratic Living — A Program for Schools . — Zyve Reorganization of the Elementary School To Meet the Needs of Children . — Betts Accent on Art . — Samuelson What the Teacher Expects of the Principal in the Enrich¬ ment Program . — Graham Leisure Time of Girls and Boys . — O'Connor Use of the Elementary-School Auditorium . — Brimskill One Way To Build Character . — Smith Board of Health, School, and Community Relationships . — Davidson Children’s Voices: A Reader for Children by Children . — Convery . Address . . — Fairbanks Secretary’s Minutes . . 444 445 446 447 449 452 454 457 459 461 462 463 464 466 466 470 12 National Education Association HOME ECONOMICS Historical Note . 478 Home Economics, an Essential in Education . — Greer . 479 Some Suggestions for Correlating and Integrating Home Economics with Other Subjects . — Winning . 480 Trends in the Basic Curriculum in the Secondary Schools. . . — Rice . 481 Home Economics in the Basic Course . — Milligan . 482 Objectives of Consumer Education for the Several School Levels . — Stark . 483 Differentiation in Materials and Technics in Consumer Edu¬ cation for the Several Schools . — Smith . 484 Practices and Implications of Homemaking Education for Boys and Men on Various School Levels . — Elliott . 486 Morale in Family Life . — Ldovs . 487 KINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY EDUCATION Historical Note . Reading and Language and Failures . — Bonsall .. Character Building To Prevent Failures . — Warren Contribution of Esthetics to Prevention of Failure . — Porter . . What Kindergarten and Primary Teachers Can Do To Pre¬ vent Failures in the Middle Grades — An Attempt at Solution . — Samuelson Recent Research and Its Implications for Elementary Edu¬ cation . — Moss . . . . We Look About Us . — Reynolds Secretary’s Minutes . 490 491 491 494 495 498 499 499 LIP READING Historical Note . Children — Look, Listen, and Learn . Discussion of Mr. Doyle’s Paper . Discussion of Mr. Doyle’s Paper . Developing Civic Responsibility thru Lip Reading Developing Civic Responsibility thru Lip Reading Developing Civic Responsibility thru Lip Reading Secretary’s Minutes . — Doyle . — Erickson — Duckies — Hester . — Yockey — Scriver 502 503 505 507 507 508 508 510 Historical Note MUSIC EDUCATION 512 NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF DEANS OF WOMEN Historical Note . . . 514 Trends in the Position of Dean of Women and Dean of Girls — Strang . 515 General Semantics in Education, Counseling, and Therapy. . — Campbell . 518 NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Historical Note . 526 Education for Democracy . — Russell . 527 The Purposes and Policies of the Planning Committee . — Bacon . 534 NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR THE SOCIAL STUDIES Historical Note . 542 Problems of the Pacific . — Lasker . 543 The Guidance Function of the Social Studies . — Chaffee . 548 Building Social Studies Courses To Meet Pupil Needs . — Stelter . 548 Contents 13 Teaching Devices and Enrichment Materials for Meeting the Needs of Adolescents . — Chapman . 549 Secretary’s Minutes . 550 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF ADMINISTRATIVE WOMEN IN EDUCATION Historical Note . Women in Education . Woman’s Place in a Changing World Secretary’s Minutes . . 552 — G oodykoontz . . 553 — Field . 555 . 557 RURAL EDUCATION Historical Note . The School of Tomorrow . Reorganization of Rural School Districts for Efficiency and Economy — Process and Results in Ohio . - Reorganization of Rural Districts in West Virginia . - Responsibilities of the Supervisor Providing for Teacher Growth in Service . - Adapting the Curriculum to the Needs and Experiences of Children in Rural Communities thru Organization . - Adapting the Curriculum to the Needs and Experiences of Children in Rural Communities in Organization and Content — The Physically Handicapped . ■ Education for the Physically Handicapped Child in an Ohio County . - Adapting the Curriculum to the Needs and Experiences of Rural Children for Behavior Problems . - Community Resources in Rural Schools . ■ Transportation — General Plan of Operation in the State of Florida . ■ School Bus Transportation in Georgia . ■ Pupil Transportation in California . Transportation — General Plan as Used in Alabama . Transportation: General Plan as Used in Wisconsin . The Use of the Community as a Source of Instructional Material in the New Providence School, Montgomery County, Tennessee . ■ The Use of Community Resources in the Essex School . • The Status of the Rural Teacher . Rural Schools at Work To Improve the Quality of Country Life — The Fallbrook Union High School . Rural Schools at Work To Improve the Quality of Country Life: Music Program in Placer County, California . The Land Is the Textbook . Rural Schools at Work To Improve the Quality of Country Life: Developing Good Taste at Silverhill, Alabama.. Secretary’s Minutes . Report of the Committee on Resolutions., . — Young -Shanks -Vaster -Byers -H cffcrnan -Mclntire -Coffeen . . -Hyson -Wofford -Morphet -Collins . -Clifton -M eadovus -Callahan -Fite . — IV ennerberg — Robinson — Potter -Flood -Raymond — Moore . . 562 563 564 565 568 569 570 571 573 576 579 581 583 584 586 588 590 591 593 595 597 598 602 604 SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Historical Note . 608 The Organization of the National Committee on Science Teaching . — Davis . 609 Science Meets the Needs of Boys and Girls . — Oberholtzer ... 613 A Land Use Program for the Senior High School . — Strong . 614 14 National Education Association Teaching the Scientific Attitude in the Junior College . — Conley Conservation Functions in a School System . — Rowan Responsibility of Science in Social Attitudes . — Tracy How Science Fulfils the Needs of Boys and Girls in the Chi¬ cago Schools . — Johnson Secretary’s Minutes . . 614 615 615 616 618 SECONDARY TEACHERS Historical Note . Unifying the Secondary Curriculum around the Problems of Youth . — Leonard The Core Curriculum . — Sparhawk Problems of Integration and Correlation at the Secondary- School Level . — W ahlquist The Significance of the Study of International Relations. . . — IV inter The Departmental Placement of Junior College Geography. — Shrode . Musical Experiences Appropriate to a Program of Integration — Hawkinson Secretary’s Minutes . 620 621 623 625 627 628 629 630 SPECIAL EDUCATION Historical Note . 634 The California Program of Special Education . — Hicker . 635 Some New Steps in the Field of Special Education . — Horn . 636 The Federal Government Must Assume Responsibility for Aiding the Education of Physically Handicapped Chil¬ dren . — Lee . 637 The Personality of the Special Class Child . — Richmond . 638 The Emotional Factor and the Problems of Children . — Pfister . 639 A Special Educational Service for Homebound, Physically Handicapped Elementary Youth . — Darlington .... 640 Sight-Saving for Every Child . — Blend . 642 Parents and Special Education . . — Laws . 642 Secretary’s Minutes . 645 SUPERVISORS AND DIRECTORS OF INSTRUCTION Using VISUAL INSTRUCTION Secretary’s Historical Note Part-Time VOCATIONAL EDUCATION . . 648 — Hosic . . . 649 — Lamorcaux . . .. 656 — Dale . . . 659 . . 663 . . 666 — Edwards . . . . . . 667 — Lake . . . 668 — Hart . . . 671 — Elliott . . . 671 — Lichtman . . . . . 672 . . 674 . . 676 — IV right . . . 677 — Beeman . . . 678 — Clover . . . 679 , — Milligan . . . . . . 680 Contents 15 A National Viewpoint on Guidance . — Jager .... A Community Program of Vocational Education in Operation — McClure . Industry’s Responsibility for Training . — Wells . . . . The California Plan for Trade and Industrial Education. . — Beswick Vocational Education and the Community Agencies . — Mallary .. A Program of Job-Finding and Student Placement . — Benbow . . Curriculum Values in Vocational Education . — Rutledge . WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS Historical Note . The 1939 World Federation Cruise . — Monroe .. ASSOCIATIONAL RECORDS AND INFORMATION Charter and Act of Incorporation . Bylaws . Standing Rules . Calendar of Meetings . Officers— 1938-39 . Officers — 1939-40 . Headquarters Staff . Committees, Commissions, and Councils . Minutes of the Nineteenth Representative Assembly . Minutes of the Meetings of the Board of Directors . Minutes of the Meetings of the Executive Committee . Minutes of the Meetings of the Board of Trustees . Financial Report 1938-39 . Budget Committee Report . — Collins Summary of Reports of Committees, Commissions, and Councils National Council of Education . — Pechstein Academic Freedom . — Smith . All-Inclusive Membership . — Gayman . American Legion and Other Service Organizations . — Dienst .... American Library Association. . — Parks . American Teachers Association . — Smith .... Appraisal Committee . — Pratt . Bylaws and Rules . — Adair Cooperatives . — Shaw . Credit Unions . — Moran . . Economic Status of the Rural Teacher . — Robinson .. Educational Policies Commission . — Carr . Equal Opportunity . — Bradley Ethics . — ‘King Health Problems in Education . — Wilson . . Individual Guidance . — Stolz International Relations . — W oodward Legislative Commission . — Hall National Congress of Parents and Teachers . — Pettengill National Council on Teacher Retirement of the N.E.A. . . — Hougham Necrology . — James Resolutions . — Hall . Salaries . — Elsbree . . Supply, Preparation, and Certification of Teachers . — J aggers Tax Education . — Wilson Tenure . — DuShane Annual Report of the Secretary . — Givens The Nineteenth Representative Assembly . Index . . . . . . . 681 681 682 683 685 686 686 690 691 697 701 712 717 719 725 731 732 770 809 817 837 841 861 870 872 873 874 875 876 878 879 879 880 882 883 884 885 885 887 888 889 899 900 901 910 916 916 918 920 922 959 983 The work on this volume , including the gathering of materials, editing, proofreading, and makeup, has been done under the direction of Lyle W. Ashby, assistant director of the Division of Publications, with the assist¬ ance of Ruth Hirst, Jessie M. Robbins, and Marjorie Starr. Joy Elmer Morgan, Director Division of Publications General Sessions VESPERS A TRIBUTE TO THE LATE R. E. OFFENHAUER OF OHIO JOSEPH H. SAUNDERS, CHAIRMAN, BOARD OF TRUSTEES,' AND SUPERIN¬ TENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEWPORT NEWS, VA. Re. offenhauer, treasurer of the National Education Association since o 1934, died on December 29, 1938, as a result of injuries sustained in an automobile accident. Mr. Offenhauer was born in Montezuma, Mercer County, Ohio, on August 10, 1881, graduated from Otterbein College in 1905, and took post¬ graduate work at Columbia and Harvard Universities. He became president of Bowling Green State University, August 25, 1937, after serving nineteen years in the Lima, Ohio, public schools, six years as principal of Central High School, and thirteen years as superintendent of schools. Previously he had been superintendent of the Erie County schools and principal in Sandusky and Mt. Vernon. As principal of the Sandusky High School, he served under Superintendent H. B. Williams who became the first president of Bowling Green State University at the time Mr. Offenhauer was doing graduate work at Harvard. Mr. Offenhauer was a member of many educational groups, and in addi¬ tion was a member of the Masonic Lodge at Lima, the Shawnee Com- mandery, the Toledo Consistory, the Scottish Rite; also the Torch Club of Toledo and Lima, the Kiwanis Club, and the Chamber of Commerce. He was prominent in many affairs of the city. He was chairman of the Com¬ munity Chest, a member of the Methodist Church and its Sunday school superintendent for many years. During his term as president of Bowling Green University, the student enrolment increased 18 percent, to nearly 1900, and he was directing an extensive construction program for which the state and the PWA provided nearly a million dollars. He personally created a vast amount of goodwill thru his sincere understanding and appreciation of human nature and atten¬ tive ear to the problems of students and friends of the institution. Tho president of Bowling Green University for but a year and a half, three new buildings, a new athletic field, and a new spirit which came thru his leadership are left as monuments. He was a gentleman, a scholar, an administrator, and executive, loved and esteemed by all for his considerate methods. For four and one-half years, Mr. Offenhauer was treasurer of the National Education Association, and as such, a member of the Executive Committee. His accounts were accurately and meticulously kept and, governed by his high ideals, his voice and his vote were always used to further those con¬ structive and progressive measures which, in his judgment, would advance the cause of education in the nation. [19] 20 National Education Association 1 knew him only a short while, as time goes, but only a short while was sufficient to admire his comprehension, his breadth of view, his toleration, his kindly and generous spirit, and his uniform courtesy to those with views different from his own. He never raised his voice in anger, and his reproof, if occasion required it, was as mild and gentle as that of a kindly father to a well-beloved son. He was a sincere friend. His friendship was of the type I like to call disinterested. He loved not because of one’s virtues but in spite of one’s faults. Such friendship requires magnanimity and generosity, faith in oneself and faith in one’s fellowman. Such friendship is the rarest and greatest of human virtues. Its essence is loyalty which Mr. Offenhauer possessed in the highest degree. He won the admiration and esteem of all who knew him. “None knew him but to love him, none named him but to praise.” Pessimists would have us believe that our public and private life is full of duplicity, lack of stamina, and want of character. The lives of such men as R. E. Offenhauer deny the truth of such an assertion and give us hope, faith, and courage for the future of mankind. Despite any apparent evidence to the contrary, the spirit of Christ as exemplified by Mr. Offenhauer is still the most potent force in the world today in creating that respect for the opinions of mankind which mold the individual, community, and national life of civilized people everywhere. Mr. Offenhauer was a man who will be missed in the councils of this Association, by the community he served, by a myriad of friends everywhere, and by the family to whom he was a devoted husband and a loving father. May the peace of God which passeth all understanding abide with him for¬ evermore. His life was gentle, and the elements So mix’d in him that Nature might stand up And say to all the world, “This was a man!” A TRIBUTE TO THE LATE CHARLES O. WILLIAMS OF INDIANA W. B. MOONEY, EXECLTTIVE SECRETARY, COLORADO EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, DENVER, COLO. Charles Otis Williams was born on a farm in Wayne County, Indiana, September 19, 1874. He died at his home in Indianapolis on September 13, 1938. Mr. Williams secured his early training in the public schools of his native county and later graduated from Valparaiso University. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in the states of Indiana, Illinois, and Ken¬ tucky. However, he selected the profession of teaching rather than that of law, and for a period of more than forty years Charley Williams devoted his life to the cause of training children for more complete living. That he never repented this choice of human service is evidenced by the fact that his epitaph, selected by himself, and carved in stone on his tomb, reads: General Sessions 21 A School Teacher Charles Otis Williams 1874-1938 Obviously, it would be difficult to agree upon all the items by which we may measure the success of a man’s life. However, we venture to say that most of us will agree that one has lived a successful life who has been a suc¬ cessful parent, who has been a good neighbor, a good friend of those with whom he has lived his life, and who has contributed something to the social welfare and progress of his time. The lives of his three sons, the great con¬ fidence and affection of his fellow workers in Indiana and his associates in the work of the National Education Association, the services he rendered the several communities in which he lived and taught and especially his services as county superintendent of Wayne County, Indiana, and his serv¬ ices as executive secretary of the Indiana State Teachers Association speak for themselves and in a loud voice pronounce the life of Charles Otis Wil¬ liams a success. In one of his sermons Dwight L. Moody once said: “Some day you will read in the papers that Dwight L. Moody is dead. Don’t you believe a word of it.” Last September we read in the papers that Charles O. Williams had died. We do not believe a word of it. Because of the life he lived, Charles O. Williams will live among us for uncounted years to come. A TRIBUTE TO ALL DEPARTED MEMBERS WILLIAM ALONZO JAMES, CHAIRMAN, COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY; AND PRINCIPAL, BALL HIGH SCHOOL, GALVESTON, TEXAS How fitting that we first assemble here in vespers for “The Hour of Remembrance.” Since this Association met in annual session a year ago more than two thousand members of our profession have passed to the Great Beyond. These have been taken from every section of our nation and from every rank of service. Teachers of little children, teachers of jmuth, college instructors, great leaders in educational thought have all alike laid down their burdens to join the ranks of the immortal. It is to the living to carry on the work of these noble souls. The names of these have been collected and listed by the Committee on Necrology and will be written into the permanent records of the Association and filed in the archives of the national headquarters building in Wash¬ ington. You have just heard a special tribute to two of these great men ; but, since it is not practical to speak individually of each of all the rest, let us, now, therefore, pay general, yet sincere, tribute to them all. In appreciation of all our departed fellow teachers and in gratitude to them for the lives they have lived, may we, in recognition of their many virtues, stand for a moment with heads bowed in silent meditation. (The Necrology List will be found on page 901 of this volume.) 22 National Education Association THE TOWER OF THE SUN BROTHER LEO, PROFESSOR OF LITERATURE, ST. MARY’S COLLEGE, CALIF. It would be a pleasant experience for the strangers within our gates whom we greet in a spiritual vein, and it would be likewise a happier re¬ membrance to those of us who, we think, are favored by living here perma¬ nently, if all of us could go some evening to Treasure Island which, as the President of the United States said on the day of its official dedication, rep¬ resents one territorial acquisition in the modern world that is not the result of bloodshed and aggression. Treasure Island, which literally was pumped from the bottom of the Bay and labored upon by all manner of experts in their trades and professions, came thru the months to be a dream city, fair to look upon and lovely to explore. Here we have, not precisely in copious plenty, for we of the West believe in nothing of excess, just as the ancient Greeks did, if not everything the world supplies, manifestations of human ingenuity and human enterprise and human idealism, the latest develop¬ ments in machinery, in agriculture, in business life and procedure; and not only the latest, for to be interested solely in the latest is a sure mark of vulgarity. We have likewise samples, at least, of the best that the past has handed to us in the transmission of our intellectual and artistic and spiritual in¬ heritance. And these things are there that we who guide the steps of the young and the young who are guided by us may not forget that the essence of civilization is not wearing clothes, is not eating cooked food, or is it reading newspapers and pounding typewriters. But they are there to remind us and those whom we direct and mold and form and stimulate that civiliza¬ tion is basically a transmission of human experience. In all ages it may be said, whether we like it or not, for the truth has nothing to do with our likes, most men have been failures; in all ages most men have possessed extremely limited vision ; in all ages, most men have been characterized by greed and sensuality and vanity and, in general, the seven deadly sins; in all ages, there have been blunders and confusions and perplexities and a dread lack of security; and in all ages the thoughtful have arisen, lifted their heads above the mass, and have cried out to the patient stars, “Watchman, what of the night?” And those few in each age have garnered some precious fruits of human thought and human living, some imperfect reflection of the image of human beauty, and these things they have transmitted to other ages, and succeeding ages, building from that precious transmission, enriching it with increments of their own, have so handed the torch to us. So on Treasure Island we can see something of the transmission of the torch, but the significant thing is the thing we cannot help seeing. A world’s fair has obviously many elements. There are cafes and there are those institutions correctly known as hotdog stands. The Fair has its vast buildings, its elephant trains; it has its other means of locomotion; it has its illumination, a marvel of modern science and a marvel, let me add General Sessions 23 not less definitely, of modern art. It has all these. But above all these there towers a symbol which, like all symbols of worth, is intrinsically beautiful but derives its value from that which it represents, the Tower of the Sun. We who pause in convention assembled during these days might allow our minds and our thoughts to cross the little stretch of water to Treasure Island and consider the Tower of the Sun. From more than one hill in this city of hills, you can gaze out at night, when the lights shine in all their splendor, and you will find above the base line of the exposition the tower rising, the phoenix at its top, and in the daytime or in the night-time, if you explore the island itself, you will find that all paths on Treasure Island lead to the Tower of the Sun. Is not that in a sense the process of education? It was said of Thomas Carlyle, who manufactured something of a personal philosophy of life, that he was like Moses; he led the people into the wilderness and left them there. Perhaps, accurately, that does not apply to Moses, perhaps it does not apply to Carlyle, but it does most emphatically apply to a good many modern prophets, and you, I know, particularly prophets in the domain of educa¬ tion and particularly prophets who bear the appellation of college professor. Is not modern education in some respects and in some of its manifesta¬ tions a tendency to follow the false prophet, to lead a whole generation into the wilderness and leave them there, everlastingly to experiment on fifty million guinea pigs for the glory of the experimenter? The true prophet in education and in life is not one who leads into the wilderness, but one who finds a path or makes a path that leads to light and sanity. And the external fact that the Tower of the Sun is the point to which all paths lead should give us renewed courage in our recognition that there are central points in education, too, to which all paths lead, and the value of the paths is deter¬ mined by the degree and the extent to which they lead to those culminating centers. But, more than that, the Tower of the Sun stands for you and for me as a symbol of two things without which civilization as we know it cannot endure. Those two things are our American standards and our recognition of spiritual values. This afternoon I am an American speaking to Americans. We are not concerned at the moment with peoples of other cultures, with peoples of other national allegiance. We as Americans are the only persons who can rightly understand our American standards and who can rightly live in accordance with those American standards. We do not know it all. We have made frequent mistakes. We can beat our breasts and say, "Mea culpa,” and sometimes “Mea maxima culpa,” but this is clear: We do not need and we do not want advice from abroad. We do not want any kind of propaganda from abroad, be it from the party of the left or from the party of the right. We do not want it from any kind of aggressors, either those who are now striving to expand at the expense of others, or those who in the nineteenth and preceding centuries expanded at the expense of others. You can call some of them democracies and you can call some of them 24- National Education Association dictatorships, but they are all tarred with the same brush, and essentially and basically their way is not the American way, their standards of democ¬ racy are not the American standards of democracy. If we would save our soul, it may well be that we first have to isolate our soul. The second thing for which the tower stands is our recognition of spiritual values. Centuries ago the great Dante Alighieri drew the distinction be¬ tween material and spiritual things. Let me paraphrase the explanation he gives in “The Purgatorio.” If I have a loaf of bread, and I meet a hungry man and break that loaf in two and give him half a loaf, obviously I have only half a loaf left. That is clear, because a loaf of bread is a material thing. There is an old legend dating from the early centuries of our era which I think should be a part of the intellectual inheritance of all our children. It tells of the great St. Martin of Tours. As a young man he was an officer in the Roman army, and one bitterly cold day, clad in his great scarlet Roman cloak, he was entering the gate of a city when he saw an ill-clad beggar shivering in the cold. Martin took the cloak from his shoulder, with his sword cut it in half and gave half the cloak to the beggar. That night, according to the beautiful story, Christ appeared to Martin in sleep, wearing the half cloak that Martin had given to Christ’s poor, and said, “Whatsoever you do for the least of these, my brethren, you do it to me.” The legend is beautiful and timely, but the point I wish to call your attention to is this: When he gave away half his cloak he had only half a cloak left, because a cloak is a material thing. In other words, wherever you have a material thing you have the element of quantity entering it. But spiritual things are otherwise, and in the spiritual domain no element of quantity occurs. For example, that little story of St. Martin, with its beau¬ tiful application, is not a material thing; it is a spiritual thing. Coming here today, it was mine. I give it to you. Some of you may have never heard it before. Each one has it to the extent of his capacity and willingness to absorb, but those of us who had it before have not lost it. The story is as much mine as it ever was, and even if there were fifty or one hundred people in this audience to whom that story has come for the first time, their possession and enjoyment of it does not detract in the least from the posses¬ sion and enjoyment of those who have had it for months or for years. Any system of education, any philosophy of education, any attitude toward education which overemphasizes the material is misleading and pernicious. There is a material element in our life. Most of us wear shoes, some of us wear trousers, others wear skirts. We all need bread and we all feel the necessity of economic security, and when we get a raise in salary we are not particularly displeased. But not by these things only can we endure. If our children, our students, our pupils learn merely to recognize the material concomitants of life, the necessity of preparing for a job, of doing material work in the world, of developing their material powers usually by overdeveloping their muscles, then the system which has brought them into being has been tried and found wanting. Our great privilege, our great opportunity, and surely our great incen¬ tive and inspiration is to realize that we are part of that transmission of General Sessions 25 civilization of which I spoke earlier ; that into our hands, however intrin¬ sically unworthy and weak, have been placed the precious increments of preceding trials and sufferings and heroisms and perceptions of beauty on the part of men and women, many of them wiser far and better far than we. This flaming torch, the spirit, has been placed in your hands and in mine, not merely for our personal satisfaction and aggrandizement but in order that we in turn may transmit the torch to those younger than we, to those more receptive than we, to those who perchance are destined to do in the world a greater and more important work than ours. Many of you have read the biography of William Lyon Phelps of Yale. Nothing in that book is more impressive than his statements: “As a teacher I have tried to make my students, from every point of view, better than I am. I want them to have more brains than I have, I want them to have more character than I have, I want them to have more happiness than I have, and I want them to do a bigger work than I have done.” There spoke a true teacher, a teacher possessed of the ancient and immemorial and every necessary natural virtue of magnanimity, bigness of soul. How can we instil magnanimity, how can we prepare our students to be bigger and better and finer and nobler than we are if we do not stress the spiritual values? With the material values only, we are lost. Europe today has to a large extent turned her back upon spiritual values, and you see the result. You see the result that was prophesied nearly fifty years ago by the English poet Kipling, a man who did respect spiritual values, when in the great “Recessional” he wrote: For heathen heart, who puts her trust In reeking tube and iron shard, All valiant dust that builds on dust, And guarding, calls not Thee to guard. Look at the turmoils and confusions and alarms of Europe today. Every¬ where, except in a few isolated spots, such as Switzerland and Ireland, you see the fulfilment of that prophecy, for great poets — and Kipling, in a meas¬ ure, was a great poet — are likewise great prophets, and it is unfortunate that too often they are Cassandras telling the truth, the tragic truth, but not receiving credence. The world is made up of the individuals composing the world. The nation is made up of the individuals composing the nation, and national morality never rises higher than individual morality. This may be criticism or eulogy when I say that we get the government we deserve, we get the leaders we deserve, and we get the support we deserve. You cannot have a high-minded nation unless you have individual citizens who are high- minded ; not all of them of course — that is asking too much of human nature — but enough to have an influence, enough to turn the current of events, and especially enough to lift their faces to the stars. I like to think that thru the months and thru the years, when you and I return refreshed and invigorated to our professional work, the memory of Treasure Island and especially the memory of the Tower of the Sun will remain with us as a fruitful, quiet, steadying, and constructive influence. 26 National Education Association Every mind and every character in our classroom is a potential Treasure Island. We pump the mud of human nature out of infancy, out of ado¬ lescence, and we make something of it. Thanks to our enthusiasm, our knowledge, and our cooperation, in every mind there appears some kind of a world’s fair. And then we fill that island as best we can with beauty and with light, and we encourage the possessor of it to adorn that mag¬ nificent conception with everything that is fine and sweet and high and glorious. Therefore, we teach science, for science has its wonders; and therefore we teach art, for art is a vision of beauty ; and therefore we teach literature, because in literature is recorded the heart throbs of humanity thru all the centuries; and therefore we teach patriotism and therefore we teach morality and therefore we teach religion and therefore we teach all that ministers to our perception of spiritual reality. We differ about details. Sometimes we fight about details, and while that is unfortunate at least it is significant of this truth that we think enough about them to lose our temper over them. But beneath those surface irritations lies this profound truth, that in every age of the world the greatest men have been believers in and devotees to spiritual reality. Once said the great Goethe, “Those ages of the world that we now call the great ages have been ages characterized by robust and dynamic faith, and those ages of the world that we recognize as ages of retrogression are ages of spiritual decadence.” The Tower of the Sun! Say not that beauty is an idle thing And gathered lightly as the wayside flower That on the trembling verges of the spring Knows but the sweet survival of an hour. For ’tis not so. Through dedicated days And foiled adventure of deliberate nights We lose and find and stumble in the ways That lead to the far confluence of delights. Not with the earthy eye and fleshly ear, But lifted far above mortality. We see at last the eternal hills, and hear The sighing of the universal sea ; And kneeling breathless in the holy place We know immortal Beauty face to face. The Tower of the Sun! PROFESSIONAL EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS FINANCING THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION JOSEPH H. SAUNDERS, CHAIRMAN, BOARD OF TRUSTEES; AND SUPER¬ INTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEWPORT NEWS, VA. The problem of financing any organization, institution, or business depends on the size of the organization, its invested capital, its products, and the services which it renders. General Sessions 27 The National Education Association consists of over 200,000 members and maintains a highly competent professional staff of 135, consisting of an executive secretary, directors of divisions and departments, assistants, stenographers, clerks, and building maintenance personnel. Its products consist of: 1. A monthly journal distributed to all its members 2. Research bulletins dealing with all phases of education, organization and ad¬ ministration, finance, salaries, legislation, professional standards, accrediting, tenure, health, safety, etc., which are distributed to certain classes of members and sold at a nominal cost to all others who desire them 3. Committee studies, investigations, and reports freely circulated to its members 4. News and informational bulletins freely circulated to interested groups 5. Six national weekly radio programs 6. Press releases to stimulate public thought and action 7. An annual volume of Proceedings, the pronouncements of the Educational Policies Commission, and the yearbooks issued by the departments and sold to the profession and to the public. Its services rendered consist of: 1. The production and distribution of the above-mentioned publications 2. A legislative service at Washington which carefully examines all bills affecting education introduced in the Congress of the United States, promoting such proposed laws when they would advance the cause of education or the welfare of our pro¬ fession and opposing such bills if they adversely affect such interests 3. Statistical and other documentary aid similarly furnished the state association to aid in their state legislative campaigns 4. A field service that stimulates the growth of a unified educational association in the nation as a whole 5. Two great conventions annually at which it brings together for consultation, advice, inspiration, and dissemination of new discoveries and new methods of pro¬ cedure the leaders in education, government, and religion. To finance our organization and its services for the past year the sum of $547,078 was required. Our income was $554,266. • Our net equity in our headquarters and other real estate in W ashington amounts to $565,000 and we own cash and bonds valued at $149,000, making our total net assets in our permanent fund $714,000, which earned for us last year $46,238, or nearly 6^2 percent. There is a pressing and a constantly increasing demand thruout the country from individual teachers and from local and state associations for an extension and enlargement of the services now being rendered by the National Education Association and for additional services. If this Macedonian cry is to be met, there is but one way to do it. We must increase our membership. Under present economic conditions all of our sources of income are practically at a maximum except membership fees. We will not consider increasing the fee; therefore we must have more members. We have 200,000 members, the largest educational organization in the world, but we enrol only one teacher out of every five. At the least, we should enrol one-half of all the teachers. If each of us will make the effort to secure one new member, we can double our membership in one year and thereby secure sufficient funds to enlarge and increase our services to meet the urgent demands pressing upon us from all sections of the nation. 28 National Education Association REPORT OF AN N.E.A. DEPARTMENT MILDRED FAHY, PRESIDENT, DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION ; AND PRINCIPAL, PEIRCE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL. The Department of Science Instruction of the National Education Asso¬ ciation was organized in 1895 at its summer convention in Denver. The great parent organization, the National Education Association, stands as a friend and champion of the teacher no matter whether in a one-room school- house, of which America still has 130,000, or in a large school in a modern metropolis. Subjectmatter is a significant part of the school program. Thru its departments, the National Education Association appeals to those interested in particular fields of subjectmatter or certain phases of supervision and administration. The best thought regarding special fields is what the depart¬ ment should be providing for its members. Bibliographies of the latest materials published should be furnished. The finest in methods, economy- in practice, and professional growth and development should be demon¬ strated and encouraged by the Department. So much activity should be pro¬ vided by the Department that people not primarily interested in that field will be attracted to it. This emphasis of subjectmatter has reached a fine climax in the Department of Science Instruction. Under the able leadership of President Ira C. Davis, the Department began to fulfil one of the duties a department should have. Proceedings were printed in 1935 for the first time. Contacting the members in this concrete manner was very desirable. These little books have carried the excellent ideas of the leaders in science who have spoken at the conventions. Group meetings and discussions were possible at many places distant from the convention city. The many members of the Department were thus benefited whether they attended the convention or not and were made cognizant of the progress in science teaching. Thru teaching its own members, the Department proved a valuable means of widening the scope of the N.E.A. This should definitely be the work of each and every department of the Association. Each branch derives its strength from the integrity of the trunk. Science teachers everywhere became impressed with the need of a great national investigation into what science could do for the schools. A fourteen- year program in which science is taught from kindergarten thru junior college is one of the special aims of the Department. Science is seeping downward thru the schools and it must be handled wisely and with a sense of the special needs of the pupils at the various levels. The social signifi¬ cance of science is overwhelming, and both the beneficial effects as well as the terrible aspects need to be understood better. For many reasons, the officers of the Department petitioned the Executive Committee of the National Education Association in February 1938 for a sum of money for the basis of such a study. General Sessions 29 The financial part of such a nationwide movement is the most important phase. The Department had a membership of several thousand but its small membership fee only printed its proceedings. Very generously and with understanding the Executive Committee expressed approval of such a committee. After the core committee was assured of life, all the national groups of science teachers were invited to cooperate. Nine organizations have sent a delegate to the committee. For the best results, a small committee is neces¬ sary. For dissemination of information and exchange of ideas, a large group representative of a wide number of people and places is most important. There are now 150 consultants at various places scattered thruout the country. It is certain that about 50,000 teachers of science can be easily reached thru the ramifications and contacts of the main committee and its consultants. The first committee meeting, held in Cleveland, February 23 and 24, 1939, was principally devoted to enlisting affiliated organizations and to general considerations of what the divisions of the group should be. On May 12 and 13, the National Committee on Science Teaching met again. At this meeting progress began to be made as the consultants and com¬ mittees divided into five major sections and serious consideration was given to their individual problems. One group studying “The Philosophy of Science Teaching,” with Nathan A. Neal as chairman, is attempting to discover whether boys and girls thru their experiences in science classes achieve desirable attitudes for living in a democracy which they could not achieve otherwise. It is using the work of the Educational Policies Commission as a starting basis. W. C. Croxton and his subcommittee on “Personal and Social Needs of Children” are sending questionnaires to teachers everywhere to determine desirable functional outcomes and useful procedures in science teaching. “Evaluation of Materials, Methods, and Results,” under the direction of C. E. Preston, has an enormous task. This group must discover the minimum requirements at various levels in atti¬ tudes and habits of thought, and other mental operations for which science is responsible. “Teacher Training” is the paramount issue in the schools of tomorrow. S. R. Powers and his associates are discussing whether specialization is necessary for science teachers. What are the best practices in teacher educa¬ tion ? The work of this subcommittee will be most significant. “Administration of the Science Program” at all levels is being considered by Ira C. Davis and his subcommittee. Science holds in its possession the opportunity to make a vast contribution to the ideal democratic school administration. Clear and unbiased thinking after gathering all the per¬ tinent facts, careful checking of all results, and the maintaining of an open-minded attitude on all debatable questions are vital factors in the scientific method. This method of thinking which we are attempting to develop in students of science should be utilized in all fields of adminis- 30 National Education Association tration. This scientific method can be applied at such times as those when teachers and pupils are cooperatively planning their activities, when prin¬ cipal and teachers are planning building procedures and large units of work, or when all are working together to write a course of study or to select refer¬ ence books or equipment. In the schools of tomorrow science will become a significant factor. The report of the National Committee on Science Teaching will bring the best in philosophy and practice to the teachers of America by virtue of the fine support of the N.E.A. to one of its departments. WORK OF AN N.E.A. COMMITTEE DONALD DUSHANE, CHAIRMAN, TENURE COMMITTEE; AND SUPERINTEND¬ ENT OF SCHOOLS, COLUMBUS, IND. The Committee on Tenure is composed of about one hundred members resident in practically all of the states and some of the territories. This is a very large committee and is a consulting committee. The actual, intensive work is carried on by an executive committee composed of six members, including the chairman. Historically, the work of the Committee consisted of study and investi¬ gation of tenure. The National Education Association has maintained a Tenure Committee for many years, and numerous phases of tenure have been studied during that time. Publications on tenure have been issued by the N.E.A., which form perhaps the finest body of tenure material in existence. The studies of the Committee have been carried on very largely thru the Research Division of the N.E.A. The Committee is constantly confronted with new problems. It studies them, outlines them, and, if possible, secures the cooperation of the Research Division in carrying out its investiga¬ tions. These investigations are not confined strictly to tenure, but to studies involving questions of effective minimum wage laws and the different types ; schoolboard rules and their effects; teachers’ contracts, their weaknesses and strong points and changes that are needed ; as well as studies of various tenure laws. The original program of the Tenure Committee had quite an expansion in 1933. In 1929 the great depression swept over the country and brought with it the dismissal of thousands upon thousands of teachers in almost all states. That tremendous crisis which confronted the schools compelled the Tenure Committee to extend its activities, and it was about 1933 that the Tenure Committee began to do more than study tenure. It began ac¬ tively to advocate the passage of tenure laws in the various states and to offer advice and services to the different states interested. That advice con¬ sisted of criticizing the various proposed bills that the states passed on to the Committee, advising the various tenure committees as to how to proceed, how to secure legislation, and how to get the professional backing for tenure. General Sessions 31 Fortunately, the executive committee of the Tenure Committee has stayed intact during these years, and a great deal of information has been accumu¬ lated in regard to the value of different tenure devices and in regard to the methods of securing professional and legislative support. That advice is available to any state organization that asks for it. For about two and one- half years after 1933, it was found that just the assistance to states and state organizations was not enough. There came before the Committee so many alarming, shocking cases of the dismissal of teachers and, at the same time, there came statements to the effect that “tenure is not needed in our state,” or “tenure is not needed in our city,” that it seemed necessary that the entire Committee go out and make investigations to find out whether teachers were really being unjustly treated and, if possible, secure those teachers’ jobs for them again where they had been unjustly treated. In about 1935-36, the Tenure Committee, after full authorization by the delegate body, began investigations of the discharge of teachers. Such cases as those at Highland Park, Michigan, Oklahoma City, and San Antonio, Texas, are significant and definite proofs of the need of tenure. (See report of the Committee on Tenure elsewhere in this volume.) The need for investigation is far beyond the capacity of the Committee. We are all members of the teaching profession actively engaged, and we steal what time we can week-ends and vacations to do what investigating is pos¬ sible. We must select a few of the most appealing, the most important, and the most significant from a professional standpoint. This field of investigation is new in the N.E.A., but it was begun, in my opinion, none too soon. The time is here when the N.E.A. must do more than study and make reports. It must go out in the field actively and support teachers and help them when need arises. We are merely teachers and have no particular distinction, but the name of the N.E.A. back of us gives us real authority when we go into communities. The N.E.A. has potential power which it can turn loose for the protection and the building of the teaching profession, and I hope that power will be increasingly used. If we are to have a teaching profession, we must depend upon organization. We must be¬ come more closely and more fully organized, and then we must not be afraid to take a stand against the enemies of teachers and of the public schools. The Tenure Committee is one vehicle for that opposition to the enemies of the schools ; there are many others. I am not saying that is the sole function of the N.E.A., but it is an important and a growing function to render direct and needed assistance to those worthy teachers who are being unjustly treated in the various communities of this country. It is our hope that very soon every state will have an effective tenure law. When that time comes, the work of the Committee will not be needed. It is our hope, also, that every state will have a tenure committee of its own, making investigations of unjust treatment of teachers, because we are abso¬ lutely inadequate to cover forty-eight states. We hope this pioneer move¬ ment will spread, so that the N.E.A. may back up and help the various local tenure committees of each state in the Union. 32 National Education Association THE EDUCATIONAL POLICIES COMMISSION WILLIAM G. CARR, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, EDUCATIONAL POLICIES COMMISSION, WASHINGTON, D. C. I would like to tell you about a new project of the Educational Policies Commission. This is the project which involves a nationwide effort in the field of civic education, an effort to improve the efficiency with which our public schools create in young people an abiding, intelligent, active, and appreciative loyalty to democracy — nothing else. Thru the generosity of the General Education Board, which finances all of the work of the Edu¬ cational Policies Commission as far as cash outlay is concerned, we have been allocated an additional grant of $20,000, beginning at midnight last night, and to run for twelve months thereafter, for a nationwide effort in which the Educational Policies Commission will try to give leadership to improve the efficiency of American schools in the field of citizenship education. The essential element of the plan involves the preparation of a case book of successful practices in citizenship education. The previous publications of the Commission have been in a sense hothouse products; that is to say, altho they have drawn on the wide experience of the Commission and its staff and on research, they have been written in philosophical terms. The new effort is an attempt to translate into the best practice available some of the principles laid down in the Commission’s previous publications. It will involve an intensive study of forty or fifty school systems by a competent staff of five or six people, including sociologists, psychologists, school administrators, teachers, and experts in the social studies. These peo¬ ple will visit the selected effective school systems. They will ask a number of questions. They will try to find out why these school systems are doing these effective things in citizenship education. They will try to find out why they became interested in doing these things, what resistance they had to encounter in doing them, and how they overcame that resistance, what their problems are now and how they plan to overcome them. They will confer with teachers, administrators, parents, and pupils. After they have thus thoroly examined these forty or fifty schools they will prepare, each of these experts from his own angle, a description of what the school is doing. This description will be concise. We want to put in this case book the very heart of the best things that are being done in American education today for citizenship education. If the Commission is successful in this enterprise, if it is able to encourage in the development of our schools a real program of citizenship education, it will be necessary to have the support of all the teaching profession. There is one thing that each one of you can do now to help in that project. You can make a mental or written memorandum to send to the Commission a couple of sentences naming a school which, in your opinion, is doing an effective job in citizenship education; and I do not mean just social studies, I include student government. Name your school, tell the name of the General Sessions 33 principal and the address of the school, and give a sentence or two of description as to why you think that school is doing a good job. Send that in to the officers of the Educational Policies Commission in Washington. It will be extremely helpful. Certainly if the Commission is going to move the inertia of this great public school system of ours on to finer things in civic education, it will have to have the cooperation of all of you. PLANNING N.E.A. PROGRAMS FOR STATE AND LOCAL MEETINGS JOHN W. THALMAN, STATE N.E.A. DIRECTOR; AND SUPERINTENDENT, WAUKEGAN TOWNSHIP SECONDARY SCHOOLS, WAUKEGAN, ILL. If this were a meeting of doctors or attorneys or members of any one of half a dozen other professional groups, my part of this program could be eliminated. In their case, membership in their local groups automatically carries membership in their national groups. There is a solidarity in their professions about which we as teachers seem to know nothing at all. In our organization, one can be a member of a local teachers group and belong to neither the state nor national association. Why the difference between those groups and ours? Is it because they are more interested in their pro¬ fessions, or more loyal, or could it be because their standards are more nearly uniform? Perhaps this last question can help us to find a solution to our situation. We all know that teacher standards vary with states, with cities, and even with small districts. One might be licensed to teach in one section of the country and refused a license to teach in another. One might be licensed to teach in a certain type of school and refused a license to teach in another type of school. In other words, our teacher interests are not always the same and because of that it will mean different viewpoints concerning the possibility of automatic membership in our state and national organizations. Undoubtedly President Shaw had some such idea in mind when he spent practically this entire past year in going from place to place, from ocean to ocean, and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf, in setting forth the advantages accruing to teachers in belonging to our national organization, and in setting forth the advantages gained by unity and solidarity in our profession. No doubt he has had many and varied experiences during this past year. I do not know what those experiences have been ; I do know one of my own experiences that will indicate the lack of interest or perhaps the lack of knowledge on the part of teachers of our organization. In the month of June not so many years ago, I was introduced to a certain superintendent in a certain state and after a general discussion of the topics of the day, he asked me what I intended to do during the summer vacation. I responded that I was going to attend the N.E.A. convention. He said: “N.E.A.? What’s that?’’ This is not an isolated case. This occurred in a metropolitan area where everyone should know our organ¬ ization. 34 National Education Association Who is at fault for the existence of conditions such as I mentioned ? Surely superintendents should know of the National Education Association. Superintendents should be the leaders to aid in the education of the general teaching staff. Does not the responsibility rest upon those who would be leaders? Do not we who have caught the vision of the necessity of cooper¬ ation and coordination have the responsibility of passing this information along and of asking others to join with us in a more perfect organization of teachers? Regretfully I must admit that Illinois cannot boast of great success. We have been trying hard and have been using every means at our disposal, but with all our efforts you will note that Illinois was unable to reach the Victory Honor Roll this year. However, there are many things that we are doing to bring about closer cooperation among our teachers. In other words, we are trying to sell the N.E.A. to our members. This past year we have been very fortunate in having the president of our national organization appear on many of our programs, not only the regular state programs but also division and local programs. In fact, he met with indi¬ vidual teacher groups and everywhere he went a seed was sown even tho it did not always fall upon fertile ground. Another thing we did that we believe will do much to gain the interest of our teachers was to arrange to furnish at our division meetings the first three reports of the Educational Policies Commission for the nominal price of $1. We also had exhibits of pamphlets describing the work done by the various committees, not only of the state but also of the national association. At Springfield during the Christmas meeting of the state association, we again had an exhibit of the national association which created much interest during our three-day session. Crowds constantly gathered around the exhibit to inspect the various pamphlets and publications. The harvest this year may not seem so plentiful, but I am sure the right kind of seed has been sown and I believe that in the near future the results will justify the efforts. ALL-INCLUSIVE MEMBERSHIP HARVEY E. GAYMAN, STATE N.E.A. DIRECTOR; AND EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, PENNSYLVANIA STATE EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, HARRISBURG, PA. John W. Studebaker, United States Commissioner of Education, in an article “If Teachers Were Bricklayers” concludes with this significant paragraph : If teachers are ever to achieve the goals for which they are working, they must learn the art of organized cooperation, and if they are ever to secure a fully organ¬ ized profession a plan of simplified enlistment facilitating the enrolment of every teacher quickly and easily will be one of the factors in its achievement. . . . What an irresistible force for the welfare of the nation this great army of one million picked people might exert if they were enrolled 100 percent in vigorous local, state, and national associations. General Sessions 35 No one questions the need of enlarging the scope of professional organ¬ izations, of making such organizations more effective, or of increasing their membership. True it is that local associations have programs and issues that may not at times command the attention of either the state or the national professional organization. Likewise, state professional associations at times will deal with particular issues that may not be either national or local in their significance. But certainly it is a truism that as the function and processes of education in our democracy become more and more of national significance, issues and problems in education present themselves that are of concern to educational workers nationwide. The solution of these lies only in a unified and coordinated national organization, sup¬ ported in turn by state professional organizations, supported in turn by local organizations, each in its individual way making specific contributions. This concept of organization is not that of the submergence of any one of the three organizations to the control or domination of the other. It is rather organic functioning of the local, state, and national organizations into planned, directed, and unified cooperative effort. In recent years attempts have been made to symbolize this relationship. One of the symbols used was that of the three links typifying the union of the local, state, and national. Still another is that of the triangle in which education associations are holding aloft the torch of education supported on the base by the national association, on the right by the state associations, and on the left by the local associations. I desire to direct your attention to a third symbolism. It is not inappro¬ priate that on a Sunday evening we should select words from one of the wise Hebrew prophets, “Enlarge the place of thy tent, lengthen thy cords, and strengthen thy stakes.” In this symbol it seems that without any great stretch of the imagination we can find elements that are inherent also in the effective coordination and extension of professional education associa¬ tions. “Enlarge the place of thy tent” naturally can signify an expansion of both members and function. “Lengthen thy cords” implies extension of supporting arms, whether these be the arms of the state or of the local association. “Strengthen thy stakes” could well mean such increase in mem¬ bership or integration of activities as is necessary to uphold and expand the program of professional organizations. The issue then is clear, Do we care enough as members of a profession to “enlarge the place of our tent,” “to lengthen the cords” that bind us within our profession, and “to strengthen those stakes” which have been driven for the well-being of ourselves, our families, the children, the com¬ munity in which we live, and of our local, state, and national life? Do we care enough to work as members of a unified and cooperating group capable of generating and directing power far beyond the possibility of any individual, of any local or state association, or of divided segments of a larger organization? Do we care enough to promote a very simple idea which seems to have inherent in it unlimited possibilities of unification and enlargement of our professional organizations? Can we become enthu- 36 National Education Association siastic about coinclusive membership — the actual active identification of every member of the teaching profession with the local, state, and national professional organizations? If we, as leaders within the respective states, can attain these enthusiasms, we wull demand and accept a simplified method of enrolment so that every teacher quickly and easily may join at one and the same time the local, state, and national professional education associations. An all-inclusive professional enrolment card has been designed to supply such a simplified method of enrolment. Likewise there has been specially designed for the member an all-inclusive membership card to be retained by him as a receipt and identification record. Certainly it is not the desire of the national office or of the Committee on Coinclusive Membership to impose this method in any instance where there are local or state objections to the plan. However, the experience in states where similar methods have been used demonstrates conclusively its possibilities. We ask that you experiment with it and that you give it a trial so that as each member of the profession has an opportunity to join the local or state association, he has at the same time an opportune to drive a stake in the big tent of the profession, the National Education Association. LOCAL ALLILIATED ASSOCIATIONS MRS. EDITH B. JOYNES, STATE N.E.A. DIRECTOR; AND PRINCIPAL, WASHINGTON-GATEWOOD SCHOOLS, NORFOLK, VA. Affiliation is a continuous relationship which does not require renewal from year to year as membership does. When the local association applies to the national for affiliation and is accepted, a charter is granted signifying that the group has become a local unit in the National Education Associa¬ tion, which entitles them to all rights and privileges guaranteed by the charter and bylaws of the national association. They also have a right to elect delegates to the Representative Assembly of the N.E.A. The number of delegates is based on the individual membership of the local association — one representative for every one hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof (51 N.E.A. members). The local association becomes a part of the great national organization in being represented in the Assembly, thus taking part in forming the policies of the N.E.A. Teachers, more than any other professional group, continue to grow in service, but up to the present time, the majority are not interested in the growth of the profession but in their own individual growth. Leaders in education have failed to create a group consciousness, and individual mem¬ bers of a local association are unable to see this group growth which is necessary and is brought about only by being a member of the local, state, and national associations and by having the local association affiliated. The individual teacher receives the Journal but the affiliated association receives not only the Journal but also the Research Bulletin, the annual General Sessions 37 volume of Proceedings, the News Bulletin of the Department of Class¬ room Teachers, and other helpful material. This material should be made available to all local members. Membership in any organization does not mean that all members will be forced to think alike, but membership in a group that has a common interest tends to shape and strengthen one’s convictions. As a result of cooperative effort, the entire group is able to present a united front to a large society of which all are members. An educated and enlightened citizenry is absolutely essential to the functioning of a democracy. There is no better way for teachers to be enlightened than thru the official publications of the N.E.A. The N.E.A. has material prepared which is impossible to obtain from any other source. Its Research Division is constantly preparing new bulletins setting forth the facts which relate to the many problems of our profession. This Re¬ search Division renders a service worth far more to each teacher than what he pays in dues, but the majority of teachers does not know that this material is available. Last week an association asked me where a collection of report cards could be obtained, as they were planning to change the form of theirs. I suggested that they write to the Department of Elementary School Principals for its collection. This association, after receiving the material, has been able to increase its membership. The teachers as well as the public need to be enlightened, but if one portion of our group informs the public one way and another group another way, confusion is the result. This can be avoided as accurate, up-to-the-minute information is available thru the Research Division and the twenty-four departments of the National Education Association. PROGRAMS AND PROBLEMS OF A STATE CLASSROOM TEACHERS ASSOCIATION EDITH VAN WINKLE, TEACHER; AND PRESIDENT, INDIANA STATE FEDERATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS, TERRE HAUTE, IND. Since I am not familiar with any great number of state teachers organiza¬ tions, I shall limit this brief discussion to the problems of the Indiana State Federation of Public School Teachers. The word “federation” in our name is sometimes misconstrued. Our state classroom teachers organization is merely a federation of local organ¬ izations and has no trade-union affiliations. The machinery of our organi¬ zation is rather simple. An organized local group offers itself as an affiliate and sends the required amount of dues for each of its members to the state treasurer. Each local member thereby becomes a member of both the local and state associations. Our members must be active classroom teachers in order to serve on committees or hold office. The local groups elect delegates who serve as members of the representative body and other state governing boards and committees. Any member may attend any meet- 38 National Education Association ing and speak on any subject under discussion. Only delegates vote. Since we have only classroom teachers in our organization and no one has author¬ ity over another’s teaching position, we have a thoroly democratic organ¬ ization. The Indiana State Federation of Public School Teachers was organized by leaders of local teacher organizations to do several things. These have since become our aims: 1. To assist in securing legislation that would solve certain educational problems that were statewide in scope 2. To serve as a clearinghouse for information dealing with local, state, and national educational problems 3. To further the growth of local organizations 4. To raise the status of the teaching profession in the eyes of the mem¬ bers and the public. To accomplish these ends the federation has had committees, the members of which represent all geographic sections of the state. The Legislative Com¬ mittee is one of the important committees. Thru the years it has had both a defensive and offensive program. Particularly in relation to our tenure and retirement systems we have found that eternal vigilance is needed. This committee meets and forms a tentative program, which is sent to the local groups to be discussed and ratified or rejected. The decision of the majority is accepted and sent out to all local groups. They then set about educating prospective legislators. All this is done before the primary elections are held, and for the past several years the prospective candidates have been glad to be informed on needs in educational legislation. Almost without exception the legislators from communities where local teachers are organ¬ ized, and where the materials and suggestions sent out by the state federa¬ tion have been used, have been 100 percent in favor of our legislative program. During the recent session of our state legislature the state federa¬ tion sponsored a legislative luncheon to which eight hundred teachers came from all parts of the state to sit with their legislators and hear our profes¬ sional problems ably discussed by Myrtle Hooper Dahl, our national classroom president. I dwell on this legislative work because I know it is one problem common to all states. We have several educational organizations in Indiana but it is thru the activities of the local organizations, plus the unifying capacity of the state federation, that our tenure laws, retirement system, uniform contract law, minimum wage law, and other valuable legislation have been secured. During the recent session our local groups had machinery set up for reaching every building in the organization within ten minutes after a call came from the state federation legislative workers on duty in the state house. We used it twice during the session. The state organiza¬ tion and the local are interdependent; neither could secure great results alone. General Sessions 39 On our second issue, that of extending membership, we have done a great deal. Before our organization in 1915, the state executive board meeting and the minutes of the meeting sent out served as our only disseminators of ideas for local groups in securing sick leave, pay days, salary adjust¬ ments, group insurance, credit unions, and professional and cultural meet¬ ings. Since 1938 we have had a state magazine to carry discussions of all these and other problems. This is most important since an informed elec¬ torate is the basis on which democracy rests. The state federation Membership Committee has labored well thru the years. We now have in Indiana about eighty local units and 12,000 of our 20,000 teachers as members. The past year saw a great increase, particu¬ larly among rural teachers. The third issue, raising the status of the profession, is in a way a concomitant value of the other activities. But we keep driving away at teacher ethics and pride in our profession thru our magazine and by any means at hand. We also have a program for encouraging professional activity on a national basis. During the past year, under the supervision of our N.E.A. committee, our membership in that organization increased greatly; indeed, the N.E.A. director for Indiana quite frankly calls attention to the fact that wherever teachers have a local affiliated federation, the membership in N.E.A. is increased many times over unorganized districts. During the past year at the suggestion of the state federation, our local groups con¬ tributed the sum of $256 to the World Federation of Education Associations to carry on the goodwill program with the South American republics. This money was raised in response to Mr. Shaw’s “nickel drive.” There is one more activity now being undertaken in Indiana by our federation, which I should like to mention. We have in Indiana a serious governmental problem caused by an antiquated township system of rural government and rural schools. Being a carry-over from pioneer days it is deeply imbedded in our political system. Our teachers organization is deeply concerned because mismanagement of school funds in certain of these districts and the poverty of certain submarginal land districts com¬ bines to present a situation wherein school corporations are delinquent in payment of teachers salaries many months or even years. The executive board of the state federation a week ago authorized a committee to employ the services of a firm of accountants to survey the records of the school officials in order that recommendations may be made for changes in admin¬ istering our state school support money. In doing this we have the sanction and support of the state department of education officials. Truly there are endless problems to be solved and dynamic programs to be mapped by any state classroom teacher organization. The day has passed when all the problems of our profession could be left to the administrators. It takes intelligent cooperation of all teachers to successfully solve our problems, and the instrument by which the unified power of all teachers is brought to bear where needed is the state classroom teachers organization. 40 National Education Association PROGRAM AND PROBLEMS OF A STATE ASSOCIATION E. J. MCINTOSH, TEACHER; AND PRESIDENT, MASSACHUSETTS TEACHERS FEDERATION, WEYMOUTH, MASS. The time allotted me is short, so it will be impossible to do more than touch briefly on a few of the problems which would naturally come under the topic assigned me. I wish first of all to stress functionalism. Are we figureheads; do we function? Are we too dignified to fight for the fundamentals of American education ? The teaching profession has a twofold obligation : first toward the chil¬ dren, and second toward making clear the needs of the schools to the adult citizens of today. Therefore, the training of children and adults for proper sharing in the responsibilities of future citizenship rests largely upon the schools. What part does our state organization play in this? I sometimes like to contemplate how it would feel to belong to an organ¬ ization of teachers with 100 percent enrolment in local, state, and national associations with every teacher at work on the problems of the profession — what a setting for achieving things really worthwhile. Not until every teacher is enrolled should we lessen our efforts at enlistment. Enlistment means something more than merely getting members. It means lifting the profession to an entirely new plane of dedication and service. Members of the profession should be fully aroused to take a deserved pride in the responsibilities of the teaching profession and its place in democ¬ racy. One is constantly impressed with statements by teachers that thru the association they have found themselves and have caught a vision of what teaching really is. If this dream could be realized then every teacher ought to be not only an instructor of children but a participant in the great work of adult education. Another matter upon which I feel strongly is that we should have the benefit of legal advice, not only in important matters involving large sums of money, but someone available for the many technical matters bound to arise in an organization of this size. Towns have their town counsel; cor¬ porations are never without their legal advisers. I hope to see such a depart¬ ment established in our Massachusetts Teachers Federation before the close of this year. A teachers organization should always be ready to do honest battle for its members. Another important factor in the success of our organization is in making our aims and ideals known. Does the press know enough of our educa¬ tional world? Are we keeping the parents well informed thru the various national parent groups? To be sure, we now have radio broadcasts, press releases, and personal contacts with newspaper editors, correspondents, and magazine writers. All this is important but I truly feel we need to do more to make our aims and objectives known. Let us make all teachers feel that the state association is theirs. It will have a greater value by their participation in statewide programs and by General Sessions 41 joining men and women who for more than half a century have poured their best efforts into the improvement of public education. In conclusion, I quote John W. Studebaker, United States Commissioner of Education: “We need to develop a national association which has its roots in the local communities and which has as its branches, strong, vigor¬ ous state associations ; a national association which is democratic from top to bottom, in which all members of the profession may find opportunities for effective service ; an organization which is strong in its unity, but diverse in its interests and in its activities; an organization which can speak with a single voice for the profession; but an organization which serves every teacher in the nation and which gives each member an opportunity to work personally upon the specific problems of his greatest interest/’ USE OF N.E.A. EXHIBITS MRS. MARY D. BARNES, TEACHER,* AND EASTERN REGIONAL DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS OF THE N.E.A., ELIZABETH, N. J. The exhibit in our day is indeed an independent social force. By present¬ ing ideas in an interesting way, and a way readily grasped by the ordinary individual, it has become an effective means of putting the results of re¬ search into the hands of all, and more quickly. I wonder if our great na¬ tional organization is using that force enough to lift it to that higher plane. Why have exhibits, just for something to show or just because space has been offered? Of course, an exhibit should be something to show and it should occupy space, just as a speech can be made to occupy space or to fill the air with sound. But the exhibit is quite worthless unless there is a purpose behind the planning of it, a purpose in exhibiting the subject- matter. What can we hope to accomplish by an N.E.A. exhibit? It can get the attention of those indifferent members of the profession. Perhaps the material will grip their imagination, set them to thinking, to talking, to asking questions about it, and, finally, we hope, make their convictions register. It can be used to promote sales of publications, to increase mem¬ bership. It was that purpose we had in mind in Elizabeth, New Jersey, in setting up this very simple N.E.A. exhibit. Our purpose was to awaken the interest of our local teachers in the N.E.A. Particularly, we had in mind an N.E.A. membership drive. May I say that that drive immediately following the exhibit resulted in a 120 percent increase in N.E.A. mem¬ bership in Elizabeth? Again, why have an exhibit? Can we not accomplish the same purpose thru lecturing, thru printed reports, or thru magazine articles? Again, an exhibit can be so striking as to get the attention of those teachers who will not go to a lecture or read a report or otherwise get information about the particular subjectmatter that is illustrated in the exhibit. 42 National Education Association It is very important that any exhibit not be left in the hands of untrained, inexperienced people who know very little or nothing about the subject- matter exhibited, and become merely caretakers. Interpretation of the ex¬ hibit is most essential. Of course, any exhibit may be and should be self- explanatory and should carry its own message, but a person there gives that added value of personal contact. Let the N.E.A. build up an exhibit program. In addition to a simple setup such as this, there might be added two six-foot posters. I want to emphasize the six feet, because the little ones are not attention-getting. One might present the obligations of the teaching profession as compared with the obligations of other professions. Another might show the dues of professional teacher organizations as compared with the dues of other organizations. Our N.E.A. Journal is designed to reach all the teachers of the nation, but it reaches only the dues-paying members. But an exhibit, the sight of publications, the evidence of the activities of the N.E.A. concentrated in one spot, can make very real to a teacher some of the work of the N.E.A. PROGRAMS AND PROBLEMS OF LOCAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATIONS KATHORA REMY, TEACHER; AND PRESIDENT, SAN ANTONIO TEACHERS COUNCIL, SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS The recent report of the National Education Association on the duties and responsibilities of local, state, and national education associations out¬ lines a splendid program for each of these organizations. It would be well for each of us to check to see if we, in our local organizations, are fulfilling our duties and responsibilities. The San Antonio Teachers Council has many things yet to do. For example, we are at present making a study of cooperative group hospitalization plans with the idea of putting one into effect next year. We are anxious to hear from organ¬ izations that already have such plans in operation. The main problem that faces us — a pertinent one in all organizations — is securing the active interest of each member. I do not mean merely the payment of dues, for in San Antonio practically 100 percent of our teachers pay membership to our organization. We have also increased mem¬ berships in both state and national organizations by establishing an all- inclusive membership budget payment plan. We must find some way to convince teachers that their obligations to their professional organizations are more than mere payment of dues. I believe that this is largely the responsibility of our local associations, for we have teachers together in relatively small groups where individual par¬ ticipation can be developed. Interest in our organization was increased last year by having repre¬ sentatives from the various schools on our committees, by keeping all members informed of our activities, and by getting their reactions on all General Sessions 43 plans and problems. We sponsored several professional meetings in the schools ; two of particular interest were on organizations and ethics. Our circulating library of professional books was most successful. We increased attendance at our general meetings by making the order of business shorter and more efficient. A more professional attitude toward teaching will come when we all have better salary schedules, higher standards of certification, tenure, and retirement. The National Education Association is doing a fine piece of work in giv¬ ing us the tools with which to work. The plans that have been made this year to establish an all-inclusive membership plan and to revise the national code of ethics will be particularly beneficial to local organizations. Every teacher has a responsibility toward his profession whether it be of local, state, or national nature. We have only one profession — the teaching profession — with local, state, and national branches. We need only one membership card. The work of the local associations could be more bene¬ ficial to the teachers if they were more closely coordinated with that of the state and national associations. Let us see how such a plan could work in the formation of a national code of ethics: 1. There would be committees on codes of ethics in local, state, and national associations. A central committee from the national association would furnish a general working plan of points to be considered. 2. The duty of the committee in the local associations would be to encourage all of its members to contribute suggestions. These would be summarized and sent to the state committee. 3. The state committee would be composed of members from the local committees with the duty of combining the reports and sending them to the national committee. 4. The national committee would be made up of members from the state committee with the duty of further combining and refining the sug¬ gestions sent in from the state committee. Thus we would have a code of ethics that all teachers would be inter¬ ested in adhering to, for it would be truly theirs. This plan is merely a suggestion. It would not be applicable in all cases for all of our problems are not of local, state, and national interest. It may not be necessary even in forming a code of ethics to carry the work thru the state committees but rather to have the connection between the local and national organizations. There are many legislative matters that should be carried only thru the local and state organizations. The general plan should be to coordinate our work as much as possible. In the merging of our organizations, we should be careful to keep them democratic so that we will not lose sight of the interests of their individual members. It is this, the active interest of each individual, the real reason for our organization, that will make us more powerful and help us to further the splendid program outlined by the National Education Asso¬ ciation. 44- National Education Association PROGRAMS AND PROBLEMS OF LOCAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATIONS WILLIS A. DIAL, HEAD, MECHANICAL ARTS DEPARTMENT, JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL; AND PRESIDENT, LOGAN TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, LOGAN, UTAH In launching a local association program, it is necessary to set up cer¬ tain objectives and then take the members along with you. We plan too much to say and too little to do. Members are most likely to be interested if they have made a financial contribution to the cause. The first step then is to get 100 percent participation in payment of dues — local, state, and national. The saying, “Where your treasure is there will your heart be also,” applies to teachers as well as to others. The problem of membership is most easily solved by having the local group place in the yearly contract a clause permitting deduction of these dues. A copy of a tentative yearly program set up at the opening of school summarizing association activities and policies, as well as membership privi¬ leges, should be made available for all teachers. The social program should provide opportunity for the membership to meet monthly in order that they may have proper acquaintance with the association officers and with each other as well as participate in general meetings, outings, parties, and other suitable functions. In cooperation with the board of education, the association can formu¬ late a sick and hospital benefit plan ; a loan fund may be set up to aid in financial emergencies; it should support some measure, state or local, for death benefits and old-age and disability retirement ; during legislative years send to the legislatures those men who are school-minded and then keep them advised on school matters so that association interests will not be sidetracked. An expansive program is most successful when a division of responsi¬ bility brings many members into service. To reach this end it is well to have a constitution and bylaws setting forth the name, objectives, and membership of the association, and the duties of the different officers and committees. The following committees should be included with definite responsibilities assigned : Executive, composed of the general association officers and representatives from the different schools or units, Auditing and Finance, Teachers Welfare, Socials and Entertainment, Research, Legislative, Public Relations, Elections, and any other committees, tempo¬ rary or standing, which may be needed as occasion arises. Keep your members well informed if you expect their support. Thru the regular monthly meetings of the executive committee the several fac¬ ulties may be kept informed by their building representatives. Group meetings of the association provide opportunity for the discussion of edu¬ cational trends and for the formulation of a local's policy. When it is inexpedient to hold conferences a mimeographed sheet summarizing new educational developments and outlining local procedures may be sent in lieu thereof. General Sessions 45 There is yet another angle to the smooth operation of a local associa¬ tion. You must take the public with you. Certainly the schools and teachers are woefully handicapped unless the representatives of the public — the superintendent, the clerk, and the board of education — are cooperatively sympathetic to educational progress. Antagonisms, feudal or political, must be avoided and certainly teachers must be able to give good reason for the hope that is within them before they can expect increased financial outlay and desirable working relationship with this group. These representatives are free to function only as their constituents, the people, are rationally informed on pertinent issues. The parent-teacher organizations will fight your battle if you have evidence that the thing you are attempting is for the good of the child ; it, therefore, becomes necessary for the public relations committee to use the newspapers, radio, and other means of indi¬ vidual contact to mold public opinion for school welfare. In summary, if the leadership is alive and democratic and the programs are well planned, there will be a spirit of confidence and cooperation built up in the association and with the public which will foster goodwill and an effective working relationship. Thru enlightenment we will reach our goal and not thru the use of dictatorial methods. PROGRAMS AND PROBLEMS OF LOCAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATIONS LUCILE BATDORF, TEACHER,* AND PRESIDENT, OAKLAND TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, OAKLAND, CALIF. We consider our type of association the most democratic because it is all- inclusive. That means every certified employee in the Oakland public schools is eligible for membership — superintendents, supervisors, nurses, and principals, as well as classroom teachers. Ours is not one of the large systems. We have 1847 certified members. Out of that 1847, 1840 are members of our local association, 1698 are members of the N.E.A., and over 1600 are members of the California Teachers Association. This loyalty to and belief in professional organizations did not just happen but is the result of a combination of circumstances: (a) a succession of three superintendents in the past eighteen years who sincerely believe in such teacher organizations; (b) a nonpolitical board of education which has encouraged in a concrete, material way the high professional standard and attitude in the teaching force; and (c) the teachers themselves who have learned thru experience that unity and cooperation are the best policy. As for our organization, we have the usual legislative council, number¬ ing about eighty-seven. Every school sends one representative to that coun¬ cil. We have the usual executive board of directors elected by the member¬ ship at large, numbering ten, one from the kindergarten ; one from the first, second, and third grades; one from the fourth, fifth, and sixth; two from the junior high, two from the senior high, one elementary-school principal, one secondary principal, and in alternative terms a supervisor and a nurse. 46 National Education Association As our association is all-inclusive, there are three features which I would like to describe briefly. First, because of the variety of educational fields represented, we have oriented the interests of our members by organizing sections, each with its own constitution or set of bylaws, and its officers. At present, we have these sections: kindergarten-primary, classroom teach¬ ers section, elementary-secondary counselors, home economics, industrial arts, library, music, principals, supervisors, and sick benefit section. The second feature is that a classroom teacher, elected by the membership at large, is the official representative to the board of education and super¬ intendents council. The third feature is the superintendents council num¬ bering twenty-eight and composed of the superintendent’s staff, the teacher representative, the president of the Oakland Teachers Association, and the presidents of the twelve sections. This council meets monthly and acts as a clearinghouse for problems which are of vital concern to child and teacher welfare, our educational program, and our public relations. As for our program itself, we are fortunate in having a single-salary schedule, a group health and accident insurance, and cumulative sick leave with pay. We pay a death benefit of $75. We maintain an emergency loan fund, and thru our sick benefit section we pay a sick benefit. We have rec¬ ommended a hospitalization plan to our members, altho we do not carry that on ourselves. We have no credit union of our own because the county employees’ credit union was already established and we have taken ad¬ vantage of that. Our professional study committee has helped to work out our present institute plan of theaters, lectures, and concerts during the year. Our retirement committee is working on a district retirement plan at the present time. Our tenure and legislative committees work with the state com¬ mittees and watch developments in those fields very closely. We have a recreation committee which provides for bridge, golf, swimming, dancing, horseback riding, and all types of recreation. We send our full quota of delegates to the N.E.A. convention every year, paying about two-thirds of their expenses, and we have just adopted a new set of bylaws providing for four of the delegates to repeat every year, so that we will have continuity of service. Our program is not unusual, but we are proud of the spirit of consideration, cooperation, and harmony which exists among the teachers, the board of education, and the superintendents. THE WORK OF THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY REUBEN T. SHAW, PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION We have been discussing various angles that lead up in various ways to what I want to keep before you as the theme of the convention, the responsibilities of the teaching profession, and how, in terms of the Presi¬ dent of the United States, it unquestionably is the most important profes¬ sion in the preservation of democracy. In my discussion of the work of the Representative Assembly, I want to call your attention to certain considerations. At the close of the con- General Sessions 47 vention in New York, we sent out from headquarters a joint letter re¬ questing the delegates who had been there to make suggestions on various things that might be used to improve our procedures of the convention, and I received many suggestions aimed toward more efficient handling, more intelligent proceedings in the Representative Assembly. (President Shaw then outlined a plan by which he hoped to expedite the business of the Representative Assembly.) All that I have in mind centers about the first fact which I know you will recognize and share, that in some way something must be done to bring the N.E.A. closer to the individual teacher. The question is, By what means can that be accomplished? That is the problem to help decide. There are various ways. Some will work well in some places and the same particular procedures will not work so well in other places. Part of the answer lies in the attitude of the local association. More and more I am convinced that the state and the national association will need to work more fully into an appreciation of local association problems, and the local asso¬ ciation will in turn need to work into an appreciation of their problems. This year, for the first time, there is the very definite, concrete proposal made that we change the honorary vicepresidents to regional vicepresidents and stop there, except to add the general term that they shall serve as assistants to the president. My personal wish and hope is to convert the honorary vicepresidents into regional vicepresidents, and have them as assistants to the president, to be used in whatever way the president, the Executive Committee, or the executive secretary may find desirable, and to whatever extent they may find it possible to give support. Someone has said this may interfere with the work of the state directors. I wish to emphasize that if these regional vicepresidents are to be assistants to the president, such a remark is practically an affront to the president, whoever he may be, for I cannot conceive of any president trying to make use of a vice- president in any way that would interfere with a director. If we approach those problems on that sort of basis, we will be in a position to under¬ stand and to act accordingly. You may disagree with me, but I want you to face the facts as they are. The purpose is to bring the N.E.A. closer to the individual. Another matter is being considered. It is carrying out the idea of the responsibility of the local to the state and to the national, and the reverse, to make all the moves we can, to appreciate the fact that we are members of the profession, local, state, and national, whether we belong to those associations or not, and just as rapidly as we can we should wipe out those boundary lines, except so far as they are absolutely necessary for carrying out certain specific projects. At the present time, in certain localities when it comes to deciding whether they are going to join the local, state, or national association, they cut out the most expensive. In my own state that happens to be the national. I say they cut that out, and yet we have carried for a number of years the largest paid enrolment of any state in the Union, exceeded only in the last year by New York. In other states they will cut out or try to cut out a 48 National Education Association local or a state association, wherever the dues happen to be higher. In any of those cases, if we can get to the place of lumping those together and do as other professions do, pay one lump sum to cover the whole thing under the all-inclusive membership proposal, or something similar, it seems to me that would be most desirable. After all, the biggest thing that confronts us in such a possible achieve¬ ment is understanding what the other two groups are doing ; if you are talking in terms of local, what the state and the national are doing. We have had some discussion about affiliated associations. Under our bylaws, what do we do under affiliations? We pay affiliation dues. We have the right to elect delegates, and we get certain literature. Almost all the other responsibilities of affiliation are neglected, except that those who come as delegates look after it for one year, of course, but then 75 percent of them do not appear the next year. In connection with this problem, I should like to stress as a practical measure of procedure the difference between coinclusive enrolment and all- inclusive membership. I have found a good many who confuse those two terms. I have found those who say they have an all-inclusive card, when it really is a coinclusive enrolment where the individual may join all three separately, altho at the same time, and receive three cards. The all-inclusive membership card, when we have completed a design that is satisfactory to at least a majority of the states, is desired by a number of localities where they are already 100 percent local, state, and national. It is not necessary to limit it to them. Anyone who is a member of all three may have that card. Again I found in some of the letters that have been coming back that officers of state or local associations are confused and feel in some way or another it must be adopted and forced upon all the other members of the associations. There is no such thought as that in mind. It is merely for those who are now ready to have their membership all-inclusive that this card is designed and those who may be persuaded to approach it that way. . FIRST GENERAL SESSION GREETINGS HONORABLE ANGELO J. ROSSI, MAYOR OF SAN FRANCISCO It is indeed a pleasure for me to be here as mayor of this great city and extend to each and every one of you a. most cordial greeting. In the fire of 1906 most of our schools in San Francisco were destroyed, and while we thought at that time the fire was a great catastrophe, it really proved to be a blessing in disguise. Today, all of our school buildings are fireproof and modern in every detail. Only within the last twenty years, immediately after the fire, a bond issue was presented to the people. May I also say, in passing, that the people of San Francisco have never turned down a bond issue for schools. In the last ten years, twenty new schools have General Sessions 49 been erected, and at the present moment there is a five million dollar program being carried out. Our setup here, so far as the board of education is concerned, is rather unique. It is nonpolitical, nonpartisan, and nonsectarian. It makes its own budget. I do not know how many of you do that in your own towns. The legislative body, as well as the administrative body, has nothing to say. It simply makes up its budget and presents it to us, and we have to take it whether we like it or not. At any rate, I want to say that setup is to keep anyone from interfering with its functions, and is so set up that the board of education could be independent and aristocratic, but I want you to know that is not the case here in San Francisco. The members are working for the public. We are fortunate indeed in having such enthusiastic mothers who belong to the parent-teacher association. When the teachers find the mothers are interested in their children, I am sure it makes their responsibility a great deal more pleasant. The mayor of a city nominates or appoints members of the board of education, but their names are submitted to the people of our city for rati¬ fication. No member has ever been rejected. During your stay here I hope you will take time out to visit some points of interest in San Francisco. We are in a rebuilt city with new playgrounds, parks, and public buildings. Incidentally, I think I had better mention that we are having a world’s exposition here. We are celebrating the completion of the world’s two greatest bridges. The San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge is the longest bridge ever attempted or designed by man, and the Golden Gate Bridge has the greatest span, over 4200 feet. There are many conventions taking place in San Francisco this year, but there is none that is more important than this. If the school department failed any place in the United States, it would mean the very foundation of Ameri¬ canism would fail, because you lay the foundation for good citizenship. That is why I say I am sure there will be no more important convention take place in San Francisco than this particular one. I hope you will enjoy every moment of your stay here in San Francisco, and when you return home that you will take back pleasant memories of your visit. ADDRESS OF WELCOME HONORABLE WALTER F. DEXTER, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, SACRAMENTO, CALIF. I am happy to bring greetings to you on behalf of the 45,000 teachers, 10,000 members of the boards of education, and 18,000 uncertified em¬ ployees of the educational system of the state of California. We are pleased to have you here upon this delightful occasion. We respond with tremendous feeling to the motto of this convention, “The Responsibilities of Our Profession.” In California we believe there 50 National Education Association are three challenges in this field. We believe we have come together as delegates to this great national convention in order that we might dis¬ cover truth or learn facts. We believe we have come for the purpose of promoting freedom and for the purpose of preserving representative gov¬ ernment. As we come then, we believe we shall discover truth in order that we might assimilate facts, in order that we might build these facts into principles, in order that we might return to our homes and test these principles by human experience. After having done that, we are concerned with the promotion of freedom, and I do not believe there is a group in America today more concerned with the preservation of academic freedom than are the delegates to this great convention. But if we are to preserve academic freedom in the United States of America, we must first of all believe that that freedom carries with it the assumption of a reasonable responsibility on the part of each and every member of this great Asso¬ ciation. We believe that when we assume responsibility we develop the spirit of self-restraint and self-reliance, which not only gives to the profession of education a philosophy of ordered freedom, but that gives to the United States the basis of good government. For that reason, we are concerned in the promotion of freedom because out of it comes successful constitutional and representative government. So we are delighted to have you as delegates to this great convention in this splendid city of San Francisco for the purpose of discovering truth, promoting freedom, and preserving representative and constitutional gov¬ ernment. You meet today in a relationship to the federal bureau of education and the national government, much as the California Teachers Association meets from time to time in its relationship to the state department of edu¬ cation and the state government of California. Those of us who are charged with some responsibility here in this commonwealth deeply appreciate the remarkable contribution of the state teachers association, and I am sure the national officials appreciate in the same way and to even a larger degree the fine contribution that the National Education Association is making to the welfare of the people of the United States of America. With these thoughts in mind then, we give you a very cordial welcome to the city of San Francisco and to the state of California. We hope you will have a good time, and we hope you will allow us to have a good time by helping you during the convention. GREETINGS HONORABLE JOHN F. BRADY, PRESIDENT, CALIFORNIA TEACHERS ASSOCIATION ; DEPUTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Your chairman has introduced me as the Honorable John F. Brady- 1 feel quite honored at that. I really should have been the first one called on, because I think the old proverb is that “the last shall be first.” But it has not always been thus in California, because there is a story to the effect that in General Sessions 51 the old days of San Francisco, when a sailing vessel came into port or a stage coach came across the country with its cargo, school immediately disbanded. That was for two reasons. First, the students immediately ran out, and second, the schoolmaster was the official greeter on such occasions. Possibly they thought the schoolmaster had more sense than most of the people hanging around San Francisco at that time, so he was designated as the official greeter. It became his duty to go to the place where the newcomers were, to welcome them, greet them to California, and try to find for them their relatives and friends in the Mother Lode country and, at the same time, to pick up tidings of news from all of the far corners of America, so he might in turn be able to give his news to people who might ask before the next cargo came in. So you see this habit California has of being glad to see folks can be traced right back to the days of the Argonauts. We teachers of California are par¬ ticularly pleased to see you folks here for many reasons, but most particularly because you are teachers and, true to the example of the old pioneer teacher, we hope to learn a good deal from you. Every teacher who hails from California is anxious to be of service to you, and the 39,000 members of the California Teachers Association hope that every moment of your stay in California will be happy and fruitful. They hope that from the deliberations of this convention will come plans and policies of an educational nature that will at once be true to our ideals, our educational ideals and our national ideals, and at the same time be adequate to meet the unquestioned peril to public education that lies in these days that are immediately ahead of us. ADDRESS OF WELCOME HONORABLE C. HAROLD CAULFIELD, PRESIDENT, BOARD OF EDUCATION, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. May I have the pleasure of addressing you as I address the teachers of our own department in Institute, as my fellow workers in the cause of education? In San Francisco we like to think that the board of education and its members are truly co-workers with the teachers in the classroom in this most noble of works. May I add my short but very sincere words of welcome to what has already been said and say to you that San Francisco opens its arms and its hearts to you, the builders of America’s future. We welcome you to the home of teacher tenure, and we welcome you to a city that pays its teachers the third highest salary rate of all the teachers in the United States. We do not look upon that as a high salary schedule, but as a fair schedule for work well done. We ask you, during your short stay here, to rest between the arduous sessions of the convention by turning your eyes upon the beauteous scen¬ ery with which the Creator has endowed this region of the country, or if you tire of the natural scenes and want to take pride in what your fellow men have done, look upon a city rebuilt in the past thirty years; look 52 National Education Association upon our bridges, our Treasure Island — our newest insular possession, so termed by our president — or attend some other of our sessions and look upon the work our teachers have accomplished in the classroom. We feel that we have plenty here to educate you, to train you, and to add to your already full store of knowledge. We hope you are impressed by what you see and find in San Francisco and, knowing of your interest in education, that you may in the future deem it advisable to visit us oftener than once in fifteen years. In closing, may I merely repeat the words of the Irish bard : Come in the evening Or come in the morning; Come when you’re looked for, Or come without warning. And the oftener you come The more we’ll adore you. RESPONSE MRS. MYRTLE HOOPER DAHL, TEACHER; AND PRESIDENT, DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. We, the teachers of the nation, want to express to you our sincere appre¬ ciation for these cordial words of welcome but, more than all, for the cordial evidences of welcome which have been ours on every side since we arrived in San Francisco, in fact since we arrived in California. The gold rush to California is not over, as this audience will prove this morning, because the nugget of gold in this great state has been to the teachers of the nation the nugget of sincere friendship, the nugget of cor¬ diality, the nugget of real leadership, for from the state of California to the teachers of the nation have been sent repeatedly leaders that were out¬ standing in their enthusiasm and in their understanding. But even so, we may be very enthusiastic about the things we think are right, but I was reared on an axiom which said, “Actions speak louder than words.” It is the actions of the leaders from California and the actions of those leaders in their own states in actually accomplishing the things about which they were so enthusiastic that has led the rest of us to see the way things can be done which have a sincere motive and a true aim. So these gold nuggets have led all of us on the trail back to California where we knew we would receive the same inspiration we have always had. We, the teachers of America, have a true responsibility. We are willing to assume that responsibility, but the world has moved long since the first teacher began 100 years ago, the first training of the teachers 100 years ago, and because the world has moved so swiftly we find today that the problem of the teacher is the universal problem. The teacher today includes not only the educators of the nation but also the parents and the boards of education, and we have worked more closely than we have ever worked before and have come to understand that the word “teacher” means everyone, that the General Sessions 53 boys and girls of our American life grow every single minute, and that the father, the mother, the neighbor, the teacher, and the educator are all teachers. Whether we are superintendents, whether we are in the classroom, or whether we are principals, it makes no difference; we are teachers all, and the schools are for the boys and the girls in whom we hope to see the fine citizens of tomorrow. In our News Bulletin we carry a column called “Between Bells.” It is written by Naomi John White of Oklahoma. She had an idea in her last issue of the Bulletin that I would like to pass on. As we look at these friendly people on the platform, as we pick up our papers every day and see the fine things that are being done by outstanding men and outstanding women over this nation, Miss White’s suggestion was that when the picture appeared in the paper how nice it would be if down underneath it said, beside the place where it says “Photo by Jones Bros.” it could say, “Taught by Mary Eleanor Jones,” or “Taught by Superintendent Nurz.” That is just a mere suggestion, but you might think it over, because really that is the joy of our profession. Sitting somewhere in the audience today, I am very sure there is a teacher who is most proud of every one of our dis¬ tinguished guests. I would like to say once more, we are grateful to you, the people of San Francisco and California, for making this a most successful convention by your warm hospitality and your sincere friendship. RESPONSIBILITIES OF OUR PROFESSION REUBEN T. SHAW, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION This general session officially opens the seventy-seventh annual convention of the largest organization of teachers in the world and finds us directing our attention primarily to the study of the responsibilities of our profession in American democracy. I need not give specific quotations from Washing¬ ton, Jefferson, and others who participated in drafting our Bill of Rights and the Declaration of Independence. I do believe, however, it is necessary for us to constantly keep in mind that all those who developed our scheme of government stress the fact that only thru an educated and enlightened citizenry could democracy function. As we proceed to the discussion of the responsibilities of our profession it is important for us to bear in mind the generally accepted criteria of a profession. While opinions and comments differ, almost all of the profes¬ sions recognize that a profession is distinguished from other occupations by the following: 1. The “call,” which may be defined in this connection as the strong desire to give one’s life to a particular field of endeavor. 2. It requires broad general training. 3. It requires training in specialized fields of knowledge. 4. It exalts service above gain. 5. It requires continuous study and growth. 6. It stimulates the growth of pride in the service rendered. 7. It develops a well-knit professional organization. 54 National Education Association Other professions have found it possible to move forward in their stand¬ ing among the other occupations of the world by raising the requirements for admission and by developing codes of ethics within the profession. The teaching profession should work in a similar direction. If we are to elevate the profession of teaching it is highly important that we do everything pos¬ sible to make our profession measure up well in the light of each of the criteria named above. 1. The call — While our profession has advanced greatly in the last twenty-five years in practically all the criterial directions mentioned above, we still have hundreds and thousands who make use of the teaching position as steppingstones or stopgaps in the activities of their lives. These stopgaps are used largely because of the attempt to get into more gainful occupations. They occur also because of our standards for admission. While it is quite true that our standards for certain fields in the teaching profession are high enough to require not only evidence of a real desire to enter the profession but also to require a broad general background. 2. Broad general training — Equal in all respects to that required for entrance to other professions our small school systems and our rural schools in many states permit teaching by those who have had less than a high- school education. 3. Training in specialized fields of knowledge — Here again some of our states, and in a large measure our cities, require for entrance into the teach¬ ing profession certain advanced training in specialized subjects, skills, meth¬ ods that compare favorably with those required in other professions. Here again, also our smaller schools and school systems are not held to such standards. 4. Service above gain — It has been an outstanding characteristic of the teaching profession to make the service rendered much more important than the gain received for that service. That attitude is so common that the public generally expects teachers to be satisfied with a small amount of gain and a none too large amount of appreciation for service. 5. Continuous growth and study — The teaching profession measures well with other professions in preparation and continued study. Many state laws require periodic attendance at college or university as a necessary pre¬ requisite to advancement on the salary scale or to continue at a salary then achieved. 6. Pride in service rendered — Many teachers are proud of their calling. Many, however, especially those who have come into the profession pri¬ marily on a steppingstone basis, have continued without seeing the next place to step. Instead of an increasing pride they have developed a dissatis¬ faction with their profession. 7. Professional organization — Organizations within the teaching pro¬ fession have gradually evolved as the demand from time to time arose. The original organizations almost always were built upon some local aspect, such as science teaching, English teaching, or such associations that would find narrow geographical boundaries. More and more, however, as rules and General Sessions 55 regulations and laws were developed in the various states and communities, teachers have found it desirable to form associations on a statewide basis. Only in recent years has it become apparent to any considerable proportion of the teachers how important it is to link together the activities of all edu¬ cational associations, especially those that were organized on a geographic basis. There is much to be done in the way of perfecting our professional organizations so that the local, state, and national associations more fully cooperate with each other. We have good reason to be proud of the progress that has been made toward the professionalization of teaching. We have much to do. The teach¬ ing profession has a unique function in the American democracy in its pro¬ gram to build future voting citizens. Promoting education in the United States — Our teachers have thruout all time taught subjectmatter in the schools in a more or less effective way. Relatively few teachers, however, have measured up to those possibilities which we desire in the teaching of subjectmatter and in all of those other phases of school life which contribute to an educated and enlightened citi¬ zenry. Relatively few teachers recognize that one of their responsibilities is that of becoming thoroly acquainted with many fields of endeavor within the profession itself. Few classroom teachers know much about the prob¬ lems that must be faced by principals and superintendents. Principals grad¬ ually slip into the position of handling their own particular job in a way designed to please the superintendent and to avoid friction with the teachers and they endeavor to arrive at a satisfactory solution of their problem without knowing either the teacher’s job or the superintendent’s relationship to the school system and the public. The superintendent is often so busy with the problems of meeting his board and his public that he gets farther and farther away from the problems of the teacher and the principal. We need to take positive steps to remedy that sort of thing. Teachers must find ways and means of presenting to their public not only the needs of their own school but also the needs of the whole school system in the city or county, as well as the needs of the school sj^stem of the state and the needs of an effective school system that covers the entire nation. Teachers have already been loaded with tasks involving records and pro¬ cedures that often become handicaps to the process for which they were primarily employed, namely, that of developing the youth within their classrooms. By carefully planning the teacher can become more closely acquainted with that for which the organization should stand in the local community, the state, and the nation. The responsibilities of the classroom teacher in this connection readily classify themselves as (a) those concerning the particular subject or grade in the classroom; (b) the support given by the public in that particular community to that school or school system; (c) the general program of education within that state; and (d) the extent to which the aims and purposes of education in democracy are being carried out thruout the nation. Responsibility of the administrator — The responsibilities of the adminis¬ trator differ only slightly from those of the classroom teacher, the differences 56 National Education Association being largely those of the grouping of activities. The administrator will not have as much time as the teacher must give to the classroom, but he will have more time and energy which he can give to the problems related to the needs of the school community, the state, and the nation. It is a part of his responsibility to assist the teacher to become more acquainted with the public relations side of the responsibilities of the profession. Two years ago the President of the United States brought into existence a special committee of leading citizens in many walks of life who made a thoro and exhaustive study of this matter of equality of educational oppor¬ tunity. They brought out the fact that we were far from the achievement of those ends which we had so proudly set up as our ideals. The committee brought out that (a) 800,000 children in America between the ages of seven and thirteen are not going to school because schools are not available to them; and (b) three and one-half million youth of high-school age are not attending school because schools are either not available at all or do not provide the courses in which these youth would be interested and by which they could profit. Another striking figure in the report of the Advisory Com¬ mittee on Education was the fact that a million and a half handicapped children were not being provided with the educational opportunity with which to make them useful citizens. Crime and education — During the last ten years the teaching profession has given gradual increased attention to the matter of character education in the schools. During this same ten-year period we have seen other organ¬ ized groups of citizens give attention to the matter of crime. Our own United States is cited as having a larger amount of crime proportionately than any other nation in the world. Four out of five of the criminals whose fingerprints are recorded are either illiterate or nearly so. The statistical evidence reveals that crime in America costs fifteen billion dollars per year, while education costs two and one-half billions. Prison wardens and social workers generally have repeatedly expressed the opinion that education of the right sort at the right time would greatly reduce the extent of crime and therefore the cost of crime. About four years ago there was created a bureau of crime prevention sponsored by certain members of the judiciary and supported by the At¬ torney General and governors of various states. This organization has endeavored to secure agreements or compacts between the states providing for remedying the evil of state boundary protection for criminals by greater uniformity of juvenile parole. This bureau has joined with the American Bar Association, the National Education Association, and the American Legion in developing courses for character education in the schools. While development of courses of character education in our existing schools will undoubtedly be of great advantage in the prevention of crime, we must not lose sight of the fact that large numbers are not in school at all. This, of course, applies to the 800,000 youth between the ages of seven and thirteen years that the recent study showed were not in school. Two years ago the President of the United States appointed a committee General Sessions 57 to study the responsibilities of the national government toward education. This committee represented almost all our leading walks of life, including a small minority of educators. This committee in its report pointed out that the federal government must give some financial support to the public schools in order that equal educational opportunity might be provided for every boy and girl in America and thereby make possible that educated and enlightened citizenry so necessary for the functioning of our democracy. The Senate of the United States thru its official committee on education prepared and introduced a bill in conformity with the recommendations of the committee. In the preparation of this bill the American Council on Education and the National Education Association gave their full coopera¬ tion. A hearing was held early in March of this year, and opportunity was given to everyone who desired to speak. After the hearing the Senate com¬ mittee voted unanimously, save one, in favor of its passage. The bill was then placed upon the calendar, and there it waits appropriate action by the Senate. Anti-Americanism — While many of our publicists disagree upon the exact meaning of Americanism, almost anyone who has lived a part of his life in some other country and then a part in America appreciates what is meant by Americanism. No matter what those definitions or concepts may be, the fact remains that whenever they are investigated and brought to light the same comment can be made ; namely, that the particular anti- Americanism, attitude, thought, or ism develops only in a soil of ignorance fertilized with poverty, fear, or irreligion. The definition of democracy which appeals to me most is this: “Democracy is intelligent compromise.” Each of the two words needs to be equally emphasized. Thousands of citizens attain the voting power each year who have had practically no education at all. Many of those who have attended school are not well informed concerning the fundamentals of government. These ignorant and partially educated citizens are no asset in defending their country against its foes from other lands. We know that ignorance perils democracy. We know that millions of American children are denied educa¬ tional opportunities. Many members of the teaching profession have made efforts to bring these facts to the attention of the public but we have been weakly affected. We have not achieved success in a nationwide way that would give just cause for pride. Since the charter of this Association was framed, in order to carry into effect its purposes, there has been a gradual evolution of development in three special directions: 1. The creation of committees as needed from time to time 2. The creation of departments having specialized common interests and continuing from year to year to work upon those interests under bylaws and officers of their own 3. The creation and development of a headquarters staff, organized into divisions of specialists. From approximately 300 members in 1857, the National Education As¬ sociation has grown until it now has over 200,000 members representing 58 National Education Association state associations which in turn have over 800,000 members. The Associa¬ tion now has twenty-eight committees at work, twenty-four departments, and a full-time staff organized into seven divisions. The Committee on Taxation and Tax Education — All over the United States we have found efforts more or less organized in the direction of reduction of taxation. Almost always the effort to reduce is aimed at the schools. Those who foster these efforts seldom criticize the schools them¬ selves adversely, but merely say they are costing too much. Undoubtedly this point of view would not get far were it not for the fact that the forces supporting the cause of education have not been effectively organized. In times of economic and social changes it is highly important to study the matter of taxation. We ask for the answers to the following questions: 1. What portion of the cost of maintenance of the schools should be borne by the local community? 2. What portion of the cost of maintenance of the schools should be borne by the state ? 3. What portion of the cost of maintenance of the schools should be borne by the nation ? As soon as we raise these questions a second question immediately con¬ fronts us, namely, What are the current practices in regard to these items? A casual survey brings out the fact that there is a great variety in the various states. Undoubtedly these various practices and experiences will have great bearing upon determining the proper answers to the above ques¬ tions. No intelligent approach to this problem could be made without making considerable research. This is an excellent illustration of where the Research Division stands ready to assist this and all other committees. The Committee on Code of Ethics — Several years ago the National Edu¬ cation Association created a Committee on Code of Ethics. The report of that committee was accepted and adopted as a suggested code of ethics for the teaching profession of America. Several states have worked along similar lines, but worked in large measure independently. Relatively few members of the profession are aware of the existence of such codes. Yet, twenty-eight states have separate codes of ethics, including eighty-five different items, of which not more than thirty-three are found in any one state code. Practically all professions regard a code of ethics as essential to the well¬ being of that profession. With this in mind we have again brought into existence a committee with the hope that we can build a code of ethics which can be accepted as the code for the teaching profession thruout the United States. A Committee on All-Inclusive Membership Cards — Many workers in the field of our professional organizations discovered long ago that the interests of the local and state associations had much in common with each other and much in common with the national association. With this fact in mind many localities developed and carried thru simultaneous campaigns for membership in their local, state, and national associations. Several state associations developed statewide professional organization membership cam¬ paigns and called them coinclusive enrolment. General Sessions 59 A Committee on Affiliated Associations and Relationships — While the National Education Association is chartered as a separate and distinct pro¬ fessional organization, it has in its own bylaws and with the authority of that charter set up as a governing body a representative assembly made up almost entirely of delegates elected from and by other corporations or asso¬ ciations which are known as affiliated state and local associations. For all practical purposes, the National Education Association might be referred to as a federation of state and local associations. Up to the present, little has been done to develop a clear understanding of the privileges and responsi¬ bilities of affiliation, except so far as it has concerned itself with the selection of delegates, the privilege of receiving the Proceedings and certain bulletins, and the payment of rather nominal affiliation dues. Many of our N.E.A. departments have corresponding departments in state and local associations. Practically nothing has been done to bring out and develop affiliated relationships in these corresponding local, state, and national departments. At state and district association meetings little has been done to bring out the aims and purposes, the achievements, and the current endeavors of the national and local associations. We are therefore bringing into existence at the San Francisco convention a Committee on Affiliated Associations and Relationships. If our National Education Association is to be made effective, individual members and more especially local associations should be mindful of the work of the departments of the Association. It is important to bear in mind that each department operates under its own bylaws and is free to change its bylaws from time to time provided they are not in conflict with the bylaws of the N.E.A. The departments are free to call upon the Research Division and many of them do so. The departments apply for and usually receive certain financial assistance from the general association. Many of them have their own dues to help carry on their own activity. During the current year the Department of Science Instruction has inau¬ gurated a thoro study of the science curriculum looking toward revision of that curriculum from Grades I to XII, inclusive. During the cur¬ rent year the Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation has led in an effort to coordinate and correlate the work of the many agencies that are interested in and which are working toward health improve¬ ment in the schools. If the work of these departments is to become really effective in the schools, the local and state affiliated associations should be thoroly familiar with the work of the national departments. In general, the purpose of this Committee on Affiliated Associations and Relationships shall be to foster and encourage a closer relationship between and among the local, state, and national divisions of our profession, with particular reference to committees, departments, conventions, and confer¬ ences. Educational Policies Commission — Every member of the teaching pro¬ fession should regard it a professional duty to become thoroly familiar with the work of our Educational Policies Commission. Its three major 60 National Education Association publications to date are: The Unique Function of Education in Ameri¬ can Democracy t The Structure and Administration of Education in Ameri¬ can Democracy, and The Purposes of Education in American Democracy. It would be ineffective to cite contents of any of these splendid pronounce¬ ments. 1 should like, however, to see every local association in the teaching profession of the United States take as a special theme for all local and state conferences for the coming year the third of the above-mentioned pronouncements, namely, The Purposes of Education in American Demo¬ cracy. International relations — In 1923 this Association helped to bring into existence the World Federation of Education Associations. During this period of sixteen years it has continuously given support. Like many young associations, it has been subject to much criticism, but it has continued to grow. The year 1938 witnessed a most significant development in this matter of education taking its proper place in the affairs of the nations of the world. For the first time we have seen created in the State Department a division of cultural relations. You will remember that the State Department is that department of our government which is responsible for the preparation of treaties with other nations of the world. Most of these treaties in the past have been founded upon trade agreements of one sort or another. Never before have we specifically set up in that department a division that would emphasize the importance of proceeding in the way in which our concept of democracy and education has grown up in our school systems. Summary — The teaching profession of America has a great responsibility to raise the standards of admission to the profession along the lower levels. The teaching profession has a great responsibility to promote the cause of education by properly presenting it to the public. The teaching profession has great responsibilities in the field of becoming more fully informed con¬ cerning the basis of our international relations and the methods by which better understanding among the peoples of all nations may be brought about. Undoubtedly, the greatest responsibility which lies before the pro¬ fession of teaching in America is to so perfect its organization that these previously named responsibilities may be carried in a more effective manner. Pride in the profession — In looking back over the history of education in America let us remember that regardless of our own particular interests in the school system, that after all, it includes every phase of education from kindergarten to university, and that we include within the profession public and private institutions, city and rural teachers, superintendents, university professors; and that each and all of us have our own particular contributions to make and our responsibility to carry. We have a right to think that we are entitled to an income upon which we can live in a reason¬ able manner. That will be readily provided if we present to the public in an effective way the needs of education. Appreciation — I deeply appreciate the many opportunities that have been given to me during the past year. I cannot find words to express my General Sessions 61 appreciation for the constructive suggestions I have received on the part of so many members of the profession in general and more particularly those who represent the organized portion of our great Association. Active participation and splendid cooperation have been given to the president by members of our profession and our professional organizations every¬ where. Every member of our headquarters staff has given prompt and unsolicited assistance at all times thruout the year. In those great sections wherein I have been especially interested — taxation, code of ethics, all- inclusive membership card, new local affiliation, affiliated association rela¬ tionships, citizenship, international relations, science instruction — I feel deeply indebted to all who have helped to make these advances. SECOND GENERAL SESSION The Second General Session was held Monday evening in the War Memorial Opera House. After music by the Saturday Morning Choir of the Oakland public schools and an invocation by the Reverend W. Paul Reagor, a pageant, “Span of Gold,” depicting the major events in the development of the West, was given. Between episodes there were musical selections by an augmented orchestra from all the San Francisco high schools. THIRD GENERAL SESSION RECOGNITION OF SECRETARIES OF STATE EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS WILLARD E. GIVENS, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION This year we are celebrating the thirtieth anniversary of the employment of the first full-time paid secretary of a state teachers association. The first state teachers association that employed a secretary was California, and the first secretary took his office in the city in which we are now meeting. If any of you want to see that first secretary he is still very much alive, very wide-awake, and one of the able educators of the western part of the United States. If you will go into the American Book Company’s exhibit in the main auditorium and ask for LeRoy Armstrong, the West Coast man¬ ager of the American Book Company, you will see in person the first full¬ time paid secretary of a state teachers association in the United States. Previous to 1919, seven state education associations employed full-time secretaries. They were: California, 1909; New York, 1910; Illinois, 1913; Kansas, 1914; Missouri, 1915; and Iowa and Oklahoma, 1918. During the next ten years, twenty-seven additional states employed them, and at the present time forty states and the Territory of Hawaii have full-time secretaries. The executive secretaryship is one of the most strategic and important of state educational positions. It gives almost unlimited opportunity for 62 National Education Association leadership and requires unusual vision, vigor, courage, and diplomacy. The executive secretary is an employee of practically all of the teachers of his state and, therefore, their servant, yet he must possess and exercise those qualities of leadership which will enable him to represent effectively in the eyes of the public the great profession of teaching. The early full-time secretaries were pioneers. They blazed the trails which their successors have followed. Some, like E. M. Carter of Missouri and Charles O. Williams of Indiana, died in action, martyrs to the cause to which they gave full strength and devotion. Some of you were at the vesper service Sunday afternoon when a tribute was paid to the late Charles O. Williams. After having given his life to the cause of education he wrote his own epitaph, which reads, “A School Teacher, Charles O. Williams, 1874-1938.” He was still proud of the fact that he served the cause of edu¬ cation. Others, like Arthur Chamberlain, who for many years served the California Teachers Association and is still in this city of San Francisco; Robert C. Moore of Illinois, who has just retired ; Charles F. Pye of Iowa; E. T. Cameron of Michigan; C. G. Schultz of Minnesota; F. E. Reynolds of Ohio ; and J. Herbert Kelley of Pennsylvania have retired honorably after years of distinguished service, yielding their responsibilities of office to men and women of a younger generation. The state secretaries are as follows: 1916 Kansas F. L. Pinet 1921 Mississippi W. N. Taylor Washington A. L. Marsh 1922 North Carolina J. B. Warren Virginia C. J. Heatwole 1923 North Dakota M. E. McCurdy Oklahoma C. M. Howell 1925 South Carolina J. P. Coates 1926 Colorado W. B. Mooney Idaho J. I. Hillman Oregon E. F. Carleton 1927 California R. W. Cloud 1928 Alabama F. L. Grove 1929 Florida J. S. Rickards 1930 Massachusetts H. Nixon New York Arvie Eldred 1933 Connecticut F. E. Harrington Kentucky W. P. King Montana M. P. Moe Wisconsin 0. H. Plenzke 1935 Arkansas Miss Willie Lawson Ohio W. B. Bliss 1936 Georgia R. L. Ramsey Louisiana Spencer Phillips Michigan A. J. Phillips Minnesota W. E. Englund Tennessee Andy Holt Texas B. B. Cobb 1937 Utah M. B. Taylor Hawaii E. L. McTaggart General Sessions 63 1938 Arizona Illinois Indiana Iowa Missouri Nebraska New Mexico West Virginia Wyoming 1939 Pennsylvania South Dakota N. D. Pulliam I. F. Pearson Robert Wyatt Agnes Samuelson T. J. Walker A. L. Burnham R. J. Mullins R. B. Marston O. C. Kerney H. E. Gayman S. B. Nissen The teaching profession in America owes a great debt to these loyal leaders who during the past thirty years have contributed so largely to the progress which our profession has made and it now looks to those who hold these important offices for continued leadership. They are the heirs of a great tradition and the bearers of a large responsibility. IT IS HAPPENING HERE HONORABLE NOAH MASON, MEMBER OF CONGRESS FROM ILLINOIS; AND MEMBER OF THE DIES COMMITTEE ON UN-AMERICAN ACTIVITIES I have heard, and I think practically all of you have heard during the last few years, the statement, “It can’t happen here.” Perhaps a great many of you people have made that statement. I have been buttonholed by leaders of the American Legion and by leaders of the Catholic Church and have been urged to do something about the Red menace. I have shrugged my shoulders and said: “That is very much magnified; it can’t happen here. It might happen in Russia where 90 percent of the people are illiter¬ ate, but it just can’t happen here.” But during this past year, as a member of the Dies Committee listening to the sworn testimony and the written evidence that would be acceptable in any court in the land, I have changed my mind. I now apologize to the leaders of the American Legion and to the leaders of the Catholic Church who have been alarmed during the last several years over the progress made by communism in this country. I now say with all the emphasis I have at my command, “It is happening here.” One of the chief witnesses before our Committee made this statement, “Communism has made more progress in the United States during the last five years than it had made in the fifty-year period previous to that time.” When J. B. Matthews, who was the chief witness, was asked how he ac¬ counted for this rapid spread of communism during the last five years, he gave four reasons which I want to give to you. First, this so-called depression has lasted so long that it has brought about or created mass discontent, and mass discontent makes fertile soil for com¬ munistic crops. Second, high government officials, thru speeches, radio addresses, and written statements, have created or engendered class hatred, and class hatred makes an excellent seedbed for communistic crops. 64 National Education Association Class hatred is a twin brother of religious hatred and prejudice, of race hatred and prejudice, and where one is created the other is bound to follow. Our investigators all over this nation report an up-surge of hatred and prejudice such as this country has never known before. When we sow the wind, we may expect to reap the whirlwind. Third, high government officials have not only encouraged but they have sympathized with communist leaders in their activities in this country. As an example of sympathy and encouragement having been given to the activities of communist leaders by government officials I cite the case of Harry Bridges and his communistic activities on the West Coast in con¬ nection with the maritime unions. Altho an alien and a communist, he has been protected and deportation proceedings have been delayed and post¬ poned by Secretary of Labor Perkins. As a further excellent example of sympathy and encouragement being given to activities of communist lead¬ ers by government officials we cite the attitude and action of the ex-gover¬ nor of Michigan in the various sit-down strikes that took place in his state. Sit-down strikes were first practiced in France by communist leaders of the popular front. The sit-down strike technic was so successful in France that the communist leaders of the CIO adopted the plan and put it into effect in this country. Miss Perkins, when asked for a statement on the sit- down strike, replied that the legality or illegality of it had not been deter¬ mined by the courts as yet. The Supreme Court has since settled that point. Fourth, federal funds — your tax money and my tax money — has been generously used to advance the cause of communism in the United States. A good example of federal funds being used to advance the cause of com¬ munism is found in the WPA Federal Theater Project in New York City, where millions of dollars of federal funds, appropriated for relief, have been spent and are now being spent to produce communistic plays. Evidence presented during two days of testimony before our Committee showed that the Federal Theater Project of New York City is dominated by communist members of the Workers Alliance and that its work and activities are controlled and directed by communist leaders. The testimony before our Committee, with written evidence to back it up, proved conclusively to me that the slimy trail of communism is to be found entering and permeating four different phases of American life. We have had testimony from many college professors as to the pene¬ tration of communism in their own colleges and as to communist activities on their own campuses and what they are trying to do to eliminate it. Then we find it in the churches of the nation, the last place where you would expect to find communism. According to the testimony of Earl Browder, the leading communist in the United States, we have many or¬ dained preachers occupying pulpits in America who are trying to preach communistic principles alongside of Christian principles. You cannot mix the two any more than you can mix oil and water. It is impossible — but it is being done in the United States. We had the testimony of John P. Frey, viccpresident of the American Federation of Labor, as to the spread of communism in the A. F. of L. units General Sessions 65 and what they are trying to do to get rid of it. His testimony included the fact that more than one hundred well-known communists are on the payroll of the CIO today as organizers. The fourth place where communism is found is in the departments of our federal government, particularly in the Labor Department, the Na¬ tional Labor Relations Board, and the Wage and Hours Board. The strategy used is what has been known as the Trojan Horse strategy. The greatest indictment that has ever been brought out against the com¬ munists, against their methods, and against their objectives was brought out by none other than John L. Lewis in a report of the United Mine Workers of America in 1924, which has now been made Senate Document No. 14 in the Sixty-Eighth Congress. In that document you will find the strongest, the most damning indictment of the communists and their boring- from-within program, and yet that same John L. Lewis today, fifteen years later, has on his payroll some of the very leaders that he indicts in that document. That is the spread of communism in the labor ranks of America. They have discarded the Trojan Horse method and have adopted a new one. Their new program is this: They have set up what is known as legitimate organizations with wonderful objectives, for bay window dress¬ ing, to attract the innocents, but inside each of these legitimate organiza¬ tions is a small holding company or illegal organization which dominates and controls and works behind this beautiful front of objectives. That is the situation. There are one hundred of those types of organizations listed in the United States today, the chief one of which is the League for Peace and Democracy. It was organized in 1933. It came about in this way: Stalin became alarmed at the rise of fascism in Europe. Hitler had come into power in Germany. Mussolini was rattling the sword in Italy. Japan had gobbled up Manchuria and made a puppet state of it, and Stalin felt inevitably there would be a death struggle come about between fascism, on the one hand, and communism on the other, and he called the Executive Committee of the Internationale in Moscow to talk over the t * situation. At this conference they decided they must have allies in that coming struggle, and the program was to organize the loyalist front govern¬ ment in France, which is the present French government with which Daladier has had so much trouble, and the loyalist front government in Spain, which was the government of Spain until it was overthrown. But the United States, Canada, and Australia and other countries were not ready for what was known as the popular front government. So they were to be brought into line gradually by these united front organizations. Earl Browder was our representative — if you want to say “our” — at this Moscow conference. Stalin gave Browder orders to come back to America and set up and establish what was known at that time as the American League against War and Fascism. Browder came back and gave J. B. Matthews a commission to set that up. Matthews organized it and was its president until late in 1935. The American League against War and Fascism was changed about a year and a half ago to the Ameri¬ can League for Peace and Democracy — a better sounding name. It has 66 National Education Association four classes of members. One is the active communists who do most of the work and occupy the strategic positions. The other, known as Fellow Travelers, are communists in every sense of the word, but do not take out a communist membership card, for strategic reasons. The third group is known by the communists as stooges, decoys, or dupes. This group is peculiar. They are important people in university life, in church life, in political life, whose names have great drawing power and advertising value. They are invited to speak at some of the united front organization meetings to give prestige and standing to those meetings and to further gather in the innocents. The League for Peace and Democracy has more than 4,000,000 mem¬ bers according to its own testimony, 98 or 99 percent of whom are absolutely innocent of what is going on behind this great, magnificent front of objectives. Everybody is for peace; everybody is against war; so that is the strategy of the communists. That is what they are doing now. What is their objective? The objective, as testified to by the communists themselves, is this: Overthrow the party in power. That is the Demo¬ cratic Party. How are they going to do that? By driving a wedge in be¬ tween the right wing and the left wing, and that wedge is more than half way thru now. We realize that on Capitol Hill. That wedge has been given great impetus by the President’s purge program, unintentionally of course. After overthrowing the party in power, what next? They will set up and establish the Farmer Labor Party. Why? Because the com¬ munists hold and occupy strategic positions in that party. As soon as they get the Farmer Labor Party in power and can control and dominate it, they will overthrow capitalism, which of course is the main objective of communism, and also bankrupt the nation. Why bankrupt the nation? To bring about the necessary condition of chaos so that a receiver will take over, and the receiver will naturally and logically be this well-organized, militant, powerful, small group known as the American Communists. And what then ? There will be heaven on earth as they have in Russia. That is their idea. God save us from that kind of heaven here ! That is the program. It sounds fantastic. Nevertheless, that is exactly what they are undertaking to do and that is exactly what their moves are all to bring about. That is their program. What should be done about it? I have been asked what we should do about it, what good is the Dies Committee, and what can be accom¬ plished by bringing these facts to the public? Bring communism out into the open and into the daylight of public opinion and you do not need to worry about it. That is how we want you to help. I have said if I had my way I would take every communist leader and transport him to Russia and give him a dose of three to five years of communism as it operates there. Communism as an ideal is heavenly; com¬ munism in actual effect is hell on earth. Let us do what we can under our Constitution to remove this mass discontent, to put these 10 or 12,000,000 people back to work. Remove the General Sessions 67 fertile soil, and you do not need to worry about communistic crops. Let us stop this preaching of class hatred, which engenders other kinds and makes an excellent seedbed for communistic seed. We ought to be able to do that, and we ought to be able to bring about a little better distribution of the products of labor. To you school teachers I offer this thought: I have had taught in the schools over which I had charge for the past fifteen years the following poem called “The Patriot’s Creed,” containing the essence of Americanism, to which every school child in America should be exposed. If I knew a better land in This glorious world of ours, Where a man gets bigger money Or is working shorter hours; If the Briton or the Frenchman Had an easier life than mine, I’d pack my goods this minute And I’d sail across the brine. But I notice when an alien Wants a land of hope and cheer And a future for his children, He comes out and settles here. Here’s the glorious land of freedom, Here’s the milk-and-honey goal For the peasant out of Russia, For the long subjected Pole. It is here the sons of Italy And the men of Austria turn For the comfort of their bodies And the wages they can earn. And with all that men complain of And with all that goes amiss, There’s no happier, better nation On the world’s broad face than this. When I listen to the wails of discontent as some communist agitator spreads his evil sentiments, I think that these enemies of freedom who are spreading sin and shame in this glorious land of freedom should go back from whence they came. I hold that it is the duty of every man, rich or poor, who enjoys this country’s blessings, to be all American. ARE WE GOING TO LOSE OUR HERITAGE OF CIVIL LIBERTIES? HONORABLE ELBERT D. THOMAS, SENATOR FROM UTAH, CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND LABOR, UNITED STATES SENATE; AND MEMBER OF THE LA FOLLETTE COMMITTEE ON CIVIL LIBERTIES It is not a mere coincidence that brings me, one of the Committee that for the past three years has carried on the civil liberties investigations, to talk for the first time on this subject to the teachers of our country. 68 National Education Association I like to hold that the American government was established primarily for the purpose of giving liberty to the world and perpetuating on earth a system of government which will allow a development of the individual citizen in the fullest in those characteristics that will make of him in every sense a free man. I shall attempt to be philosophical and analytical in my deductions. Do not think from that statement I am going to remain in the realm of cold logic. Logic is an artificiality set up to defend a given proposition. While the American government accepts certain premises in regard to man and his nature, never once has the defense of those premises been left to the realm of logic. They are now incorporated in a scheme of government deliberately and definitely planned to accomplish certain objectives. The success and the perpetuation of these objectives as they are guaranteed in the plan rest upon a faith in the patriotism, loyalty, training, and ability of the American teacher, for the American Republic puts its faith in its continuation in the good judgment of a trained citizenry. The educational development of that citizenry is left to the school, the church, and the home. The church furnishes the bond which links the citizen to things that were and things that will be, thus putting purpose into life by making it part of a greater scheme. The home deals with “oughts” and “shoulds,” aiding to make each person’s life not only in ac¬ cord with our nation’s mores but also in accord with the morals and char¬ acter of our nation’s paragons. The school teaches the “is’s” and the “are’s,” that our citizen’s life may be based upon truth, fact, and science. The citizen’s training, thus, in a way comes from three coordinate institu¬ tions, as our government’s authority is vested in three coordinate branches. The citizen’s training, like his government’s activities, functions best when the three are complementary and contribute to a unity rather than func¬ tion in three separate grooves or in antagonistic conflict. Since upon the teacher rests the responsibility of teaching the facts of government and the rights and obligations of a citizen, it is proper that I should come before you and talk about what those of us who have had to do with attempting to overcome certain ills within our country have in mind and the reason why we take our tasks so seriously. What is a civil liberty? It is a right which the state guarantees an individual. The civil liberties which are ordinarily thought of are listed in our bill of rights. You study them and teach them when you study and teach our Constitution. But as a mere legal concept or an actual legal right, they do not seem to amount to much to the average American citizen because he has unconsciously enjoyed these rights and liberties. The American citizen generally, as a result of these rights, is free to come and go, to buy and sell, to own and to dispose, to think, worship, and write as he sees fit; he is free to join or not join a given organization. His loyalties are multiple and they reflect the complex nature of his life and his being. Man, and therefore the citizen, is not just a single thing; he is many things. He is a citizen of his nation, a citizen of his state, a member of his church, a member of his lodge ; he belongs to a political General Sessions 69 party, to half a dozen fraternities, he is an officer in a corporation, or he is an owner of a business. He is a father, a son, and a brother — all at the same time. If he is hampered in any one of these activities or relation¬ ships, he is not a full man in the sense that the American government expects its citizens to be. We find no eloquent defense for democracy as such put forth by any of the thinkers of our time. Jefferson comes closer than anyone else. He had faith that his four great freedoms — the freedom of property, of mind, of soul, and of body — would not produce complete anarchy because of individual restraint and because he accepted the fundamental thesis that the nature of man was good. The marvel of history is that our experi¬ ment has worked as well as it has. So well has it worked that we can say that the theories on which our American system rests have contributed to the welfare of human beings the world over and have resulted in an enlargement of the standard of life for millions, and the enlargement of life itself to millions more. Can so much rest upon so little? It is so remarkable that it must be viewed as the outstanding miracle of social evolu¬ tion. Take away from the American government the civil liberties guar¬ anteed its citizens, and we destroy the greatest blessings ever given to men in the history of all time. Can any task be more important to a congres¬ sional committee than that of preserving the essence of American liberty? Liberty under our Constitution has a definite American meaning. In the old Oriental philosophies the value of the individual in the sense that he had rights was never conceived. He had a hankering for a life without restraint, and one of the poets gave us this great gem of freedom hundreds and hundreds of years ago : Work, work, from the rising sun Till sunset comes and the day is done. O plough the sod, And harrow the clod, And meat and drink both come to me, Ah! what care I for the powers that be. But no one saw the point that the poet made a free soul but always inter¬ preted the poem to reflect the husbandman’s position as a slave to his work. Regardless of any philosophy or of any theory, man, being a human individual, can have no liberty if his actions are prescribed by ill health, a broken body, by poverty, or by any other physical or economic hindrance. The right to buy and sell is worth nothing if there is nothing to sell and nothing to buy with. Freedom to go and come means nothing if you have no place to go. Liberty is a matter of degree and will ever be. Government must, therefore, see that there are physical, cultural, educational, and economic opportunities for its citizens if they are to have joy in their freedom. But let us consider the concept of liberty as we use it under our Con¬ stitution. What is it? In a sense it is all those rights, privileges, advantages, hopes, freedoms, aspirations, longings, and relationships that government has determined by law to preserve for the individual. If government 70 National Education Association denies the individual the right to assemble with his fellows, if government fails in protecting his property, if government insists that he subscribe to a certain political or religious tenet, that individual is curbed in his life. He is not the well-rounded, complex, social animal that Aristotle thought him to be, to say nothing of what I have called the Jeffersonian concept of man whose nature is good. Here we may ask, Dare we accept the consequences of the theory of liberty as it exists in the American democracy? Once money is invented and used with liberty, as the ancients did in Lydia where money was first used generally, we have the troubles that follow in the wake of the use of money. Sad as that fact is we can have no political democracy without economic democracy, and we can have no economic democracy without money. If we are going to accept the theory of the freedom of the indi¬ vidual we must accept the consequences of that freedom. If man is to be free to own he must be free to own even an automobile. Grant him an automobile and the freedom to go and come and there may be dire conse¬ quences. But with a little knowledge of the physical fact that two bodies cannot occupy the same space at the same time, much of the danger is gone. There are three great consequences of democracy: (a) Democracy is weak; it hangs on the thin thread of common consent, (b) The govern¬ ment in a democracy will always be against itself, (c) In a democracy where liberty is its aim the individual citizen will seldom have his own way. (d) Putting our finger on the ultimate authority in the American democracy is indeed a hard task. The preamble to our Constitution starts with the words: “We, the people” and our textbooks tell us we have popular sovereignty in America. Our great Chief Justice at the 1 50th birthday of our Congress said, “And what the people really want, they generally get.” But 130,000,000 people getting what each wants is an absurdity. Dare we risk the consequences of our four freedoms? Will not some man teach a doctrine that may actually destroy this liberty if we allow freedom of teaching? He may. One day while Jefferson was playing with his grandchildren in the White House a visitor called on him and found him on the floor, his grandchildren riding on his back. That did not astonish the visitor, for all great men enjoy playing with their grand¬ children. But on the table were pamphlets bearing untruths, pamphlets which attacked Jefferson unmercifully. Then was the visitor surprised, and he asked Jefferson, “Do you allow these terrible things to come into 5rour house?” Jefferson said, “Yes, I not only allow them to come but I read them when they do come.” The American system of trial and error and freedom of expression will prove itself to make a much more stable society in the long run than a system where only those things are taught which the teachers have as¬ sumed are for the good of those taught. You cannot preserve a democracy, you cannot preserve freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom of the press, and freedom of the person by force because the instrument of preser- General Sessions 71 vation there actually becomes the instrument of destruction. While the consequences of political liberty and freedom carry with them the elements of their own destruction, they cannot be preserved by being denied. But if there are in freedom and liberty the elements which will destroy both freedom and liberty, there are also in them the elements of their own perpetuation. That man can commit suicide does not mean that all men do commit suicide. Here again we must respect degree, or I shall find myself a victim of my own deductions. Some of you are asking, “But why should the Civil Liberties Committee spend so much time on a study of industrial and labor abuses?” It is, of course, true that a study of society anywhere results in the study of all sorts of abuses, but something was occurring in our American industrial life which had all the seeds of the destruction of American fundamental rights. In the first place, the federal government passed a given law. That law was challenged as being unconstitutional by great lawyers. To challenge an act of government is one of the people’s rights. We had no criticism of the fact that men wanted to test this law in the courts, but certain of these lawyers actually advised their clients that they need not obey the law because the lawyers deemed the law unconstitutional. The lawyers thereby, in a sense, took over a prerogative which we have recog¬ nized as belonging to the Supreme Court of the United States. Even that would not have been particularly bad under the American legal process but some industrialists attempted to overcome what they considered a natural resultant of the law by attempting to destroy certain rights in indi¬ viduals that were part of their rights as citizens. The industrial spy was employed and was used to such an extent that men lost faith in one another. Society itself cannot exist without trust. No social or economic activity is possible. Fear takes the place of faith in the ordinary activities of man. When public police officers were hired, as they were, to do a given job for one part of the public against another part, they ceased to be public officers and became representatives not of the public, which is the arbiter for the disputing parts in the body politic, but actually partisans of one side. When arms and gas were used for industrial purposes, we had the elements of a civil war. When spy hookers and missionaries were used to create disturbances, their employers turned loose upon society the seeds of riot and civil disturbance. Thus, it was not in any vindictive spirit to punish or to crush that these investigations were carried on. In spite of the criticism we have received, our purposes were not to punish but to correct. And as time goes on, corrected industry will be just as happy over the reforms as society itself will be. The result of our investigations into wrongdoing is constructive legisla¬ tion. I firmly believe that civil rights cannot be maintained in our nation unless those who have the power to destroy one of those rights in a citizen shall desist and restrain themselves from destroying it. While I know that wfe have created a feeling on the part of thousands of American citizens that our Congress is interested in preserving the rights of the weak, the 72 National Education Association downtrodden, and the oppressed, the satisfaction which I as a legislator received from these years of hard work is the satisfaction of knowing that as a result of that work there is presented to the Congress, and therefore for the benefit of the people of the United States, constructive legislation which will, I firmly believe, prevent a repetition of some of the abuses, killings, and sufferings, but mainly the stifling of the personal liberties of many of our people in the past. If on the shoulders of the teachers of our land rests the responsibility of preserving our republic, as teachers will you not grant to Senator LaFollette, our associates, and myself, after you have examined our thirty-four volumes of research and investigation, the compliment which all students like to receive, “That which you have done you have done after painstaking research of the highest order. ” I will say of the work of my associates what many a scholar who has studied this work has already said, that the reports preserve the best characteristics of American scholarship. Can I not say, as one teacher to another, that this investigation, its reports, and the pro¬ jected legislation reflect the methods which scholars call good ? The scien¬ tific method calls for action and deduction only after investigation. This method we have followed. May good result from our studies! FOURTH GENERAL SESSION ESTIMATES OF LINCOLN— A SON OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY WILLARD S. CAMPBELL, WEST PHILADELPHIA HIGH SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. John Lothrop Motley, eminent historian, wrote to his mother August 2, 1864: “I venerate Abraham Lincoln exactly as the true, honest type of American democracy.” George Bancroft, in his memorial address before Congress, said: “Lincoln took to heart the eternal truths of liberty, obeyed them as the commands of providence, and accepted the human race as the judge of his fidelity.” Henri Matan, French historian, said: “Lincoln will stand out in the traditions of his country and of the world as an incarnation of the people and of modern democracy itself.” On June 3, 1903, Theodore Roosevelt, then President of the LTnited States, declared: “Great tho we regard Abraham Lincoln, the future will put him on an even higher pinnacle than we have put him. In all history I do not think there will be found an orator whose speeches will last as enduringly as certain of the speeches of Lincoln, and in all history, with the sole exception of the man who founded this republic, I do not believe there will be found another statesman at once so great and so single-hearted in his devotion to the weal of his people. We cannot too highly honor him.” To quote William Howard Taft: “One cannot read of Abraham Lin¬ coln without loving him; one cannot study his efforts, his conscientious General Sessions 73 work, his heroism, his patriotism, and the burden of bitter attack and calumny under which he suffered, and think of the place he now occupies in the history of this country, without a moral inspiration of the most stirring and intense character.” On July 3, 1938, President Franklin D. Roosevelt, at the unveiling of the Peace Monument at Gettysburg, said : “The fullness of the stature of Lincoln’s nature and the fundamental conflicts which events forced upon his administration invite us ever to turn to him for help. He was Commander-in-Chief in this battle. He wanted, above all things, to be Commander-in-Chief of the new peace.” May our love for Lincoln, great son of democracy, and for the ideals for which he stood be deepened tonight as we rapidly recall immortal words of his, words that, coupled with his deeds, may well mightily inspire every individual man, woman, or child thruout this wide, wide world. His first political speech: “Fellow citizens, I presume you all know who I am. I am humble Abraham Lincoln. I have been solicited by my friends to become a candidate for the legislature. My politics are short and sweet, like the old woman’s dance. “I am in favor of a national bank. I am in favor of the internal improve¬ ment system and a high protective tariff. These are my sentiments and political principles. If elected, I shall be thankful; if not, it will be all the same.” In a law lecture he said: “Let any young man choosing the law for a calling yield not to the popular belief that lawyers are necessarily dishonest. Resolve to be honest at all events, and if in your own judgment you cannot be an honest lawyer, resolve to be honest without being a lawyer. Choose some other profession rather than one in the choosing of which you do in advance consent to be a knave. “Discourage litigation, persuade your neighbors to compromise when¬ ever possible. Point out to them how the nominal winner is often a real loser in fees, expenses and waste of time. As a peacemaker, the lawyer has a superior opportunity of being a good man. “Never stir up litigation. A worse man can scarcely be found than one who does this. Who could be more nearly a fiend than he who habitually overhauls the register of deeds in search of defects of titles whereon to stir up strife and put money in his pocket? A moral tone ought to be infused into the profession which would drive such men out of it.” Lincoln may well be an inspiration in matters of temperance. He said when' a young man: “Whether or not the world would be vastly benefited by a total and final banishment from it of all intoxicating drinks seems to me not now an open question. Three-fourths of mankind acknowledge the affirmative with their tongues, and I think all the rest acknowledge it in their hearts.” We who are in the teaching profession may well be inspired by these words of Lincoln: “I can only say that education is the most important work which we as a people can be engaged in.” 74 National Education Association In reply to Douglas, who had pleaded for the sacred right, as he called it, of self-government for Kansas and Nebraska, even tho it violated the Missouri Compromise, Lincoln said: “The doctrine of self-government is right, absolutely and eternally right, but it has no just application as here attempted, or perhaps I should rather say whether it has such application or not depends upon whether a negro is not or is a man. If the negro is not a man, then he who is a man may, as a mere matter of self-government, do with him just as he pleases. But if the negro is a man, is it not to that extent a total destruction of the doctrine of self-government to say that he, too, shall not govern himself ? “When the white man governs himself, that is self-government, but when he governs himself and also governs another man, that is more than self-government; that is despotism. If the negro is a man, why, then, my ancient faith teaches me that all men are created equal, and that there can be no moral right in connection with one man’s making a slave of another. No man is good enough to govern another man without that other’s consent. This is the leading principle, the sheet anchor of our American republicanism.” In 1858 he said: “I know there is a God and that He hates injustice and slavery. I see the storm coming, and I know His hand is in it. If He has a place and a work for me, I think I am ready. I am nothing, but truth is everything. “I have told them that a house divided against itself cannot stand, and they will find it so. Douglas doesn’t care whether slavery is voted up or voted down, but God cares, and humanity cares, and I care, and with His help I cannot fail.” In Philadelphia, on the night of February 21, in response to the mayor, he spoke of the teachings of the Declaration of Independence and the Con¬ stitution of the Lnited States. He said: “May my right arm forget its cunning and my tongue cleave to the roof of my mouth if I ever prove false to those teachings.” Lincoln’s speech at Gettysburg, November 19, 1863, it seems to me, is the grandest speech ever uttered by mortal man. Lincoln’s sense of humor was for him a saving grace. Lincoln loved the soldiers, paying special attention to the extra tall ones. One day, review¬ ing the troops, he stood before a man who was six feet, seven inches tall. He stood for some time looking up at his head, and then down at his feet, and from his feet to his head as if contemplating the immense distance between the two, then stepped up to the soldier, warmly grasped his hand, and said: “Comrade, does your head know when your feet get cold?” A visitor once asked him how many men the Rebels had in the army. “Twelve hundred thousand, according to the best authorities.” “Great heavens,” ejaculated the visitor. “Yes, sir, twelve hundred thousand; no doubt about it. You see, it is like this: When any of my generals get whipped, they claim the enemy outnumbers them three or five to one, and I must believe them. Now we General Sessions 75 have four hundred thousand in the field, and three times four makes twelve, don’t you see?” One day a delegation of hank presidents came to Lincoln arguing whether it was not time to give up thoughts of saving the Union. Lincoln told them this story: “When I was a young man in Illinois, I boarded for a time with an elder of the Presbyterian Church. One night I was roused from my slum¬ ber by a loud rapping at the door, and the elder exclaiming, ‘Arise, Abraham, arise; the day of judgment has come.’ I sprang from my bed, ran to the window, and saw stars falling in great showers. Looking back of them in the heavens I saw the grand old constellations, fixed and true in their places. Gentlemen, the world did not come to an end then, nor will the Union now.” Just a portion of the second inaugural: “Fondly do we hope, fervently do we pray that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue until all the wealth piled by the bondsmen’s two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said : ‘The judgments of the Lord are true and righteous altogether.’ “With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation’s wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow and his orphan ; to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations.” Edwin Stanton, looking down at the face of his dead President, said, “There lies the most perfect ruler of men who ever lived.” Oliver Wendell Holmes: “Our best loved, we surrender.” Emerson : “He was a man without vices.” Whittier : “Stand in thy place and testify To coming ages long, The truth is mightier than a lie, And righteousness than wrong.” Walt Whitman in “O Captain! My Captain!” “O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done, The ship has weather’d every rack, the prize we sought is won, The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting, While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring; But O heart! heart! heart! O the bleeding drops of red, Where on the deck my Captain lies, Fallen cold and dead. . . 76 National Education Association Lowell: “Wise, steadfast in the strength of God, and true.” Theodore Tilton summed up his life work in eight words: “He bound the nation and unbound the slave.” Phillips Brooks: “The shepherd of his people.” John Drinkwater: “The world emancipator.” Theodore Roosevelt: “If ever was a man who practically applied the teachings of our churches, it was Abraham Lincoln.” John Hay: “Lincoln is the greatest character since Christ.” EDUCATION FOR DEMOCRACY EDWIN G. CONKLIN, VICEPRESIDENT, AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY; AND WELL-KNOWN PRINCETON UNIVERSITY SCIENTIST, PRINCETON, N. J. For more than fifty-five years I have been a teacher, beginning in a one-room “district school” where I taught everything from the alphabet to algebra and was also janitor, as well as judge, jury, and executioner, and for nearly fifty years I have been a professor of biology in colleges and universities. This experience has influenced my views of human nature and its development, of the influences of heredity, environment, and educa¬ tion on the development of the bodies, minds, and morals of young persons, and it has also caused me to re-examine the aims and methods of education and of democracy. All development, whether of animals or of men, consists in progress from a relatively simple to a more complex condition by means of increas¬ ing differentiation. Development occurs only in response to stimuli. Ex¬ trinsic stimuli are found in food substances, proper temperature, moisture, in the surrounding environment; intrinsic stimuli are found in the constitu¬ tional or inherited needs and satisfactions of the organism. But develop¬ ment depends also upon the appropriate response of the organism, and this is limited by its heredity. No combination of stimuli can cause a hen’s egg to develop into a duck and no amount of educational stimuli can convert a born fool into a wise man. The possible control of development is limited largely to the environmental stimuli since there is no way of changing bad heredity into good. Education is an internal transformation and not an external accumulation of information or experience. Only as these environ¬ mental conditions cause internal responses and transformations are they truly educative. Among germinal elements of the mind are differential sensitivity , capac¬ ity of responding differently to different stimuli; organic memory, reten¬ tion of the effects of previous stimuli; tropisms and reflexes, inherited methods of response to stimuli ; instincts, chains of reflexes usually leading to beneficial ends; conditioned reflexes and habits, established by oft-repeated stimuli and responses. As development progresses, differential sensitivity gives rise to special senses; reflexes and tropisms to instincts and habits; organic memory to associative memory and the ability to learn; seeking satisfaction by the process of trial and error together with associative General Sessions 77 memory leads to intelligence; conflicting stimuli and selective responses, to inhibition, choice, and will ; intelligence, memory, and will, to freedom, purpose, and self-consciousness and all of the preceding to specific types of behavior, conduct, and character. In general this process is a gradual progression from the relatively simple to the more complex, but there are certain critical stages when it seems to jump from a lower to a higher level. One of the most striking of these is the period of birth. Another is when organic memory becomes associative memory, and learning becomes possible. Another is when remembered results of experience or learning becomes intelligence; another when intelligence regarding specific things leads to generalizations and reasoning; another when intelligence and reason become factors in shaping behavior, and so freedom and purpose are born. Finally the highest level of human develop¬ ment is attained when freedom and purpose, joined to social emotions, train¬ ing, and habits, shape behavior not only for personal but also for social satisfactions ; thus ethics is born and man becomes a free moral agent. This scientific view of the development of the body, mind, and morals of man is apparently in sharp contrast to the traditional view of their super¬ natural origin, but it is not really such. For while all these processes of development are according to nature there is here no explanation of nature. For all science knows to the contrary, there may be in the whole of nature, from sands to stars, from germ cells to geniuses, a mental, moral, spiritual substratum in which all development occurs. This is the view of many scientists and philosophers as well as of great religious leaders. Education is the attempt to direct development into beneficial channels by means of proper stimuli. All the teacher can do is to stimulate the pupil and by the choice of appropriate stimuli seek to bring forth the desired response. Such responses, oft repeated, become habits. Within the limits which heredity fixes, a vast variety of responses are possible and when such responses become habits, they largely determine character and per¬ sonality. If the acquiring of information is the chief aim of education, it is a dismal failure as measured by its lasting results. I am continually surprised when former students tell me of the things which most impressed them in my teaching. They tell of words, deeds, ideas, and ideals which have deeply influenced them and of which I usually have no remembrance. It makes me think of the scriptural warning, “Every idle word that men shall speak, they shall give account thereof in the day of judgment.” Evidently my example has had a more lasting effect on my students than all the informa¬ tion I labored to impart. What then are the enduring effects of education? Perhaps the only lasting ones are the formation of good habits of body, mind, and morals. It is the paramount duty of teachers to help pupils acquire good habits and avoid bad ones. By proper stimuli, example, inspiration, we can help pupils develop good habits of body — health instead of invalidism, skill instead of bungling, industry instead of sloth. We can help them acquire 78 National Education Association £ood mental habits — accuracy instead of inaccuracy, zeal instead of in¬ difference, success instead of failure. We can stimulate them to develop good social and moral habits — sincerity instead of pretense, sympathy instead of hate, tolerance instead of bigotry, peace instead of war. fhe bearing of all this on education for democracy is not far to seek. Democracy holds that every person is born with the right to live; society may take it from him because he has become a danger to society. He is born with the right to liberty but he may lose that right by misbehavior. He is born with the right to the pursuit of happiness, but this also must be limited by the needs and satisfactions of society. These rights are relative, not absolute, and the differences between democracy and autocracy are in the emphasis placed on these rights. Everywhere in a society liberty must be balanced by responsibility, equality by capacity, individual happiness by social welfare. But within these necessary limits, ideal democracy stands for the greatest possible liberty, equality, and happiness of individuals in society, and it leaves the determination of these limits to the will of the majority, whereas autocracy leaves all such regulations to the will of a dictator. But while these differences between democracy and autocracy are rela¬ tive, they are worldwide, ages long, and oceans deep. It is only necessary to contrast the Bill of Rights, incorporated in the Constitution of the United States, with the theories and practices of the totalitarian states to appreciate these differences. In this country we are often discouraged by some local and temporary in¬ fraction of our Bill of Rights. These departures from the democratic system can be corrected by peaceful means. It is profoundly disturbing to see the many evidences of the loss of social morale, the pressure groups that force thru legislatures selfish programs in utter disregard of the general welfare; the failures of justice where lawyers and witnesses, juries and judges may be bought; the mob violence en¬ gendered by the deliberate cultivation of hate of certain races and religions and social ideals; the gangsters and racketeers who are often beyond the reach of justice — these and a hundred other violations of democratic prin¬ ciples are a cause of serious concern to all thoughtful citizens. The quick and easy way to remedy these evils is by way of dictatorships and force. But while dictatorships may for a time reduce some of these evils they greatly increase others and they afford no permanent remedy. Democracy is not merely a form of government but a way of life, a set of social habits, a code of ethics. It concerns not only the organization and functions of government, but also the rights and duties of industry, capital, and labor, possession and use of property, and the health, happiness, per¬ petuation, education, and improvement of the general population. Most important of all are the democratic habits of the people, the balancing of individual freedom by social responsibility, the control of emotions by intelligence, compliance with the will of the majority, and reliance on education other than force to sway public opinion. General Sessions 79 How can America be made safe for democracy? Is there any other way than that of education — education in the ideals and habits of democracy, education for freedom and responsibility, education for order and social welfare, education for eugenics and euthenics, education for ethics and character? This means education for discipline rather than for information. The protest against disciplinary education is widespread and in some instances justified. Where discipline is interpreted as punishment and dis¬ ciplinary studies and examinations are exacted in order to break the will of the student, or where stupid pedagogs put the infinite variety of human material that comes to them thru the only mill they know without regard to the individual capacities, needs, and satisfactions of the student, my sympathies are with the students. But on the other hand, if we look upon education as habit-formation, certain bad habits must be overcome and other good ones cultivated if education is to succeed. To be fit for life in society there are certain habits of fair play, respect for the rights of others, defense of one’s own rights that must be learned on the playing field or in association with other children. There are certain subjects which must be mastered by everyone who expects to take any vital part in society, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic. There are others important in the cultivation of habits of accuracy, reality, and rationality, such as the natural sciences. There are others that enrich and enlarge one’s influence and enjoyment, such as languages and literature, history, biography, and the fine arts. More important than scholarly culture are the habits by which we live and by which we hope to perpetuate and improve the race. Habits are formed by repeated responses to particular stimuli and these stimuli are not furnished exclusively from the study of a few chosen subjects. Sports cultivate in those who take an active part habits of intense effort, of team work, of fair play often in striking contrast to the habits of inattention, dawdling, and failure acquired in some classes. Success or failure are habits and many students acquire more bad habits than good ones in college. Every student should acquire the habit of hard work. There is no royal road to learning. Happy is he who is compelled to work, thrice happy he who has learned to compel himself ! This is education for discipline and this is also education for democracy. If our democracy is to survive and prosper, it must be based on decent instincts and democratic habits acquired in the course of education. It must cultivate and respect the individual’s liberty so far as this does not interfere with the liberty of society. It must defend the rights of the common man as outlined in our Bill of Rights. It must resist tyranny, whether of capital or of labor, of economic royalists or of union dictators. Education for democracy must cultivate habits of sympathy, cooperation, and goodwill ; of service and sacrifice for the common good ; of joy and pride in good work¬ manship. While accepting majority rule as expressed in free elections, it must defend the rights of minorities to try to change majority opinion by peaceful methods of criticism, persuasion, and education. 80 National Education Association All these habits of democracy are acquired in the course of individual development; they are the products not merely of the formal education of the schools but the informal education that comes from the multitudinous experiences of life. More important than any subject of study in shaping our habits and characters are the personalities that surround us. Phe per¬ sonality of the teacher counts for more in shaping the habits of pupils than any formal instruction. Almost every great man has acknow ledged his indebtedness to some inspiring teacher. I pon the teachers of America rests to a large extent the opportunity and responsibility of making America safe for democracy. In the presence of the downfall of democracies thruout the world it is the duty of the teachers of America to highly resolve that “government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth. " FIFTH GENERAL SESSION THE MOTION PICTURE IN EDUCATION WILL H. HAYS, PRESIDENT. MOTION PICTURE PRODUCERS AND DISTRIBUTORS OF AMERICA, INC. Seventeen years ago today it was my privilege to address your convention in Boston. It was in that year, 1922, that our association was formed. It was natural then that I shared with you certain hopes which 1 cherished as realizable purposes of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America. In discussing with you the progress of the early years of the motion picture's growth, no one could foresee its subsequent weekly world audi¬ ence, now consisting of 250,000,000 people, its acquisition of voice and color; or those other technical improvements which with an increasing mastery of composition and design have brought the American motion picture international recognition as a distinctive and mature art. Nor would you have then believed a commitment to the moral and artistic standards of our present Production Code possible of realization. Yet by increasingly effective self-discipline during the past seventeen years the pictures of our member companies and the established American and foreign producers of motion pictures have been brought into conformity with the require¬ ments of our Production Code. This code requires that all pictures pro¬ duced measure up to the accepted moral standards. It also requires that crime, wrongdoing, evil, or sin shall not he made attractive ; that correct standards of life shall be presented ; that law, natural or human, shall not be ridiculed, or sympathy created for its violation. Neither could you then have foreseen that the interest of many of your members in securing pic¬ tures for use in their classrooms — pictures made for theaters in accordance with these standards — would seventeen years after become the reason for this second visit. That educators and motion picture producers have certain specialized and mutual interests in the motion picture as a purveyor of ideas and General Sessions 81 motivator of activities even the layman has come to realize. Undertaking to explore them together to the advantage of tomorrow’s citizens will seem to the public, our common employer, natural and desirable. During the past seventeen years our association has steadfastly endeav¬ ored to carry out that clause in our charter which commits us to develop the educational as well as the entertainment value of the motion picture. I should like to record and review here some of these activities. From the standpoint of education they fall into two main groups: first, those looking toward the production of instructional films as distinguished from enter¬ tainment films; and, second, those looking toward the exploration of the pedagogic value of films made for the theater. I will speak first of those looking toward the development of classroom instructional films. Following the convention in 1922, the National Education Association appointed a committee, with Charles H. Judd as chairman, to conduct a study in cooperation with our association on the possibilities of the use of motion pictures in pedagogy. The research then begun was important for its own results, but even more as the stimulus to the many subsequent studies which ensued, and particularly for the pioneer interest of the late George Eastman in the production of teaching films. In 1928, in cooperation with the American College of Surgeons, George Eastman, and a group of distinguished physicians, it was our privilege to help develop a series of films for instruction in surgical technic. These have proved singularly successful in giving to medical students everywhere first¬ hand opportunity to observe the operating methods of the masters of their profession. In 1929, with the help of R. S. Woodworth of Columbia University, the association organized a direct inquiry and subsequently collated the opinions of the leading educators of six hundred and seventy-three colleges and universities in the United States concerning the utility of the sound motion picture for teaching. All predicted its wide usefulness. Hardly a subject of the conventional school curriculum was left unmentioned as a fertile field for visual presentation abetted by verbal commentary. In March 1932, when the National Academy of Visual Instruction merged with the Department of Visual Instruction of the National Edu¬ cation Association, the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America made possible by its support a new study and summation of the use of motion pictures in education. F. Dean McClusky, then head of the National Academy, called this exhaustive treatise “Visual Education, Its Value and Its Needs.” To the pictures which had been made for classroom use, the Yale Chronicles of American History and others, were added Eastman Teaching Films and Erpi Classroom Films, produced by members of our association. In the former, the library which Thomas Finegan pioneered, there are now 240 pedagogic films. In the Erpi Classroom Films catalog, just com¬ ing from the press, there will be listed more than 115 sound pedagogic films. , . 82 National Education Association With the availability of these pedagogic films and their use in classrooms came new light on their value for instruction. Specific research studies on the merit of visual presentation, combined with oral and textbook in¬ struction for the purpose of determining the use of films in teaching effectively certain subjects in the curriculum, are both numerous and im¬ pressive. The conclusions of these studies, many of which have been assisted by our association, are universally favorable to the films. Two conclusions seem to me important: first, that films have been used with some degree of success in all branches of education and at all grade levels; and second, that they have been used with outstanding success wi th dull and backward pupils. There can be hut one explanation — that the apparent retardedness was a consequence of lack of skill in the three R’s, especially reading, rather than any inherent incapacity to learn. During the decade 1922 to 1932, our joint efforts with education were along the lines that I have just indicated, improving the quality and extend¬ ing the scope of classroom instructional films. This work is now well under way and will be carried forward as an integral part of our future efforts to cooperate with education. The pedagogical film retains all the virtues with which our own early optimism endowed it. 'The use of the¬ atrical motion pictures, if they prove to be of exceptional value in meet¬ ing the more recent demands on education, must supplement and not sup¬ plant the films made with the sole objective of subjectmatter instruction. The decade following the close of the World War saw important de¬ velopments in the field of education which indicated corresponding new developments in the type of film that schools seemed to require. In the first place, the curriculum of the public school, and notably the high school, was enormously expanded. In the second place, vocational education came forward with new demands for teaching films. In the third place, new functions were assumed by the school for such matters as health educa¬ tion, safety education, and education for citizenship. These and other new developments in education brought with them corresponding new demands for teaching materials and for methods of presentation. As these changes were taking place in education, the theatrical motion picture had also been rapidly changing. With the establishment of the Production Code and with the improvement in the technical aspects of the motion picture, there began to appear in the theaters pictures which seemed to the educators to possess great potential pedagogic value. It was in response to repeated requests from educators that some of these films he made available for experimental use at school that we began our second group of educational activities — that of exploring with educators the pos¬ sible uses of these theatrical materials. The activities of our association have centered around three major proj¬ ects: first, that of the development of study guides for photoplay apprecia¬ tion groups in high schools; second, that of excerpting certain sections of features, first for use in connection with character education and later in connection with education along the lines of human relations and social adjustments; and the third project has been that of exploring the educa- General Sessions 83 tional possibility of noncurrent theatrical short subjects. I shall now de¬ scribe each of these three projects. Beginning five years ago the National Council of Teachers of English sponsored courses of study which they called photoplay appreciation. These teachers saw at once the educational possibilities inherent in such classics as “David Copperfield,” “A Tale of Two Cities,” and the dramas of Shake¬ speare. These courses have multiplied until today hundreds of high schools have incorporated them in their regular curriculums. It is the belief of our educational advisers that this part of the program of cooperation should be broadly extended. It is more than a hope with us that you will find the¬ aters everywhere ready to assist you. Our companies are anxious to learn how the study guides and research exhibits provided as collaterals may be improved, what other types of material might be valuable to you, and what classics of literature, what biography, and what episodes of history you may wish produced. And I need not remind you that the photoplay versions have removed the stigma of drudgery from the study of the classics of literature into which they have breathed a new spirit of adventure. Motion picture appreciation may best be taught in its natural setting, the motion picture theater. In one way then the name “motion picture appreciation” incompletely describes these courses. They are rather courses in discrimination, in good taste, and not of the photoplay art alone or of the literature on which it is based, but discrimination in matters of conduct and custom, morals and ethics. How important the ability to discriminate has become is apparent when you reflect that we may no longer look upon the school as the sole, or for that matter, the major source of knowledge. In my annual report to our board of directors in March of this year, I made the following observations: With the cooperation of our companies, the Commission on Human Relations of the Progressive Education Asso¬ ciation has continued to produce human relations short subjects in the form of excerpts from existing noncurrent photoplays. On December 1, fifty-four of these short subjects had been adapted from thirty-seven photoplays. By July 1, 1939, the Commission expects to have completed seventy-five human relations short subjects. The general studies made by the Commission prior to this experiment indi¬ cate that an American youth passing from childhood thru adolescence to adult development has to adapt himself to some 175 difficult human rela¬ tions situations. Out of these 175 critical situations, it is believed that ap¬ proximately 100 can best be approached and understood thru the film discussion method which was developed by the Commission. This project is an endeavor to take into the school a preview and prac¬ tice of life itself, a rehearsal for conduct both now and after graduation. I know of no other method than the hazardous and costly one of experience itself for developing a body of common habits and attitudes in the areas of morals and ethics which are so essential to the functioning of democracy. Our member companies have agreed to permit the Commission on Human Relations to extend the use of these pictures on 16 mm. film to a 84 National Education Association greater number of schools than we included in the original experiment. Our member companies have agreed to provide additional films from which the Commission will prepare excerpts to cover the human relations problems that have been selected for treatment by this method. In 1936, after the projects that I have just described were well under way, it seemed that the time was ripe to explore further the educational uses of noncurrent theatrical films. After consulting several educational leaders concerning possible next steps, I invited Mark A. May, director of the Institute of Human Relations of Yale University, to make a study and lay out a program for our future guidance. It was he who suggested that an advisory committee be organized and invited its present members to join him in the further development of the program. The members of this committee are: Mark A. May, director, Institute of Human Relations, Yale University, chairman; Frederick H. Bair, superintendent of schools, Bronxville, N. Y. ; Isaiah Bowman, president, Johns Hopkins Univer¬ sity, Baltimore, Aid. ; Karl T. Compton, president, Alassachusetts Insti¬ tute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. ; Edmund E. Day, president, Cor¬ nell University, Ithaca, N. Y. ; Royal B. Farnum, executive vicepresident, Rhode Island School of Design, Providence, R. I. ; Willard E. Givens, executive secretary, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. ; and Jay B. Nash, professor of education, New York Universitv, New York, N. Y. After giving careful consideration to the preliminary report prepared by Mr. May, the committee recommended that it be permitted to examine the noncurrent theatrical short subjects for the purpose of ascertaining the extent and nature of their possible uses for classroom work. Our member companies accepted this recommendation. They opened their vaults which contained approximately 15,000 noncurrent short subjects. The Advisory Committee appointed seven reviewing panels composed of educators who examined 1254 of these theatrical short subjects which had been selected for review. Of this number, the panels recommended 590 as being suit¬ able for classroom use in their present form. The Committee submitted to the association the following recommenda¬ tions: first, that a catalog containing descriptions and brief evaluations of the pictures selected by the panels and approved by the Committee be pub¬ lished for the information of teachers and school administrators; second, that the owners of the selected pictures make them available to schools for an experimental period of three years under terms and conditions accept¬ able to the schools and to the industry; third, that the process of reviewing noncurrent theatrical short subjects be continued for the purpose of select¬ ing for school use additional films as they become noncurrent ; fourth, that the industry provide for a detailed study and analysis of the data concerning these noncurrent short subjects which were collected and turned in by the reviewing panels, and that further provision be made for the necessary educational research on the extent and nature of the possible school uses of this type of motion picture material. General Sessions 85 We have complied with all these recommendations. The reviewing of short subjects has been continued; an analysis has been made of the data collected by the reviewing panels; the catalog has been printed. For your convenience the Advisory Committee has incorporated teaching film cus¬ todians who supervise the distribution of the pictures, and appointed as its trustees your executive secretary, Willard E. Givens; the president emeritus of Yale University, James R. Angell; and the secretary of our association, Carl E. Milliken. The pictures included in this catalog have been made available on 16 mm. film for an experimental period of three years under the most favorable possible terms, without any financial return to the owners. The committees and educational groups with which we have worked out these plans have assured us that all of the noncurrent theatrical short subjects which we have placed at their disposal will be used exclusively for bona fide educational purposes during school hours and that no admissions in any form will be charged to those who see them. There are, no doubt, many limitations on the side of education. One is the cost of projection equipment and the purchase or rental of an adequate library of films. Another, I am told, is the lack of teachers trained in the use of the motion picture as an educational medium. These and many other limiting conditions have been brought out in our various discussions with educators. Previous experience warrants our faith that all these obstacles will be overcome as we proceed. In addition to the limiting factors which are inherent in the structure of the motion picture business on the one hand and the organization and administration of education on the other, there is another very important factor which requires that cooperating arrangements between education and the motion picture industry must always be flexible. That is the fact that both the industry and education are constantly changing. There is no doubt that schools will increasingly wish to avail themselves of the new implements of education to meet the challenge of the modern world. As these implements are further developed commercially, new formulas for their utilization will be required. Foresight in the commercial development of the motion picture here resulted in its present excellence as an art form and its technical superiority as a conveyor of ideas. For these reasons it has become a tremendous influence in conditioning the thoughts of men everywhere ; for these reasons you want it to use in your classrooms, particularly in those fields where it can supply vicarious ex¬ perience — the best available substitute for actual experience. Suppose you were an administrator or a stockholder in a private business enterprise of equal significance, a business enterprise thru whose resource¬ fulness American public education had been financed and enabled to achieve its present enviable status. Suppose further that this enterprise was de¬ pendent for its success on the knowledge and skill your graduates could bring to it, knowledge of the significance of the individual’s inalienable right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Would you not want the 86 National Education Association educators of the country to meet occasionally with representatives of the management and consider with them just what this great organization, American business, was attempting to do, and how it could secure the greatest success? Your future as well as ours depends upon our joint success in maintaining the opportunity for the individual to follow pursuits of his own choosing, motivated by his anticipation of just reward for his private enterprise, limited only by such minimum restrictions as the com¬ mon good requires; in short, in maintaining the American way of life. PRESENTATION OF PAST PRESIDENT’S AWARD TO CAROLINE S. WOODRUFF REUBEN T. SHAW, PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION Many of you are closely familiar with our bylaws, which provide that the president of the Association shall become the first vicepresident. For several years there has been considerable discussion of a suitable past presi¬ dent’s award and a suitable time to present it. It has been our conclusion that the suitable time to present it was when the ex-officio character of the presidency also was completed, at the end, therefore, of the year in which the president served as first vicepresident. It becomes my privilege tonight to present for the first time the past president’s award. I can add nothing except merely to report to you my own experience. You have all known Caroline S. Woodruff. You have known her to admire her as a president ; you have learned to love her as a personality. I can only say to you that the work of her year as president was a constant source of inspiration to me, and during the year she has served as first vice- president she has been so helpful at all times, someone I could always look to for advice, for encouragement, and for all of that which goes to help make things move as a president. I am sorry I cannot make it possible for each and all to see this, but I shall read it to you : Caroline Salome Woodruff, President, National Education Association of the United States, 1937-38. This testimonial is presented in recognition of distinguished service to the Association. Washington, D. C., July 6, 1939. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary. The official seal of the Association is affixed. Past President Woodruff: This award will symbolize to me a trust, a great responsibility, a profound and solemn obligation, yes, a consecration that became mine when, at Detroit, the gavel was passed on to me which proclaimed me as the official representative of this great Association for the year 1937-38. I am receiving this at your hands with deep appreciation for its significance. General Sessions 87 ADDRESS BY THE NEW PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AMY H. HINRICHS, PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION, 1939-40 It would be untrue if I should try to say that I am not happy tonight I feel suffused, as it were, with happiness when I realize that the privilege of leading the teachers of America in the coming year is to be mine. The realization of your friendship and gratitude that I have friends all the length and breadth of this land, I think, are the chief thoughts that have been with me in these last few days. H owever, there is another feeling that I have. I am almost overcome, overwhelmed, when I realize the terrific responsibility that I shall have in this coming year, but I should not have submitted myself to the possi¬ bility of having such a responsibility if I had not been sure you were going to help me bear it. There is work to be done, work for the children of America and their teachers, and when I say teachers I mean all of us in whatever division of our schoolwork; there is work to be done, and we must do it. Lay people, however friendly to the cause of education, are really not in a position to do it. The various officers, committees, commissions of this organization, and the organization itself as a whole, have done much to elevate the standards of our profession and the conditions under which we work. We admit that, like all other human beings, we want the best possible conditions under which to live and work, but we are just as sincere when we say that we want in the sections of the country where we perhaps do not yet have them, or all of them, tenure, retirement, academic freedom, and all the other conditions of the good life for teachers, because by our having them the children of America are best served. The less worry there is in a teacher’s life, the more room for joy in accomplishing his task, which, putting it in simplest terms, is guiding the child in accordance with the best that human culture has evolved thru the ages. “A child grows up but once,” said one of our leaders when the depression was deepest, or at least in its beginning. It was Dorothy Canfield Fisher to whom that remark is credited. “A child grows up but once,” and there¬ fore it is in the years of that child’s growing that we must supply the conditions that will make fullest development possible. A few years later we cannot educate that child in that particular phase of development which he may have missed or have lived thru inadequately. We must im¬ prove and equalize the educational opportunities of our American children. I pledge myself with all the fervor I can summon to work with you for a continuation of the great cause in which we have worked for many years and whose consummation we envision, namely, federal aid for educa¬ tion, the whole point of which is equalization of educational opportunity. I pledge myself to assist you in guarding what we have already accom¬ plished in every field of our endeavor and going forward into greater 88 National Education Association accomplishment regarding all of these things — tenure, retirement, salary standards, academic freedom — all of the things for which we have been working. To get these things done, to hold and advance, we must have increased cooperation and increased membership on the part of our col¬ leagues back home. I also wish, regarding our national conventions, that some magic carpet or Aladdin’s lamp, or something or other of that sort, might make it pos¬ sible for the folks who did not come to realize the inspiration of a con¬ vention and the bigness and significance of this Association. We cannot afford to go home and forget it. We must talk about it, emphasize it, inter¬ pret it, and be missionaries for participation in our great national organiza¬ tion. As you talk about it, be so vivid that you will make your nonmember colleagues curious, jealous, and eager to affiliate. Be so vivid that you will make your non-convention-going fellow members curious, jealous, and eager to participate. I said I am happy tonight. I am, yet human emotions are always so mixed that I am sad, too, as is our Louisiana delegation, in the loss by sudden death early this morning of one of our members, Miriam Cohen, a lady who had been in my intimate circle of friends since our high-school days. As you have also heard, we have lost Secretary Heatwole of the Virginia Educa¬ tion Association by similar sudden passing in the night. I have counted him among my friends since the Minneapolis convention of 1928. I could not refrain from mentioning the feeling I have as I think of the loss of those two friends. It is consoling, however, to contemplate lives well lived in the service of education and to hope that we may be privileged to live similarly until our call comes. Again, I thank you one and all, and I beg of you that thruout the year you will, by suggestion and request and help in every way, help me to make this an outstanding year in the history of our Association. MORNING ASSEMBLIES Tuesday, July 4 Bringing the World into the Classroom The assembly entitled “Bringing the World into the Classroom” was broadcast from the High School of Commerce Auditorium. After pre¬ liminary remarks by Belmont Farley, publicity director of the Associa¬ tion, Florence Hale related briefly the history of educational broadcasting for the past eight years and described the purpose of the program to follow. The first part consisted of a skit on aviation, “Kitty Hawk to Corrigan,” adapted from “Story of Aviation” in “Ideas That Came True,” a popular series of schoolroom broadcasts made by the National Broadcasting Com¬ pany during the school year 1938-39. The dramatization included conver¬ sation between pilots in Clipper ships and mechanics at their airdrome. World-renowned aviators participated in the presentation. The second part of the program entitled “Crisis in Czechoslovakia,” one of a series of General Sessions 89 programs called “This Living World,” re-enacted critical moments follow¬ ing the World War. It was sponsored by the Columbia Broadcasting Com¬ pany under the management of Sterling Fisher. Following these broadcasts, a class in the social sciences from the Girls High School in San Francisco demonstrated its use as a supplementary device in teaching. Following this demonstration a panel, led by Belmont Farley, chairman, discussed the various technics of the studio and the class¬ room. Participants on the panel consisted of Sterling Fisher, educational director, Columbia Broadcasting System, New York, N. Y. ; Arthur Gould, deputy superintendent of instruction, Los Angeles, Calif. ; Alice V. Keliher, assistant director, American Film Center, New York, N. Y. ; and Pauline Winner, coordinator of radio activities, Los Angeles, Calif. Intelligence — Its Nature and Nurture: A Symposium INTELLIGENCE— ITS NATURE AND NURTURE FRANK N. FREEMAN, DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CALIF. The subject of the symposium is important since intelligence is a vital factor in the life of the modern world. The possibility of improving intelli¬ gence is therefore one of the chief questions which should be determined in planning a system of education. If it is possible to improve intelligence, e'very means should be taken to accomplish this end. The scientific problem of whether intelligence can be improved is a puz¬ zling one because of the apparently opposite findings and conclusions found by the different investigators. Part of the apparent contradiction may be due to a difference in definition. Obviously, if we define intelligence as mere capacity for performing intelligent acts, the question is answered in the definition itself. However, if we define intelligence in functional terms as the ability of the individual to adapt his behavior to the demands of the situation, particularly when the situation is a new one, we leave open the decision whether this ability can be improved. It is necessary then to make experiments and discover whether actually intelligence can or cannot be improved by education. Even the evidence on this point seems to be conflicting. The measure of intelligence which is usually employed is the intelligence test. We thus assume that the test is a satisfactory measure of adaptive ability. This as¬ sumption can be accepted as roughly true altho the tests are not by any means entirely adequate measures of various types of adaptations. Whether education and other environmental conditions can bring about a genuine alteration in an individual’s score on the test when allowance is made for differences in age, investigators do not agree. The evidence from studies of which I am personally acquainted indicates that large differences in intelligence may be ascribed to hereditary differences. This is shown partly by the much closer resemblance between identical twins than between % National Education Association fraternal twins. On the other hand, substantial differences in intelligence may be brought about by differences in education. This is shown by the greater divergence in the intelligence of identical twins who have been brought up apart than of those who have been reared together. It is also shown by the correspondence between the amount of difference in school and the amount of difference in intelligence which is found in identical twins reared apart, the correlation being .79. Evidence then indicates that both inheritance and environment are important factors in intelligence. It seems likely that differences in heredity bring about greater differences among persons of the same general culture than do those of environment, but environment is substantially an important factor. The implications for education are twofold. Because of the native differ¬ ences in ability between pupils it is necessary to distinguish between them in their programs of work, in methods of instruction, rate of progress, and in educational and vocational guidance. On the other hand, because educa¬ tion influences intelligence it is the duty of the school to use methods which emphasize thinking and reasoning rather than merely routine forms of learn¬ ing. The understanding of human life and the ability and disposition to form sound judgments should be in the forefront of the aims of education. RELATIONSHIPS IN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT HAROLD K. JONES, PROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF . CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CALIF. Studies of the relationship of physical and mental characteristics have usually indicated a positive but quite small relation. It is well known that upper grade children tend to be taller and heavier than children of the same age in lower grades. Various types of physical defect also show a greater incidence among those who are retarded in school and among those of lower intelligence. When physical and mental growth rates are ex¬ amined. a slight but by no means universal tendency is found for preadoles¬ cent children who are growing faster mentally to show faster-than-average growth in various physical indexes. It is not well established, however, that the physical growth spurt characteristic of the pubertal period is ac¬ companied by corresponding changes in mental development. Within the range of conditions such as are found in this country, it cannot be readily shown that malnutrition, poor physiological status, or health factors such as are represented by tonsillar infection have any directly inhibiting effect upon mental development. There is, however, a somewhat greater tendency for health handicaps of this nature to be associated with poor scholarship. W here superior health or superior physique are correlated with superior intelligence, we cannot infer that the former cause the latter. It is more probable that the two aspects of development are related thru common fac¬ tors, which act in ways that we do not as yet completely understand. These common factors may be partly biological, as where a superior organic he¬ redity is expressed both in the brain and in other tissues. The common factors may be partly environmental, as where a superior home may influence General Sessions 91 physical development (thru nutrition) and also mental development (thru stimulation and exercise). Evidence as to the relationship of intelligence and the home environment is clear in showing higher average IQ’s for children from homes of higher socio-economic status. The interpretation if this is, however, not simple ; two alternatives can be proposed: (a) parents with greater economic re¬ sources and a superior cultural background tend to promote superior IQ’s in their children thru superior home training, and (b) parents in the higher occupational levels are themselves more intelligent. They have demon¬ strated this in their own lives thru what they have achieved, and they trans¬ mit better IQ’s thru better germ plasm. Each of these propositions is probably in some measure correct, but after many years of surveys and experimentation we still lack crucial evidence in the matter. The inconclusive character of the evidence is dependent partly upon the fact that the relative influence of hereditary and environ¬ mental factors upon individual differences is not a fixed ratio but may vary widely in different populations according to the level and variability of the various factors involved. In conclusion, a summary was given of several studies at the Institute of Child Welfare on the course of mental growth of children from two to ten years of age. Growth curves were found to show relatively little stability before the age of four years, but the constancy of the IQ and the power to predict later IQ’s increases markedly thereafter. It was not pos¬ sible to isolate specific educational factors which could be shown to be related to upward trends in mental development; thus, a study of several groups of nursery school children, compared with controls who did not attend nursery school but who participated in a similar test program, re¬ vealed no differences between the groups which could be attributed to this factor. Problems of Presentday Youth VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE AND VOCATIONAL EDUCA¬ TION FOR YOUTH IN THE SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA R. E. RUTLEDGE, DIRECTOR, OAKLAND VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS, OAKLAND, CALIF. Many agencies contribute to the solution of the youth problem in this area. High schools and junior colleges provide a haven for unemployed youth but have little articulation with vocational life. Post-high-school training in special vocational schools offers a flexible program leading to an easy transition from school to work. Extension training cares for the de¬ mands of those trying for promotion. College offerings are rich and acces¬ sible. Ample funds are available for a universal system of education. No one knows what formal education, if any, should be offered youth who will enter manual labor and factory type jobs. 92 National Education Association The WPA has provided some jobs but for youth has delayed entrance to private employment by paying wages suitable to highly qualified, experi¬ enced workers. The CCC spends three times as much per trainee as a good vocational school and yet trains chiefly for manual labor. It is probably justified for its work accomplishment and morale building but not for its vocational education program. The NYA has been of inestimable value and should be more liberally supported. Its cost per youth is less than one- fourth of that of the CCC. Fine as public recreation is, it is no answer to the problem of those who need work. The need of youth is work, and play facilities are a mockery when unemployment is so prevalent. Business in the San Francisco Bay area is annually solving more youth problems than all other agencies combined. Each year it absorbs thousands of youths and, thru well-staffed personnel offices, directs the in-service training of its enrollees. Training supervisors are found in many firms. Organized labor, too, comes to our vocational schools; it, also, is business. In those fields where labor is organized, the schools bring together labor and employer representatives and, jointly, the three plan the vocational train¬ ing program. Where the union is as yet too immature, or too much engaged in organizational problems to sponsor the vocational program, the public schools decline to offer training. YOUTH IN A CHANGING WORLD FLOYD W. REEVES, CHAIRMAN, PRESIDENT’S ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. In discussing these problems I am presenting my personal views and not speaking either for the President’s Advisory Committee on Education or for the American Youth Commission. Youth employment and unemployment — It has only slowly come to be realized that there is a special problem of youth unemployment. Unem¬ ployed young people are usually not segregated in the general statistics of unemployment. Definite proof was furnished by the 1937 census of unem¬ ployment. That census happened to be taken almost at the peak of business activity following the worst years of the depression, but it found almost 11,000,000 workers who were wholly unemployed except for emergency work. Of the 11,000,000, almost 4,000,000 were between the ages of fifteen and twenty-four, inclusive. The unemployment rate was over 40 percent for the group of available workers between fifteen and twenty years of age, altho under 20 percent for every age group above twenty-five. No age group, even that comprising adults over sixty-five, is more difficult to place, according to the records of the United States Employment Service. Many forces have been at work to increase the enrolment of youth in school. Probably the most powerful has been the changing character of the economic life of the country. The occupations which were and are easiest to enter at an early age, such as farming, have declined in relative im¬ portance. An increasing share of all employment is controlled by large General Sessions 93 industrial and commercial organizations. For many years large industry has become progressively less willing to employ inexperienced young people below the age of eighteen or twenty. Until about 1930, the trend toward reduced employment of youth in industry was counterbalanced by the enrolment of more youth in the schools. With the drastic reduction in employment which has taken place since 1930, the schools have been compelled to accept several million addi¬ tional pupils who in previous years would not have continued in school. In spite of these increased enrolments, we have had a piling up of unem¬ ployed out-of-school youth. Four groups of youth — For convenience in discussing the situation which now prevails, we may distinguish four groups of youth, two of them in school and two out of school. The first in-school group consists of the youth who appear to be gaining some profit from formal instruction. The second in-school group consists of the youth who lack interest or aptitude for the school program, particularly so far as formal instruction is concerned. The first out-of-school group consists of the youth who are partially or wholly unemployed, or are employed in the CCC, NYA, WPA, or other emergency work programs. The second out-of-school group consists of the youth who have full-time employment or other normal occupations. Employed youth have many problems and needs. Some of the jobs are precarious. The younger employed youth especially are likely to slip back at any time into the unemployed group. Some of the jobs even tho full time do not pay an adult wage, which may be defined for present purposes as a wage high enough to permit self-maintenance, marriage, and the estab¬ lishment of a home away from the parental roof. Almost all of the em¬ ployed youth need further training if they are to advance. The in-school youth who appear to be profiting from their academic school activities also have many problems and needs. The school program may be much too narrow to give the breadth of training needed under modern conditions. The content of the courses of study, the methods of instruction, and the entire curriculum may be archaic. The provision for school health and recreational services may be inadequate. The services of guidance and counseling are almost certain to be inadequate. But for the time being, the successful in-school 5^outh are being cared for by a going social institution. The most acute problems are presented by the other two groups, the unsuccessful in-school youth and the unemployed out-of-school youth. On the other hand we have the even larger group of unemployed youth who have left school. Possibly half of these youth have withdrawn without having completed even the eighth grade, some of them have dropped out for purely economic reasons, some because schools, particularly high schools, were not accessible to them, others because they failed to find interest or benefit in the courses of study which were made available to them, and at least a few because they rebelled completely at the whole attitude and atmosphere of the school as they experienced it. 94 National Education Association A nonschool youth supervisory agency — Some years ago a committee of the National Association of Secondary-School Principals, under the chair¬ manship of Thomas L. Briggs, gave extensive consideration to the problem of the youth who stay on in school even tho the present type of high school is not well adapted to their needs. The Committee in its report, Issues of the Secondary Education, stressed the desirability of adapting the schools to the pupils. The Committee also had in mind the problem of the boys and girls who have not completed even the elementary grades. In the end the Committee came to the conclusion that “the conservation of youth can no longer be left to random effort or to individual initiative. . . . And the fact that the schools cannot undertake the necessary conservation without seriously im¬ pairing their educational efficiency leaves no wise course open but to estab¬ lish some separate organization specially entrusted with the task.” In other words, it was to be a general social welfare agency for youth, distinct from but supplementary to the school. Report on secondary education by Harl R. Douglass — About the time the Briggs Committee was completing its report, the American Youth Com¬ mission was organized and began its work. It commissioned Harl R. Douglass, then at the University of Minnesota, to prepare recommenda¬ tions concerning secondary education. In his report to the Commission, published in 1937, he pointed out that it is not certain that we can develop a full-time school program that would interest the type of boy or girl who does not now continue in school beyond the age of sixteen. He proposed that instead of seeking universal full-time school attendance to the age of eighteen, we should promote full-time attendance until the age of sixteen and half-time attendance until twenty or twenty-one. If this proposal were adopted, the question would then arise as to what should be done with the other half of the young person’s time. Mr. Douglass made a number of proposals for experimentation but was evidently not completely convinced of the efficacy of any one of them for general adop¬ tion. He referred to the nonschool work supervisory agency proposed by the Briggs Committee as a subject worthy of further study and endorsed it for trial on a limited and experimental basis. He appeared to be most favorable to a plan of work and study based on the cooperation of private employers with the schools, as far as such cooperation could be secured. The cooperative work-study plan — The so-called cooperative plan, under which pupils in secondary schools and higher institutions divide their time in equal periods between school and employment, has been used on a limited scale since the pioneering work of the University of Cincinnati many years ago. Where competently administered the plan has worked well. Student workers can obtain benefits from it which are exceedingly difficult to provide in any other way. This cooperative plan is spreading, but slowly. Most em¬ ployers find it expensive to arrange a special working schedule for the benefit of inexperienced young workers. The result is a tendency to cut below normal wage rates, followed by difficulty in determining a fair wage rate. General Sessions 95 CAREER TRAINING FOR AMERICAN YOUTH AUBREY W. WILLIAMS, ADMINISTRATOR, NATIONAL YOUTH ADMINIS¬ TRATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. The Census of 1930 showed that there were in the United States 20,127,794 young people sixteen to twenty-four years of age. Fifty-six per¬ cent of these twenty million youth were employed. Nineteen percent were in schools or colleges. This leaves 25 percent to be accounted for. Some of those unaccounted for were married women at home and not seeking em¬ ployment, but the great majority were seeking employment and could not find openings. It has been variously estimated that between four and five million make up the total of those not in school and unemployed. This fact, that there are between 4,000,000 and 6,000,000 young people unemployed, out of school, and seeking employment, does not seem to be fully realized. Indeed, we have been acting during the last few years as tho the situation were purely temporary and sure to pass when the depres¬ sion is over. As a people we have been reluctant to recognize that the con¬ dition existed in 1930 before the depression showed its effects and that it has been gradually coming on us for decades prior to 1930. An examina¬ tion of the figures in census returns for earlier periods makes it perfectly clear that unemployment of young people is something that results from social and economic conditions which have apparently come to stay. It would seem to be the most natural thing for any educational insti¬ tution in which 75 percent of the pupils came from families with an annual income of less than $125 a month to become acutely aware of the problems of young people who grow up in families living on that sum of money. It would seem to be even more likely that an institution, in which one out of every four pupils comes from a family whose parents were unem¬ ployed, be acutely conscious of the conditions brought about by the necessity of living on relief or subject to the uncertainty of government-made work or without income at all. There is evidence that some of the teachers -of America are aware of the new conditions and are attempting by all the means at their dis¬ posal to face them and to reorient the schools to this new situation. Every¬ where leaders in education accept the help available thru the NYA, the 4-H Clubs, and the CCC with eagerness. But there has developed a vast social lag in which millions of our people are caught struggling des¬ perately, pitifully, helplessly — with all gates of opportunity visible to them closed. It may be that in order to do all that needs to be done in educating young people we must agree to an extension of the years which we are prepared to have a young person spend in securing his education. View¬ ing the whole situation, including the labor market, with special reference to the fact that persons in the middle of life’s span have and undoubtedly should have first call upon all available employment, there is every good reason why we should extend the years devoted to instruction and the 96 National Education Association securing of a rounded out education. Part of this extension should be devoted to the development of the disciplines we ordinarily call work. For while it is economically and socially undesirable that young people should enter the already crowded labor market, it is extremely desirable that they have the discipline which comes from manual work as well as from mental effort. A sixteen-, seventeen-, or eighteen-year-old boy should have the training that comes from concentrated physical effort. It is wrong to allow young people to grow up without the discipline that comes from imposing exacting hours and tasks requiring completion. Another difficulty confronting young people results from the fact that modern conditions have not only curtailed employment among them and their elders but have also denied them access to money. Lack of pocket money becomes and is one of the major social factors in current so-called youth problems. The young people of the last seven or eight years have found themselves in a much tougher and more difficult situation than that which confronted their grandfathers. When their grandfathers found that they were caught in eastern cities and city slums with low wages, desperate labor conditions, and great unemployment not dissimilar from what exists now, they could go out and find opportunity on the land. The grandchildren of the pio¬ neers — young people of the present on-coming generation — cannot go out and find new opportunities on unoccupied land. They have to stay at home and take it. If the schools are to be of more help to the young people in the years immediately following school, then it is important that they understand what young people are experiencing after leaving school and what they think of the facts they learned while in school. Four extensive studies have recently been made. The Regents’ Inquiry of New York State secured evidence thru tests and school records on 53,091 youths who left school either by withdrawal or graduation during the year 1938. This Inquiry interviewed about 2000 young people who were out of school and unem¬ ployed. The American Youth Commission of the American Council on Education interviewed 13,528 youths in Maryland who were out of school. The U. S. Office of Education has collected facts in a number of recently reported studies from a number of sections of the country. An elaborate study made by the NYA and WPA is based on 30,000 detailed work histories obtained from young people in eight representative cities. All of the youths interviewed had left school. What happened to these 30,000 young men and women may be said to be typical of what happened to the whole body of American young people leaving school during these years. What these work histories show in general is a picture of striving youth seeking to secure employment, not too easily discouraged, believing in and retaining faith in the American system of industry, but finding the going tough. Some facts of social import stand out: Ninety-five percent of all young men and women interviewed have been in the labor market at some time General Sessions 97 since leaving school, and 77 percent of all youth were in the labor market at the time they were interviewed, and being in the labor market was de¬ fined as “actually employed or actively seeking employment.” Few of these youths indicated that while they were in school they expected to encounter difficulties in getting work. Few, indeed, gave any thought to actual prep¬ aration for vocations according to their statements. They believed that they would be able to get jobs of some sort after leaving school and were con¬ fident that they would be able to work up to something better in a few years. These beliefs were held not only by young people entering the labor market prior to 1933 but by 83 percent of those who entered the labor market in 1933 and in the years immediately following. The average youth entered the labor market at eighteen years of age. There was the all too well-known lag, an average, as the Maryland study showed, of three years between leaving school and becoming adjusted to the labor market. Fifteen out of every hundred of the 1929 group had not been able eight years later to secure even part-time employment, while twenty- seven out of every hundred of the 1933 group, four years later, that is in 1937, had failed to find any employment. In closing, I want to express my appreciation for the fine cooperation the school administrators, officers, and teachers have given the National Youth Administration. I want to pay superintendents, principals, and teachers the highest tribute I can for the high integrity and intelligent and unselfish way they have administered the millions of dollars of student aid funds and work without a major defalcation. This public service rendered without cost to the government — and without even so much as a written agreement — con¬ stitutes one of the most inspiring chapters of the discharge of a public trust in the history of government. DISCUSSION GROUPS Wednesday, July 5 Civic Education for a Democracy SOCIAL JUSTICE MRS. LAUREL KNEZEVICH, VICEPRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION; AND TEACHER, CANFIELD AVENUE SCHOOL, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. That our capacity as a nation to produce is idling along at half speed is axiomatic. That millions of the people in the United States are in actual want is also axiomatic. When these two conditions have been adjusted in their relationship to each other we shall have achieved social justice. If we are ever to see the day when our full productive capacity is being used in supplying the wants of the needy, we are going to have to revert to that homely American virtue — common sense. During our economic troubles extending over the past several years, two schools of thought have developed, each of which wants to furnish the 98 National Education Association prescription for social justice. In our own national thinking there are those of us who are willing to scrap our American economic system. Those persons believe that defects exist in our political structure and that we must have a new one to cure the faults of the old. There are also those who stubbornly stick to the status quo and insist that since we have survived the iniquities of our own way of doing business thus far, no harm can come from enduring them a while longer. The “have nots” among us are, for the most part, the ones most in¬ sistent on revolutionary changes in our economic structure. Armed with intolerance, emotion, and muddled thinking, they are striving for what they consider social justice. The other part of our divided people, those who have, are tenaciously clinging to outworn customs and procedures that have helped them gather unto themselves large portions of this world’s goods at the expense of their fellow men. As a consequence of this blind bickering, we find ourselves still far re¬ moved from the economic prosperity and social justice that might he ours if we called in common sense to chart our course. John Dewey once said, “Playing a piano is not merely hitting at the keys.” Finding social justice is not merely arguing, wishing, or wondering; it is planning. To plan for social justice, we have a simple formula — use common sense. Social justice is of course not confined to matters of economics. Equal educational opportunities for all children, the right of free speech, freedom of the press, freedom of worship, and the inalienable rights of all Ameri¬ cans to the pursuit of life, liberty, and happiness are component parts of social justice. But while we are in the midst of a period in our lives when millions are unemployed and where other millions are struggling for the bare necessities of life, it is vitally important that we straighten out the problems of society that have to do with food, clothing, and shelter. By only a sane, common sense program of cooperative work can we hope to succeed in solving the social problems with which we are confronted. As teachers we have some influence in our respective communities. We have the solemn responsibility of molding the minds of youth. It is pur op¬ portunity to use common sense in our own decisions and in our influence on others. SOCIAL ACTIVITY MINNIEMAE JONES, PRESIDENT, LOCAL PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, LEAVENWORTH, KANS. If that objective of civic responsibility, social activity, could be realized, we should have heaven on earth. If our democracy is to survive, the teaching profession must double its efforts in developing a spirit of humanitarianism. Our students should be taught to be interested in the welfare of one another and in the general welfare. Our students must be taught to judge values from a social viewpoint which is achieved in group activity. High-school seniors are very much interested in contemporary problems. Keen and intelli¬ gent interest shown in a public forum conducted every spring by the inter- General Sessions 99 national relations class of our high school is excellent proof of the student’s interest. Unemployment is a favorite topic for discussion. Adult education should be given so that parents can keep abreast of our changing views. European nations are ahead of ours in offering educational opportunity for older members of social groups. The Educational Policies Commission reports in The Unique Function of Education in American Democracy that education faces new responsibility for the education of adults. The period of youth is prolonged by no jobs and the high tempo of industry leads to the discard of men and women at or near the close of middle life. The art of getting along with one another is also a popular subject for dis¬ cussion. Students realize the need of intelligent compromise and appreciate the fact that their success as well as their happiness depends upon their ability to get along. As every teacher knows, extracurriculum activities pre¬ sent a situation for training in civic attitude. CRITICAL JUDGMENT B. C. B. TIGHE, VICEPRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION; AND PRINCIPAL, SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL, FARGO, N. DAK. In a free country such as ours with free, dynamic institutions, youth should be taught the basic principles underlying sane critical judgment. The American concept of evolving government requires that change must be viewed critically but not necessarily negatively. This process of analytical and synthetic thinking involves the development of an awareness in the mind of youth that calls for expression not from its prejudices but with an intelligence divorced as completely as possible from traditional provincial influences of birth, breeding, and environment. The vast and widespread contemporary existence of subversive propaganda calls for a new interpretive level of life on which the mind and reason shall normally function. This level will be above the emotive plane on which human behavior now largely manifests itself. If democracy is to become increasingly popular and efficient thru the directive force of a sound and rational public opinion, our schools have as yet an unfulfilled obligation to train American youth to view critically but impartially the political, economic, and social ideology of its time. To do this effectively youth will need to be taught a scientific method of procedure involving a knowledge of much historical data to be analyzed and synthe¬ sized. Thru a knowledge of inductive methods, youth can test with at least some degree of accuracy the social pronouncements of its contemporaries. The power to think in abstractions, dissociated from selfish or unworthy purposes, must be an educational endowment of our children and our chil¬ dren’s children before society can succeed in the slow process of govern¬ mental purification and general social reconstruction. The ability to reason from clear concepts and valid premises to logical conclusions should become the educational possession of all normal youth. For instance, the question 100 National Education Association which engages the attention of so many Americans at present regarding the desirability of a third term for President Roosevelt is not one to be settled on the basis of our political predilections or affiliations but rather on the basis of the influence of such a departure upon the general welfare, both present and future. Points for and against the third term idea must be critically and intelligently judged. Irrelevant and extraneous statements must be excluded and the remaining arguments must be considered from the standpoint of their effectiveness and scientific value. When we can develop a generation capable and willing to view the affairs of democracy impassion- ately and rationally, we can justly assume that our civic education has suc¬ ceeded in elevating the level of American citizenship to a new high record of political and social efficiency. TOLERANCE AS A FACTOR IN CIVIC EDUCATION PAUL THURSTON, VICEPRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION ; AND SUPERINTENDENT, SCHOOL DISTRICT NO. 1, OVERTON, NEV. Tolerance plays a great part in the success of democratic government. In America tolerance means that the people of the country hold respect for the opinions of others. It is the patient forbearance in our relations with those who differ with us not only in politics but also in our personal opinions, social habits, form of worship, color, race, and culture. However, tolerance implies more than forbearance. Properly conceived, it is the positive and cordial effort to understand another’s beliefs, practices, and habits without necessarily sharing or accepting them. One does not necessarily need to become a weak character to be truly tolerant. The word “tolerance” does not mean that everything is support¬ able and that any amount of deviation is allowable. It is suggested that one’s principles and standards should be tempered with patience and with a readi¬ ness to subject them to conditions thru practical and intelligent tests, but it does not suggest one should have no principles or standards. There are at least three things that we Americans cannot tolerate: (a) We cannot tolerate continued malicious and intentional violation of the laws and standards of our country, (b) We cannot tolerate serious attempts of foreign powers to overthrow our government, (c) We cannot tolerate gross and prolonged ignorance on the part of the American people. Tolerance, then, is a view to be tempered by intelligence. Much sound judgment is required by the people of a democracy in exercising true tol¬ erance, for it is not made easy at any time these days to determine who are violating the rules, who are intentionally and maliciously out to destroy our form of government, or who are the ignorant. This is the reason why I believe tolerance should be a factor in civic education. Bigotry and intol¬ erance are the inevitable earmarks of ignorance, while the first fruits of edu¬ cation are sympathy and understanding. Tolerance is learned largely by unconscious absorption from examples of others in the home, classroom, athletic field, street, store, and office. General Sessions 101 Free public discussion is the only genuine American way of solving our differences in a democratic republic, and when people moved by conflicting emotions gather to discuss an important public question they owe it to them¬ selves as well as to the spirit of the Constitution of their country to listen to all sides with equal attention and courtesy. Discussion and deliberation are required to find the more satisfactory course of action. The more prac¬ tical and urgent the problem, the more need for discussion and open-mind¬ edness. Our school children should learn that the minority groups are the neces¬ sary checks and balances on people holding public offices or parties in power, and they wield a necessary corrective influence in the protection against the rights of the people. In regard to tolerance and human weaknesses, the following might be good material for study: “One cannot pass judgment on another person’s actions until he knows what the man’s x is. A man’s x is an unknowm quantity that lies behind his character, his opinions, man¬ ners, and actions which are generally different from others.” Children can be made more tolerant by teaching them how to deal with propaganda. Propaganda is nothing more or less than opinion which is in¬ tended to influence the actions and opinions of others to some predetermined end. Considering the crisis which our country is facing today and the impor¬ tance of true tolerance in the success of a democratic government such as ours, the crying need for tolerance is seen in a hundred departments of our social order today. We must not be content to admire tolerance in the ab¬ stract. True tolerance is needed in the home, in government, in business, and in every activity of human endeavor. Progress can be made toward making America more nearly the home of tolerance if more emphasis is placed upon this principle as an essential factor in civic education. SOCIAL APPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE LESTER A. RODES, VICEPRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION; AND SUPERVISING PRINCIPAL OF SCHOOLS, SOUTH RIVER, N. J. If we accept the pronouncements of the Educational Policies Commission that the “objectives of our schools are a form of social policy” and that “the social policy of America is democracy,” we must also accept the principle that the advance of science must be measured by its contribution to the general welfare or the common good. The expression, “social applications of science,” implies there are other than social applications, that there are some applications that are not for the common good which do not build democracy. Science both builds and destroys, it prolongs life and shortens life, it creates wealth as well as poverty, it builds instruments of peace and instruments of war, it rehabilitates those crippled and maims those whole of body, it brings us joy and brings us sorrow. In short, science can be a compassionate benefactor to our general welfare or it can be an impassion- ate, ruthless, and cruel Frankenstein. 102 National Education Association For a century and a half education in America was slow to grasp the scientist’s viewpoint. Perhaps education is to blame for science getting out of control. Nevertheless, education must control the applications if it is to serve democracy and is to reduce the economic, political, and social tensions that now exist. Science and invention must be made to serve humanity. Inventions de¬ signed to reduce labor, speed up production, and lower costs inevitably lead to unemployment, occupational diseases, and poverty for the masses. These are the ineluctable byproducts of the race between a science of material progress and a socially controlled culture. When the art of living succumbs to the material march of science, social control is lost and humanity suffers. The only way to remove this threat to democracy is for education to regain control by using the efficiency of technology to free mankind from his shackles and make science serve the ideals of democracy in a free industrial culture. The scientist must be made to think and act altruistically, just as the teacher, the artist, and the religionist would act. Science should take its place among the other fields of education in seeking knowledge for humanity’s sake and increasing the common culture of man thru the dissemination of truth and goodwill. Science has known its greatest growth in the freedom of democracy aided by the stimulation of education. If science is to serve humanity and democracy it must accept the task of broadening its viewpoint, open up its mysteries to all, and acquaint our citizenry with its purposes and methods. Thus only will a common under¬ standing be created so essential to the common welfare. If our people are to have a sympathetic attitude toward science, if they are to intelligently use the inventions of science, they must be taught to think in terms of science. They must be led to make the correct applications and evaluation of scien¬ tific facts, and they must understand the new social and economic problems caused by technical advance so that they may help in the readjustment of society and government. Wise consumership depends upon a modicum of sci¬ entific intelligence. To continue to exist science must depend upon the con¬ suming masses and must accept the responsibility of disseminating scientific knowledge. This is a legitimate contribution of science for as our people learn to think critically and scientifically, greater social, economic, and po¬ litical stability will be attained. Science must concern itself more and more with the physical well-being of man. Here again our schools lead the way in providing thru medical science physical examinations, medication, physiological corrections, and pathological treatments. Few schools today ignore the obligation of correct¬ ing physical defects. Most of them furnish immunization against diseases. Clinics are provided in many communities and the health of school children is greatly improved. Science has played a big part in the extension of our life span in America. Some would say that in our program we are propa¬ gating socialized medicine. I prefer to call it social application of medical science. If our public health program demands socialized or state medicine, let us have it. Industry and state governments have accepted the responsibility General Sessions 103 quite fully for the health and physical well-being of their employees and wards. Science has done much to eliminate accidents and disease. Better housing and recreational facilities for our citizens are being created by science at the instigation of our democratic institutions. Finally, democracy requires that science serve the social order of today. If science is so vital a factor in the peace of a people, if it can create or destroy economic and social standards, if it can turn love into hate, then only those social applications of science that are peace making, creative, and uplifting can be tolerated. In the area of personal relationships science is charged with the responsibility of assisting education in making possible such moods and attitudes as remove hatreds among races, break down prejudice and intolerance, and promote the brotherhood of man. WORLD CITIZENSHIP CAROLINE S. WOODRUFF, FIRST VICEPRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION ; AND SUPERVISING PRINCIPAL, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, CASTLETON, VT. Early in the year a questionnaire was sent out to thousands of men and women, leaders in various fields of thought, representing conflicting opin¬ ions, but always friends of education. It went to leading citizens in the great countries on every continent, asking their concepts of world citizenship and the part that education should play in building it. The host of replies, reflecting deep thought and conviction that education must play a significant part in this great world program, were assembled and tabulated. These are powerful, thought-provoking, action-stimulating. A few of the replies follow: Babson, Roger, statistician — Ultimately, world citizenship means being the citizen of a nation which is a member of a powerful League of Nations — for the time being, it means one who loves his neighbor as himself, irrespective of race, color, or creed. . . . A spiritual awakening must accompany an intellectual awakening. Beard, Charles A., retired professor of history, Columbia University — Partly by acquiring knowledge of other peoples and partly by nourishing the spirit of humanism one may develop sympathy with the struggles of all mankind for a nobler life. Cubberley, Ellwood P., dean emeritus, school of education, Stanford University — World citizenship . . . involves kindness, friendliness, consideration for the rights and feelings of others, respect for real manliness under any kind of a skin or creed, and a willingness to do one’s mite, as a citizen or a traveler, to promote friendship based on mutual respect, confidence, and devotion to the best things in life. Grayson, Cary T., former chairman, American Red Cross — Education can assist in developing world citizenship by placing greater emphasis than ever before upon the spiritual rather than upon the material values in life. Kennedy, Charles R., dramatist — Positive practical insistence upon the brotherhood of man and the fatherhood of God. Najera, Francisco Castillo, Ambassador from Mexico — . . . through public educa¬ tion, an atmosphere favorable to world citizenship can be created ; but in every country, public education is but the reflection of its environment. For that reason public education becomes the effect — never the cause — of the state of things. Perkins, Frances, Secretary of Labor — World citizenship, like charity, should begin at home. The qualities of mind, heart, and character which enable men and women to become useful citizens of their own community, their own state, and 104 National Education Association their own nation are those which, if properly developed, will contribute to attain¬ ment of the larger sphere of world citizenship. ... It is possible to become a world citizen without ever crossing a national frontier. . . . We must look to education to break down the mental barriers which stand between different groups and to develop the qualities of integrity and cooperation which enable individuals to work together for the common welfare. . . . Sexson, John A., superintendent of schools, Pasadena, California — . . . It involves ultimately a willingness to extend to all humanity the benefits of those fine human attributes that have flowered in the best of home and family life throughout the world. Wells, H. G., English writer — The driving force that makes either peace or war is engendered where the young are taught. The teacher — whether mother, priest, or schoolmaster — is the real maker of history. My conviction at that time is doubled and redoubled today that the great¬ est responsibility upon public education and upon us as educators, in what¬ ever field we may be placed, is in finding some contribution to the solution of the great world problem. If education is the bulwark of democracy, and if democracy, fully exercised, is the hope of world amity, then it is upon us to put our keenest thought to work upon the part that education must play in the solution of world problems. We had no thought that out of the year’s consideration of education’s responsibility in building world citizenship would come peace between nations at war, but we did believe and still believe that the centering of our thought upon the responsibility of the members of our profession in building a concept of world relationships, thru the children and youth who are en¬ trusted to us, did stimulate a bigger emphasis in the classroom, thence into the homes. We should continue the gesture in every field of educational activity ; in every classroom we should ally ourselves actively in international movements. The National Education Association has endorsed every movement lead¬ ing to world peace since 1899, when meeting in the state of California at Los Angeles it tendered officially its support to the first peace conferences in session at the Hague, and it has so recorded its attitude by resolutions year after year ever since. Attainment of world citizenship is a long process. If this generation can further world relations in any degree thru the process of education this must become an active dynamic thing in all our relationship, and civic edu¬ cation for a democracy must find in its program world citizenship as a big factor. LAW OBSERVANCE JOHN ASELTINE, PRINCIPAL, SAN DIEGO HIGH SCHOOL, SAN DIEGO, CALIF. Learning to observe the law is a process of growth which begins at earliest childhood with the gradual increase in ability to conform to the simple rules of the home and continues thru school and later life. It is largely conditioned by two factors: the traditional American attitude toward law generally and the rapidly changing climate of American living. We have continued to this day to reflect in our personal attitude toward General Sessions 105 all law the spirit of our revolutionary forefathers when they jettisoned valuable merchandise and manhandled His Majesty’s excisemen because the tax laws were deemed unfair and unreasonable. An attitude which was doubtless a virtue in those days when we were struggling to gain our per¬ sonal liberties, and when rugged individualism was necessary for survival, seems today to be among our most egregious vices and the first task of the school is to modify that attitude without losing the precious spirit of personal liberty. We all agree that we must become more law abiding if we are to live together happily and comfortably. The question is, How are we going to learn? Some say that we must emphasize law enforcement. We must exact in our schools an unquestioning obedience and respect for law and this may be done by following military procedure. I do not wish to discredit or underemphasize law enforcement, but 1 do wish to stress what I consider the fundamental aspects of effective learning of law observance. First, we must provide in our schools from the earliest years those experiences which will enable our children to develop a social consciousness. They must feel that they are an important part in what is being accomplished and that laws are necessary if they are to be given free¬ dom to accomplish those things. Second, our children should have those experiences which will help them to understand the nature and courses of the changes in our culture and thus better understand the reason for chang¬ ing laws and the inadequacy of old laws. We hear much of the Englishman’s observance of the law, yet England a hundred years ago and more, when millions of men and women had lost all security of living, was in as sorry a tangle as we are today with our overflowing prisons and hard-pressed law- enforcing officers. Much has been said about developing respect for the law. We have been told repeatedly that the law must be obeyed because it is the law, and that if it is a bad law we must wait for the processes of government to change it, but in the meantime we must obey it. We would agree with that. On the other hand, let us not lose sight of the fact that laws in themselves are not sacred except as they serve the ends of human rights and justice. Every great teacher in history has reminded us that there is only one law among human¬ kind that is sacred and upon which “all the laws and all the prophets” must justify their existence. Our individual well-being and the social good are completely dependent upon the effectiveness with which we learn to live, both in school and out, in accordance with the Golden Rule. If we learn to observe that law we need have no fear for the future. ECONOMIC LITERACY R. L. HUNT, VICEPRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION, MADISON, S. DAK. Economic literacy — the status of being educated or learned in the ability to earn, distribute, and use wealth or income, both public and private — has long since been acknowledged as one of the most important objectives or 106 National Education Association goals of education. This goal, like too many of our educational objectives, seems to have been left to accidental learning. The need today is a balanced training and understanding of the relative importance of both producer and consumer. Since the theme of this discussion centers around civic education for a democracy and is addressed to teachers, the natural question is, What can we, as teachers, do to impress upon the youth the importance and necessity of economic literacy? Fay and Bagiev, in their book Elements of Economics , give five advantages of studying economics, namely, (a) to increase our knowledge and our understanding of ourselves; (b) to train us in the kind of thinking we shall be called upon to do in our daily lives; (c) to help us in our particular work by showing us the relations of our work to the work of those around us; (d) to make us more useful, intelligent citizens; and (e) to lead us to a store of interesting and useful facts concerning business and industrial activities. Every teacher needs to study economics for these reasons if he is to efficiently present these fundamental factors to the youth in his task of training citizens. Too often we narrow the scope of economic problems to those of labor, business, or science. We overlook the consumer, which includes all phases of labor and industry. The emphasis here should he upon the development, training, and acquiring of practical knowledge of the individual. Intelligent production and consumption must go hand in hand. Work must he regarded as something to be sought, enjoyed, and respected rather than as something to be avoided, suffered, and despised. Perhaps the term “consumer education" rather than “economic literacy” more nearly expresses our everyday thought. Harap, in the May 1938 Education Digest, says that the public is receptive toward consumer educa¬ tion and that the school ought to assume this added burden or task. The complexity of economic life, the present economic maladjustments, and the current trend in education toward more emphasis upon preparing youth for living in the world today point toward the need for consumer education. Naturally the question arises, Where will the teachers get the necessary training and background for this task? The teacher-training institutions have come to their rescue in other fields, just as they are beginning to do and will continue to do if we get the vision of our task and responsibility in this field, and demand such training. The term "standard of living” is relative. Poverty, which is both cause and effect of a low standard of living, is also relative. However, the prob¬ lems of raising the standard of living for some, and removing poverty for others, must be met, and the schools cannot disregard them even tho much of the materials by which these problems can and may be solved must come from other surgeons. Consumer education is a universal need. Wise con¬ sumption is just as essentially a part of our American principles of democracy for the upper economic groups as for the lower ones altho the element of necessity is not so pronounced. General Sessions 107 DEVOTION TO DEMOCRACY ANDREW AVERY, VICEPRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION; AND SUPERIN¬ TENDENT OF DECATUR COUNTY SCHOOLS, BAINBRIDGE, GA. In a program of civic education devotion to democracy is an indispensable asset to practical education and a distinct challenge to curriculum develop¬ ment. The first lesson of the little citizen should begin with a study of self- government and each succeeding lesson should be built around duties, privi¬ leges, and responsibilities of young citizenship. Loyalty to family will be accompanied with loyalty to society, government, and religion. To insure a successful program of civic education the curriculum must be practical enough to meet the peculiar needs of individual students and adequate enough to provide a comprehensive program of public education. This pro¬ gram will take into consideration the social, economic, and legislative forces which are bringing universal education to all youths. This curriculum should include courses in homemaking, health, child care, cooking, sewing, art, music, budget accounting, practical arts, agricultural and industrial educa¬ tion, literature, radio, visual education, dramatics, play production, news reporting, and other fields just as far as community needs are evidenced. In these courses of study liberty of thought and experiment should be en¬ couraged. Such a program should guarantee that every child shall have that opportunity which will enable him to make such progress as becomes one of his intellectual attainments. There is no justification for annual expenditures for public education to range from $19 per pupil in one state to $124 per pupil in another. The poorer states are usually forced to pay higher millage in taxation and, yet, have least funds for public education. We often publicize economic condi¬ tions of industrial sections and minimize domestic problems of agricultural areas, but farm life and rural opportunity are indispensable factors in the promotion of democracy and, hence, must come in for full share of benefits in any comprehensive program of civic education. With proper efforts on the part of state governments to be supplemented by equalization funds from our national government, equalization of appropriations can prevail and we can hope to keep interested and qualified teachers in our rural schools and, thereby, maintain the curriculum with definite aim and purpose. Public enterprise, civic progress, and religious institutions are ever strengthened by character of manhood and womanhood of rural areas. With increased rural facilities and opportunities, many of our social, economic, and legisla¬ tive problems will vanish, and intelligent solutions can be applied to many of these that remain. The American public school is the only agency that can or will furnish adequate educational opportunities to all the children of all the people. 108 National Education Association Social Services and the Schools SOCIAL SERVICES IN AMERICAN LIFE EDITH E. PENCE, DIRECTOR OF CURRICULUM, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. As general economic conditions have changed, extending the serious prob¬ lems of economic and social welfare to a much larger proportion of our population than formerly, critical questions have arisen as to what further social services should be provided, who should provide them — the govern¬ ment or private agencies — who should be served by them, and on what basis new services should be made available to individuals in need of them. In our educational system we seek to carry out the basic principle of our democracy — that of giving equal opportunity to all our young people to develop to the maximum degree possible for each those things that will make for satisfactory lives for them as individuals and as future citizens of our democratic social order. These things are good physical health, good mental health and useful mental equipment, sound moral character, eco¬ nomic equipment along the lines of vocational preparation and occupational opportunity, wholesome provision for nonworking hours, and that social un¬ derstanding which will enable them to take their places successfully in our American social order. If the school is to enable its young people to achieve the well-rounded development to which they are entitled and which our democracy needs in all its future citizens, it must work closely with all other services which contribute to that development and to the equalizing of opportunities for the extremely varied pupil personnel of our schools. Probably there is no better way to show the value of these different services and their definite relationship to education and its purposes than to cite briefly our findings in connection with our program for the prevention of juvenile delinquency. There was no question but that the cooperation of many different services, both public and private, must be called for. To correct or counteract un¬ favorable home conditions there must be assistance from social welfare agencies, juvenile and other courts, the public health department, the church, parent education groups, the nursery school, and other public and private services. I o remove or reduce health handicaps, the public health depart¬ ment, health clinic, psychiatric centers, child guidance centers, and various social welfare agencies must be called upon. To replace harmful forms of diversion and entertainment by wholesome recreational activities, coopera¬ tion was needed from the public recreation services, libraries, community centers, parent-teacher groups, young people’s clubs, and from the social welfare agencies with their facilities for diversion and recreation. To im¬ prove the occupational outlook for the older youth assistance was needed not only from such agencies as the junior division of the federal and state em¬ ployment service and from various youth commissions but also from organ- General Sessions 109 izations and individuals in the fields of business and industry. For the de¬ veloping of a more wholesome community environment it was essential to have the cooperation of parent-teacher groups, of churches, of service clubs, and particularly of the coordinating councils with their membership made up of representatives of different public services such as the police depart¬ ment, the health department, the recreation department, the school depart¬ ment, and the juvenile court. Neither the school nor any other one of the agencies and services men¬ tioned could develop and carry out alone an effective program for the wel¬ fare of youth. This applies to our normal democratic program for the educa¬ tion and development of youth and adults as well as to any program for the prevention of delinquency. Not only is the contribution of each of the different services necessary but their activities must be coordinated in a well- planned community program. THE SPHERE OF EDUCATIONAL SERVICE CHARLES A. ADAMS, ATTORNEY AT LAW, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Educational service in its broadest and largest phase is illimitable; its sphere cannot be circumscribed. There is no worthwhile activity that is not the result of, if indeed not dependent upon, those qualities in the individual which further his mental, moral, and physical development and which have been largely, if not entirely, produced by instruction and training. In this concept of the term, “educational service” would necessarily include library, recreational, and health service — indeed every public service contributing to the welfare of the community. The educational program provided by the federal government in connec¬ tion with the relief work being carried on is neither well designed nor well administered. For instance, as is pointed out in the report of the President’s Advisory Committee on Education, the CCC was originally established to further purposes of relief and conservation. When, however, it was found that 84 percent of the enrollees had not completed high school, that 44 per¬ cent had left school without having gone thru the elementary grades, and that many of them were practically illiterate, the camp commanders were instructed to organize an educational program. It is more than likely that the work of the CCC will be continued ; and it may be that the work projects of the NYA will be consolidated with it. It is extremely doubtful, however, that state and local authorities will ever be given the control or supervision of the educational program of either of the federal activities mentioned. There are many of us who believe that the common school program might well be extended both horizontally and vertically ; that it should pro¬ vide for the preschool child and the adult as well as for the youth and the adolescent ; and that it should offer widely diversified types of education suited to the varying needs and capabilities of those who would avail them¬ selves of the opportunities offered. But there are more of us who do not National Education Association I 10 so believe. They are fearful that even now what they term “the fundamen¬ tals” are being neglected because of the introduction into the curriculum of what they are pleased to call “frills and fads.” It is not strange that there should be this divergence of opinion with respect to the type of education the schools should offer because the dominant factors involved cannot be measured, weighed, or otherwise scientifically evaluated. With the changes in the economic, social, and industrial conditions of American life during the last twenty years, and with the increased percent of the high-school population being enrolled in our secondary schools, changes have been made in the traditional elementary- and high-school cur- riculums. Much of the changed curriculums is designed to bring about in the children what is termed “social intelligence” so that as men and women they may work and live together more successfully in the development of an enlightened citizenship. The schools that provide vocational courses which fit the pupils to im¬ mediately enter industry trained in the vocation in which they engage are few and far between ; and that they are sorely needed is evidenced by the studies and surveys carried on by the American Youth Commission. Among other facts disclosed were three of especial significance: (a) that approxi¬ mately one-third of all the youth of the land between the ages of sixteen and twenty-five were out of school and unemployed; (b) that three-fourths of our young people are out of school at eighteen years of age; and (c) that the curriculums of the secondary schools are ill suited to the needs of at least 60 percent of the pupil enrolment. Some way must be found to not only adequately train youth for their jobs but also to make certain that the jobs will be available when they have finished their training. Of course this can never be the work of the school alone. There must be a close and willing cooperation between industry and the school. W hile recognizing the need of technical training, there are those who believe that this should be obtained on the job and not in the schools. Furthermore, it has been said that studies indicate that not more than 5 percent of all workers in industry require skilled training and that approxi¬ mately 95 percent of these are trained on the job under the supervision of a foreman. It may be that the ideal program of vocational education will pro¬ vide for part of the training on the job. Indeed, our public schools may eventually adopt the cooperative educational system which characterizes Antioch College where the student spends part of his time in school and part on the job. COMMUNITY LIBRARY SERVICE CO IT COOLIDGE, LIBRARIAN, HAYWARD PUBLIC LIBRARY, HAYWARD, CALIF. Librarians and teachers are alike in that they want a program of public education that works, a program that can demonstrate results. In a broad view of public education embracing not only classroom teaching but also General Sessions 111 guided leisure-time activities and adult education, together with public library service, an integrated program would be highly desirable. In work¬ ing out such a plan, it will be found that the library has a definite and dis¬ tinct contribution. In making it effective, it is important that the members of the governing board understand it thoroly and that they be prepared on occasion to interpret it to the community. A board of education carries a tremendous responsibility, and the board being made up of laymen who have other activities than board work, the amount of time each can give to board work is more or less limited. If 90 percent of the budget is directed toward classroom teaching, 90 percent of the board member’s attention is directed toward that activity. A librarian meeting with such a board would be a minority interest. It costs much less to run libraries than it does to run schools so that the public library system would always be a financial minority. That librarians are able to take advantage of a natural economy of operation does not, how¬ ever, minimize their importance in a program of public education. Libraries and schools are alike in that they deal in the same thing — ideas — but they differ widely in method. It is the function of libraries, tra¬ ditionally, to store the knowledge of mankind. It is the function of American public libraries to convert these storehouses of human knowledge into power¬ houses of ideas ready for use in furthering the education and civilization of mankind. The librarian must not only design and operate this machine but he must also select from the mass of material that comes off the printing press what shall go into it. There comes then a vision of what I like to call dynamic librarianship — the art of producing the right book for the right person at the right time. It is important that the personnel of that democracy be kept informed, yet for most of us, our only view of the outside world is that we get thru books. The librarian stands at the gate where the views of the outside world are sorted. He must determine for each its authority, its readability, and the particular persons in the community for whom it would be useful. It is the opportunity of librarians to fan the sparks of education that have been lit in the minds of pupils so that each spark will grow thru life into a flame of mature knowledge. Students when they graduate stand only upon the threshold of knowledge. If they have been well taught they will have the tools with which a man may obtain knowledge. Once so equipped they may move thru the libraries of the world with the best minds and the best thoughts that the world knows. Librarians and schools have much in common. They should have an inte¬ grated program. I would suggest that integration might now be tried out by use of a small steering committee made up of representatives of each inde¬ pendent board involved and the chief executive of each activity involved. This committee, working in conjunction with the chief executives for each part, could well map a program of coordinated activity that could be taken as a basis for simultaneous action by each board. Each library school should include in its summer program, institutes, or in-service training activities 112 National Education Association a course designed to give the librarian a perspective of the classroom teacher’s method and the classroom teacher’s problem. SCHOOL HEALTH PROGRAM WILLIAM W. BAUER, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF HEALTH AND PUBLIC INSTRUC¬ TION, AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, CHICAGO, ILL. I believe that social services, so far as they necessarily touch upon the schools, should be actually incorporated in the program of the schools only to the extent that they are necessary for the following purposes: (a) the protection of the school child against hazards inherent in or contributed to by compulsory attendance at school; (b) the contribution which they can make to the education of the child ; and (c) the protection of the community against wasteful expenditure of funds provided for education. When all children are compelled by law to attend school, it follows that an obligation is created on the part of the school to safeguard them against all hazards which are created or in any way contributed to by the environ¬ ment into which public policy forces these children. This means that there must be insistence upon minimum standards of environmental sanitation, using the word sanitation in its broadest sense. Among the essentials for a school health program I would place efforts to identify so-called defects, any condition which handicaps the child in his procurement of an education. This involves provision for examination of the child at intervals during his school career. I believe it better to provide one examination upon entrance into school, or just before, such as the Summer Round-Lip Examination of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, plus two other examinations in the elementary-school life of the child. These subsequent examinations should be spaced differently according to whether or not the junior high-school plan is followed in the community. Where there are six elementary grades, the child should have a second examination in the second half of the third grade or the first half of the fourth grade, and his last examination during his year in the sixth grade. If there are eight elementary grades, the second examination would come in the fourth or fifth year and the third in the eighth year. Whether school physical examinations should be performed by the family physician or by the school physician is a question which must be settled locally. To have such examinations done by the family physician who knows the history and personality of the child and the family is an ideal which is admittedly difficult of achievement, especially from the administra¬ tive standpoint. With respect to the remedial procedures required, physicians are firm in the belief that these should not be provided by the schools and we note con¬ siderable agreement in school circles with this opinion. There are several reasons: (a) educational funds are provided for educational purposes and not for medical purposes; (b) providing treatment by the schools constitutes an educational experience which badly prepares the student for conditions General Sessions 113 subsequent to school life when he will have to provide treatment for him¬ self ; and (c) the schools are not equipped and can with difficulty be equipped to carry out treatment satisfactorily. It is recognized, of course, that treat¬ ment must be made available for those who cannot pay for treatment out of their own resources. This does not mean, however, that it must be provided by the schools, tho it may mean that the schools may have to assist, thru their nursing or visiting teacher personnel, in guiding the family to sources of aid. Another important function of the school is health education. To impart information and to arouse the desire to utilize it constructively for better health is the greatest contribution the school can make in this field. The inculcation of a sane interest in the body and its functions and a desire to maintain them at their best is an educational achievement which educators have recognized as the first objective of education. Nothing in this paper is intended to discourage the fullest cooperation between the schools and social service agencies in the community, using this phrase in its broadest significance. The schools should be aware of the work of relief, welfare, health, recreation, and all other agencies in the com¬ munity which may contribute to the health and welfare of the school child, and should make these agencies aware of the needs and opportunities for their services in relation to school children. Most of all, I would plead that the professional groups in the community be not overlooked, especially the medical and the dental professions. In the last analysis, the health of the school child is in the care of his parents and of the family doctor and den¬ tist. Unless this fact is kept definitely in mind, the school health program will inevitably fail to make its best contribution. WELFARE PROGRAM OF THE SCHOOLS SAM H. COHN, DEPUTY SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, SACRAMENTO, CALIF. Welfare service to youth by the schools may be discussed under four general classifications — physical, economic, occupational, and spiritual. Dur¬ ing the past decade more attention has been focused on problems dealing with the physical well-being of school children than in any other period of American education. It is recognized that preventive rather than cura¬ tive methods during the period of growth will insure a vigorous adult life. Closer cooperation between the public and private agencies concerned with the physical well-being of youth and the public schools is needed to meet the increasing strain a complex society places on both youth and age today. A welfare program which concerns itself with problems must, to be successful, maintain the integrity of the recipient. The most serious aspect of unemployment is the destruction of the individual’s initiative. While security is desirable it must not come thru the dole which at best is a form of economic anesthesia. The acceptance of gratuities without a compen¬ sating service is the first step in the destruction of independence. Democ- 114 National Education Association racy under such circumstances soon gives way to some form of dictatorship. This is the most serious phase of an unconsidered welfare program. The lack of foresight in training youth for entrance into some form of gainful occupation is revealed by the present plight of youth. Generally speaking, there is too elaborate counseling machinery and too little salable product. Counselors lack vision, experience, and understanding of employ¬ ment needs. The training given youth fails to prepare him to meet chang¬ ing conditions of industrial life. The weakest part of our welfare program is that which concerns itself with the spiritual life of youth. The stress laid on material well-being stifles the inner life from which comes social development. There is a growing disposition to escape the responsibilities of day-to-day living. The feeling that “life is real, life is earnest” seems to have been put aside with long underwear, bustles, and other mid-Victorian styles. We cannot grow thru wishful thinking or movie hero worship. A will to do and doing with a will the commonplace duties of life is the training needed by most of us. GENERAL POLICIES IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL SERVICES JOHN J. ALLEN, JR., MEMBER, BOARD OF EDUCATION, OAKLAND, CALIF. The importance of planning — Many new services have been created to meet needs which have recently come into being. There has been little or no thought given to a general plan of administration which comprehen¬ sively considers the administration of all services. As a result, some areas have been largely neglected. Various agencies have taken responsibilities which overlap and many services have been duplicated. There should be some action from some source which would coordinate the various activi¬ ties and fix the responsibilities of the various agencies involved. In most instances a group of well-informed, public-spirited citizens should unoffi¬ cially gather together to start the work of planning and coordination. Personnel — It is obvious that the work of every social service agency must be carried on by a competent and qualified personnel if it is to be effective. A spoils system in the discharge and selection of workers is very undesirable. Civil service systems are set up for the purpose of introducing qualified and competent workers into service and of giving them the security in their position which it is thought they should have. Civil service systems may become so impersonal as to carry with them some disadvantages. It is essen¬ tial that employees should have honesty of purpose, native ability, and likeable human qualities. When civil service laws are established, the official who selects employees should, in my opinion, have more discretion than is usually given to him. Publicity — If cooperation between service agencies and public support for them is to be had the workers in one service must know the status and functions of the other service and the public at large must be well informed. General Sessions 115 Each agency must publicize itself and must encourage its workers to be informed concerning the others. Cooperation can be advantageous in special instances if an agency which is about to engage in some contemplated activ¬ ity will call upon another agency for technical advice and assistance if a specialized service is involved. Written statements of policy — It is desirable that professional workers in various services should have written statements of the respective policies of the various agencies so that they may know the scope of the activity of each agency and its departments. Records — The experience of each community should be available to guide the actions of other communities. Some system of gathering records should be in effect. Larger units of administration — There has been a sustained feeling that there should be larger units of administration for service agencies, particu¬ larly in rural areas. It is probably true that in most instances larger ad¬ ministrative units would make possible better service for the costs involved. However, great good has come from the fact that control and manage¬ ment of the public schools have been kept close to the homes from which the pupils come. The many governing boards of small districts bring great numbers of citizens into participation in democratic government. Community councils — A community council may consist of representa¬ tives of various agencies all being drawn together by some common need. Another type of council is composed of both professional and lay representa¬ tives which have the effect of bringing to the council the viewpoint of the members of the general public. The work of a community council is not to do things but rather to get them done. A council can determine what needs exist and can outline the measures which may be required. It then would assign the responsibilities involved to an appropriate agency. Articulation with home — The home has the primary responsibility for the care and well-being of its members. All agencies are now tending to weave their activities into the home fabric. Schools are developing parent education classes and inviting home participation in matters affecting the well-being of children. The preservation and improvement of the family life is one of the important responsibilities of education. Cooperation in the Improvement of Teacher Education COOPERATION IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION KARL W. BIGELOW, DIRECTOR, COMMISSION ON TEACHER EDUCATION, AMERICAN COUNCIL ON EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Early in 1936 the American Council on Education began to give particular consideration to problems of teacher education. Extended discussion by the Problems and Plans Committee led to the appointment of a special subcom¬ mittee charged with the responsibility of making recommendations regarding 116 National Education Association possible Council activity in this area. A number of informal conferences were held for the purpose of sampling the opinion of educational leaders who were concerned with teacher education. These conferences were at¬ tended by representatives of teachers colleges, liberal arts colleges, state and endowed universities, and secondary schools, by state and city superintend¬ ents, and by officers of various educational associations. Meetings of the Commission in June and October 1938 resulted in agree¬ ment with reference to certain working premises and to the nature of the program to be launched. Nine premises, to serve as guides for the selection and carrying forward of its activities, were adopted : 1. That the Commission should, so far as possible, work directly with and thru existing groups and agencies that are professionally concerned with the education of teachers. 2. That the Commission should especially endeavor to facilitate the efforts of the various groups and agencies to put into use and test in practice the best available knowledge regarding the problems in the field. 3. That the Commission should concern itself with all the experiences that have educational significance for the teacher at any particular time. 4. That the Commission should concern itself with the education of teachers from the time they determine to enter the profession to the time they withdraw from it. 5. That the commission should stimulate, in every feasible way, cooperation in the attack upon problems of teacher education. 6. That the Commission should not seek to impose any plan or pattern on the individual groups with which it may be associated. The Commission believes that it should help the groups associated with it to become better acquainted with evi¬ dence pertinent to their problems, to plan consequent action in terms of their own circumstances, and to evaluate outcomes according to their own purposes. 7. That the Commission should encourage each group associated with it to con¬ tinue or enter upon experimental activities related to that group’s own recognized needs and to broaden emphases as new needs become evident and as circumstances permit. 8. That the Commission should, however, be particularly concerned with facili¬ tating attacks on problems and issues in the field of teacher education that have the widest and deepest significance. 9. That the Commission should encourage continuous evaluation of programs for teacher education wherever occurring. It conceives of evaluation as including a critical formulation of aims, a continuous appraisal of procedures in the light of those aims, and a careful recording and analysis of outcomes all along the line. Simultaneously with the publication of these premises the Commission announced plans for a first activity, to have to do with the education of elementary- and secondary-school teachers at both the pre-service and in- service levels. Having weighed various possibilities, the Commission had decided that the greatest good to the greatest number would result from intensive work with a limited number of higher institutions and school systems engaged in the education of teachers. It was assumed that these groups would make their procedures known and their findings available for the benefit of others with similar problems. It was also planned that the cooperation of state departments of education and various professional organizations should be sought. A method of attack having been selected, the Commission undertook to obtain the cooperation of an appropriate list of school systems and teacher- General Sessions 117 educating institutions of collegiate rank. It believes that those selected for close association with it over the next three and one-half years are highly representative and that the problems with which they are dealing include those that are most generally felt to be critical in the field of teacher edu¬ cation. Each of the cooperating groups has presented evidence of a willingness to undertake to make a contribution to the improvement of teacher educa¬ tion, not merely locally but as a national enterprise. Work Projects Administration Education Program RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL FOR ADULT EDUCATION L. R. ALDERMAN, DIRECTOR, EDUCATION DIVISION, WORK PROJECTS ADMINISTRATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. I recently made an examination of the programs of the National Educa¬ tion Association and found very little mention of adult education before the year 1920. After that time I found that the term appears with increasing frequency. It is interesting to note that in the year 1921 there was established a Department of Adult Education of the National Education Association. This department was organized by those who were teachers of adult educa¬ tion, largely in the field of Americanization. If we contrast this program with the program of ten years ago, we are struck with the importance given adult education by this Association. The obvious reason for this new inter¬ est in adult education of the National Education Association is that this Association recognizes the importance of an interest in education in the whole life of men and of women. It is now obvious that the education of children and young people is only the beginning. In the field of education we must deal with the whole problem without any limitations. All educa¬ tors are vitally interested in the question of adult education for at least three reasons: 1. Because we find by experience that the greatest influence in the lives of children comes from their parents and adults in their families and that we cannot be successful in children’s education without also getting cooperation from their parents. 2. Because adults want to learn and can learn and are increasingly making demands on the public school to learn. The emergency education program has demonstrated this fact in every state in fhe Union. School people are discovering that when they offer educational opportunities to adults that this fact brings greater financial support for their schools. 3. Because teachers are discovering that they must broaden the concepts of educa¬ tion if they are to be employed. Reports show that there are 1,500,000 fewer children from five to thirteen years of age than there were ten years ago, and that as a result attendance in elementary schools is declining. This has a great significance to the teaching profession. This means that if we are to count thirty pupils to a teacher, the schools would need 50,000 fewer teachers now than they did ten years ago. Reports also show that there is a much larger percent of persons over twenty years of age than ever before. We all know that there was never a greater need for teaching than at the present time. We see that not more than one-third of our population has 118 National Education Association elementary education, only 7 percent have secondary education, and there are twice as many illiterates as there are college graduates. We are all proud of the American public school system, but we are not proud of the status of the education of our citizens. Our greatest need today is for a greater understanding of the living problems and political problems we face. We all believe that there is no investment that pays better than education, so the task of every teacher is to play his part with intelligence in the enor¬ mous problem we have facing us, mainly the education of American people. PUBLIC SCHOOL ACTION IN PROVIDING OPPOR¬ TUNITIES FOR ADULTS REX PUTNAM, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, SALEM, ORE. In discussing this panel topic it seems advisable to consider the worth¬ while accomplishments of the WPA adult education program as seen in Oregon. The first of these is the voluntary attendance in our adult educa¬ tion classes each month of approximately 16,000 adults. The number in itself is not particularly impressive, but when one considers the fact that these students have no motive in attending the classes other then self- improvement one is impressed with the significance of the number. Approximately 80 percent of our adult education students have had not more than high-school education, and 34 percent have not gone beyond the eighth grade. Our adult education student body is largely composed of those whose circumstances denied the privilege of what is considered the average educational experience. Our program gives these people a chance to satisfy their hunger for self-development. What our program has meant to this group is difficult to measure, but I am convinced that the effort ex¬ pended in this direction has been justified many times by the improvement in morale, increase in vocational efficiency, and development of sense of civic responsibility on the part of the students. In the field of Americanization the WPA adult education program has made a significant contribution. Unhampered in regard to educational quali¬ fications for teachers, we have selected Americanization leaders on the basis of their ability to do a specific job. We have found those teachers to be most successful who know their students intimately. They assist their students in matters which, to the native-born, are simple and commonplace, but which are exceedingly complex and important to the alien. An average of approximately 1300 aliens have been attending Americanization classes thruout the past year. Thru their attendance they have been able to speed up the operation of becoming citizens. They have been given an under¬ standing of the principles of democracy and of their civic responsibilities. They have been encouraged, in addition, thru the sympathetic under¬ standing of our teachers to hold an appreciative attitude toward the gov¬ ernment. Prior to WPA adult education, communities regarded public school fa- General Sessions 119 cilities as items to be used only six hours a day and five days a week. In general, the schools have been thought of as being institutions designed solely for the education of children; with the opening of schools for WPA classes this attitude is gradually changing. Much opposition has been raised by school officials to the use by the public of manual training equip¬ ment. Modest beginnings have been made in Oregon toward eliminating this opposition. Traditional teaching technics have been discarded to a great extent on the WPA adult education program. Teachers, faced by the necessity of interesting groups of adults varying greatly in age, interest, background, and intelligence have found traditional teaching methods inadequate. Faced with a situation such as this, our teachers have turned to student-centered teaching and student participation. Adults who have worked during the day do not take kindly to lectures and subject-centered teaching. Whether or not it has been recognized as a specific educational technic, it is certain that all our successful adult education teachers have made a study of their students to learn their interests, their traits, and their backgrounds and have made full use of their findings in their teachings. It can be said without hesitation that provision should be made to fur¬ nish educational opportunity to adults in the fields covered by the WPA adult education program, provided WPA assistance is withdrawn. While it is logical to assume that the facilities for such a program could be made available thru the public schools, it is not conceivable in Oregon that local school districts could assume the operating costs by increasing local taxa¬ tion. I believe that the public schools would offer no serious opposition to making their facilities available in the event that a permanent adult educa¬ tion program were established. Can America Afford To Educate Her Children? MUST STATES CHOOSE BETWEEN SCHOOLS FOR YOUTH AND PENSIONS FOR THE AGED? EMIL L. LARSON, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA, TUCSON, ARIZ. In discussing the question, “Must the states choose between schools for children and pensions for the aged?” it would appear that there is an implied choice between two types of governmental service — education of the young on the theory that they might contribute to the welfare of the state and care of the aged on the theory that they have already made definite contributions to society, and the social group must see that they spend their declining years in comparative comfort in their own homes rather than in public almshouses as was the practice a few short years ago. There is a further implication that there is necessarily competition be¬ tween these two services and that it may be possible to provide one or the other, but not both. 120 National Education Association Contrary to rather common belief, old-age pensions are not entirely new. In 1935 there were thirty-five states and territories, thirty-three ex¬ cluding Alaska and Hawaii, with provisions for them. Of the thirty states with old-age pension plans in use in 1934, twenty-four made it manda¬ tory to provide for them while in six it was optional to provide or to omit such pension payments if desired. Thus, by 1934 approximately half of the state legislatures had made it mandatory to provide some financial assistance for the aged citizens. Various means were used to provide revenue for the financing of such pensions in existence in the various states in 1934. Approximately three- fourths of the states depended on general appropriations, which of course meant that the money needed was raised by general taxation. Three states raised the money for financing old-age pensions by means of a state or county poll tax, two had poor taxes, one a liquor tax alone, and one used both a poll and a liquor tax. The age which the recipient of an old-age pension should have reached was sixty-five in fourteen states, seventy in fourteen states, and sixty-eight in one state. In Alaska the age for eligibility for pensions was set at sixty-five for men and sixty for women. In August of 1935 the federal government enacted into law the Social Security Bill. As first set up the bill provided for aid to the various states for seven activities including nearly $50,000,000 for old-age assistance, the sum of $94,491,000. We are primarily concerned here with only the old-age provisions of the Social Security Bill. Until January 1940 the states may make pensioners of their citizens at either age sixty-five or seventy. After that time the state law must provide an age limit of not over sixty-five years. The federal government will pay not to exceed 50 percent of the total contribution to needy aged pensioners. However, on monthly payments in excess of $30 the maximum federal contribution is $15. From 1900 to 1940 the number of people sixty- five years of age has increased from 3,089,000 to 8,311,000 while the proportion which this group is of the total population has increased from 4.1 to 6.2 percent. By 1950 the total number in this aged group, as estimated, will be 10,863,000 and the proportion will be 7.7 percent. By 1960 the number over sixty-five will be 13,590,000 and the proportion will be 9.3 percent. These data are sufficient to indicate that the old-age group will become increasingly prominent. Every state and territory now has an old-age pension or assistance law which has been approved by the Social Security Board. By May of 1938 there were 1,686,000 persons who were being aided in this manner. As old- age pension plans have primarily been designed to help the needy aged this number of pensioners represents one-fifth, or 21.6 percent, of the group of age sixty-five and over. The total expenditure for old-age pensions in 1938 was approximately $400,000,000. The expenditures for this purpose range from one-fifth to General Sessions 121 one-fourth of the expenditures for education. The expenditures for pensions in 1937 were from twelve to fifteen times what they were in 1934. So far we have indicated several definite things. We have noted the in¬ creasing demand for governmental services and the increased cost of gov¬ ernment. We have traced briefly the development of old-age pensions and have noted the present situation in regard to old-age assistance. Two im¬ portant factors which those charged with school finance must consider are that (a) . fixed obligations which must be cared for will almost of neces¬ sity reduce current expenditures, and (b) new means of securing revenue will not make the financing of schools any easier if the schools must de¬ pend on the property tax more than do any other services of government, a situation that will prevail as long as local communities must bear the burden of support of schools. After the invitation to appear on this program was received, in order to secure definite data so that the statements might not all be unsupported theory, a letter and inquiry blank were sent to each of the state superin¬ tendents and commissioners of education. Replies were received from about three-fourths, thirty-nine, of the states in time to be of use in preparing this summary. This number is sufficient to indicate certain definite tend¬ encies. Of these thirty-nine states practically all provide for the financing of old- age assistance by means of appropriations from the general revenue funds of the state. Old-age assistance has the advantage of profiting from a variety of taxes where such variety exists. Sales and liquor taxes are ear¬ marked for old-age assistance. Usually the state property tax levy is smaller than the local property tax levy and is less subject to restriction. The amounts expended for old-age assistance in the various states, both state and federal funds included, range from 5 to 25 percent of the amount expended for schools. The usual expenditure for old-age assistance is 15 to 20 percent of the expenditure for schools. The monthly allowance for each indigent aged person varies by states. If universal old-age pensions were provided for all over sixty-five years of age the cost would equal or exceed the expenditures for schools. Information regarding expenditures for schools for each year from 1934- 35 thru 1938-39 was also made available. In only a few cases have expendi¬ tures been reduced, a gradual increase usually being noted for each year. Altho the writer did not request separate statements of current expendi¬ tures and expenditures for capital outlay and debt service, it seems safe to assume that total school expenditures have not been materially reduced during the past five years. In response to the question as to whether or not old-age pension legisla¬ tion had increased the difficulty of securing school funds thirteen state officers indicated that old-age pension legislation had militated against ade¬ quate support for schools. Fourteen stated that there was no difference ap¬ parent as yet but three of these qualified their replies with statements that attempts had been made to reduce school support, that the last legislature 122 National Education Association introduced some difficulties, and that the fixed obligation would introduce future difficulties. Twelve did not reply to this question. The question was also asked as to the opinion of the state school official regarding the advisability of providing old-age pensions. Twenty-five out of thirty-nine replied, all indicating that the government should provide both old-age assistance and schools. Several indicated that there is a limit to the services that the government can provide and finance altho it approves in general the theory of old-age assistance. REDUCING THE El NANCI AL INEQUALITIES BETWEEN URBAN ANI) RURAL SCHOOLS WALTER E. MORGAN, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUC¬ TION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, SACRAMENTO, CALIF. Wh at information do we have indicative of inequalities in the financing of urban schools as compared with the financing of rural schools? The publications of the National Education Association and of the United States Office of Education have made available many of the facts. The following are some of the more significant facts indicative of inequalities in the financing of public education in urban and rural areas in the United States as a whole: 1. Average current expenditures per pupil in rural schools are approximately 57 percent of those of urban schools. 2. Median salaries of teachers in rural schools are 40 percent of those paid in urban schools. 3. Teachers in rural schools have received considerably less training than teachers in urban schools. 4. Supervisory service is much more limited in rural schools than in urban schools. 5. The ratio of pupils to teachers is higher in urban schools than in rural schools, but the grade and age span of pupils is greater in rural school classes than in urban school classes. 6. The spread of suhjectmatter taught by teachers in rural schools is considerably greater than that taught by urban teachers. 7. Many educational services available in urban schools are wholly lacking in most rural schools. S. Rural schools because of their smaller enrolments afford pupils less opportunity for social adjustment and activity and because of the wider age and grade span per teacher afford rural pupils less opportunity for the mastery of the fundamentals and much less opportunity for the attainment of desirable personal and social growth. These financial and educational inequalities result from two major de¬ fects in our state systems of public education, namely, inadequacies in state programs of public school finance and inadequacies in state administrative organization. The second of these defects is to an extent related to the first. The principal defects in state plans for public school support are the same as those which obtained twenty years ago. They include : 1. Too great reliance upon the property tax as a course of revenues 2. Inadequate state contributions for public school support 3. Inequalities in local assessment practices 4. Distribution of state aid on bases other than measures of local educational need General Sessions 123 5. Lack of constitutional guarantees of state school support 6. Inadequacy of the taxable wealth available in thousands of our small school districts to provide the amounts necessary for the support of the schools. A seventh defect resulting from pressure for larger amounts of state school support is the increasing reliance upon special sources of state school support, such as tobacco taxes, luxury taxes, the gas tax, and general retail sales taxes. Because of the variations in income derived from such taxes, they constitute fluctuating sources of income on the basis of which it is difficult to predicate a stable school program supported by a stable income. The inequalities in the financial support of urban and rural schools can¬ not be eliminated unless these defects are remedied. The removal of these defects involves the following steps: 1. Adoption of a budget-deficit plan of state school finance. This includes: a. Determination of the total cost of a minimum or foundation program of education for each district b. Imposition of a uniform minimum tax upon all districts c. Provision by the state of the difference between the proceeds of the uni¬ form district tax and the predetermined cost of the minimum acceptable edu¬ cational program. 2. Adoption of a balanced state tax structure which would reserve property pri¬ marily for local taxation and provide state revenues from graduated net personal income taxes, retail sales taxes, inheritance taxes, severance taxes, and special taxes levied on persons and corporations for the privilege of conducting business within the state on a regional or statewide basis. Such persons and corporations include those conducting communication, transportation, light and power, banking, insurance, general financial, and similar businesses. 3. State assessment or state equalization of the assessment of local properties subject to local taxation. 4. Adoption of constitutional guarantees of a. Minimum state school support b. Priority of state school support over all other obligations of the state. 5. Adoption of legislation guaranteeing a minimum salary for teachers. No state has as yet solved the problem of eliminating inequalities in the financing of urban and rural education. Various states have attacked the problem in various ways. Notable advances have been made by several groups of states in : 1. Adopting an equalization plan for the distribution of a major portion of the state aid available 2. Providing large state school funds and appropriating their state school funds in such manner as to guarantee a basic apportionment to each district sufficient to finance a minimum educational program 3. Adopting minimum salary laws sufficient to provide a living wage to teachers and have provided a sufficient amount of state aid to guarantee the payment of the minimum salary. In most states, however, great inequalities still exist, and the rural schools still remain comparatively underfinanced, with markedly lower salaries, lower expenditures, and more meager educational programs than in the urban schools. Where it has proved impossible or unfeasible to attack the basic problems 124 National Education Association of equalization of public school support fundamentally, efforts have been made, with marked results, to improve the program of the rural schools by another method of attack. This involves recognition of the fact that the small size and meager financial ability of most rural school districts render it impossible to provide adequate educational programs therein without almost complete state support on an equalization basis. This inadequacy of local units of school administration constitutes the second major defect in most state school systems. Two general procedures have been followed in attempting to improve rural school finance and rural education by means of improvement in the adequacy of local units of school administration. In approximately one-half of the states a reorganization of local units of school administration has taken place; in about one-third of the states a county unit or a modified county unit has been adopted. In a number of states reorganization has been stimulated by the use of a state equalization fund of comparatively small size which has been used to assist in the financing of the costs of transporta¬ tion and housing of reorganized districts. In many states, as in California, repeated attempts to create more adequate local units of school administra¬ tion by state legislation have been defeated, largely because of the oppo¬ sition of, or lack of agreement among, school administrators and school trustees. In a number of states, as in California, it has been recognized that the creation of adequate local units of school administration is a long-term project that may take further decades to accomplish. In these states, as also in many states which have had some success in creating larger school districts, the attempt has been made to extend and expand the professional functions of the county as an intermediate unit between the state and local school districts, with a view to improving the educational program of the rural schools. SHALL SCHOOL BUDGETS BE DETERMINED BY INDE¬ PENDENT BOARDS OF EDUCATION OR SHALL THEY BE SUBMITTED TO OTHER GOVERNMENTAL BODIES? EDGAR E. MULLER, SUPERINTENDENT OF ALAMEDA COUNTY SCHOOLS, OAKLAND, CALIF. The answer to the question, “Shall school budgets be determined by inde¬ pendent boards of education or shall they be submitted to other govern¬ mental bodies?” is that school budgets should be determined by independent boards of education and they should not be submitted to other governmental bodies. In support of this conclusion there are five fundamental considera¬ tions worth reviewing: 1. A schoolboard should be fiscally independent because full administra¬ tive control usually follows fiscal control. Investigators report that where General Sessions 125 the power to approve or disapprove budgets has been vested in noneduca- tional boards, it has invariably led to dictation in matters of selecting school sites, purchasing school supplies, and in some cases, these boards have gone so far as to attempt to prescribe the number of teachers necessary for a school. The great number of court cases arising from disputed limits of authority is further evidence that those who have been given a veto power for school budgets have not been content to limit their scope of authority to financial affairs. Education as we perceive it, being a function of the state and having a much broader scope than other governmental functions, is far better off and much safer when the board of education has both fiscal and administrative control. 2. Greater efficiency is obtained by fiscally independent schoolboards. Two boards, each having different goals, have a tendency to be in constant conflict with a resultant loss in efficiency. Competent surveys invariably indicate that there is little extravagance in boards of education that enjoy full independence. 3. Local initiative is stimulated when a schoolboard has fiscal independ¬ ence. Often plans and programs that are the product of careful study are submitted, and then because another authority does not have a full knowl¬ edge of the submitted proposal, they are vetoed. As a result, educational administrators become completely discouraged and lose all initiative. 4. Long-term planning is difficult if not impossible if the educational board is not fiscally independent. Partisan offices change more often than schoolboards, and when they do, policies usually change. Generally, even with a change of personnel on a schoolboard, the policies are not altered fundamentally. It is not uncommon for schoolboard members to serve un¬ interruptedly for fifteen to twenty years. Changes in the personnel or changes in policy do not allow continuity. The very character of education and its financial magnitude make a year-to-year program ineffective. Curriculums cannot be articulated or coordinated unless a long-range view is taken. Necessary cash balances must be accumulated over a long period of time. The building program, in order to be at all reasonable, must be extended over many years in order not to create too great a tax burden in any year. 5. Public education is of sufficient magnitude and importance and of such a specialized nature to justify separate treatment. The very magnitude of expenditures justifies special attention. Comparing municipal expenditures with those of the school in many localities it will be found, in the majority of cases, that school expenditures equal all of the other expenditures com¬ bined. The invested capital of a school system is usually the largest single investment that a community has. It is truly a business large enough to justify separate and distinct consideration. The fact that the administration of public schools is so highly specialized makes it virtually mandatory that its problems be handled separately. The needs of public education differ from other governmental functions. The personnel, both certificated and noncertificated, must be chosen with re¬ spect to peculiar responsibilities. 126 National Education Association If it is true that it is desirable for the full administrative control to remain with school authorities, that greater efficiency is obtained by hav¬ ing authorities always linked with responsibility, that local initiative is stimulated when the schoolboard enjoys full financial independence, that long-term planning is essential yet practically impossible when a board of education must submit its budget for final approval to another govern¬ mental body, and if the size, importance, and specialized character of public education justifies separate attention, then school budgets should be determined by independent boards of education. HOW IMPORTANT IS THE SAFEGUARDING OF LOCAL INITIATIVE IN THE WHOLE PROGRAM OF FINANCING EDUCATION? AGNES SAMUELSON, PAST PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION; AND EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, IOWA STATE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, DES MOINES, IOWA The issue of control always comes to the top when the matter of federal aid for education is raised and engenders much debate. While this issue may he used by some as a cloak to hide their opposition to funds for schools, with many others it is genuine. The matter of control is definitely in the picture. How can local control be preserved and financial inequalities be reduced? The importance of safeguarding local initiative is being demonstrated today as people in large areas in economic distress are surrendering their freedoms for dictatorships, their representative governments for personal leaderships, and the war drum for the peace table. All freedoms are repressed. Conformity and subordination to the will of the state are enforced. Education becomes the instrument of the state for the regimentation of thought. In our American democracy the preservation of freedom of speech and discussion is an imperative. Therefore, centralization of control in education, the dissemination of propaganda for any group in power at the moment, and external controls of any nature — be they political, commercial, or religious — are resisted. The problem is to hold fast to the imperishable values of local freedom and at the same time to move forward in correcting glaring educational inequalities which operate to keep many of our citizens from enjoying the fruits of education and democracy. The solution does not hinge upon the surrender of basic principles but upon the acquisition of the skills essential to our American way of life. The Advisory Committee on Education came to the conclusion that federal aid was necessary in order to lessen inequalities and that a limited amount of control must be provided to assure honest, legal, and efficient expenditure of the funds. The Committee asserts that such safeguards are necessary in order that the federal government may discharge its responsibility to the taxpayers for the proper expenditure of the funds. These safeguards can be set up without trespassing upon local management and control. General Sessions 127 There appears to be no argument as to the need of federal headquarters for research purposes, coordination with other federal agencies, encourage¬ ment of experimentation, and other services. It seems to be agreed that it should have no power to regulate or control the content or processes of edu¬ cation in the schools. We bel ieve that state aids have served a useful purpose in promoting better conditions in communities interested in improvement. State aids have also pointed out the necessity of equalization programs in order to reach the communities which need help the most. Even then local initiative is necessary to help secure legislation and take advantage of it when it is enacted. All of this may not add up to any formula for solving the issue. It is certain that the American people will not vacate the principle of local initiative in government, especially in education. The experience elsewhere shows the price to be too severe. They may relinquish it in part in other areas, but they will cling to it tenaciously in education. Any program for equalization of opportunity must respect this principle. WHAT FEDERAL AID MEANS FOR PUBLIC EDUCATION HOWARD A. DAWSON, DIRECTOR OF RURAL SERVICE OF THE ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. To those who believe that public education in a representative democracy is essential to the perpetuity of our form of government, that the economic well-being of our people depends upon the training of the common people, and that the efforts of the national government to raise the social, cultural, and economic standards of the masses depend to a large extent upon the intellectual level attained by all the children of all the people, it is worth¬ while to present the factual situation regarding public education in these United States and discuss matters of public policy in the financing of public education. There is now pending in the Congress a bill, S. 1305, based on the report of the President’s Advisory Committee on Education, that proposes to make money available to the states for equalizing educational opportunities in elementary and secondary schools for the support of adult education, library services, rural rehabilitation, educational facilities for children on federal reservations, and for educational research. The enactment of this bill would mean a great forward step for public education in this country. Federal aid would make it possible to have an eight- or nine-month school term thruout the United States. At the present time the average school term ranges from nearly nine and one-half months in the highest states to barely six and one-half months in the lowest states. On an average, rural schools thruout the nation are in session a month less during each year than are urban schools. The average rural pupil in the nation at¬ tends school less than seven months per year. In seven states with large rural populations the average number of days attended per year by rural pupils is less than six months. Federal aid will make it possible to extend high-school facilities to 128 National Education Association children living in areas now without such facilities or with inadequate facilities. If suitable high schools were available thruout the nation the high-school enrolment should constitute one-third of the total school en¬ rolment. At the present time some states have almost that many children in high school. On the other hand, in other states we find as low as 10.6 percent of the total school enrolment in high school. Seven states average more than 27 percent of their total enrolment in high school ; on the other hand eight states have less than 15 percent. Federal aid will mean the improvement of school facilities in the most neglected areas so that the more than 800,000 children of elementary- school age who are not now enrolled in any school, largely because of lack of facilities, will be placed in schools. Federal aid for education will enable the states to eliminate illiteracy and to guard against it in the future. In the United States there are still more illiterates than college graduates and about one-half as many illit¬ erates as high-school graduates. Altho there are approximately 3,600,000 totally illiterate persons, there are about 15,000,000 not technically classed as illiterate who are so poorly educated that they are unable to read a column in a newspaper or write a simple letter. Federal aid for education will place in states and communities where financial resources are meager the funds needed to support the kind of schools needed and to pay fair and equitable salaries to their teachers. The average annual expenditure per pupil for current operation for schools now range from $134 in the highest states to less than $15 in the lowest. Nearly one-fourth of the states exceed an annual expenditure of $90 per pupil while another one-fourth fall below $45 per pupil. In one state the average annual salary per teacher approaches $2500 while in the lowest it is barely $500. However, in these same two states there are marked differences between the salaries paid to rural and urban teachers. In the richest state with an average salary of $2500, the average rural teacher receives only $1370. If these inequalities of educational opportunity were due to indifference and lack of effort on the part of the state and the rural people it might not be necessary for the federal government to consider entering upon a program of financial assistance for education. No fact is better established than that the educational inequalities are not due to indifference and lack of effort. They are due almost wholly to the lack of financial ability. The amount of taxes per capita which can be raised ranges from $18.39 in Mississippi to $109.33 in Nevada. Assuming that each state would spend an average of $60 per year per weighted pupil for schools, it was found that 96.5 percent of all tax resources in Mississippi would be required to maintain schools, while in Nevada only 16.5 percent of tax resources would be required. Not only are the economic resources of many states comparatively low and the educational burdens great, but the people of those states in a large measure do not own or control the economic resources of those states, General Sessions 129 The nonfarm population of the Northeast section of the United States has only twice as many children of school age as the farmers of the South¬ east, but they have twenty-one times as much income. The farmers of the Southeast have nearly 14 percent of the nation’s school children but they have only 2 percent of the national income. The farmers for the entire nation have 31 percent of the nation’s school children but they receive only 9 percent of the national income. The poorer the community or the state in this country, the less are the expenditures for public schools and the greater is the number of children. Federal aid would mean the creation of educational opportunities supported on a permanent basis for hundreds of thousands of adults who find it necessary to make occupational, personal, and civic adjustments to changed conditions which have seriously affected their modes of living. The enactment of the pending federal aid bill will mean the extension of library facilities to 45,000,000 more citizens of whom 39,500,000 live in rural areas that do not now have access to a public library. It would mean the extension of free public school facilities to the children of federal employees now residing on federal reservations and properties and at foreign stations of the United States. For the most part the United States government has left the burden of educating the children of their employees to local communities near the location of the federal property which is always exempt from local taxation. Recent investigations have shown that there are approximately 30,000 of these children on more than 800 federal reservations. The pending federal bill in making money available for elementary and secondary schools makes specific provision for funds to pay for school buildings in connection with needed school con¬ solidations. One of the chief handicaps in the reorganization of rural school units is the lack of money to pay for new buildings. The enactment of the federal aid bill will mean more adequate facili¬ ties for the training of rural teachers. A part of the funds will be made available for the support of teacher-preparation institutions. Some persons think that federal aid for education would mean federal control of education and the destroying of state and local autonomy in educational administration. It is not at all necessary that such a result shall follow a policy of federal aid. It should be borne in mind that the federal government really does not aid education as such. Under the Con¬ stitution the federal government can deal with education only thru appropriations to the states and by cooperating with them. The degree of control the federal government might have over states in the admin¬ istration of education depends altogether upon the policy desired by the American people. Some persons appear to believe that the enactment of the pending fed¬ eral aid bill would result in destroying the traditional policy of separation of church and state in the United States. This is a mistaken idea. The federal aid bill now pending in the Senate would make funds available only to public schools. The term “public” in connection with schools 130 National Education Association has long and often been defined by the courts as meaning that they are free, open equally to all and under complete public control. Section 12 of S. 1305 provides that the funds should be made available for disburse¬ ment by states to “local school jurisdiction” or state educational agencies for all types of current operating and maintenance expense of public elementary and secondary schools and their auxiliary services. All other provisions of the bill affecting public elementary and secondary schools must of necessity take their meaning from this specific provision as to the availability and use of the federal appropriations. It is true that some states have authorized the use of public funds to furnish transportation services and textbooks to children attending nonpublic schools. Both state courts and the Supreme Court of the United States have held that the provision of such services is in no way to be construed as financial assist¬ ance to a religious organization. There is nothing that the Congress can do or should do unless the Constitution of the United States should be amended to prevent the states from following this policy if they so desire. Even if it were possible to use federal funds for such purposes, and it is quite evident that under S. 1305 it would not be possible, the question of the separation of church and state is hardly involved except by a far stretch of the imagination. Federal aid for education will mean a strengthening of the faith of the American people in democratic institutions. Under a democracy it is believed that if the doors of opportunity are kept open rewards will then be distributed somewhat according to merit. Equality of reward is a tenet of communism but equality of opportunity is the essence of democracy. Cooperatives and Credit Unions CURRENT LEGAL AND LEGISLATIVE TRENDS IN COOPERATIVE WORK FRANK TAYLOR, DIRECTOR, SELF-HELP COOPERATIVE SECTION, CALIFORNIA STATE RELIEF ADMINISTRATION ; AND RESEARCH ASSISTANT FOR THE GOVERNOR’S COMMISSION ON RE-EMPLOYMENT, SACRAMENTO, CALIF. Our estimates tell us that from 80,000 to 90,000 current relief clients, coupled with an even larger number of persons on WPA and federal aid programs, are probably only 50 percent of all the people actually unem¬ ployed or employed such a small portion of the time that for all purposes of study of the problem they may be considered in equal need. We are presented with a continuing group of people who will be permanently unemployed, so far as the normal business employment is concerned, for whom the government must create some method of supply¬ ing them with income sufficient to maintain at least a minimum standard of decency. At the same time we must keep in mind that altho a new approach to relief is needed because the major portion of our citizenry is still involved in the normal processes of the community, any new program General Sessions 131 must not too radically disturb the present economy. Having these concepts in mind we have attempted as one of the approaches to the problem to utilize the cooperative technic as a portion of our solution. Thru the administration’s legislative program it has been our endeavor to have passed, laws which bring California up to date in its incorporating laws, with relation to consumer cooperatives. In this group of bills may be listed a whole series authorizing the relief administrator to issue relief in kind to whole groups of so-called categorical aids and another series of bills exempting sales either of goods or property by the state relief administration or self-help cooperatives from special sales and use taxes. Among all these only two bills were actively supported by the cooperative movement — one bill being the incorporation, bill which was passed by both houses of the legislature and sent on to the governor for approval and one bill creating a cooperative authority to administer aid to cooperative organizations where such expenditures will aid in the relief of hardship and destitution due to unemployment. The administration has attempted to reorganize and revise the adminis¬ trative aid to self-help cooperatives being extended by the state relief ad¬ ministration. As this has been possible within the framework of the existing legal authority of the state relief administrator, considerable and extensive revisions of policy have been inaugurated by the new administration. These revisions include a policy of financing self-help cooperatives into planned production schedules on a basis of repayable loans, rather than gifts or grants. The policy includes joint planning between the self-help cooperative representatives and representatives of the state relief administration, thus effecting a joint administrative and client control not possible in any direct relief procedure. Policy includes advances to cooperative associations for the purpose of current payroll procedure whereby cooperative members are en¬ abled to draw income at the time and place of their employment. As a corollary of this procedure the cooperative groups have themselves volun¬ tarily agreed to remove members of the cooperatives from any form of public assistance thereby relieving the taxpayer of the cost of public aid. t OPERATING PROBLEMS OF TEACHER CREDIT UNIONS HUGH G. STOUT, TREASURER-MANAGER OF PORTLAND TEACHERS CREDIT UNION, PORTLAND, ORE. I shall take for granted that you are an officer or an informed member of some teachers credit union and are sympathetic with the credit union movement as a whole. My connection with this movement started in 1932 when our Portland Teachers Credit LTion was chartered with a total capital of $66. After six and one-half years our capital has grown to $176,000; we have made loans totaling $700,000 and have never lost one cent from failure to repay on any of the money loaned. We have more than 1200 members. We have not confined our efforts to merely helping members to save and advancing money on loans. We study and attempt to analyze all 132 National Education Association problems affecting the financial well-being of persons eligible to member¬ ship. Our members enjoy meeting in the office and our board, committees, and officers continue giving freely of their time and thought. We do not believe in “rotating offices” and now have most of our original group serving for the seventh year. Thru the credit union we have gone beyond the limitations of our office and have brought the respect of the businessmen in our community to the teaching group. The school clerk in Portland recently stated that “garnishment of teachers’ salaries has decreased about 90 percent since the credit union has been operating.” Most creditors now get in touch with us before they take any legal action against a school district employee. We have been active in helping to organize other credit unions. We are members of our state league and the Credit Union National Asso¬ ciation. Thru the cooperative, Cuna Mutual Society, we protect the estates of our borrowers against loss due to death or permanent disability. Educational procedure to be followed in a credit union is: 1. See that the treasurer learns the bylaws and studies the state or federal Enabling Act. 2. Have the president read some good credit union book, such as Cuna Ernerges. From this he will gain a picture of the duties of each officer and committee member. 3. Each committee and board member should make an exhaustive study of the work to be done in his position. Each must contribute his part with understanding and an appreciation of the trust which has been placed in him thru his election to office by his co-workers. 4. The matter of educating the member and the potential member should be thru such means as are available. Thru timely advertising he should be brought to seek the services which the credit union offers. As to matters of office technic, the greatest problem is to find a good treasurer-manager and intelligent officers and directors to guide the activi¬ ties of the credit union. Next, decide upon convenient quarters. The president and auditing committee should have the records available at all times. It is also important that some definite time be set when the office will be open without fail, a time when all teachers are out of the classroom. The office should be open during vacation months. As to loans and security, this is a local problem. Most people are entirely honest. Many people do not plan budgets carefully and are in¬ clined to overburden themselves with installments, especially teachers. The matter of security should be secondary to necessity. Make a loan when and where it is beneficial to the borrower. Pay less attention to whether he has saved money in U. S. government bonds which he will deposit for security and more in an analysis of his present obligations, their past duration, and his reputation for integrity. Watch your borrowers with a helpful hand; assist them to stay within their income. Be sure the first repayment is made on time and you will not have to form a collection policy. If your passbook has not been audited by your supervisory committee in the past year, insist that this be done thorolv each year. The mark of success in your credit union is measured General Sessions 133 by your receipt of mail. If you receive as much advertising from loan agencies after your credit union is operating as before, you may rest assured that some o( your fellow workers are still their victims. Salaries and Economic Status of Teachers THE NATIONWIDE SALARY SITUATION HAZEL DAVIS, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF RESEARCH, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. For the country as a whole, blending together all regional differences, the average annual salary of teachers in the past school year, 1938-39, was $1380. The losses of the depression years have not been overcome entirely. By 1940-41, when the Research Division expects to make its next study of salaries, it seems likely the general level of median salaries of classroom teachers will be as high as in 1930-31, provided no further economic depression appears. Principals and superintendents have made less rapid progress than classroom teachers in returning to predepression salary levels. Nonteaching workers, as represented by clerks, janitors, nurses, and attendance officers, are likewise lagging behind the teachers in salary recovery. There was an unbroken upward trend in teachers’ salaries from 1920 at the close of the World War to 1930-31 when the depression reached school revenues. Whether that upward trend will be resumed after 1940- 41 is a question that we can speculate about but cannot answer. We can be sure of one thing, that the economic status of teachers is inseparable from the economic status of the country as a whole. Any fundamental further improvement in teachers’ salaries is not likely to occur until there is fundamental improvement in the national economy. The salary-schedule situation, as revealed by the type of schedule in effect, shows a trend toward more schedules of the single-salary type. Eight years ago, in 1930-31, every fifth school system reporting on salary schedules, in cities above 10,000 in population, was following a schedule of the preparation type. B.y 1938-39 this proportion had increased from one in five to one in three (32.2 percent). In many cities, however, no formally adopted schedule is being followed. The depressed condition of rural teachers in nearly all states and of Negro teachers in the South tends to lower the standing and effectiveness of teaching in general. In 1936 the national average salary for city teachers was more than twice as high as the average for country teachers. Make all the allowances possible for lower living costs and simpler stand¬ ards of living in rural areas and the fact remains that American teachers are paid as tho the teaching of country children is worth much less than the teaching of city children. There are striking differences too in the salaries of white and Negro teachers in the seventeen states where Negro pupils are in segregated 134 National Education Association schools. The average salary of Negro teachers in those states in 1936 was 60 percent of the average salary for white teachers. State laws to provide state aid and to guarantee minimum-salary sched¬ ules are helping to improve the salaries of rural teachers in a number of states. This past year there were twenty-three states having a guaranteed minimum salary. Such state laws where a minimum-salary schedule is tied in with a broad plan of state aid for schools mark a desirable line of progress toward improving working conditions for rural teachers. But in some of these states the public revenues are so limited that no truly defensible schedule for teachers can be maintained from state and local funds. Unless the federal government adopts some plan of putting the national income at work where it is needed for school support, those states are doomed to partial failure in any effort to set an acceptable salary for teachers. The situation is not discouraging but there are many areas where improvement is needed. Many local schedules need revision upward and need adjustments to provide a wiser use of existing salary funds. State leadership is needed to improve salaries of rural and small town teachers. Fundamental legal and financial reforms are required in many states. There is one basic aspect of the whole salary problem on which all of us, everywhere, can work ; that is, to improve the quality of teaching and seek to raise the prestige of the profession to the point where public opinion will be at one with the teachers in demanding that the salaries of all teachers be placed on a professional basis. ESTIMATING THE COST OF A PROPOSED NEW SALARY SCHEDULE EARL L. MC TAGGART, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, HAWAII EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, HONOLULU, T. H. The acceptance of a salary schedule in Hawaii is dependent upon the territorial legislature, which is the lawmaking body just as is the legisla¬ ture in your state. In 1932 a so-called single-salary schedule was intro¬ duced in the legislature but nothing came of it. In 1937 another schedule was introduced, but nothing was done except to refer it to a hold-over committee for study until the next session in 1939. The legislature was unwilling to adopt a new schedule unless it knew what it would cost both at present and in the future. This factor was unknown. The Hawaii Teachers Association and the department of public in¬ struction finally decided to employ an expert in governmental problems. Burton L. Hunter, efficiency engineer in the Bureau of the Budget, Los Angeles, and now director of civil service for Los Angeles, was loaned to this committee by the City Council of Los Angeles for a period of some nine months with the proviso that he might be kept longer if agreeable to both parties. Mr. Hunter arrived in Honolulu in April 1938 and im¬ mediately went to work. A little later, he was given the task of making General Sessions 135 a study of the single-salary schedule introduced in the 1937 session of the legislature. The schedule was based on four classes as follows: Class I, department certificates less than collegiate, or in other words, training represented hy less than four years of college work; Class II, collegiate certificate repre¬ senting graduation from college or a university; Class III, professional certificate representing five years of teacher-training preparation beyond high school ; and Class IV, advanced professional certificate representing a master’s degree. This schedule was called a single-salary schedule. No new teachers coming in since 1932 would be in Class I. Therefore all teachers in this class had already reached their maximum. In order to give these teachers credit for experience they were to be granted an increase of $5 per month the twenty-first year of teaching to $155 per month, another $5 per month the twenty-sixth year, and a third $5 per month the thirty- first year. This was due to the fact that some 55 percent of the teachers were in this classification in June 1938. Cl ass II had a beginning salary of $100 per month and reached $200 the seventeenth year. Class III began at $105 per month and reached $215 per month the seventeenth year, and Class IV started at $105 per month and reached $220 the seventeenth year. These salaries would apply in whatever level of teaching the individual was engaged. In all classes in¬ creases would be automatic except that there would be none after the sixth year unless six credits of approved work were obtained and no in¬ creases each three-year period thereafter unless four credits of approved work were obtained. Two features bearing on the schedule were: First, no teacher in service would be placed on the new schedule unless requesting it in writing. Otherwise, he would remain on his present schedule. Second, in 1932 all teachers in Hawaii received a 10 percent salary cut and in addition all automatic increases were stopped. The cut was replaced in 1936, and the automatic increase started again but without replacement of lost service. This has not been restored to date. This feature has a direct bearing on the transfer from the present to the new schedule. It was necessary for Mr. Hunter to obtain from the department of public instruction data pertinent to the study. Such information as the name of each teacher, the age, the number of years of service, the salary received, the number of new teachers appointed yearly, the number of teachers placed in each level of school yearly, the population of the terri¬ tory over a period of years, and the birth- and death-rates were a few of the factors. In addition, it was necessary to obtain a record of the training of each teacher in service, his present classification under the new schedule, and his probable placement in the future. This was necessary as many of the teachers in service at present are working afternoons and during sum¬ mer sessions toward their degrees. This trend is quite pronounced and had a decided bearing on estimates. Sample forms for accumulating the desired basic facts were worked National Education Association 136 out and turned over to the department of public instruction for entry. The compilation of the figures obtained from the department took a period of some eight weeks. Following this the results were studied with great care to establish trends having direct bearing on the final outcome. Three months after the forms were submitted to the department, the report was completed, turned over to the hold-over committee of the legislature, and then released to the press. All individuals employed as teachers in June 1938, their service, age, assignment, and present salary were listed ; and in each individual case the salary was projected under the existing schedule from 1938 thru each year to and including 1950-51, based upon the provisions of the pro¬ posed single-salary schedule and academic attainments of individual teach¬ ers as shown by departmental records. After the release of the report by the committee, Mr. Hunter was sent to all islands of the territory to present it at meetings of teachers and interested people of the community.* The reaction was that the added expense would be too great at this time in view of the rather low price of sugar, which is the backbone of financing in the territor)L A new schedule, including principals, was then drawn up to more nearly approximate present costs. This schedule was a joint effort of the teachers council and the Hawaii Education Association. The time to reach the maximum was reduced from seventeen to twelve years; starting and maximum salaries were reduced. This schedule was drawn up in the form of a bill and introduced in the 1939 session of the legislature. During the early part of the session Mr. Hunter made a study of it and submitted an estimate of probable costs. Much of this study was based on data used for the first study. This estimate showed an eventual cost in 1952-53 and thereafter of some $67,000 per year more than the present schedule. At a hearing in the Ways and Means Committee of the senate, it was decided that the only possibility of obtaining such a schedule this year would be to have it apply to new teachers entering service in September 1939. All teachers now in service would remain on present schedule. The bill was then redrafted and Mr. Hunter was asked to make a study and give an estimate of probable costs. His study showed that there would be a saving to the territory during the next biennium due to the lower starting salary and that for the next fifteen years there would be no added cost over the present schedule. For the first nine years there would be a saving. After fifteen years and thereafter the annual cost would be $43,320 greater than the present schedule. This redrafted bill and estimate was presented to the Ways and Means Committee and they recommended its passage. The senate passed it, but a vote of 14 to 14 in the house stopped it for the 1939 session. Even tho we have failed in two sessions of the legislature, we are not finished with it and hope that eventually we will be able to meet on common ground with the legislature and have it become law. General Sessions 137 THE SINGLE-SALARY SCHEDULE BERNICE BAXTER, DIRECTOR OF ELEMENTARY AND JUNIOR HIGH-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, OAKLAND, CALIF. The single-salary schedule is a schedule providing for the payment of salary on the basis of years of professional preparation, degree, or creden¬ tial held irrespective of grades taught. Under the single-salary plan or preparation schedule, as it is commonly called, all teachers receive salaries according to their professional preparation. The idea is not a new one. As early as 1884 Thomas W. Bicknell advocated this plan, but most of the schools adopting this schedule have done so since 1920. Proponents of the single-schedule plan claim for it that (a) teachers are placed in positions for which they have the best preparation, (b) the single-salary schedule guarantees to teachers financial returns for time invested in study and increased preparation, (c) the schedule can be administered with fairness and impartiality and for this reason tends to unify rather than divide teaching groups, and (d) the single-salary schedule has helped to improve the preparation of elementary teachers and has caused them to remain in the elementary school. Those opposed to the single-salary schedule contend that the demand for well-trained high-school teachers is greater than that of elementary teachers, that there is a greater supply of elementary teachers available than of high-school teachers, and therefore, that salary should be based on the law of supply and demand. They further state that the high- school teacher must have a broader background in the content subjects and must be a more able student than the elementary teacher. They disagree with those who believe that the habits formed in early childhood are as important as those formed when the individual is able to evaluate his own conduct. Their contention is that it takes greater understanding and a much wider fund of information to stimulate the child approaching adulthood than it does to teach the child of six to twelve years of age. The single-salary schedule suffers from the same weakness that all salary schedules seem to include, that is, the difficulty of determining a teacher’s true worth. Various plans of evaluating a teacher’s effectiveness have been proposed. These range from measuring with standard tests the results of teaching, jury judgment of several capable supervisors, principals’ estimates of the community effectiveness of the teacher, and evaluation of the teacher’s personality in terms of its influence upon pupils. If ways and means were available for securing a comprehensive evaluation of a teacher’s effectiveness each year, salary increments should undoubtedly be based upon the value of a teacher’s services. Circular I of the 1939 Biennial Salary Survey of the Educational Research Service of the American Association of School Administrators and the Research Division of the National Education Association reports upon schedules for classroom teachers in 143 school systems in cities having a population in 1938-1939 of from 30,000 to 100,000. This 138 National Education Association tabulation shows that 59 of the 143 schedules reported, or 41 percent of the total, are of the single-salary type. In 1930-1931 when 186 cities of the same population group reported their salary schedules, 40 cities used single-salary schedules. This was 26 percent of the total number reporting. Circular III of the same survey reports on salary schedule provisions for classroom teachers in 84 school systems in cities of 100,000 popula¬ tion in 1938-39. This tabulation shows that 27 of the 84 schedules reported, or 30 percent of all reporting, are of the single-salary type. In 1930-31 when 82 cities of this same population group reported there were 18 school systems using single-salary schedules, or 22 percent of the number reporting. Several public school systems have had ten or more years of experience now with the single-salary schedule. The Cincinnati public schools have been using such a schedule since 1927. In 1930, Denver reported gains after ten years of experience with this schedule. Marked improvement in preparation for teaching has resulted from the impetus of the single-salary schedule as shown in the reports of other cities having such a schedule. Such reports together with the biennial surveys of the N. E. A. Research Division indicate that more and more public school systems are utilizing some type of the single-salary schedule. A salary schedule should result in the attraction of qualified teachers, in an incentive for professional growth, in retention of the best teachers in service, and in providing teachers with a socially adequate salary. Oakland’s experience would indicate that the single-salary schedule will have such an effect upon teachers if teachers are selected with extreme care, if thru in-service training a high standard of professional growth is held before teachers, if fairness is exhibited in the administration of the salary schedule, and if teachers are taken into the confidence of the superintendent and the board of education on matters affecting their salaries. The Oakland increment is an automatic increase over a period of nine years. By and large the Oakland teachers teach in an environment free from personal antagonisms and jealousies over salaries. Altho the salary factor is but one factor that contributes to the well-being and security of a teaching group, it is a fundamental one and cannot be relegated to second place. Tenure Hearing THE TENURE PROGRAM IN NEW YORK STATE ZORAIDA E. weeks, ASSISTANT EDITOR, New York State Education, ALBANY, N. Y. New York has achieved its present tenure program thru a process of evolution rather than revolution. We do not as yet possess statewide tenure. Tenure exists for two groups: (a) teachers, supervisors, and principals in General Sessions 139 cities, and (b) teachers, supervisors, and principals in villages of more than 4500, employing a superintendent of schools. The law providing tenure in the cities was passed in 1917. By the pro¬ visions of the law teachers, supervisors, and principals were to be appointed by the board of education on the recommendation of the superintendent of schools for a probationary period of from one to three years. Those teachers found at the end of the probationary period to be “com¬ petent, efficient, and satisfactory” were to become permanently employed “during good behavior and efficient and competent service, and shall not be removable except for cause after a hearing by the affirmative vote of a majority of the board.” In the event that charges were brought against a teacher, the aggrieved person might appeal to the commissioner of education or institute certiorari proceedings. The law of 1917 was the first step toward the civil service principle for teachers. In 1937 a new law was passed affecting teachers, supervisors, and principals in villages of more than 4500 employing a superintendent of schools. This law provides for a three-year probationary period. Any teacher employed continuously for three years preceding the passage of the law may be permanently appointed after one year by the board of education on the recommendation of the superintendent of schools. Service may be discontinued at any time within the probationary period by a majority vote of the board of education on the recommendation of the superintendent of schools. At the end of the period of probation a written report of the superin¬ tendent of schools recommends for permanent appointment those found “competent, efficient, and satisfactory.” They shall hold their respective positions “during good behavior and efficient and competent service, and shall not be removed except for any of the following causes: (a) insubordi¬ nation, immoral character, or conduct unbecoming a teacher ; (b) inefficiency, incompetency, physical or mental disability, or neglect of duty.” Charges may be preferred only during the interim between the actual opening and closing of the school year for which the teacher is employed. If no reply to the charges is made within the allotted time, the board of education may dismiss the teacher by a majority vote. This action is final. If the teacher desires a hearing, the board of education may subpoena witnesses. The hearing may be private or public at the discretion of the teacher. The teacher may appeal his case to the tenure commission but appeal must be made within ten days or the board’s decision is final. The tenure commission, composed of five members with a five-year term, is appointed as follows: two by the governor, one by the commissioner of education, one by the New York State Teachers Association, and one by the New York State School Boards Association. The law of 1937 is now going into effect in some communities. How the tenure commission will function remains to be seen. The problem of tenure is not solved. Teachers in the smaller villages and in the rural areas are without its protection. The crux of the problem 140 National Education Association in these areas is that of administration. Who shall be the recommending officer — the school trustee or the district superintendent? It is hoped that as centralization of schools progresses, larger units of administration will provide the machinery essential for the effective operation of tenure. THE TENURE SITUATION IN PENNSYLVANIA ARTHUR W. FERGUSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, YORK, PA. In the interval between the adjournment of the 1937 session of the legislature and the next regular meeting of the legislature in 1939 the cause of tenure was constantly in review before the citizenry of Pennsylvania. There were numerous court cases with resulting publicity. The Pennsyl¬ vania School Directors Association, revitalized by reorganization and the emplojunent of a full-time executive secretary, trained its guns on certain provisions of the act. The school directors organization centered objections on the following: (a) the lack of a probationary period; (b) the protec¬ tion of married women teachers; (c) reduction made in the size of a teaching staff, suspension based on seniority alone; (d) the lack of definition of the term “incompetency,” one of the causes for dismissal; and (e) the method of appeal, which was directly to the county courts. A bill sponsored by the Pennsylvania School Directors Association was introduced early in the legislative session of 1939. Known as senate bill 45, this measure was stoutly fought by the Pennsylvania State Education Asso¬ ciation and other teacher organizations, and its proponents were never able to move the bill out of committee for final action. Finally, four mem¬ bers of the Pennsylvania senate undertook to frame a tenure act that was neither “a school director’s bill nor a teacher’s bill.” These four senators invited representatives of the various teachers organizations to a conference for the purpose of discussing the features of the new proposal. A number of changes were effected in the new bill as a result of this conference. Probationary teachers are styled temporary professional employees and they are eligible to all the rights and privileges held by permanent employees, except tenure rights. Under the new act probationary teachers are to be rated at least twice each year and if the final rating at the end of the two years is “satisfactory” the teacher will then be tendered a tenure contract. No probationary teacher may be dropped by a schoolboard unless rated “unsatisfactory” by his superintendent. The new Pennsylvania law provides that all teachers are to be rated and when it becomes necessary to make suspensions because of a decrease in the staff the teachers with the lowest ratings are the ones to be dropped. The rating feature is found in the law in still another connection. To meet the objection that the term “incompetency” was being interpreted in many different ways no Pennsylvania teacher may now be dropped for this cause unless rated “unsatisfactory.” The law provided that a standard rating General Sessions 141 card for statewide use should be prepared by a representative committee of educators, school directors, and others interested in public education under the direction of the department of public instruction. Appeal from the decision of the schoolboard in a tenure case will now be made to the superintendent of public instruction instead of to the county courts as provided in the act of 1937. Teachers may appeal from the de¬ cision of the superintendent of public instruction to the county court where the procedure may be de novo. PROBLEMS IN CALIFORNIA RALPH EVERETT, SACRAMENTO JUNIOR COLLEGE, SACRAMENTO, CALIF. What are our problems? The operation of our law is the basis of most criticism. The great problem within the ranks of the teachers has been to find a plan by which teachers once under tenure could be removed when they became objectionable to their community. There are always a few teachers who become obnoxious; at least we find it so in this state. What is to be done in these cases? The provisions of the law are that a permanent teacher can only be removed for a cause. These causes are: “immoral or unprofessional conduct, aiding or advocating criminal syndicalism, dishonesty, incompetency, evident unfitness for service, physical or mental condition unfitting him to instruct and/or associate with children, persistent violation of or refusal to obey the school law of California, or reasonable regulations prescribed for the government of the public schools by the state board of education, or prescribed by the governing board of the school district, or conviction of a felony or any crime involving moral turpitude.” Under the law of 1921, if the teacher demanded a public hearing by the board, that must be held. The teacher could have counsel and cross-examine witnesses. If dismissed by the board the case could then be taken to the courts and tried de novo. Some dozen cases were thus tried in the state, the teacher winning in about half of them. Needless to say, boards and administrators objected strenuously to this procedure. They claimed that they were on trial, not the teacher ; and in several instances it seemed to be the case. The bugaboo of the incompetent teacher who is ensconced on the school payroll until sixty-five years of age has given rise to other problems. Figures show that we do not have trouble with more than one case of incompetence in two thousand teachers in any one year. But the fear of this one has been used as an excuse by some boards to refuse to grant tenure, discharging all teachers at the end of three years. Also, there is the case of the teachers in the small schools. The problem is really this : How can we get a tenure law that will convince the people of California that it is safe for the school system? How can we remove unsatisfactory teachers without again making our system the football of political favoritism? How can we give to our teachers freedom of action and protection against administrative tyranny without enabling a few of them to so irritate the community that the whole system becomes unpopular? 142 National Education Association The teachers of the state feel that to leave it only to the local board would not he satisfactory, as a dictatorial administrator who had the confidence of the board could make life quite unbearable by reporting adversely against any leader whom he wished to get rid of. An attempt was made in 1936 by one group of teachers to set up a rather elaborate plan for a state tenure board to hear all cases. Most of the teachers felt the scheme was unworkable and the initiative was voted down by a large majority. Both teachers and trustees are seeking for a plan satisfactory to all concerned. The problem of the small school, especially the one-, two-, and three- teacher school, seems insuperable so long as the latter exist as autonomous units. Of the teachers who are willing to spend their lives teaching in this type of school, a relatively large proportion would he unsatisfactory as per¬ manent instructors in any one school. A possible solution would lie in larger units of administration, for instance county units. Rural Californians are not as yet prepared for anything so drastic as this. In general, our situation is satisfactory. Teachers, like other citizens, should find that their employment permits them safely to acquire their own homes and cooperate in the upbuilding of the community. They should not be regarded as itinerant laborers hut as responsible members of their locality. THE TENURE PROBLEMS THAT IDAHO FACES R. H. SNYDER, PRESIDENT, ALBION STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, ALBION, IDAHO There are 4518 teachers employed in the public elementary and high schools of Idaho. Add to these about 320 instructors in the four institutions of higher learning and we have 4838 as the total number of teachers in the state. The public schools of Idaho operate under the district system. School districts are of four kinds — common, independent, rural high, and independent class a. There are 1076 common school districts, with three trustees each; 103 independent and 34 rural high-school districts, with 5 trustees for each. Thirty-three of the larger cities are organized under in¬ dependent class a districts, each governed by 6 trustees. Under this organ¬ ization there are a large number of school trustees, 4248 in all, nearly as many as the total number of teachers in the respective districts. All school trustees are elected from the districts, at large, for three-year terms. L nder the Idaho law the trustees are in complete charge of the schools under their jurisdiction. The board of trustees hires and dismisses teachers, fixes salaries, and directs the work of instruction. Only in the larger centers, independent class A and the larger independent districts, do the trustees delegate the authority of hiring and directing the work of teachers. In Idaho the county superintendent has very little authority over the hiring and discharging of teachers. He does exercise considerable influence in many counties in this respect. But the real authority lies with the local General Sessions 143 board. This limitation of authority is a real handicap to professional prog¬ ress in the state. The turnover of teachers in Idaho stands at an average of 15 percent annually. The average life of a teacher is seven years. This means approximately 600 new teachers in the profession every year. Idaho has no tenure law of any kind. Teachers are hired annually, gen¬ erally in April or May, by action of the local board of trustees. The only contract plan in the public schools exists in the case of the superintendent of independent class A districts who may be hired, under contract for a term of three years. In the institutions of higher learning, the university and normal school instructors are hired without contract, but placed on permanent tenure, unless dismissed for cause by the state board of educa¬ tion. The state board has absolute power of dismissal in any case. There is little interest in problems of tenure among members of the pro¬ fession. This lack of interest seems to be due to the presence of more urgent problems of equalization, finance certification, salary schedules, and retire¬ ment that confront teachers. Many educators advance the argument that until a retirement law is enacted, tenure legislation would be of little value. It is perhaps a debatable question. Objections raised against tenure and permanent contracts are many. Local boards of education take a vigorous stand on the theory that they should be permitted to hire wThom they wish and dismiss at will. It is claimed by some people that the local school district is the last stand of real western democracy. The argument is advanced that there is no need for tenure in Idaho for the reason that politics and religion do not enter into the hiring of teachers. This is perhaps true. Rare is the case when the change of “politics” can be applied to the dismissal of a teacher in Idaho. There seems to be no prospects for tenure legislation in Idaho in the immediate future. The Idaho Education Association and the leaders of the profession are concerned with more urgent problems of finance, certification, and administration. THE STATUS OF TENURE IN CONNECTICUT F. E. HARRINGTON, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, CONNECTICUT STATE TEACH¬ ERS ASSOCIATION, HARTFORD, CONN. Connecticut has no statewide tenure for teachers. Only two cities have local provisions, namely, New Haven and Waterbury. In the former city the tenure law is of long standing and has held up well under various court actions. The Waterbury tenure provision is of recent origin, having been passed by the last session of the Connecticut legislature. The demand for teacher tenure in Connecticut did not become acute until certain injustices arose from the economic conditions of the depression. For the past four years tenure committees have been set up by the state organi¬ zation and have labored long and faithfully to produce some kind of ade¬ quate measure. The first such committee proceeded on an entirely scientific basis and laid the groundwork thru research for the bases for tenure de- 144 National Education Association mands. The result of its efforts was a long, complicated bill which was withdrawn from the 1937 session of the Connecticut legislature at the teachers’ request. A succeeding committee attempted to revise the original bill to overcome objections raised by different teacher groups. The result was a compromise proposal still further modified by the action of the association’s assembly. Our Representative Assembly tied the hands of the Legislative Committee by withholding any power to modify or change the specific provisions as circumstances developed. The Legislative Committee, therefore, found itself in no position to accept compromises and revisions that were sug¬ gested by legislators and others. The failure of the measure to pass was not a failure of the legislature to heed the teachers. The failure was directly traceable to the action of our own group itself, first, in presenting a complex bill ; and, second, in allowing the committee in charge of the legislation no latitude of judgment. As a result of our experience of the last four years it would seem that the best type of tenure legislation that could be proposed in our state would be a short, simple measure worded something like this: namely, that boards of education of the town or school district shall have the authority to hire such teachers as may be necessary, and teachers so employed are under contract which can be terminated only by action of the schoolboard for cause. Such simple legislation would remove all debate among teacher groups as to what should be specified as causes. Likewise, it would set up the contractual relationship of the teacher with the town and would leave to the proper courts the determination as to what are just causes for teacher dismissals. An example of the ease with which such simple legislation can be passed is seen in Waterbury. The Waterbury Teachers Association presented just such a bill to the 1939 General Assembly of Connecticut, and the bill passed with almost no discussion. We are facing in Connecticut another problem which will complicate the tenure situation. Since it is a matter which may soon arise in other states, it is worthy of comment. I refer to the growing interest in civil service under a merit plan. An enabling act has been set up in Connecticut as applied to state positions, and various branches of the Connecticut Merit System Asso¬ ciation are actively urging the enactment of local civil service measures and would include the teacher groups under the provisions of such local acts. In the legislative session just completed the state teachers association was obliged to appear in opposition to as many as a dozen such local measures. Our arguments were apparently considered valid by the legislative com¬ mittees hearing these proposed measures but were not passed. W e could not continue to be successful in future legislatures, however, by appearing always on the defensive. We have the task in our state, therefore, of seeing that our teachers understand civil service provisions and recognize in specific teacher civil service enactments in the localities the best recognition of merit which perhaps can be devised. Civil service and tenure have a definite tie-up and General Sessions 145 any future attempts at securing tenure legislation must recognize the corre¬ lation between the two. We have asked that the Committee on Resolutions of the National Educa¬ tion Association present in its recommended resolutions that some atten¬ tion be given to this extension of civil service interest thruout the country, so that teachers everywhere may be in the unclassified section and that civil service provisions applied to teachers shall be written by school persons and administered by the recognized school authorities, namely, the boards of education of the towns employing such teachers. • Retirement WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD TEACHER RETIREMENT LAW? DAISY BROWN, SUPERVISOR OF FIELD AND RESEARCH SERVICE, MINNESOTA STATE TEACHERS RETIREMENT FUND, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. In working out a plan for a retirement fund which has definite benefits and whose perpetuity is certain, it must be built on sound business prin¬ ciples. There should be contributions by prospective annuitants during their earning years and equal amounts from the state. In working out such a plan, some idea of the needs of the group affected must be known. In a recent study of the various retirement funds in the states of Wisconsin and Minnesota, Arthur G. Hoff of LaCrosse Teachers College found that “the amounts of assets acquired by teachers (in this study) thruout a lifetime of teaching was relatively small, on the average amounting to less than the value of a modest home. The median amount of assets was $5500 for the men and $3450 for the women.” This likely is typical of other states, and in itself is good cause for a reasonably adequate annuity, running from one-half to two- thirds of the active salary with maximum limitations. In order to make this aim as certain as possible, several familiar pro¬ visions should be in effect when a new law is enacted : 1. There should be mutual understanding between the state and the teacher. 2. Membership should be compulsory for teachers entering the service after a certain age, twenty-five years, for example, and optional for those already em¬ ployed. 3. Individual accounts for members should be kept. 4. Refundments with interest should be available when teachers cease to teach and are not qualified for retirement. 5. Teachers savings should be nonassignable. 6. Borrowing on savings should be discouraged, if not prohibited. 7. There should be a disability clause, with disability interpreted to mean school disability. 8. Credit should be given for past service. Teacher retirement annuities should be as nearly adequate to the needs of the recipient as possible. Definite and adequate support must be 146 National Education Association written into the law from both teacher and state. What that sum shall be depends upon local retirement conditions. Good retirement practice indicates that teachers’ contributions should not be less than 5 percent of the active salary in regular pajnnents with reasonable limitations as to the minimum and maximum amounts to be paid. It seems immaterial whether the state meets its obligations by immediate matching of teachers’ payments as in the so-called actuarially reserve system, or by positive legis¬ lation which sets up an amount to match the annuity purchased by the teacher’s savings as in the cash disbursement system. The administration of a good retirement fund should be in the hands of a board of trustees whose personnel is -carefully prescribed by law. This board should represent both the public and the teachers. All invest¬ ments should be duly authorized ; legal investments and all securities should be deposited with proper state authorities. In all actions brought by or against the retirement board, it should be represented by the proper state authorities. The final mark by which a sound retirement law may be known is good¬ will on the part of teachers, administrators, and state. Goodwill is nothing more than the crystallized wisdom over a period of years of all groups affected by retirement. The hope behind all teacher retirement laws is to provide an adequate and sound annuity for all the teachers of all the states in the Union so that our teachers, too, may look forward to a journey over the hill to security when teaching days are over. The struggle for such retirement laws in every state is not yet over. The significant thing is that it has started. WHAT PART SHOULD TEACHERS TAKE IN A CAMPAIGN FOR RETIREMENT LEGISLATION? MRS. ESTELLE POPE HAYES, PRESIDENT, DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS, NEW MEXICO EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, CARLSBAD, N. MEX. The retirement of school teachers is an issue of primary importance at the present time. This issue has been before the American public for more than a quarter of a century, and no doubt at this time has received re¬ newed emphasis by the discrimination of the Social Security Act. Tenure, the legal forerunner of retirement, grants the right of protec¬ tion, after a period of probation, to teachers against dismissal for political, religious, personal, or other unjust reason. Protection for the present does not meet all the needs. A retirement system is not class legislation. There is evidence to confirm that a servant of public education is entitled to a reasonable degree of security thru legal tenure and retirement. What part shall teachers take in a campaign for retirement legislation ? Many will decry any political activity on the part of the teacher; how¬ ever, the teachers of America are in the battle, holding the front-line trenches, courageous, red-blooded American citizens and taxpayers, quali- General Sessions 147 fie d by professional training for leadership in a campaign for educational legislation. The teacher must become politically conscious and actively aware of the great responsibility in planning and executing a retirement system to improve the schools in this democracy by helping aged or dis¬ abled teachers to retire from active service with an assured income for life. None would have teachers play the role of a “ward politician,” but all would have the teacher exercise his full right as an American citizen. Since the schools of America were organized and financed thru the public system by state legislatures, it makes it mandatory that the teachers ap¬ proach the retirement system thru the state legislature. This approach thru teacher organization can function thru local, state, and national teachers organizations. Local organizations occupy a strategic position in that they command a much closer contact to a larger number and from the local organizations resolutions may be presented to state and national organi¬ zations. The local and state organizations should take advantage of the publicity, aids, and professional support afforded by the national organiza¬ tion in the campaign for retirement. WHAT IS THE TEACHER’S RESPONSIBILITY IN A RETIREMENT SYSTEM? MRS. PAULINE MERCHANT, TEACHER, GARDEN GROVE, CALIF. Teacher retirement legislation is still in an early stage of development. About one-half the states and about 35 percent of teachers do not have retirement plans. It is generally believed that the state is the best agency for providing retirement for teachers because it offers opportunity for teacher exchanges between districts and cities without loss of retirement benefits and enables more efficient and economical administration of the system. The chief weakness in pension legislation is that the mass of teachers know little about pensions and care less until they have been in the pro¬ fession many years and are either in poor health or are nearing retirement age. There should be, in every school, publicity campaigns, to make clear to every teacher what the system may do for him. In order to insure passage of retirement the sponsoring group, which may be a teachers association or any group friendly to teachers, should prepare reports for the legislators giving complete plans and cost of the proposal. If there is legislative delay, the sponsoring group should re¬ examine the measure and make sure it has not suffered by amendments and that it is sound. The real justification for sound retirement lies in the fact that schools can give the public more and better teaching service for the money ex¬ pended for education and result in an actual saving of the cost of education and thus reduce taxes when sound retirement provisions exist. In discussing retirement it should be proved that the retirement plan 148 National Education Association is a staff pension plan designated to promote economy and efficiency of service, and not an old-age pension plan designed to remove poverty in old age. Educationally, there is great need to attract and retain and advance able people in teaching as a permanent career. A sound, adequate retirement law tends to attract capable young people into teaching because (a) it com¬ pensates, in a measure, for the lower remuneration that teaching offers during active service, and (b) it dignifies the profession by keeping its ranks free of those who are incapacitated by age or disability. If a retirement system does exist, the teacher should use his influence to defend and preserve it. There should be teacher members on every retirement board. There should be in every state a committee to study and watch pension legislation and keep before the group representatives the benefits which accrue from teachers pensions. Periodic actuarial investigation should be made of every retirement sys¬ tem to insure members of its financial soundness. Any pension plan to be successful must be actuarially sound. WHAT IS THE STATE’S RESPONSIBILITY IN A RETIRE¬ MENT SYSTEM? WALTER T. HELMS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, RICHMOND, CALIF. We cannot disregard the fact that the topic of retirement is a very pertinent problem before the country today. Our problem is teacher re¬ tirement. Cities do retire policemen and firemen on half pay after thirty years of service, whereas teachers and administrators are usually retired at a rate bearing no relation to the amount being earned at the time of retirement and much below the 50 percent rate. If, as has been so often argued, the retirement salary is a deferred pay¬ ment of a salary earned by the teacher, then it would seem only reasonable to pay the teacher his full salary with a requirement that a percentage of it shall be invested in an annuity in a recognized insurance company which the government would select and even guarantee the deposits as it does bank deposits. The other point of view is that a retirement system is a thoroly business¬ like arrangement by which the state invests in its teachers, helps them to save their own money, cares for it, and gives it to those who have earned it after they should no longer be earning. This may be paternalism, but experience shows that the average teacher either cannot or does not pro¬ vide for the retirement period. This often compels them to remain in service when they are no longer capable of rendering efficient service to children. Another argument is that when the state gives the teacher security of position thru tenure, it should also provide for retirement. The very nature of the work of the teacher in its relation to the state is such that the state is fully justified not only in controlling the life of the teacher but also in saying who may enter the profession, when, and how long he may continue in service. General Sessions 149 With poor conditions prevailing in many sections of our country and with the future of American democracy depending upon teaching and education, it behooves the state to better these conditions. But how can the state control the type of people who shall train its citizens? First, the standard of teaching can only be raised by requiring proper training. There should be for elementary teachers at least four years of training beyond the high school. These teacher-training institutions should make careful selection of entrants. Elimination should take place during the training period of those who should not be certificated. Some of the inducements that will keep well-trained teachers in the profession are the regard in which they are held by the public, the influ¬ ence of associates in the profession, the opportunity offered for professional growth and advancement, the opportunity to save and provide insurance, the opportunity to establish a home, and the hope of retirement with suitable compensation. All these are factors that the state can control thru salaries. The state also must retain the power to terminate the services of its agents. But the state has the right to have and should have a retire¬ ment period because of physical condition or of age. The state should also provide for voluntary retirement after a period of years. The teaching profession, according to statistics, is a poorly paid one. Except in the larger cities, it provides but a meager living. To accumulate sufficient money to retire on is impossible. Certainly for such a class of public servants the state has a great responsibility to provide and con¬ tribute to a retirement system that will enable those who can no longer serve because of physical condition or age to retire on an annual retirement salary sufficient to care for them. Evaluation of Secondary Schools by the Methods of the Coopera¬ tive Study of Secondary School Standards FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF A LARGE HIGH SCHOOL GEORGE C. JENSEN, PRINCIPAL, SACRAMENTO SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL, SACRAMENTO, CALIF. In viewing the advantages of the cooperative study from the stand¬ point of a large high school, I do not know whether these advantages differ from those derived by smaller contributing institutions. That the benefits were direct there can be no doubt. Educational philosophy — Few large high schools, or schools of any size for that matter, tarry long enough to definitely set up philosophies or guiding lines. And yet, the functions of the schools are far too acci¬ dental. The cooperative study caused the large school, at least, to seek out and develop its philosophy. From every possible angle the guiding principles of the school were unearthed and brought to light. Where none existed that fact was disclosed. The stating of the school’s philosophy was itself a cooperative job 150 National Education Association and hence had great educational value for the personnel of the institu¬ tion. The school and its faculty was not, of course, entirely aware of its philosophy, but nothing like as thoro a survey of the school’s purposes had ever before been made. Now that the program has been thoroly initiated continual growth in philosophy and in guiding principles is certain. Personnel — The study caused the school to make a thoro survey of its personnel. While we had been aware of most of the facts involved our knowledge was not thoro. The study disclosed facts which have since proved most useful when adding new members to the staff and in setting up new school functions. We became conscious of the strengths and weak¬ nesses of our personnel. That placed the school in a position of advantage. We had acquired a standard which could be used. Physical plant — In the same sense we acquired a standard which could be used for measuring the efficiency of the school plant. The scheme used it from all angles as an educational institution. The study not only offered the initial occasion for plant analysis, but also permitted a stand¬ ard to be set up which may prove most effective in the future building of school plants. The curriculum — A most careful examination was made as to what actually happened to the pupil under the operative philosophy and func¬ tions of the institution. Here again, as in all other instances, all factors were isolated and the school measured against each. Strengths and weak¬ nesses, as adjudged by national standards, were disclosed. This will enable the school consciously to make needed changes. The study also served to advise us that in many instances we are abreast of the times. Other measurements — There were many other phases of the study which have proved of help to the large school. Under careful analysis there was spread out before us vital matters as student programs, coun¬ seling, library service, extracurriculum activities, the business operations of the school, the budget, and community relationships. To have all of these studied with relation to what probably should happen was most useful and instructive. To have definite measuring rods with which to find one’s school level was encouraging, enlightening, embarrassing, but always constructive and useful. FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF A CLASSROOM TEACHER A. E. SOUTHWORTH, DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT, CARPINTERIA UNION HIGH SCHOOL, CARPINTERIA, CALIF. Carpinteria Union High School has an average daily attendance of about two hundred students. The average economic situation for each individual student and family is high as compared with other high-school districts in California. Here we find an atmosphere of friendliness on the part of students and staff, and cooperation between staff members General Sessions 151 and between staff and administrators in the planning and operation of the educational program, the low pupil-teacher ratio (there being fifteen full-time teachers and eight or ten interns), the support of the school program by the school patrons, and the relatively high percent of the graduates who enter college. This year 72 percent of the graduating class plan to enter college or university while several more will enter trade schools. A new factor the last three months is that the sum of $5000 a year has become available thru private beneficence for scholar¬ ships for our graduates. This means that with the beginning of the school year 1942, $20,000 will become the annual expenditure for this purpose. What have been teacher reactions to the process of evaluation as set up and administered under the Cooperative Study of Secondary School Standards? First, while there was a definite effort to secure a cross section of opinion of the staff as to such things as philosophy, purposes, and objectives, some of the staff felt that their points of view were some¬ what ignored. Second, our teachers were not convinced that the standard tests given to the students at the beginning and end of the year of experi¬ mentation with the evaluative criteria constituted the very best measures of the things they purported to measure. A third broad indication pertains to the determination of pupil judg¬ ments on guidance, pupil activities, best and least liked features, and total experience. The pupils interviewed by the national committee con¬ stituted a highly selected group of pupils rather than a broad cross section of our pupil society. It was a conservative group, a group repre¬ senting the “have” segment of society rather than the “have not” segment. It was most disturbing to the vanity of some of us to discover that when asked which were the best teachers of the staff, these boys and girls named the conservative die-hards among our teachers rather than any of the liberals. I have puzzled over this until just recently. I now offer an answer: These boys and girls did not answer the given question thus because they were primarily of the conservative element of society but because their experience with conservative teachers meant educational security. Fourth, our teachers have the feeling, perhaps not fully justified, that their own personalities, said by us to be the most important factors operating in our educational program, were not adequately appraised. Fifth, more adequate consideration of the effects of added teacher load resulting from the curriculum programs set up in some of the co¬ operating schools should have been given by the study. Let me suggest a few points of strength as noted by some of our teachers. The study represents a worthy change from the cold-blooded measurement of mastery of facts alone. Whoever, before, had heard of a nationwide attempt to measure, cooperatively, not only the place and influence of the traditional three R’s but also attitudes, beliefs, and 152 National Education Association appreciations, this cooperation involving administrators, teachers, pupils, parents, and experts from without the given local scene? A clearer definition of the relative values of various factors affecting the educational program has been made. For example, among the evalu¬ ative criteria applied by this study we find a recognition of the principle that not all things can be measured in objective terms, that there is a place in educational measurement for subjective estimates. FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF AN ACCREDITING ASSOCIATION M. P. MOE, SECRETARY, MONTANA EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, HELENA, MONT. What the study will do for the accrediting associations is still in the prophecy stage. Even if nothing further were done concerning the study, its endeavors to date have already been worth many times the money and energy expended. The nationwide stimulation has developed a new thinking concerning the purposes and possibilities of secondary education. It is my opinion that there will be continued effort bv all interested in secondary education to modify, adjust, and refine the findings wher¬ ever possible so as to make the study a still better instrument ; to stimulate schools to self-evaluation and self-improvement and to make it a better and more convenient instrument to measure the schools. It is my hope that this effort to improve the schools will be continually accompanied with the effort to improve the instruments that have been developed so that they will be able to meet the necessary changes taking place in secondary education. In order to make the greatest use of this study I suggest that we use care and common sense in introducing the use of the manual, the evalu¬ ative criteria, and the educational temperatures. We should not try to put this whole program into full force and effect at once. We should rather lay a solid foundation upon which our successors can continue to build. If we can introduce this whole program into our schools so as to be in full use in all secondary schools by 1945, we are probably laying plans that can be sanely carried out. In suggesting the following plan, it is natural that I should follow rather closely the one adopted by the Northwest Association. A. Recommended general policies: 1. Encourage all schools to use carefully and systematically the evaluative criteria for self-analysis and self-evaluation. 2. Encourage the use of the manual as a guide in studying one’s school. 3. Encourage the use of the educational temperatures as a chart from which the members of the faculty and the people of the community can readily see the position of their school with reference to established norms but especially to show growth and improvement, from time to time, on various items. 4. Require all new schools applying for membership to make self-evaluations using the evaluation criteria. This should be followed by an evaluation by a visiting committee. General Sessions 153 5. Require all schools to be completely evaluated under this plan by 1945. 6. Require re-evaluation of an accredited school whenever significant changes have taken place in a school, such as excessive teacher turnover or sudden change in administration, otherwise once every five years. 7. Require regular annual reports from all schools on forms devised to show growth and deterioration, but should not be more voluminous than the ones now used. B. Recommendations regarding evaluative procedures by committees: 1. Require each visiting committee to make a written report including recom¬ mendations to the school and to file a copy of this report with the state chairman in the state office. 2. Return to the school evaluated, a copy of the checks, evaluations, and comments by the visiting committee. Computations required in form “X” should be made by someone qualified to do so. 3. Each of the evaluating committees should include a member of the state com¬ mittee and in addition, from two to eight members, depending on the size of the school. 4. The possibility of using superintendents, high-school teachers, college instruc¬ tors, and specialists in state departments should be considered in forming committees. 5. All evaluative committees should be selected or at least approved by the state committee for the given state. 6. The visiting committee report to the state committee should include a summary of the computation forms and the written report with recommendations mentioned above. C. Implementing procedures: 1. Schools evaluated should meet the costs of visitations. Cooperation by boards, the faculty, and others is essential to success. 2. Competent personnel should be developed within each state for use on evalua¬ tive committees. This can be done thru leadership training schools in the field or during summer sessions at teacher-training institutions. 3. A committee should be appointed to analyze and summarize the annual reports of progress or improvement which may be required from member schools that have been evaluated. This might be done under the direction of the state committee. 4. State committees should probably be enlarged depending upon the amount of work to be done in a state. State committees might also delegate work to qualified individuals not on committees. 5. If technical computations have been performed by various committees it might be well to have them reviewed by a person who has had special training for this kind of work. The success of this entire program depends upon the cooperation of all concerned : the faculty, the administration, the community, the state departments of education, and the accrediting associations. FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF A STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION DONALD A. EMERSON, DIRECTOR OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SECONDARY EDUCATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, SALEM, ORE. State high-school supervisors see in the new criteria possibilities that far transcend the original purpose of formulating new and better criteria for the benefit of the various accrediting agencies. One of the most fund a- 154 National Education Association mental principles that has been recognized in the organization and ap¬ plication of the new criteria is that “a school can be studied satisfactorily and judged fairly only in terms of its own philosophy of education, its individually expressed purposes and objectives, the nature of the pupils with whom it has to deal, the needs of the community which it serves, and the nature of the American democracy of which it is a part.” The first step, the development of a philosophy and a statement of objectives, that must be taken by the principal and the members of his staff, has been found to be one of the most stimulating experiences in the entire evalu¬ ative program. In those stages where the state departments of education have under¬ taken to direct the evaluation of the high schools of their states by the methods of the cooperative study, they have found themselves confronted immediately with some difficult problems. The first problem is that of acquainting the high-school administrators of the state with the criteria and methods of use. To accomplish this in the state of Oregon there was held in the spring of 1938 a series of twelve group conferences, one day in length, with high-school principals in as many different sections of the state. The school in which the meeting was being held was used as a laboratory in which to demonstrate the methods of using the criteria. The selection of the members of the visiting committee, except for one representative from the state department of education, was left entirely in the hands of the principal or superintendent of the school to be eval¬ uated. Since the state department was not in a position to finance the work of the visiting committee, this responsibility was assumed also by the school to be evaluated. No visiting committee was composed of less than four members, and the evaluation of the largest school included on our list this year required the work of a committee of eight men for an entire week. The representative of the state department acted as chairman of the com¬ mittee in each case, and he was generally assisted by a representative from the department or school of education of one of the institutions of higher learning in the state. The other members of the committee were principals or superintendents selected by the head of the school that was evaluated. Certain dangers and limitations must be recognized. One of the chief dangers is that of undue concern about the rating that is given the school rather than an analysis of its strong and weak characteristics. The all- absorbing desire on the part of principals and teachers to know the final score and how their school compares with others is frequently blinding to the more important aspects of the evaluation. So much time on the part of the staff members in the self-evaluation and the members of the visiting committee is devoted to computations of scores and percentile ranks that the more significant findings may not be recorded. It is doubtful if the validity of the scores given a school by a visiting committee, regardless of the care and thoroness of the survey, can be defended more successfully than a grade of 70 or 98^2 percent given a pupil by his teacher. Another great danger that must be recognized by a visiting committee General Sessions 155 is that of evaluating a school in terms of its own philosophy instead of the philosophy by which the school is administered. Principals and super¬ intendents feel their own incompetence in attempting evaluations of these items in their schools in spite of their opportunities for observation thru the entire year, but members of a visiting committee whose opportunities for observation are limited to two or three days feel that their attempts to evaluate these items are practically futile. From the viewpoint of a state department of education the immensity of the task of directing the evaluation of all of the high schools in the state by the method of the cooperative study causes one to question the practicability of the plan. The staffs of most state departments would have to be substantially increased if a program of this kind were carried thru successfully. Merely measuring and recording scores will of itself be of little value unless the result of the evaluation is followed by a further checking on the correction of the defects discovered. In spite of the dangers and limitations in the use of these criteria, they provide means of stimulation and improvement that state departments can¬ not afford to neglect. Most of the dangers and limitations can be over¬ come. Before the evaluation of any school is undertaken, it should be made clear that the criteria will not be used as a basis of accreditation by the state and that the final score or percentile rating that the school will be given is relatively unimportant. The greater the participation of the mem¬ bers of the teaching staff itself in the evaluation, the more stimulating the results will be. A highly professional attitude on the part of the members of the visiting committee must be maintained at all times. It should be kept in mind by the principal and the teachers of the school that is being eval¬ uated that the final conclusions of the evaluating committee are only opinions as should be accepted as such. The evaluation should be looked upon as an analysis of the characteristics of the school rather than an inspection or a rating. MORNING ASSEMBLIES Thursday, July 6 Enlightened Public Support for Education as a Professional Responsibility ENLIGHTENED PUBLIC SUPPORT FOR EDUCATION AS A PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITY FREDERICK M. HUNTER, PAST PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION ; MEMBER, EDUCATIONAL POLICIES COMMISSION ; AND CHANCELLOR, OREGON STATE SYSTEM OF HIGHER EDUCATION, EUGENE, ORE. Clearly a new radiant importance has been given the job of the Amer¬ ican teacher by the present worldwide struggle between democracy and dictatorship. The dictators of the totalitarian states have not hesitated 156 National Education Association to commandeer the entire educational system for the purpose of making youth abject servants of authoritarianism. Education, science, and the dissemination of knowledge have all become the prostitutes of such pow¬ erful piffle as the doctrines of Ilyin’s primer and the Nazi handbook. Coercive propaganda has supplanted the quest for truth and the general culture of the good life. But the American teacher recognizes two kinds of indoctrination — the Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin variety, and that consisting of the evolu¬ tion of intellectual freedom thru democratic family and community habits, the indoctrination of self-government. America’s peculiar synthetic brand of democracy defines the American teacher’s main job. From the days when the Jutes and Angles landed in Britain, self-government has been precious among the English-speaking peoples of the world. The ideal inherited from those wild tribes has flourished and borne fruit ; it has become the practice of American life. So completely has American democracy become devoted to the con¬ ceptions of local self-government as our foundational, inherited trait, that even in these disturbing times sharp reversals of public opinion have occurred when any national event or movement has offered serious threat of too much authoritarianism. Thru all our stages of pioneering and peaceful conquest in our absorption of the great domain of these con¬ tinental United States this ideal has remained. It still limits and defines the job of America’s teachers. A major responsibility for all American teachers is an understanding common to all and related intimately to the American type of life. Only with such implementation can an effective indoctrination of American youth in behalf of democracy and against dictatorship be maintained. This task requires at the outset a clear-cut picture in the teacher’s mind of the variable boundary between free choice on the part of the individual and a natural impulse to understand and espouse democracy, as over and against a driving and coercive intolerance which allows no choice. Teacher and pupil alike must understand and study fully the opposing doctrines in order to compare what is naturally and instinctively the fruits of American democratic living with the spurious products of dic¬ tatorship and tyranny. A further responsibility concerns the adult citizenship of the present day. The teaching profession is not to be held accountable for a public attitude toward adult education as such, but rather for a permanent mind-set resistant to spurious solutions of the overwhelming avalanche of current economic and social issues. A democratic system cannot protect itself properly unless some agency of unique qualifications and strategic position concerns itself with the spread of public information in regard to education and its goals, together with an appraisal of the results it is now getting. The only such agency with specialized equipment, insight, and widespread organization at all adequate or adaptable for such a General Sessions 157 purpose is the teaching profession. Unless the teachers of America are willing to assume this as one of their jobs, there appears to be no immedi¬ ate possibility of a widespread understanding of the unique responsibility of education for the perpetuation of democratic society. Popular compre¬ hension of the American educational program is a matter of direct necessity. If an intelligent public opinion is to be always maintained regarding the relationship of education to democratic institutions, accurate facts and clear-cut analyses of educational issues and relationships must be instantly available and in easily comprehended popular form. For this work no organization save that of the professional organizations of teachers will suffice. The teaching profession must clarify public thought regarding the economic necessity of universal education. The research agencies of teachers organizations, and particularly the institutions established for the purpose of training teachers, must be responsible for an effective knowledge of the relationship between a prosperous state of democratic society and a widespread dissemination of a great body of knowledge made available by research. As an agency of the N.E.A., the Educational Policies Commission has undertaken an amplification and interpretation of the seven objectives of education. In two of its pronouncements, The Unique Function of Education in American Democracy and The Struc¬ ture and Administration of Education in American Democracy , the philosophy of our present national life is reviewed, clarified, and inter¬ preted, and its implementation in institutional structures is delimited and applied. In a third monograph, The Purposes of Education in American D emocracy, the teacher is pointed to the origins of American democratic idealism, the tenets of the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the concepts of the founding fathers. The purposes in terms of habits and practices for the useful and happy citizen are then elaborated under four captions: self-realization, human relationship, economic efficiency, and civic responsibility. The constituent elements of each of these large general aims aids us in forming mental pictures of the educated person. As to methods, the key to effective instruction and natural democratic indoctrination is a wisdom founded upon accurate knowledge of the human stuff with which education deals. Outlining an approach to such wisdom implies the recognition of certain principles well established by both research and experience: 1. Each child and youth is a separate problem. 2. Effective teaching requires as complete a knowledge of each as is humanly possible thru scientific tests, accurate records, familiarity with home and social back¬ grounds, and personal contacts. 3. A scientific approach to the immediate job will take into consideration ap¬ praisals of intelligence achievement quotients, canvass of attitudes, and special diagnoses. 4. In teaching, no judgment or adjustment of an individual case is ever final. 158 National Education Association SUPPORT OF EDUCATION: A PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITY AGNES SAMUELSON, PAST PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION; AND EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, IOWA STATE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, DES MOINES, IOWA A. What can the Educational Policies Commission and the teaching profession in general do to assist the members of our groups toward an enlightened understanding of the principal issues in the program of American education ? The answers appear to us to lie in the direction of greater implementation of present purposes and programs. Much is being done, if the publications and conferences of the Educational Policies Commission and the faithful work of the teaching profession are appraised. The suggestions here offered by no means exhaust the possibilities, but they may offer a starting point for the discussion. 1. Continue to define the issues — We are apt to get so crowded with the minutiae of our daily work that we hnd ourselves too busy to think thru the problems which appear to be rather remote. We are concerned but need to be constantly sensitized to the situation and made aware of the crucial issues and their implications. 2. Continue to publish pertinent literature and make it available at as nominal a cost as possible — This point needs hardly any elaboration. Such publications as the Educational Policies Commission should prove to be worthy successors to the Common School Journal of Horace M ann in carrying forward the same program in terms of today, strengthening the place of public education. Many brief articles for the state journals and other professional magazines are also in order. They reach thou¬ sands of teachers. They should be written in the style of modern editorials and not in the language of the technicians. 3. Continue to call conferences for the discussion of these issues and what to do about them — These conferences may be at any level — local, state, regional, and national. They may be called in conjunction with another group such as the state association and the National Congress of Parents and Teachers. They should be organized and carried out under the principles of the democracy they are called to conserve. 4. Continue to provide material for convention and conference exhibits and speakers for professional programs — In all these phases of implemen¬ tation, William G. Carr can no doubt offer many figures as to what has been done in sending out literature and in furnishing speakers. That adds up, too, but it should continue on a wider basis until every professional meeting of any consequence is reached. Request each state association to have an exhibit at its convention and a speaker to present the issues and to suggest things to be done. Do not forget to include the colleges and universities in these programs and exhibits. B. What can your group do thru your conventions, publications, and General Sessions 159 local units to help us place our recommendations before the American people ? Again the answers lie in augmenting what is already being done and extending the implementation to reach lay groups. The educational pro¬ fession should take leadership in placing definite recommendations before the American people. Before they can do that intelligently they must know what the issues are and how to meet them. 1. Continue to arouse the educational profession to the importance of taking leadership — The people have a right to look to us for leadership in the improvement of schools. We are close to the facts as we give our lifetime of service to the cause of education. The service motive is the driving power. We see the inevitable weakening of democracy if the schools lag. 2. Continue the implementation program to the end that proper recom¬ mendations may be placed before the American people — There are many ways to do this. Conferences held jointly with the National Congress of Parents and Teachers in every state are suggested. Materials such as used by the Rotary Clubs last year, “What are the marks of an educated man?” were typical of what can be done with the cooperation of many other groups looking for new programs. Speakers for conventions of farm and labor groups, service clubs, patriotic societies, women’s clubs, business and in¬ dustry, and other organizations would be acceptable. Such conferences as the Congress on Education for Democracy to be held at Columbia University this August point new ways to get the rela¬ tionship of democracy and education before leaders in our American life. Radio and press releases reach large numbers of people. The movies are another powerful instrument for spreading ideas. Use these great agencies which play enormous roles in the everyday life of our people. Do not overlook the neighborhood forums. ENLIGHTENED PUBLIC SUPPORT FOR EDUCATION AS A PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITY JESSE B. SEARS, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CALIF. The task of building a profession of education is not a simple one. The rapid turnover in membership, the depressing effect of the grinding demand for a costly preparation with only a modest financial return on the invest¬ ment, and the distance of our great social objectives from our immediate personal interests set many limitations within which we must work for a solution of this problem. Perhaps the greatest single difficulty lies in the fact that objectives of education, its processes, and its materials are in continuous process of change. Democracy is not a fixed state of society. It is not something to be taken upon short notice; it has to be achieved. Democracy, the basic goal of education, is difficult to understand. There is the further fact that we have not con- 160 National Education Association sciously connected the teaching of children with the attainment of democracy. In this fact there is a problem for the profession. It is difficult for our profession to gain public support for education: (a) because the task of finding and maintaining over a million workers of the kind required and among whom there is a heavy annual turnover, and of welding them together in terms of the cause they represent is a task of immense difficulty; (b) this difficulty is greatly increased because of the very nature of the ultimate goals of personality and democratic society and of the present inadequacy of our pedagogy for bringing our immediate and our ultimate goals into alignment. Some of the ways in which these diffi¬ culties express themselves are already apparent to us and nothing but lethargy, indifference, selfishness, and lack of leadership stand in the way of a solution. We have not learned, taught, or practiced tolerance and critical judgment in our profession as we should to attain our objectives. Democracy without critical judgment and tolerance is inconceivable. A real professional relations program carried on within our ranks is in my opinion an essential part of an answer. Another way in which these weaknesses appear is seen in the fact that the school is becoming isolated. It is not of and for the people as it needs to be in a democracy. We have urged efficiency in this efficiency age of ours until efficiency has become an end rather than a means. Education is not equally available to all in our democracy and it has become so technical that parents fear even to ask questions about it. This isolation is dangerous. If tolerance and critical thinking are to be made larger factors in our profession and if the schools are to be kept close to the people it will be because our profession exerts itself to these ends. It cannot be said that we are without leaders. The N.E.A., thru its many departments, together with the many other professional and scientific societies of educators, provides ample machinery thru which leadership may be exercised. As to having a program, also, there is no doubt. Even so, it remains a fact that our profession could be made more united and more aggressive if it would look forward as earnestly as it looks about itself and backwards. There is needed also a more vigorous program of public relations within the profession, a program that singles out problems in realistic fashion and that enlists the teachers of the country in a clearly conceived plan for their solution. Relationships with Central and South American Countries THE ROLE OF EDUCATION IN INTERNATIONAL CULTURAL RELATIONS BEN M. CHERRINGTON, CHIEF, DIVISION OF CULTURAL RELATIONS, DEPARTMENT OF STATE, WASHINGTON, D. C. The people of the Western Hemisphere always have had an intuitive sense of their community of interests, but only recently have they become General Sessions 161 acutely conscious of the relation of those common interests to their future well-being and independence. For several decades following the proclama¬ tion of the Monroe Doctrine in 1823 we were preoccupied with the development of our internal life. We remained for the most part aloof from the countries to the South of us, nevertheless the era was charac¬ terized by attitudes of goodwill and friendship. Then came a period in our history of which we are not in the least proud. Other expanding powers were aggressively reaching out for territory. For a time we too became expansionist. While vigorously pushing the exports of our goods to the other American countries we curtailed the export of their goods to us by an ever rising tariff wall. We fought Spain and secured the Philippines and possessions in the Caribbean. “Dollar diplomacy” led in¬ evitably to outright physical intervention in several countries of the Carib¬ bean area. What we regarded as a Big Brother policy to Latin Americans was a “Big Bully” policy. The friendly feeling toward the United States, characteristic of the earlier decades of the nineteenth century, changed to distrust and antagonism. By deeds as well as words we have sought to rectify the mistakes of previous years: the Platt Amendment that gave the United States the right of intervention in Cuba has been abrogated; our Marines have long since been withdrawn from occupied territory; treaties have been signed pledging this country not to interfere in the internal or external affairs of the other American republics and reciprocal trade agreements are releasing the flow of commerce between many American states and our¬ selves. A new era of confidence and cooperation is supplanting the sus¬ picions and hostilities of the past. What President Roosevelt happily designated as the Good Neighbor Policy is becoming the established policy of the Americas. From the free and frank discussion of the Lima Conference emerged the Declaration of Continental Solidarity, or the “Declaration of Lima” as it is called, denoting the unity of the peoples of the Western Hemisphere. It was acknowledged by all at Lima that it is not enough for govern¬ ments in their official relations to follow the Good Neighbor Policy, indispensable as that is ; it is necessary that the people themselves shall become good neighbors. The people of the Americas must know and un¬ derstand each other: their history, their outlook on life, their ideals and aspirations, their finest creations of mind and spirit ; these must be shared in common. On every hand in the United States is unmistakable evidence of the eager desire of our people for better knowledge and understanding of our neighbors to the South and in turn to be known and understood by them. Anyone who recently has visited the other American countries will testify as to their readiness to share their cultural and intellectual attainments with us. In the United States active and effective societies, clubs, and organizations promote cultural interchange and sympathetic understanding of the culture, history, and social institutions of other Nation ai. Education Association 1 02 peoples. Altho colleges and universities have taken an active part in the movement, they have been handicapped by the lack of an agency in our government to stimulate, coordinate, and facilitate their endeavors. To meet this need the Division of Cultural Relations has been created in the Department of State to have “general charge of official international activities of this Department with respect to cultural relations, embrac¬ ing the exchange of professors, teachers, and students; cooperation in the field of music, art, literature, and other intellectual and cultural attainments; the formulation and distribution of libraries of representa¬ tive works of the United States and suitable translations thereof; the preparations for the management of the participation by this govern¬ ment in international expositions in this field ; supervision of participation by this government in international radio broadcasts; encouragement of a closer relationship between unofficial organizations of this and of foreign governments engaged in cultural and intellectual activities; and, generally, the dissemination abroad of the representative intellectual and cultural works of the United States and the improvement and broad¬ ening of the scope of our cultural relations with other countries.” A primary function of the Division will be to serve as a clearing¬ house and coordinating agency for the activities of private agencies in the field of cultural relations. The efforts of the Division will have relation to nations in all parts of the world, but during the initial phase of its program, particular attention will be given to the other American republics. The Division is serving as a clearing center for activities of various departments and agencies of the federal government of an inter¬ national cultural or intellectual character. It will also aid in the impor¬ tant work of the Division of Intellectual Cooperation of the Pan-Amer¬ ican Union. In a democracy such as ours the initiative for cultural exchange resides with private agencies and institutions and the major function of the Division of Cultural Relations will be to make the good offices of government available to private enterprise. In doing this education inevitably plays a leading role. It is in order to suggest specific projects which educators will be especially interested in undertaking. The teach¬ ing of languages, quite logically, should be the first subject for con¬ sideration. Our schools can well give Spanish an important place in the program of studies, for we must remember that Spanish is one of the most vigorous of living tongues, worldwide in its diffusion, tremen¬ dously vital in its capacity to expand, and the instrument of expression of more than twenty growing nations. Spanish and Spanish-American thought, literature, and production contain a wealth of spiritual values which need to be tapped by the citizens of the United Sates. The teach¬ ing of the Portuguese language is a matter of the greatest importance and urgency. For reasons difficult to discover, the Portuguese language has never received adequate attention in this country. Brazil constitutes geographically half of South America and with its forty million people General Sessions 163 is one of the most vital nations of the new world. Its language, Portu¬ guese, is part and parcel of its cultural heritage. It is time that in the United States due recognition is given to the importance of the Portu¬ guese language, rich in literature, energetic, expressive, and resourceful in mechanism, the instrument of thought of a remarkable people. We in the United States are unacquainted with the literature of our southern neighbors; their history, biography, fiction, and poetry remain to be opened to us. As an immediately practical method of correcting the situation their literature might be utilized to a greater extent in the Spanish language courses of our high schools and colleges. It is equally true that our literature is little known in the other American republics and that the widespread distribution of our better works would meet with a ready wel¬ come in those countries. If books in English on the United States are scarce in their libraries, those which have been translated into Spanish or Portu¬ guese are even more rare. There is in fact no good one-volume history of the United States available in either language. It is encouraging to note that the American Library Association recently has received a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation for the promotion of library relations with the other American republics. Thru an office to be established in Washington, studies of books and library conditions will be directed, which will serve as a basis for increasing the exchange of publications and developing a larger degree of library cooperation. Another project in which many of our communities might participate would be to exchange their teachers of Spanish with teachers of English in some of the Spanish-speaking countries. Each teacher while abroad would instruct in his own language and lecture on the cultural life of his home¬ land. Educational and informative films, minimizing as they do the barrier of language differences, can be utilized as an agency for conveying under¬ standing and appreciation of the representative cultures of the American peoples. Educators certainly will find effective instruments for promoting under¬ standing in the fields of art and music. The art of the United States is known only too little outside this country while the artistic productions of other American nations reach the people of the United States to a very limited degree. It should be possible to route exhibits of significant art achievements of our neighboring countries thru our schools, colleges, and communities. Neither are we familiar with the music of the other Americas nor they with ours apart from modern dance music. Concerts by visiting musicians, the use of records of native folk music, visits by individual artists — such activities as these would contribute notably to international cultural understanding. Perhaps the most effective way to develop understanding and apprecia¬ tion of other peoples is to travel among them, and the excellent steamship and air services now available, combined with good hotel facilities and the warm hospitality that is assured in the other Americas, make a southern trip worthy of serious consideration for all citizens of goodwill. It is anticipated 164 National Education Association that summer schools will be established at convenient points in the Carib¬ bean and South American areas to which teachers and students from the United States may go for short courses. The radio undoubtedly will become increasingly important as an instrument for conveying understanding. The year 1940 will present a number of opportunities to focus the atten¬ tion of the entire American people upon inter-American relationships. It will mark the fiftieth anniversary of the Pan-American Union ; also the Fourth Centennial of the Explorations of Francisco Vasquez de Coronado in the area which now constitutes the southwestern portions of the United States. These events can be utilized in every American community as the occasion for a program designed to better acquaint our citizens with the culture of the other American countries. TRADE RELATIONSHIPS ELIOT G. MEARS, GRADUATE SCHOOL OF BUSINESS, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CALIF. The relations between the United States of America and the South American states are becoming more intimate. This is evident in every sphere of activity. Evidences of political contact have existed since the formulation of the Monroe Doctrine, while the Good Neighbor Policy and various inter-American conferences, of which the last was the one at Lima, are concrete manifestations. In 1823 our stand was in actuality against the Holy Alliance of Europe, while at the present time the pressure is directed largely against two aggressive European states plus the Asiatic Empire of Japan. * Cultural relations between the Americas have been meager and weak. Little attempt has been made to inculcate our ideas and ideals south of Panama. Other powers, notably Germany, Italy, and Japan, have seized upon this void to spread intensive propaganda programs. The radio, to less extent the press, the diplomatic and semidiplomatic missions, and cultural lectures usually in Spanish or Portuguese by prominent educators, are im¬ portant agencies. America and Great Britain are now making significant efforts to meet these new manifestations of political and cultural influences by similar means. An important step in this direction was the creation last year of the Division of Cultural Relations in our Department of State. The economic relations between the Americas are matters of pressing importance. They are in a marked condition of change. Other countries have been quick to appreciate the advantages of mutual trading with the countries of South America, which are notable for their distinctive raw materials and foodstuffs. Since the most aggressive nations in the world are predomi¬ nantly the industrial powers, it is logical for them to look there for markets as well as for sources of needed industrial materials. Of all countries, Ger¬ many is proving the most aggressive and the most formidable. Her barter and control methods of trading give her a type of resiliency in dealing with individual countries which democratic nations find it difficult to meet on a General Sessions 165 satisfactory basis. Our national government as well as individual American firms are well informed regarding current developments. The problem is mainly determining the precise nature of desirable tactics of an economic character which should be followed. Naturally, the predominantly non-eco- nomic factors cannot be disregarded in the pursuit of ways and means to deal with varied trade problems. During the past three years, Germany has made great commercial ad¬ vantages in South America, chiefly at the expense of Great Britain. The United States continues to hold first place in the trade of most of the Ameri¬ can republics. It is apparent that we have no intention of surrendering easily the trade position which we have gained by our own individual efforts in the republics of Mexico, Central America, and South America. THE USE OF MOTION PICTURES IN FORMING ATTITUDES OF CHILDREN MARK A. MAY, DIRECTOR, INSTITUTE OF HUMAN RELATIONS, YALE UNIVERSITY, NEW HAVEN, CONN. The most noteworthy attempt to measure the effect of special films on special attitudes was made a few years ago by Thurstone of the University of Chicago. He constructed a series of scales or instruments for measuring attitudes toward race, war, crime, gambling, prohibition, and capital punish¬ ment. He selected certain theatrical feature pictures which were supposed to be related to one or more of these attitudes as, for example, war. The attitude test on war would then be administered to a group of high-school children before they saw the picture and again after they saw it. The differ¬ ence between their scores on these two occasions presumably reflected the influence of the picture on that attitude. Studies on attitudes toward gambling, war, and crime showed measur¬ able changes, but the films selected on prohibition and capital punishment did not produce measurable changes. In all cases, however, where marked changes took place they w^ere permanent for periods of ten weeks to nine¬ teen months. These studies indicate that some theatrical feature pictures will produce measurable changes in attitudes of high-school children and some will not. Thurstone and his associates constructed a scale to measure attitudes toward the movies themselves. They did not, however, attempt to use the scale to measure the influence of a movie on the attitudes toward movies in general. This question is an important one and relevant to our subject on account of the possible influence of theatrical motion pictures on the attitudes of high-school students toward their schoolwork, especially high-school English. It is commonly believed among teachers of high-school English that the motion picture versions of the great classics such as “David Copper- field,” “Tale of Two Cities,” and the plays of Shakespeare have helped to 166 National Education Association make courses in high-school English more attractive. There is ample evidence that the appearance of “David Copperfield” on the screen greatly increased the demand for library copies of the book. Many teachers of high-school English have testified that they have noted marked differences in the atti¬ tudes of their pupils toward a particular classic when a film version of it appears in the local theaters. The chief concern of the school, however, is with the possible or probable influence of classroom instructional films on the attitudes of pupils. Theat¬ rical feature pictures are not now available for exhibition in schools. There are a few experimental studies that indicate that a certain type of classroom film motivates pupils to do more reading, to write more- essays, to make more field trips, or to engage in other activities that afford additional knowledge about the subject portrayed in the film. Knowlton and Tilton in an investigation on the various educational values of the Yale Chronicles of America report that pupils in classes in which these films were used for the teaching of history did a greater amount of volunteer reading both in and out of class. The films also stimulated more participation in recitation and discussion. In an experiment on the influence of certain pictures on health education, Freeman and Hofer found that the children who saw the films tended to engage in more activities such as bringing in newspaper clippings, still pictures, and other materials on the topics portrayed by the film. They failed to find any measurable difference between the amount of volunteer reading outside of class between those who saw the films and those who did not. This, however, may be attributed to the fact that reading materials outside of the class were not available. Efforts have been made to collect and summarize judgments of teachers who have used films in connection with geography, science, history, and other school subjects on the extent to which children are motivated in their schoolwork. There seems to be unanimous agreement among teachers that one of the most important influences of classroom films is that they tend to make schoolwork more interesting and attractive. Some of the most recent and most promising experimental work that has been done on the influence of classroom pictures on the attitudes of school children are the projects by the Progressive Education Association and the American Council on Education. j^ife Membership ^Dinner HISTORICAL NOTE As early as 1863 the regulations of the Association provided that a per¬ son eligible to become an active member might also become a Life Member by paying an additional fee. However, comparatively few took advantage of the privilege until 1926. In 1884 and again in 1921 special efforts were made to increase the number of Life Members but with little success. Prior to 1926 there were less than two hundred Life Members. At the Philadelphia convention in 1926 the officers of the Association approved Secretary Crabtree’s recommendation to permit the payment of the Life Membership fee on the instalment plan, ten annual payments of ten dollars each, with the understanding that these payments would go directly into the Permanent Fund, a lasting contribution to the work of the Association. This put Life Membership within the reach of the aver¬ age teacher’s budget and Life Membership in the Association became at once a democratic and popular professional possession. During 1938-39, 191 Life Memberships were added. The custom of holding a Life Membership Dinner on Monday evening of the annual convention was inaugurated at Atlanta, Georgia, in 1929, and has been continued each year with growing interest and enthusiasm. The following have presided on these occasions: 1929 Atlanta, Georgia, Ucl W. Lamkin 1930 Columbus, Ohio, E. Ruth Pyrtle 1931 Los Angeles, California, Carroll G. Pearse 1932 Atlantic City, New Jersey, Thomas E. Finegan 1933 Chicago, Illinois, Rose A. Pcsta 1934 Washington, D. C., Frank W. Ballou 1935 Denver, Colorado, Willis A. Sutton 1936 Portland, Oregon, C. A. Hozvard 1937 Detroit, Michigan, Edgar G. Doudna 1938 Nezv York City, Willard E. Givens 1939 San Francisco, California, Frederick M. Hunter [168] ELEVENTH ANNUAL LIFE MEMBERSHIP DINNER The eleventh N.E.A. Life Membership Dinner was held in the Gold Ballroom of the Palace Hotel, San Francisco, California, Monday eve¬ ning, July 3, 1939. There were three hundred and forty-five Life Members and their friends present. Frederick Maurice Hunter, past president of the Association and chan¬ cellor, Oregon State System of Higher Education, served as toastmaster. The music for the occasion was furnished by Helen Berta, a teacher in the San Francisco schools. Among the special guests of honor present were Ellwood P. Cubberley, dean emeritus, school of education, Stanford University, and Mrs. Anna Kalfus Spero of Berkeley, California, wdio has the distinction of being a member of the Association for sixty-two )ears, a national record. This dinner was dedicated to the founding of the first public teacher¬ training institution in the United States at Lexington, Massachusetts, July 3, 1839. The address of the evening was given by Caroline S. Woodruff, past president of the Association and principal, State Normal School, Castle- ton, Vermont. Her subject was “Progress thru Teacher Education.” PROGRESS THRU TEACHER EDUCATION CAROLINE S. WOODRUFF, IMMEDIATE PAST PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION ; AND PRINCIPAL, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, CASTLETON, VT. Last year on this occasion we centered our thought upon those teachers to whom we all owe much of whatever success we have had in the teaching profession. Tonight we are going back of the teacher to the forces that shaped his course. This year, 1939, all over the land the anniversary of a great moment is being observed — a moment that from Lexington, Massachusetts, 100 years ago was destined to be recognized all over the world. Those early patriots who in 1775 on Lexington Common “fired the shot heard around the world” little realized that Lexington Common would be the scene sixty-four years later of a far greater event — a shot fired not from a cannon’s mouth but from the vision of a great teacher. It wTas a great moment when on Wednes¬ day, July 3, 1839, three young women, Misses Damon, Smith, and Hawkins, came into the reception room of an old building that had been leased for three years as the home of the first state normal school in America. They had come to be examined and enrolled as the first student body of a state normal school in America. Teacher-training institutions from coast to coast are cele¬ brating that moment with significant programs. Briefly let me trace the growth and development of the normal school idea. There was the period of the Renaissance and the resultant spiritual and intellectual awakening. Then came, with the invention of the printing [169] 170 National Education Association press, the beginning of the Reformation when a new spirit emerges. Priestly orders organized schools in the sixteenth century, which served as models for teacher-training schools in both Europe and America. The work of these leaders was felt directly in the United States and was followed by the mission schools established by the Franciscan and other friars among the Indians in this very country where we meet. These padres in their cultural and religious teaching trained their brighter students as teachers for others. These were the beginnings of formal teacher training in this country. In this last century the name of Pestalozzi stands out in clear light. It was he who first proclaimed that there is something more to the preparation required of a teacher than mere knowledge of the subjects he teaches, that there is a technic of diffusing that knowledge. Stimulated by the writings of Rousseau, Pestalozzi’s energies and influence rapidly spread to Germany and took a firm hold on Froebel and Herbart, his contemporaries in the early nineteenth century. And it was in this period that seminaries for the training of elementary-school teachers were established in Prussia and other German states, and a few years later that followers of Pestalozzi inaugurated similar training schools in England. So we may say that the forebears of the normal schools in America may be traced directly to Switzerland, Germany, and England, to whom is due great credit. Except for the work of Pestalozzi, however, all this development in Europe was unknown to American educators until about 1820, for we should remember that all this was before the coming of the railroads, telegraph, and telephone. A Lancastrian model school was established in New York City, attract¬ ing much attention, and particularly that of Governor DeWitt Clinton, who urged that one such school be placed in each county, with the training of teachers as one of its functions. This plan never prevailed but academies all over the state soon made teacher-training classes required courses, and by 1834, five years before the event we are celebrating, such courses were organ¬ ized into a concrete system. William Russell, too, the first editor of the American Journal of Educa¬ tion , which we of a later generation associate with the name of Dr. Winship, used every available opportunity to stress the importance of a seminary for teachers. The spirit seemed to be moving all thru New England, New York, and somewhat thruout the East. Here let me pay special tribute to another pioneer in teacher training — Samuel Reed Hall, an itinerant preacher, who that same year, March 1823, stimulated by the activities of his contemporaries, gave a tremendous push to the teaching course by opening in his own house and at his own expense the first teacher-training school in America, according to Mr. Cubberly, who states: The first teacher-training school in America was established privately, in 1823, by the Reverend Samuel R. Hall, who opened a tuition school for the training of teachers at Concord, Vermont. He introduced a new study called the “Art of Teaching,” basing it on his own experience as a teacher. To make clearer his ideas he wrote out a series of lectures on school keeping. In 1829 these were published and Life Membership Dinner 171 formed the first book in English on the subject of teaching to be published in this country. On the site of this old school, a spot hallowed by its century and more of tradition, the legislature of that state, on its hundredth anniversary in 1923, erected a granite shaft bearing a bronze tablet on which are the words: The State of Vermont erects this Tablet August 15, 1923 on the site of the FIRST NORMAL SCHOOL IN AMERICA Opened March 11, 1823, by its Founder Reverend Samuel Read Hall, LL. D. originator of America’s system of teacher training Author of the First Textbook on Teaching published in America Hall wrote, as Dr. Cubberly substantiates, the first textbook on teaching ever published in America. The eagerness with which it was received is shown by the fact that the educational leaders in New York State ordered at once ten thousand copies to be placed in the hands of every school district in the state, and the Committee on Education in Kentucky recommended that every teacher in that state be given a copy at public expense. Hall wrote other books covering almost every field of education known today. The story of this teacher-minister is thrilling to read, but time forbids my saying more than that leaving Concord he later established a teachers’ seminary at Ply¬ mouth, New Hampshire, in what is now the state teachers college, and similar courses at Phillips-Andover, Massachusetts, the old fitting school of which he was headmaster. He was also offered the first presidency of Oberlin College, Ohio, which he had to refuse due to physical infirmity. Another must be mentioned too, one who did much to publicize the nor¬ mal school movement in America. He was Charles Brooks, who in the sum¬ mer of 1834 made an exhaustive study of the European systems of teacher training already in effect. On his return home he called together all the inhabitants of Plymouth County to an open-air meeting wdiere he might proclaim the plans he was promoting in America. The great audience which met with him on the appointed day was deeply moved and at the close of his appeal, Ichabod Morton, Esq., promised to give $1000 toward the estab¬ lishment of the first teachers’ seminary. Brooks made a powerful impression and refusing any compensation what¬ ever, he spent the next two years lecturing on this important subject, riding over two thousand miles in his one-horse chaise and appearing before numer¬ ous state legislatures, as well as in the principal cities and towns. These efforts of Charles Brooks largely determined the form which normal schools took in this country. The period from 1820 to 1825 has been called the gloomiest period from an education standpoint in New England history, but was followed by one of spirited educational reform, productive of men and women with wide vision, who were sometimes called educational revivalists. Among these are other names known to all students of education, but of James G. Carter, Henry Barnard said: “More than to any other one per¬ son belongs the credit of having first arrested the attention of the leading 172 National Education Association minds of Massachusetts to the necessity of the immediate improvement in the system of public schools and of having pointed out the most direct mode of procuring this improvement by providing for the training of competent teachers for these schools.” A firm foundation was being laid and the time seemed ripening for the establishment of the first state normal school. With men like Horace Mann and Cyrus Pierce to encourage its development, the cause was bound to succeed. As in all new movements, the next step was raising funds to carry on the work. Joy reigned when Edmund Dwight, a wealthy Boston merchant, authorized Horace Mann, then president of the senate, to propose to the Massachusetts legislature that $10,000 would be given toward the estab¬ lishment of the project provided the legislature would give the same amount for the same cause. The bill was introduced, almost unanimously passed both houses, was approved by the governor, Edward Everett, April 19, 1838, and one year later on July 3, 1839 — one hundred years ago this very day — the first state normal school in the United States opened its doors at Lex¬ ington, Massachusetts. And the normal school movement was on! Rev. Cyrus Pierce, a Harvard graduate, who had done conspicuous edu¬ cational work in Nantucket, was engaged as the first principal. It is written of him that during those years “he not only did all the teaching but he was his own janitor. He allowed himself but four hours of sleep. When the weather was very cold he would go at eleven or twelve o’clock at night and fill up the furnace, and again at three or four in the morning, to insure that the room would be comfortable when school was opened. After he had attended to the fires at the later hour, he would sweep the snow from the steps when that was necessary, shovel paths around the house, bring water enough from a well nearby to last during the day, and then study till school • _ >> time. The normal school movement spread like wildfire thru Massachusetts. In September of that year a second school was opened at Barre, and the following year a third opened at Bridgewater. And the cause was won. Other states were quick to follow. Connecticut, in 1850, opened a normal school at New Britain; Rhode Island, one in 1852; IowTa and New Jersey in 1855; Illinois in 1857; Pennsylvania in 1859; Minnesota in 1860; among the first, Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, and North Carolina followed. Step by step, year after year, teaching, as a calling, as an art, and as a profession, has been advancing always to higher levels. A great step in its development as a profession came eighteen years after the Lexington beginning when in Philadelphia in 1857 a handful of teachers — forty-one men and two women from a dozen of the thirty-one states then belonging to the Union — met at Philadelphia for the purpose of organizing the teachers of the nation into one great educational brotherhood. That was the birth of the National Education Association, now grown from a membership of forty-three to nearly a quarter of a million. And along with this tremendous growth of the national Association the teacher-training program has advanced — in character and in content. Life Membership Dinner 173 Let us recount. One hundred years ago today there was one state normal school in this country, a one-year course, one instructor, three pupils. That was the picture. Today there are 169 four-year degree-granting teachers colleges, 62 state normal schools of two- and three-year curriculums, with more than 100 students enrolled. And what of tomorrow? In preparation for this paper, a questionnaire was sent to the presidents of one or more teachers colleges in every state in the Union asking their opinions on the next steps in the field of teacher edu¬ cation. Of the thirty-nine replies came the following most significant ones: 1. Re-examination and evalution of the unique function of teacher training 2. Broader academic and cultural background 3. Broader acquaintance with vital fields of human thought affecting modern civilization 4. Strengthening the practice of democracy 5. Training teachers in the spiritual revival which America must face 6. Training in understanding and appreciation of other peoples and nations for peace and goodwill 7. Developing dynamic leadership 8. Providing for parent and family-life education 9. Setting up a philosophy of education understandable to the profession and also to the lay public, attainable by all 10. Professionalization of teaching. You know the story of all the movements today for making in reality a profession of teaching alongside the professions of medicine, theology, law, and the rest — a slow process and every advancing step in the teacher-train¬ ing program of the last one hundred years has been toward this end and its fulfilment. All around us we see the awakened consciousness among edu¬ cators everywhere that, in the expanding program of education itself, the responsibility is upon the teacher-training institutions. I turn to the last yearbook of the American Association of Teachers Col¬ leges and see, under “Next Steps in Teacher Education,'' Mr. Kefauver’s farseeing needs in, and challenges to, teacher education; Air. Bigelow’s re¬ view of the report of the American Council on Education on major issues in teacher education today; Air. Hubbard’s survey of professional and public relationship courses offered in teachers colleges with its implications ; and Air. Engleman’s “What Next” in professional relations. I see the work being done in the South and West under the leadership of Chari Ormond AA illiams and its followup by President Shaw', now creeping all over the country thru the institutes of professional relations, thirty-seven of which are being held this summer in colleges and universities from Oregon to the Carolinas. I see an increase in interest and voluntary membership in the great national Association, and quote Mr. Zook’s significant words: “We ourselves have had too mean or too lowly a conception of the teacher’s function. AYe have made it a craft and have trained people to practice it. AVe must lift it to the status of a profession and educate people to follow it.” These are some of the many things that indicate without question an advancing program for the teacher’s college. And now in closing, let me say there was never a time in all history that called more insistently than today 174 National Education Association for clear thinking, for wide-range vision, for balanced judgment, for dy¬ namic leadership, for fearless action, for making clear the enduring values of democracy in a confused world, and for a rebirth of spiritual values. And we look out into the future confident that the Power which guided those educational pioneers one hundred years ago will direct the forces that must meet the needs of tomorrow. Rational Council of Education HISTORICAL NOTE The national council of education zuas organized in 1880 , growing out 205 188 3:131 1884 :283-292 1885:160-191 1886:333-350 1887:509-538 1888 :5 13-544 1889:611-614 1890:365-542 1891:379-526 1892 :5 59-744 1894 :2 5 2-5 92 1895 :2 13-429 1896:231-392 1897:195-316 1898:303-488 1899 :251-379 1900 :183-296 1901 :189-348 1902:151-305 190 3:139-300 1904 -.173-332 1905:155-270 1906: 29-214 1907 :145-328 1908 :129-312 1909 :1 59-330 1910 :143-306 1911:161-330 1912:329-498 1913: 99-354 1914 :1 33-292 1915 :253-526 1916:895-1100 1917:661-846 1918 :473-684 1919:483-674 1920:407-536 1921:679-850 1922:1295-1464 192 3:881-1024 1924:803-962 1925:633-862 1926 :665-838 1927 :697-872 1928 :655-830 1929:643-802 1930 :607-770 1931:645-800 1932:543-678 19 33:551-680 1934:535-672 19 35:499-626 1936 :399-521 1937:447-566 1938:175-282 [ 232 ] Published here are as many of the addresses before the general sessions of the Cleveland convention as space permits. All general sessions addresses have been published in full in the 1939 Official Report of the American Association of School Administrators. GENERAL SESSION MONDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 27, 1939 A UNITED PROFESSION WILLARD E. GIVENS, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSO¬ CIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. President Sexson: The needs of our society are producing challenging demands upon all agencies and institutions. And, the result of the chal¬ lenge of the modern problems of society and the world is a girding up of the loins of all the virile, potentially capable institutions in our society. Memberships in organizations of all kinds are increasing. Means for the implementation of plans and policies are being augmented. Considerations of this kind prompted me to plan the program of this convention in the hope that it might strengthen our professional organiza¬ tions, that we might clarify our thinking as to our problems and needs, and might center our attention upon the accomplishment of our major objec¬ tives that we might present a unified profession and exercise our combined strength in constructive, creative, professional activity. The man whom we have chosen to guide us, to advise us, to counsel us, as well as to represent us in the great cause of public education, seemed to me to be above all others the logical keynote speaker of this convention. To the extent that we support him, we shall make progress; to the extent that he advises us of his plans and purposes, we may support him. Without formalities of introduction but just in a fine personal and friendly way, may I ask the executive secretary of the National Education Association to make the opening address — Willard E. Givens. Mr. Givens: Several months ago our president asked me to appear on this program to stress the need for a united profession devoted unselfishly to promoting public education thruout the nation. I am indebted to many of you for very helpful suggestions in connection with this assignment. A united profession devoted unselfishly to promoting public education thruout the nation will be fully developed only when all of us appreciate the fact that the job to be done by education in our democracy is so big and of such vital significance that any division in our ranks results in lessened effectiveness and is little short of treason to our country. To what extent is our present chaotic economic condition due to the failure of our schools to prepare literate citizens in economics? How can we get out of the present situation and lay a sound basis in economics for a better life for our individual citizen except thru education? The schools must have a large part in it, and our profession, in school and out of school, must lead in developing intelligence in this field. [ 233 ] 234 National Education Association As we look at the international situation we find ourselves surrounded by war “jitters.” We should be intelligent enough to let Europe and Asia settle their own insane affairs. If we go into another foreign war and win — we still lose. If ever any foreign army tries to invade our land, we will gladly take our chances with death to defend it. Has our profession thru education yet developed a sane viewpoint in connection with this problem? If all of us who are engaged professionally in education could be made fully sensitive to the job that is ours, there would be no tendency toward division in our ranks. We cannot effect unity merely by talking about it. We can do it by developing a consciousness of the size of the task which education faces. Have we as professional educators done all that can be done toward making a diagnosis and outlining the best educational program for each individual child in our schools? Could we, if we worked hard enough and thought straight enough, develop programs that \^ould be sufficiently at¬ tractive to bring into our high schools the 35 percent who are not now in them? Can we develop a program that is vital enough to keep those we already have from dropping out of school ? Public education has before it a job bigger than any that it has heretofore undertaken. The task facing us is to develop citizens with the character, knowledge, ideals, and determination needed to solve the problems which face them in this modern world. Future citizens must have the kind of education which will enable them to understand the economic system in all of its parts. They must have a better understanding of the relationships existing among educational, social, economic, and political problems. Since these future citizens come into our American schools, representing all reli¬ gious faiths, all political parties, all economic levels, and all nationalities of the world, it becomes doubly imperative that no lines of cleavage be allowed to develop in our profession. Our first public institution designed specifically to educate teachers for our democracy is only one hundred years old. Our profession has developed rapidly. We have come a long distance during the past century. We belong to a great profession. We are made up of a cross-section of American life. We have among us too many who are keeping school rather than serving the cause of democracy. These times offer unusual opportunity for heroic achievement, the key¬ note of which is unselfish devotion to the democratic way of life. All teachers should know more about the functions and purposes of' public edu¬ cation in our democracy. Every teacher should sense deeply the nature of the responsibility he assumes in taking charge of a classroom of American children. Education in our generation has a large service to humanity. Education today carries a great responsibility in safeguarding liberty. The only real safeguard of this heritage of ours lies in the developed intelligence and understanding of our people. Such a task merits the united, unselfish, and enthusiastic support of every person worthy of membership in our profession. A democracy to live, to move forward and upward, and to progress must be guided by honest and intelligent voters. Education and American Association of School Administrators 235 education only can completely prepare our people for intelligent suffrage. Our people must have much more intelligence and moral stamina to govern and discipline themselves than they need if they are content to submit to dictatorial regimentation. Blatant orators of the day say that the American system of constitutional government is on trial. It is not. The people of America are on trial. The question is, Do we have intelligence enough and character enough to keep on governing ourselves? This depends upon the quality and quantity of the educational program available to all our people. When nearly a million people in the golden state of California vote as they did last November for $30 every Thursday, we need to reexamine the public school program of Iowa! We are living in a democracy. We cannot withdraw from the scene in order to throw stones. Democracy is an aspiration centering around the belief in the greatest good to the individual. Democracy is an ideal, a process, a method, a way of life, the foundation stones of which are liberty and justice. The challenge America faces is clear-cut. Can we make the demo¬ cratic ideal and process work in such a way that we can achieve security in a social organization and still maintain freedom? If we really believe in democracy we ought to practice it in the adminis¬ tration of our schools. Did you ever see a board member, superintendent, principal, supervisor, or teacher who talked democracy and practiced autoc¬ racy? Light travels faster than sound. What we do outdistances what we say. Faith in the development of the individual, faith in education, and faith in God constitute the foundation for a philosophy of democratic living. The superintendent of schools has a great opportunity for building a united profession and securing the enthusiastic support of his entire school force by democratic planning of administrative policy and educational program. Every superintendent who fails to encourage growth on the part of his fellow workers, to create ambition to serve, and to use all the talent and ability in his school system is failing to get all that he should for his school children. In our complex social organization it is the close-knit, well-organized groups that are effective. We need democratic, cooperative professional plan¬ ning and effective social action. In the midst of changing conditions, social confusion, clashing interests, and the accelerating conflict between the ideals of democratic and dictatorial ways of living, we who hold to the ideal of freedom for development of the individual thru preservation of our demo¬ cratic way of life must develop a more closely-knit, nationwide functioning professional organization. If education is as important in a democracy as we believe it is, it then becomes our duty to forget our petty differences, to develop a program of basic principles to which we will all subscribe and which we can present without any apologies to the public. On Thursday of this week hearings will begin in the Committee on Education and Labor of the United States Senate on an educational bill, S. 1305, which proposes the appropriation of funds to assist the states in providing more effective programs of public education. This legislation 236 National Education Association can be passed this session of Congress, if we believe in it and are willing to work for it. Many congressmen have said to me, “Educators can se¬ cure for the children of this country anything they need, if they will agree among themselves as to what they need and will then let us know about it.” So far federal aid to education has waited for aggressive support from a united profession. In developing democratic school systems and in building a united pro¬ fession devoted unselfishly to promoting public education thruout the nation, one of the great needs is that of being human. There are one million of us engaged in our profession. There is not a single position that is not bigger than any individual in our profession. One of the great challenges in our work is that every position is bigger than the individual who fills it. Our best teachers are human engineers. The teacher’s work deals with the most delicate material known to the whole world. The skill needed is second to none. The slow process of educating calls for the greatest patience and for perseverance which refuses to yield to any difficulty. There is need for that quality of foresight which in an uncanny manner penetrates the very curtains of the unknown. To qualify in this field of service does not require super men and women, it does not necessarily open the way only to those who are “born” for the service. But the specifications do include the highest type of judgment, the clearest understanding of life and in¬ trinsic worth as it is portrayed in human character, and those qualities of heart and soul which make great teachers. Our profession requires not only the most technical knowledge of applied science but also an appreciation of the finest of fine arts. We deal exten¬ sively with human values. Any loss is irreparable and will hold in check the march of intelligent progress. Congressman Bruce Barton has well said: “In times like these, invest in boys and girls. Men talk about buying stocks at the bottom. When you invest in a boy or girl, you are always buying at the bottom. You are sure that the youngster is going up and there is no telling how far. I invite every man and woman in America to take a flyer in Childhood Preferred. I predict a great future for this security. It has an investment merit com¬ bined with the most exciting speculative possibilities. You are sure to get- a man or woman. You may get a great man or great woman.” The best teacher is constantly investing his time, his thought, his ability, and much of his income in girlhood and boyhood, knowing that he will have returns and hoping that he will have great returns. No one who works successfully with people is ever permanently discouraged. If so, his hope has died, a martyr to his doubts. In the final analysis, the developing and guiding of our young people is the most worthwhile activity in which any of us can be engaged. In every school system thruout the length and breadth of this great land are to be found some of America’s finest teachers, teachers with excellent character, great ability, well informed concerning the problems of the world and technically trained in the science and art of education ; people with lofty American Association of School Administrators 237 ideals ; teachers who live on high spiritual planes. Give them a chance to help you build a democratic and human school system. Strengthen their morale by recognition and encouragement. The wise leader does not at¬ tempt to minimize the difficulties ahead. Appreciating the potential abilities of his fellow workers, he tells them the truth. He does not fear that their morale will break down at the first sign of trouble. If they know that their hard work is appreciated, difficulty is a challenge that brings out unsus¬ pected qualities. Hardships shared can be a unifying force. The most effec¬ tive way in which a leader can build morale is truly to represent his cause. One of this country’s great leaders, Colonel George Goethals, in speak¬ ing many years ago to a group of men especially trained for leadership, said : Successfully to accomplish any task, it is necessary not only that you should give to it the best that is in you, but that you should obtain for it the best there is in those who are under your guidance. To do this, you must have confidence in your ability to accomplish it in order to inspire that same feeling in them. You must have not only accurate knowledge of their capabilities, but a just appreciation and a full recognition of their needs and rights as fellowmen. In other words, be considerate, just, and fair with them in all dealings, treating them as fellow members of the great Brotherhood of Humanity. A discontented force is seldom loyal, and if its discontent is based upon a sense of unjust treatment, it is never efficient. Faith in the ability of a leader is of slight service unless it be united with faith in his justice. When these two are combined, then and only then is developed that irresistible spirit of enthusiasm, that personal interest and pride in the work, which inspires every member of the force to give when need arises the last ounce of his strength to the winning of a victory in the honor of which he will share. By being human and democratic you build not only a great school system but also a united profession devoted unselfishly to promoting public edu¬ cation thruout the nation. For strong, unified local professional organiza¬ tions are the foundation upon which a united profession is built. Without them we cannot have strong unified state associations. Without strong state associations we cannot have a united, effective national professional organ¬ ization. There is no organized force to carry on the battle for better schools and more nearly adequate educational opportunities other than your local, state, and national professional organizations. How many superintendents of schools here this morning would be proud to have the percent of fellow workers who support the work of local, state, and national professional education associations compared and commented upon in local papers alongside the percent of doctors who belong to the American Medical Association ? Democracy, like charity, begins at home. If each superintendent of schools at this convention would take a silent and solemn vow to make his system really democratic, human, and professional — a system in which each indi¬ vidual is encouraged to participate and inspired to give his best, a system in which every service is appreciated and every individual enjoys happy 238 National Education Association growth — there would be a great surge forward and upward toward a united profession devoted unselfishly to promoting public education thruout the nation. CHANGING CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION GEORGE D. STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. President Sexson: Nobody would say that educational administration in this country for the last ten or fifteen years has been particularly quiet and uninteresting. Most of us who have been out trying to hold jobs as superintendents of schools have realized that we have had a series of prob¬ lems the last fifteen years that would make our jobs exciting enough to keep us awake and on our toes. A friend of mine said to me in the midst of my difficulties, “You picked a fine time to be a superintendent.” Well, it has been a fine time. I was talking the other day to former associates of mine in school admin¬ istration years back and we were comparing notes indicating the changes that have occurred in our profession in our easy memory. If there is any man in America who stood on the ramparts of public education in America and watched these changes and analyzed and interpreted these changes, it is the next speaker. I believe we have a treat awaiting us in Mr. Strayer’s analysis of “Changing Conceptions of Educational Administration.” Mr. Strayer. Mr. Strayer: Educational administration as a profession is scarcely a hundred years old. Until the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the concept of the responsibilities of superintendents of schools bore little re¬ semblance to that which is commonly accepted today. In the period preceding the naming of superintendents of schools as such, those minor administra¬ tive duties which were necessary were undertaken by laymen. The school committee of the town meeting, usually thru one of its members, hired teachers, made provision for a small building and some equipment, and visited the school for the purpose of discovering whether the teacher em¬ ployed was performing his duties. The naming of an executive became necessary when many schools were organized within a single administrative area. It is true that the positions of county and state superintendent had been established before the city superintendency was created, but these county and state officials had little to do with the actual administration of schools locally. They collected statistics, distributed moneys, kept certain records, and in some instances, where the county was an important unit in administration, selected teachers and in some small degree supervised the work done in the classrooms. The place of the local superintendent of schools and the importance of his task were acknowledged in the formation of the National Association American Association of School Administrators 239 of School Superintendents in 1865, and in the organization of the Depart¬ ment of School Superintendents of the National Education Association in 1870. Even then, however, there was little recognition of many of the duties and responsibilities which every superintendent accepts today. During the period from 1871 to 1900 the Department of Superintendents expanded not only in numbers of members but also in the breadth of subjectmatter considered in its meetings. The few persons present at the early meetings of the Department were very much concerned with the development of a graded school system. They considered, as well, the problems of instruc¬ tion and curriculum and were vitally interested in the development of secondary education. Our changing conceptions of administration are associated with the growth in size of the school systems to be administered, with the changes in educational theory in terms of a philosophy or psychology of education, and with the development of the scientific movement in education. Paralleling these developments was the recognition of the place of the superintendent as a professional executive. It is noteworthy that no sig¬ nificant opportunity for preparation for this profession was offered prior to the beginning of this century. With the growth of the scientific move¬ ment in education, university courses in educational administration came to be offered in most of the larger universities. The subjectmatter of admin¬ istration in these earlier courses was organized primarily around such prob¬ lems as the legal basis of the school system, the organization of the school, the classification and progress of pupils, the financing of school systems, school buildings and equipment, and teacher personnel. Only during the past twenty-five years have superintendents of schools in any large number been prepared thru fundamental training and specialized professional edu¬ cation to occupy the positions of leadership in education and in society which they today enjoy. In the earlier period, the need for a superintendent and the determina¬ tion of his duties were related primarily to the externals of education. It was necessary to organize elementary and secondary schools for an increas¬ ing school population. The enforcing of compulsory attendance laws tended to increase greatly the number enrolled in elementary schools. The accept¬ ance of the idea of free secondary education led to the rapid development of this part of the school system and required the recruiting of a new type of teaching body and the development of a new curriculum. It was neces¬ sary, as well, as this expansion took place, to give consideration to the development of school buildings. Much progress was made in the planning of buildings suitable for the educational programs to be developed in them. The financing of the enterprise led to a consideration of problems of school accounting and budgeting and to the study of local, state, and even national support for schools. A great deal of attention was given to the organization of schools and to the classification and progress of children. Not until the first decade of this century was any adequate information available concerning the prog- 240 National Education Association ress of children thru the school system or their elimination from school. It is a striking fact that as late as 1910 more than half of all the children enrolled in the schools of the United States were to be found in the elemen¬ tary schools below the seventh grade. Along with the impetus to study the problems of administration associated with the beginnings of the scientific movement, there was developed a new approach to the problems of curriculums and teaching thru the new psychol¬ ogy and thru a restatement of the philosophy of education. Our current conceptions of educational administration did not emerge from the crisis following the World War even tho they were given new emphasis by this catastrophe. The seeds of most of our thinking and planning for the educa¬ tion of all the children, youth, and adults are to be found in the discus¬ sions which took place and the contributions which were made by sci¬ entists and philosophers during the first decades of the present century. The shift in emphasis is perfectly clear. The earlier superintendents were primarily concerned with the external affairs of the school system, altho some of them sought to relate their philosophy and knowledge of psychol¬ ogy to the work they were doing. Today the internal affairs of the schools, centering around the problems of curriculum, teaching, guidance, and health, occupy a most prominent part in the thinking and the work of school executives. The concept of administration in its development has followed very closely the changing concepts of education. When the curriculum consisted of the three R’s and when children were assembled in small district schools, little responsibility was vested in anyone other than the teacher. As the curriculum of the schools expanded, as secondary education became an integral part of the school offering, and as large groups of boys and girls were assembled in a single building and still larger numbers in a single school system, the concept of administration changed to meet the new sit¬ uation. It may be proposed without fear of contradiction, however, that our present ideas with respect to educational administration are more cer¬ tainly a product of the scientific inquiry and the social philosophy carried on during the first two decades of this century than they are the result of an increase in the size of the task to be accomplished. It would not be fair, in discussing the development of the field of ad¬ ministration, to ignore the large contribution made by the scientific move¬ ment to improvements in the technics of administration. Nor would one be content, however adequately the newer aspects of the administrative task are considered, to ignore the necessity of dealing with the practical everyday problems of government ; of school finance and business adminis¬ tration, of school housing; of the attendance service; of the organization of schools and classes with reference to the differences which exist among pupils in intelligence, in physical condition, and in vocational outlook; of the training, assignment, supervision, remuneration, tenure, and pensions of teachers ; and the like. Indeed, it may be proposed that no superintendent of schools can have time to deal with the larger aspects of his job if he is not well qualified to handle the technical details of administration and American Association of School Administrators 241 to apply the results of scientific investigation in the everyday conduct of his office. This new emphasis on the work of the superintendent of schools is clearly indicated in the yearbooks of the Department of Superintendence and of the American Association of School Administrators. Eight of the fifteen yearbooks issued prior to the current publication dealt with problems of the curriculum. Other yearbooks considered such problems as the articula¬ tion of units of American education, supervision, educational leadership, social change and education, and the interpretation of education for democ¬ racy. The time has arrived when our concept of educational administration requires that the superintendent be thought of as a social engineer who operates in the field of statesmanship. His major duties and responsibilities lie in the development of social policy quite as certainly as they concern the induction thru education of all of the population into a constantly developing social democracy. In The Unique Function of Education in American Democracy , issued by the Educational Policies Commission, the work of the superintendent of schools, his relationship to other officials of government and to laymen, and his personal characteristics are defined as follows: When education is considered in terms purely administrative, distinctions from other services . . . are evident. The schoolboards and boards of college trustees re¬ sponsible for the general policies and the administration of education have contacts with society and power over individuals that are different from, and wider-reach¬ ing in subtle consequences than those assigned, for instance, to a government com¬ mission which regulates railway rates, passes upon the trade practices of given in¬ dustries, or makes rules for transactions arising from workmen’s compensation laws. . . . The school superintendent also has duties not imposed on any other administrative officer. Records and accounts he must keep or scrutinize; estimates and reports he must prepare; and other functions of administrative routine he must perform. In these respects his responsibilities resemble those of administrative officers in general; altho his statistical statements represent distinct aspects of human life and aspirations, as well as money, materials, buildings, and supplies. But the super¬ intendent’s obligations are more extensive. Those of the health commissioner, the superintendent of public works, the director of public welfare, and other administrative officers are not to be underestimated; but their duties and contacts with society are limited and specialized. As head of a system in which all arts and sciences are taught, the school administrator is called upon to possess knowledge and intellectual interests that are broader than those of any one profession. Without this knowledge and these interests he cannot act effec¬ tively as the channel of communication between the schoolboard and the teachers who organize curriculums and carry on instruction, to say nothing of taking the leadership expected of him in such matters. As head of the schools he is subject to impacts from nearly all the interests, good and bad, that operate in the community; not merely to those touching health, or public works, or the relief of dependents. Under his jurisdiction are children from practically all sections of the community; not merely those affected by specific regulations of a police, sanitary or industrial character. Literally nothing that goes on in the community is alien to him. The very nature of his office imposes peculiar duties upon him. It is not by speeches at political rallies or by public appearances that he discharges them; his work is in the domain of knowdedge and aspiration; ... If, legally speaking, the school superintendent is one administrator among many, the term is meaningless until the primary functions of education are brought into consideration. It is then that the unique characteristics 242 National Education Association of educational administration become evident and present the case for a special ad¬ ministrative relation to the general structure of government.1 With this general concept in mind it may be helpful to clarify still further our present concept of educational administration by calling attention to the areas in which the educational administrator must operate and to the background in education, professional training, and personal competence that he must have in order to serve successfully in his profession. He must be technically competent, but he must also be a student of society. He can¬ not successfully lead the professional staff of the schools and laymen in the community in the development of an adequate program of education unless he has certain very definite ideas with respect to the maintenance of democracy and to its improvement. No matter of social policy is foreign to his thinking. In the organization of the school ; in the way teachers and pupils work together; in the experiences which are provided that are commonly labeled “the curriculum” ; in the special opportunities offered in the upper part of the school system which prepare boys and girls for active participation in the work of the world ; in the insistence upon free¬ dom of speech and of discussion, the maintenance of tolerance and of the scientific attitude; in an awareness of social, industrial, and political sit¬ uations which interfere with the welfare of children and of adults; indeed, in every significant thing that goes on in the schools and in the community, the fundamental social point of view held by the school executive should contribute largely to the development of the school as a social enterprise. In a somewhat narrower sense, the superintendent must be a student of government. He must see education as a governmental enterprise in relation to all other services of government. Only as he recognizes the unique function of education in our American democracy will he have a sound basis for his advocacy of such legislation as will remove the adminis¬ tration of schools from partisan politics and place the control in the hands of those who would serve society thru education. The issue of fiscal independence for school systems is not primarily a matter of saving the school executive from the difficulties which he would have to meet in his contest with other governmental executives for support. Fiscal independence is demanded in order that men and women may be brought into the service of government in this area without respect to their political affiliation, in order that they may serve over a relatively long period and with overlapping terms, and in order that the employees of the school system may never be placed under the control of those who would organize education to support any particular party or dogma. The superintendent must work in full cooperation with many other social agencies. He cannot discharge this obligation except as he is able to understand the major issues which confront society and to see the place that education occupies in relation to these problems. He must, as well, save the schools from the demand made upon them often to expand their 1 National Education Association and Department of Superintendence, Educational Policies Com¬ mission. The Unique Function of Education in American Democracy. Washington, D. C.: the Com¬ mission, 1937. p. 102-03. American Association of School Administrators 243 services to include many activities which can best be performed by other governmental agencies. There are times when he will have certainly to guard schools against the insistence that they offer services that they are not equipped to render. A good example of this problem is found in the pressure that is brought to bear upon schools to assume the welfare services so much needed by school children. In the areas of health and physical well-being the superintendent may find himself under the necessity of insist¬ ing that agencies be organized to protect the health of the people and to succor them in their physical distress rather than that these services be developed as a part of the school program. But in no case may he stand aloof. It is the responsibility of the school executive to act as one of the most important leaders in the community in the development of all of those agencies which make for the common good. The superintendent must organize schools and classes and develop curriculums in terms of the realization of the democratic ideal. He may no longer rest satisfied with a schoolroom in which seats are fastened to the floor and in which the virtue of children is measured by their docility and their silence. Even in the areas which may seem at first sight to lie within the control of teachers, he must seek rich experiences for children and involve them and their teachers so far as possible in the development of their program. Considerable light is thrown upon the problem which confronts the administrator in the statement of the purposes of education issued by the Educational Policies Commission.2 In the life of the school, in the relation¬ ships between pupils and teachers, and in the development of the cur¬ riculum, these objectives are held to be sound: (a) self-realization; (b) human relationships; (c) economic efficiency; and (d) civic responsibility. This statement does not mean that the school executive may be satisfied with less ability in reading, but rather that he may confidently expect not only more skill but also a more certainly continuing interest in this area of human experience. It does not mean that children will not come to command the skills involved in arithmetic or in other phases of mathe¬ matics, but rather that the meaning of number concepts will be clear to them and that their interest and enthusiasm will carry them farther in their mastery of this field than would otherwise have been the case. It does not mean that children will know less science, but rather that they will know more and that it will have very much more meaning in their lives than had the textbook knowledge which they were once required to master. It does not mean that drill will be abandoned where it is needed, but rather that children will recognize the need for acquiring skills and will make much better progress in these areas if they recognize them as essential to their own growth. The school executive will have constantly in mind the need for the development of an inquiring mind. He will be concerned with the intellec- 2 National Education Association and American Association of School Administrators, Educational Policies Commission. The Purposes of Education in American Democracy. Washington, D. C.: the Commission, 1938. 157 p. 244 National Education Association tual and esthetic interest and the character which children are developing. He will seek constantly to insure, thru teachers, equipment, and the organ¬ ization of experience, the full and complete self-realization of all boys and girls. He will be concerned quite as certainly with their emotional stability as with their intellectual attainments. He will not be satisfied with any result less than an individual who is well adjusted to his contemporaries and who finds satisfaction and pleasure in the life which he leads in school. It is not possible here to express completely the purposes which will dominate in the schools, but attention must be called to the other areas in which the school executive must seek to develop the more meaningful educational program. The school must increasingly become a place in which courtesy and cooperation are characteristic of all who are assembled there. The school must accept a responsibility for the improvement of home con¬ ditions. It must, as far as it can, carry all of its members into a society in which there is a respect for humanity and in which the democratic ideal prevails in the association of individuals with each other. In like manner, the school executive must be concerned with the school program in relation to the work life of all who are being subjected to the educational process. Information about occupations, guidance in the choice of one’s calling, a knowledge of personal economics as well as a critical attitude expressed in one’s judgment as a consumer — these are just as cer¬ tainly a part of the program to be offered as are the skills and knowledges commonly presented. Possibly the greatest of all the obligations that the administrator must accept is the development of experiences in school which will contribute, in the lives of children and later in their adulthood, to tolerance, to a passion for social justice, to the development of critical judgment, and to an understanding of what the democratic way of life really is and a loyalty to it. During the period when teachers were poorly educated and had little professional training, there may have been some justification for the super¬ intendent to assume a large degree of control and direction of the activities which were carried on in the classroom. That situation happily has passed in most of our school systems. Teachers today are well educated, are pro¬ fessionally qualified, and are intellectually competent to contribute in large measure to the development of those policies which should prevail not only with respect to the curriculum of the schools but also in the field of organ¬ ization and administration of education. The Educational Policies Commission has made its record with respect to the participation of all who work in the school system to the development of policy in the following words: In all that is proposed with respect to the administration of schools, there is im¬ plicit an acknowledgment of the contribution to be made by the educational pro¬ fession. . . . Our schools are organized for the purpose of educating children, young people, and adults for participation in democratic society. Any significant realization of this purpose will require independent thinking, a large degree of cooperative endeavor, and broad sympathy and understanding on the part of all who are enrolled in educational institutions. Certainly these virtues may not be expected to American Association of School Administrators- 245 abound among those who are taught unless they are found also in the experience of teachers. Surely in no area may teachers more certainly exercise independence of thought, cooperation in action, and social understanding than in their daily profes¬ sional work. It is sound procedure to provide for the active participation of teachers in the development of administrative policy. The formulation of school policy should be a cooperative process capitalizing the intellectual resources of the whole school staff. This participation in the development of educational policy should not be thought of as a favor granted by the administra¬ tion but rather as a right and an obligation. Some plan should be provided thru which the constructive thinking of all the workers in a school system may be utilized. After policies have been developed by the staff they should be submitted to the board of education for final review and approval. When approved, every member of the school system for whom it has implications becomes responsible for carrying into effect the adopted policy. This procedure promotes efficiency thru individual under¬ standing of policies and thru the acceptance of joint responsibility for carrying them into effect. What is far more important, it provides a democratic process thru which growth in service is promoted and the school service itself profits from the application of heightened morale and of group thinking to school problems. It makes the school in reality a unit of democracy in its task of preparing citizens for our democratic society.3 In addition to the reconstitution of the school as a social institution and the development of curriculum and teaching in the light of the democratic ideal, the school executive of today has many other important obligations which he must meet. Among these are the expansion of the school system to include younger children in the nursery school and kindergarten and older young people in the senior high school and junior college, and the develop¬ ment of a program of adult education. It seems strange that we have so long rested, satisfied with schools beginning for children at five or six years of age. Hundreds of thousands of children are so conditioned by their out-of-school education before their entrance into the first grade as to create most difficult problems of personal and emotional adjustment. It is not too much to pro¬ pose that at present in certain areas the most significant education that they will ever receive has already taken place before they enter school. Attention must be given to these younger children in the development of the public school organization. A major problem exists for the school executive in experimentation in this area. We can no longer rest satisfied with a secondary-school program that provides significant opportunities for less than half of the youth between fifteen and eighteen years of age. Richer and more significant experience must be offered for a large percent of those now enrolled in secondary schools, and still other opportunities must be offered for the 35 percent of the secondary- school age group not now enrolled in any school. Economic opportunities are lacking for the great majority of boys and girls until they reach eighteen, nineteen, or even twenty years of age. Sec¬ ondary education must be developed as a universal school. The idea of select¬ ing the able to go to college and spending our thought and attention upon them must give way to an organization, the development of curriculums, the 8 National Education Association and American Association of School Administrators, Educational Policies Commission. The Structure and Administration of Education in American Democracy. Wash¬ ington, D. C.: the Commission, 1938. p. 66-68. 246 National Education Association offering of guidance, and the making of adjustments which will take account of the needs of all young people. Beyond the period of the present secondary school, roughly for young people between the ages of eighteen and twenty years, further opportunities must be provided in preparation for particular vocations, for general education, and for grounding in the fundamental arts and sciences required of those who would undertake the later scholarly work of the university or professional school. School executives should also be concerned with the reorganization of schools thruout the several states so as to provide richer opportunities in larger attendance units with very much more adequate administration and supervision. These opportunities may be had in administrative units large enough to make it possible to employ adequate administrative and supervisory personnel without unduly increasing the cost. No educational administrator may in this day neglect a study of the fiscal problems confronting our government and our system of public education. He needs to be conversant with the best thought of the specialists in the field of taxation. He must know of and promote a system of state support which will guarantee at least a reasonable minimum program of education to all the children thruout the state, while equalizing the burden of taxation in support of the state’s fundamental program. In his own school area he needs to command at least the fundamental principles of budget making and business management, to be critical with respect to all expenditures to insure any possible savings, and to present his case for the support of education in terms of its social and economic implications. If he is to serve adequately, the school executive must be acquainted with the advances that have been made in the development of school housing and in the provisions of equip¬ ment, books, and supplies necessary for carrying forward the newer type of educational program. He must, as has been suggested above, be able to make his contacts with all organized groups in the public. He has an obligation to interpret the program of education in its relation to the society that sup¬ ports the schools. In conclusion, it may not be out of place to suggest briefly the qualifica¬ tions of one who may be expected to meet the new concept of school adminis¬ tration on a high level of achievement. School administration requires a man who has the ability in his own scholarship and competence to tap the re¬ sources of others and to marshal the evidence wherever it may be found in relation to the particular problems confronting him in the school system and the society which it is organized to serve. The superintendent of schools must be able to adapt himself to all kinds of persons whether on his staff or in the community. Indeed, he has little pros¬ pect of success unless he is able thru sympathy and understanding of persons and points of view to overcome personal resistance in the light of adherence to a common purpose. He must have ability to work under great pressure and to deliver on the job. He may not provide an alibi by suggesting that there has not been time American Association of School Administrators 247 to prepare a program or to give evidence in support of a recommenda¬ tion. The administrator must always be able to do more in a crisis than is expected of any ordinary man who thinks he has done a full day’s work. He must be able to delegate responsibility. It is only as he has the confidence and support of those with whom he is associated and only as he protects them when they are unfairly criticized that he may hope for the loyalty without which his administration will fall. He must be able to play acceptably. He must have a well-developed sense of humor. He must be able on occasion to break the tension which may destroy him by reverting to types of activities which seem to have little significance for his professional job. His success in some avocation may be almost as important as his ability as a professional worker. He must be guided by a scale of values which will enable him to meet the current situation and make his decision, based upon a clear-cut phi¬ losophy of education and upon sound principles of administration. He must have enthusiasm for the development of his program even tho he feels that only one step has been taken in the direction of the ideal which he hopes to see realized. He must see his job as it relates to other social, economic, and cultural agencies operating within the community, the state, and the nation. He must be able to organize all who work in the school system in rela¬ tion to the whole undertaking. He must sincerely appreciate work well done on each of the many levels on which his associates may be classified. It is not beneath his dignity to acknowledge the superior service of a janitor in a school building who does the best that he can to serve the common purpose. His work and his satisfaction in it may have an important bearing upon the achievement of the most skilful teacher in the building. The one most important criterion by which he must judge his work is found in an answer to the query, “Have those with whom I have been associated grown?” He may not expect that all will achieve great distinction, but he must seek the improvement of all, including himself, and measure results in terms of their ability to accept greater responsibility. Possibly the most severe test that can be put upon the work of the administrator is to ask in what degree all persons associated with him have realized their highest possibilities under his leadership. In the last analysis the work of the administrator will be measured by his devotion to the cause of public education. If his loyalty to this service controls his own activities, it will be felt in the lives of those with whom he is associated. If he has given himself willingly and wholeheartedly to a study of the meaning of education in our society, if he has paid the price exacted of those who are masters in the profession which he represents, then he may ask for a like consecration on the part of his colleagues. Great leadership is dependent upon professional scholarship, professional insight, and professional imagination, and these are granted only to one who values the cause that he serves above everything else in the world. 248 National Education Association THE RELATION OF ADMINISTRATION TO INSTRUCTION SIDNEY B. HALL, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, RICHMOND, VA. President Sexson : Those of us who have worked in administration and have noticed changing conditions and changing situations, have been somewhat amazed, I believe, to find a growing amount of questioning regarding relationships that should prevail between those who teach and those who administer. I believe that every superintendent of schools and every teacher in America desires not to take the duties from each other but to arrive at a solution and adjustment of our relationships that shall permit a maximum contribution. In looking over this country for the voice that might speak most author¬ itatively with respect to the relation between those who administer and those who teach, my attention was called to the work of the distinguished state superintendent of public instruction of Virginia. It was my honor to invite him to speak on that topic, and it is my privilege to present to you at this time Mr. Hall. Mr. Hall: Someone once said that administration is doing well things that should not have to be done at all. The truth or fallacy of that allega¬ tion lies in one’s conception of the term “administration.” What does the word mean to you? What is the function of an admin¬ istrator? Is he the director, the boss — to be obeyed willy-nilly? Is he a petty official who unquestioningly carries out the mandates of a governing board, transmitting orders to those officials who rank below him in the hierarchical line-and-staff organization ? Or is he a leader who stimulates his staff to function at its highest level of efficiency, and to work with him democratically, to produce the best results of which their cooperative thought and effort are capable? All of us have known administrators who exemplify, at least partially, each of these pictures. I dare say each of us could point out examples of school administrators of each type from our own ranks. Educational writers have at different times championed each of the aforementioned types, while some have taken the Shakespearean middle ground that “one man in his time plays many parts” and functions one way in this relationship and another way in that. As practicing school administrators, how can we justify our existence? How can we answer the charge that administration is doing well things that should not have to be done at all? How did school administration evolve, anyway? Let us trace its development to see if history offers any light on these questions. Administration grew out of instruction. In the earliest schools in this country there were no administrative employees, only pupils and teachers. In the town meetings the people selected their teachers, agreed upon their salaries, decided what subjects were to be taught, arranged for the repair American Association of School Administrators 249 of the school buildings and the purchase of supplies, and settled all matters of policy. As committees grew larger and school affairs grew more complex, it became convenient for the townspeople to delegate all school business to a school committee empowered to act for the citizens in the intervals be¬ tween town meetings. Gradually these school committees were entrusted with all decisions concerning school affairs. As a measure of convenience, one member of the committee was often appointed to carry out the will of the group. As school business grew more complicated and it became evident that a school man could represent the board more efficiently than a layman, the position of a paid superintendent of schools began to evolve. He, however, had as many, if not more, clerical duties than administrative ones. In fact, from 1835 to 1880, the superintendent was primarily the business agent of the schoolboard. As small towns and districts amalgamated into cities, the joining of their separate schoolboards produced large unwieldy city schoolboards which the superintendent had to consult both on matters of policy and of finance. The superintendent had a difficult time securing any action when the repre¬ sentative of each district was concerned solely with the advancement of the interests of his own district to the possible detriment of the system as a whole. Moreover, beginning in the eighties, school enrolment began increasing steadily. High-school enrolment has, as a matter of fact, doubled every decade since 1880. Before 1900, high-school students were a highly selected more or less homogeneous group who were to be prepared for college and entrance into the professions. Only a comparatively small percent of the total population were graduated from high school. The fact that the rigid scholastic requirements and economic pressure forced many students to drop out of school before graduation was not a matter of major concern to the school administration. The rapid increase in school enrolment created a demand for teachers greatly in excess of the supply of well-trained ones available. The low sal¬ aries paid teachers offered them little inducement either to enter the profes¬ sion or to improve their training once they had entered the field. Conse¬ quently, the majority of teachers had little professional training for their work. As a result, teachers were interested in their subjects, not in their pupils. Their methods were acquired thru trial and error. To reduce to a minimum this general lack of efficiency on the part of the teaching per¬ sonnel, additional administrative officials were employed to see that teachers achieved at least certain minimum requirements. Thus began the appoint¬ ment of supervisors, principals, etc. Administration in the high school meant the principal, who ran the school as he chose within the limits set by the superintendent and the schoolboard. All rules and discipline emanated from his office. Within his building he was the law. About 1880, municipal reformers, dissatisfied with the inefficient man¬ agement of school affairs wherein politics commonly played an overly- 250 National Education Association important role, had turned to industry for a model for the reorganization of school administration. In business they admired the practice of having a small board which appointed a manager solely on the basis of his ability and left him free to work as he chose so long as he produced results, the board being consulted only on matters of broad policy. What a contrast this was to the large unwieldy schoolboard whose wishes the superintendent was required to consult on all details! There is no disputing that school administration needed a thoro over¬ hauling, but whether business was the best model to follow is at least open to question, for there are fundamental differences between education and business. Business is concerned with profit and efficiency. It deals with material objects and its transactions can be measured in dollars and cents. The schools took over the business criterion of efficiency and tried to apply it indiscriminately to education. Intelligence tests and scientific measuring instruments were developed. Forms and standards of achieve¬ ment were developed, based upon the practice of industry. All this con¬ tributed to a sort of mass production idea of education. Education was con¬ ceived of as a body of facts to be gained from books. The attempt to require all children to learn the same data in a specified amount of time in factory style often led to autocratic methods of supervision and administration, and a disregard of the abilities, interests, and personalities of the individual children for whose benefit the schools were presumably operated. They were merely cogs in the vast educational machine and had to adjust them¬ selves as well as they could to the system. Thus, overemphasis on efficiency led to regimentation and autocracy, and administration forgot that it was the servant of instruction. This militaristic organization was in actual fact neither economical nor efficient, for it so crushed both teacher and pupil initiative that it led to a mechanical performance of meaningless routines. It was based on a narrow view of what constituted the educative process and overemphasized the importance of easily measurable results at the expense of less tangible but more important matters; but as long as the teaching personnel was largely untrained, it did secure minimum levels of attainment in different class¬ rooms. The schools of today present a vastly different administrative problem from that of the schools at the turn of the century. The huge increase in enrolment, particularly in the high school, has resulted in a student body so heterogeneous that the high-school curriculum has had to be greatly ex¬ panded, and social conditions have led the modern school to assume a number of responsibilities in addition to those accepted by the school of 1900. The modern school undertakes to provide for all children educational opportunities suited to their many individual needs. Emphasis is based on learning thru participation in activities planned to develop attitudes, appre¬ ciations, and skills in harmony with the aims of education. More and more the school is assuming responsibility for the social as well as the intellectual education of the pupil. American Association of School Administrators 251 Modern school administration has grown to be a complex and challeng¬ ing job, as the society in which it operates has become complex, but I con¬ tend that school administration today, as yesterday, justifies itself only in terms of an excellent instructional program, that it justifies itself only to the extent that it provides for the individual child the opportunity to develop to the utmost of his capacity his individual potentialities, the oppor¬ tunity to grow mentally, morally, physically, and spiritually as much as he can. It is the business of administration to provide the kind of environ¬ ment most conducive to maximum pupil and teacher growth, for it is not likely that pupil growth will take place where there is teacher stagnation. If this be true, then it is high time for administration to bring its prac¬ tice into harmony with its philosophy, for as Newlon has put it: The educative process is conditioned by the character of the control and adminis¬ tration of the school. The best of recommendations may be entirely frustrated by administrative practices that are at variance with the principles on which the recom¬ mendations are based or that fail to provide the conditions necessary for carrying them into effect. Administrators preach the doctrine of shared pupil activity programs. They recognize the fact that participation brings growth, interest, and happiness to pupils. The same principle applies to teachers. When teachers participate in the formulation of plans, in decisions as to matter of policy, and in curriculum making; when they have freedom to experiment and to apply their own ideas; when they understand the problems to be met and subscribe to the method of meeting them; when the relationships between teachers and administrator are such that teachers feel free to make sug¬ gestions or objections or to seek advice — then the administrator is doing his part to create an atmosphere which will lend itself to maximum teacher and pupil development. Today we are beginning to recognize the fact that the success or failure of school administration will be largely conditioned upon the philosophy of education on which it is based. We say that we believe in a democratic philosophy of education, in democracy as a way of life; yet it is still not unusual to find in our school systems “that children attend autocratically managed schools where they receive formal instruction in what is deemed essential for participation in democratic citizenship.” That anomaly should challenge every thinking administrator in the United States to reappraise his own practice. But why should we be so concerned about democracy in school adminis¬ tration? S. A. Cowles of the University of Michigan has stated that “the basic element of democracy is faith in the power of human personalities to improve themselves if given the chance.” There is a fundamental incon¬ sistency in the attitude of administrators whose primary concern should be the achievement of an excellent instructional program, who unhesitat¬ ingly entrust children to teachers for whose ability they have so little respect that they hem them in with restrictions and prepared outlines of what is to be taught and thus guarantee that neither pupil nor teacher growth can take place. 252 National Education Association If pupils are to learn how to think for themselves in this day when independent thinking is so necessary, then there must be democracy in the classroom ; and before we can achieve democracy in the classroom, we must have democracy in administration. In these times when democracy is fighting desperately for survival, edu¬ cation in America has a tremendous opportunity and responsibility to shape the future course of civilization. Our children must be led to evaluate the social forces which are playing upon society, and thru practice in critical evaluations of contemporary problems be prepared to make intelligent deci¬ sions concerning future problems as they arise. Fortunately, in some of our most progressive schools both pupils and teachers are being given the opportunity to share in administrative responsibilities. Thus they them¬ selves are growing by participation in administration, and administration is being challenged to realize even higher levels of creative leadership in its never-ending effort to improve the instructional program. What then seems to be the responsibility of administration for instruc¬ tion today? It is no longer to prescribe what is to be taught, or how, or when ; but to provide the environment most conducive to maximum pupil growth and to work cooperatively with pupils, teachers, and community to provide a broad and flexible instructional program adapted to the present and future needs of all of the children in the community which the school serves. To do this, administration must be constantly on guard to prevent the erection of administrative hurdles that might in any way impede the realiza¬ tion of this aim. The child rather than administration is the major concern of the school today, and administration is retiring to its proper place as the servant of instruction. In conclusion, may I summarize the point of view which I have been endeavoring to develop by saying: Administration finds its justification primarily in terms of an effective instructional program, which results in producing individuals who have personal integrity, usefulness, social insight, and purpose. GENERAL SESSION MONDAY EVENING, FEBRUARY 27, 1939 HUMAN RESOURCES AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT MARY B. MC ANDREW, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CARBONDALE, PA. President Sexson : It seems to me advisable that we look at America anew. This program has been designed in the hope that there will be brought stronger allegiance for those who teach in America and thru them to citizens everywhere a picture of the America of today and the America of tomorrow. We have been a patriotic people. We have been a people imbued with a strong love of country and yet there are evidences that from time to time we should take inventory, we should take stock, American Association of School Administrators 253 we should see America in terms of the blessings that are ours. So this program consists of an inventory of America in terms of its human re¬ sources, an inventory in terms of its natural resources, and a picture of America with its youth moving forward to the America that is to be. In the high schools of Pennsylvania a high-school teacher taught so well that her unusual ability was recognized. She was appointed superin¬ tendent of schools and the wisdom of that choice on the part of the board of education of her community was demonstrated in the efficient way in which she organized the schools, particularly thru the fine spirit of coopera¬ tion which she brought to the teachers of that system. The Pennsylvania State Education Association, recognizing her leadership, elected her presi¬ dent. Under her inspiring guidance this organization laid the foundation for enacting legislation which gave the teachers and the children of Penn¬ sylvania the benefit of tenure and which provided for the children of that state a greatly improved program of education. The American Association of School Administrators is happy to present one of the finest of America’s school administrators — Miss McAndrew. Miss McAndrew: It is a distinct honor, I assure you, as one of the women superintendents of America, to be invited by President Sexson to participate in the program this evening. It seems only yesterday that I be¬ longed to that great group of classroom teachers that wondered if the superintendent of schools had as much to do as we did. After I had served as a superintendent for one year in Pennsylvania I told my fellow super¬ intendents in Pennsylvania that I would love them all forever. After having served for four and a half years, I can say the same thing tonight to the superintendents of the nation ! I remember hearing Mr. Sutton say once that the superintendent had to be the diplomat of his age and I believe it is the most difficult, most vulnerable, and yet most important position in the whole community. Never more strongly than on a night like this is it brought home to us how serious a thing and how happy a thing it is to belong to the teaching profes¬ sion, the profession that binds together the children of this nation who will be the adults of tomorrow. In our hands has been placed the guardianship of America. We must mold the very foundation of man’s dignity — social happiness, sovereign ideas of right, duty, and responsibility, and eternal destiny. In our hearts has been placed a love of humanity that must serve to nerve our hands and our minds to vigorous efforts which, when made by a determined pro¬ fession, will stem the torrent that threatens. Ours is a tremendous mission but remember it is written, “Those who instruct the many shall shine as the stars for all eternity.” The soul of America is reflected in its culture. The culture of America has resulted from the interplay of government and education. Each impinges upon the other. The test of both is the human product, our human re¬ sources. The theme of this evening’s meeting is “National Planning.” It is my privilege to discuss “Human Resources and Their Development.” 254 National Education Association At no time in history have the human race and the nations of the world, and communities in particular, needed intelligent, careful, thoughtful, common-sense leadership as they do today. Therein lies a challenge to all of us, to bring forth the best, the most substantial traits which we possess and apply them to our future problems which are just being opened up by our present situations. What is America? God built a continent of glory and filled it with treasures untold. He carpeted it with soft rolling prairies and pillared it with thundering mountains. He studded it with soft flowing fountains and traced it with long winding streams. He graced it with deep shadowed forests and filled them with song. These treasures would have meant little if thousands of peoples, the bravest of their race, had not come, each bearing a gift and a hope. They had the glow of adventure in their eyes and the glory of hope in their souls and out of them was fashioned a nation, blessed with a purpose sublime, called "America.” Prophesying is a hazardous adventure. Many forecasts go wrong. But look ahead we must, for new things will come. We must forecast tomorrow that we may plan for tomorrow. We must plan for tomorrow, for it will never be today again. Tomorrow arises out of today, however, and the key to the understanding of tomorrow is the correct interpretation of today. To understand today, its whirlwind tempo, its worldwide scale of opera¬ tion, its complexity of relations and interplay of forces — who is sufficient for these things? Precisely this, difficult as it may be, is what the preser¬ vation and perfecting of our civilization require. On this depends the very perpetuity of the race. Prophets of doom may be mistaken but it is true that a world can end. The glory that was Greece has been dimmed for ages; Rome did fall; Europe groped for centuries after these marvelous civilizations all but perished ; Bourbon splendor shaped the pattern for a time and passed to oblivion; the fall of the Romanovs, the Hohenzollerns, and Hapsburgs still echoes around the world. With the whole world changing at dizzy speed America must be thinking of her tomorrow. Here are a few out of a multitude of facts which we as school adminis¬ trators might well consider in preparation for that tomorrow: First, our increase of population is slowing down. According to extensive evidence America will have a stationary population within a very few years and declining numbers within a few decades. Restricted immigra¬ tion which has curtailed our foreign population and a declining birth-rate which has affected our natural increase have been the two great factors in this change. There are actually not enough children being born to replace the older population. The result of this has been a reduction in the average annual increase of the population to about 900,000 as compared with approximately 1,700,000 between 1920 and 1930. The National Re¬ sources Committee Report released last July mentions the fact that the total number of births reached a peak in the years 1921-25, that there will be a peak in the number of young persons of marriageable age about 1945, American Association of School Administrators 255 and that after the middle of the century further decreases must be expected in the number of births each year unless present trends are reversed. Many factors are contributing to the decreasing birth-rates in this country. Among them are later marriages, the greater economic freedom of women, employment of women outside the home, increasing knowledge of birth control, higher standards of living, and the decreasing earning power of children. Advocates of family limitation have lost sight of the appalling cost of birth control to society. We must face the fact that birth control is rapidly breeding the brains out of the American people and constitutes a grave national menace. The most backward classes are having 77 percent more children than necessary to reproduce themselves and are located in certain rural areas and in communities at the lowest economic levels. These areas are quite removed from the educational and social influences which mean progress. On the other hand, the groups that could be supplying us with our brightest citizens are 17 percent below reproduction level. We are raising more and more low quality citizens, fewer and fewer high quality ones. This breeding from the bottom up means more juvenile delinquency, more crimes, more public charges and unemployables, fewer real leaders. There is another side to this picture. If family limitation continues, our civilization faces an appalling economic burden of old people in the popu¬ lation. There is a steady decline in the population of persons under twenty years of age with a corresponding increase in the population over forty- five. In 1850 only one American in eleven was over fifty — the age when dependency becomes likely. But with great advances in the nation’s health lowering mortality rates and birth control cutting off the supply of young¬ sters at the other end, the fact is that the proportion of those over fifty has already almost doubled. If our reproduction rate continues to drop, by 1980 two out of five of our citizens will be over fifty. The Townsend movement has given a foretaste of what that will mean in social turmoil. To support the 40 percent of Americans over fifty there will be only 40 percent between twenty and fifty, the period of important economic output. Altho some of those over fifty will be able to support themselves, others of productive age will not be. So, on the average, every person economically fit will have to produce a complete livelihood for one elderly person, in addition to all other obligations. And the circle will grow steadily more vicious. Because this increased burden will make it harder to support children, fewer children will be born. Succeeding generations will have an even smaller proportion of pro¬ ducer^ to take care of a larger proportion of old people. No social order can stand such a strain. Another reason why birth control is a grave and immediate danger is this: By stopping population growth it has blasted the very foundation of our economic system. Many children are necessary to our economy, as consumers from the moment they are born and as producers when they grow up. Alter that setup and you guarantee a chronic stagnation of business. 256 National Education Association What are we to do about this? May I ask, what is stronger than the storm and yet the wind comes forth from its first faint source in whispers. Thus came birth control propaganda. Its baleful whisper deepening, creep¬ ing upon hearts weakened by adversity or shallow from worldliness, it is falling upon the home and banishing its integrity. The social and economic fabric of a nation is weakened when there is no family to spur the mature male to responsibility. Such is the case, too, when unemployment leaves wanted children unborn. What America needs is the good old-fashioned home that in spite of restricted income stands for the highest type of conjugal union, a home where fidelity and equality of obligation are partners, a home in sympathy with the natural law, the procreation of children, a home that rears women in dignity, respect, and authority by teaching the sacredness of motherhood. But lately what have we done to the home? We have weakened it by exalting the individual at the expense of society. And what have we — too many sterile families, twofold careers, idle wives and daughters and weak men as a menace to our nation. We cannot confine ourselves to mere temporal ends and survive. The home must have religion and if it has, society will survive and some of our newer economic problems will vanish. It is in the home thru religion that childhood is sanctified, youth inspired, manhood ennobled, and old age comforted. We have neglected religion and that is why we are forced to recognize that a malignant ulcer is gnawing at society’s vitals and we have been turned from our destiny. Perhaps it is not too late. It has been prom¬ ised, “The truth shall make you free.” Can we not work out a realistic readjustment thru character education, health education, and vocational training? Can we not urge government agencies to invest in the human resources of this great country that its people may propagate and improve in reasonable proportion? Is that not far more important than investment in our natural resources? A land that is poor in natural resources may be among the leaders of the world if its people are really worthwhile. As school administrators our first duty is to provide teachers who will realize that the future of America will depend in large measure upon the conception which takes shape under their tutelage in young and plastic minds. We must provide teachers who are intelligent, sympathetic, and emotionally secure. Let us have less emphasis on degrees and more upon real teachers who do understand and will participate in a development pro¬ gram. These teachers must enrich the educational field from the nursery school upward. These teachers must instil the basic ideals of humanity and democracy by honest, straightforward, persistent, comprehensive attack on abnormalities which no self-respecting society will deliberately tolerate. It can be done by instilling and strengthening good habits. These teachers, too, can gradually bring to pass conditions that under their guidance children will be led to see what is right for their country, and gradually we will have the normal group with normal desires and readiness to take up homemaking in spite of its complexities and trials. American Association of School Administrators 257 Parental instinct asserts itself when buoyant health and occupational fit¬ ness make happy emotional adjustment possible. We must instruct the adults of our country with the true situation in our schools. We must win them to an understanding of our school problems thru the press, radio, and parent-teacher associations. Decrease in school enrolment should not affect school personnel in nine cases out of ten, at least not for a generation. I say this in spite of the fact that 1940 has been set as a deadline for one-fifth fewer elementary teachers. Our teachers have had too great a burden, and now with conditions coming back to normal they will be able to study the child as a complete personality. Then, what of the handicapped? There are 2,500,000 not in school at all, due to handicaps and in some cases due to the fact that no school is provided near them. Science has demonstrated that many handicapped chil¬ dren can be rehabilitated. Here is a real chance to serve human needs. We have our President’s example to follow in the medical field and we must hew our own in the educational world. Special education is needed for 90,000 crippled children, 45,000 visually handicapped, 3,000,000 with im¬ paired hearing, and 3,000,000 with reading and speech defects. “Every child should be given every chance tti become a happy, useful member of society.” Statistics prove we can expect more and more children from low quality citizens. We must accept them but I say let us welcome them. The children of low quality citizens come into the world undefiled but receptive and it is society that is making criminals of them. Let us give them the best the school has to offer. Let us start their training early. Small towns and rural areas have only one out of every 147 enrolled in kindergarten. The very principle of life is movement. Here is a good test for our activity program among the children of the poor — those whose lives are without color and without hope. Here is our challenge. Let us throw out the life line to the seemingly low quality child and we may be surprised when we see what proper stimulation and encouragement can do. Our talented students must also be given adequate opportunity to dem¬ onstrate their abilities. Potential leaders of the arts and sciences are in our schools but we have found and trained only a small number. It has been demonstrated in special classes that poems, composition, sculpture, and ora¬ tory throb within the hearts of our boys and girls and want an outlet. We must have special classes for creative effort. We must have clubs that reach all children. Perhaps then we will rise above the tabloid funny and the crossword puzzle. What of the educational implications of that large group in our popu¬ lation from fourteen to twenty-five years of age and how are we as school administrators to meet this problem? There are 25,000,000 young people in the United States in this age group — 7,000,000 are in high school, 1,000,000 in higher education. Schools are, therefore, in contact -with only one-third of them. An unknown number is at work but in recent years a growing group is out of school and unable to find work. Thousands of 258 National Education Association youth beyond school age, without jobs, and unable to carry economic respon¬ sibilities of marriage, seem to have no place to go but to take to the road. It has been said that any civilization that fails to conserve its human resources, particularly its children and its youth, is contributing to its own destruction. Are those who are responsible for education in this country giving our youth a balanced program; are they educating them to do suc¬ cessfully the things they must do in order to carry on the nation’s business? One object of education is to prepare boys and girls and men and women better to serve in their various professions, vocations, and callings. Of the 26,000,000 or more pupils enrolled in the schools of the country in 1937, only 1,096,000 were enrolled in vocational classes, including adults, or about 3 percent of the total population of school age and 4 percent of the number enrolled in schools. If America is to keep pace with twentieth-century progress it must pro¬ vide within reach of every boy and girl a school where they can learn better how to do the things they are doing or have selected to do as their life’s work. To fail to do that will close the door of hope to that large and necessary group of men and women to whom society and the business world — with all its diversified interests — must look if we are to make use of our undeveloped resources. The time must come when every boy and girl in the land will be required as part of their education to take a course in vocational guidance. The American Youth Commission reports “that for the great majority of young people, the schools simply haven’t functioned at all so far as this important service is concerned.” The result is that four young people out of five must decide on their future vocations when they leave school without voca¬ tional information or guidance from any source. No wonder there are so many misfits along the pathway of life, so many men and women trying to do things that God never intended them to do. Our human resources of the adult world must take stock of their own shortcomings, help them¬ selves to security by cooperating with government, church, and school to prevent the tragedy of unpreparedness in all fields whatever the cause. There was expended in this country during 1937 by local, state, and federal governments practically $30,000,000 for vocational education or nine-tenths of 1 percent of the total amount spent for public education. There was a student body of 1,096,000 which made the average cost per student about $28. From now on our practical problem should be to increase this expenditure, establish all-day or part-time and evening classes for the untrained laborer whether he be youth or adult. He will then be able to take a new job when offered. The human loss of this country has been great because society has failed to provide vocational reeducation. This cannot be done in a day or a year, but the sooner it is begun the better. I know some will argue cost as a reason for putting off this great humanitarian task, but will it not be wise economy to spend a few dollars more to train a worker better, rather than permit him to become a charge upon the community at a much greater cost? There are many manufacturing concerns that have their peak season. American Association of School Administrators 259 When the peak rush is over many employees are dropped and are forced to seek employment in other fields. Employees cannot change from one factory to another overnight without some kind of training. If vocational schools were convenient to the workers many of them could be trained in a short time to make satisfactory adjustments. This, in my opinion, would go far toward relieving the unemployment situation and would materially aid in carrying on the country’s business. The declining birth-rate does not mean simply fewer teachers — it means that every social, economic, and political institution will feel its impact. “Faith without good works is dead.” We have problems of this gen¬ eration still unsolved and yet we are at the turning point of our history. We must express our patriotism by a selflessness that works for the common good. We must be a good neighbor to the next generation. America needs a reeducated mature world, high-minded, chivalrous, efficient, honest. We are trying to get along with the education of thirty or thirty-five years ago. This may account in part for 10,000,000 unemployed, even more misfits, 30,000,000 who do not vote, and 9,000,000 who figure in accidents. It may account for the racial problems of the South, the sectional antagonism, the waves of intolerance, and the spread of foreign isms. I have not a doubt myself but that the root of every tragedy, whether it be behaviorism, de¬ cayed homes, unemployment, or communism, is lack of education. Planning seems to be the only answer for all our problems — studying the trends of the last ten years in our particular community, noting the decline of the birth-rate, shift in population, annual enrolment, enrolment in private schools, number enrolled in schools of higher learning, number handicapped, regional scholarships, permanent industries, unemployment, leisure-time facilities, absorption of white-collar workers, and need for vocational training. Each community will have to set its own house in order. The work of secondary schools must be extended, junior colleges must be established, libraries must be a distinct feature of the schools. The task of school management will be to provide as harmonious a readjustment as human ingenuity can devise. It will succeed only as far as it wins the support of the taxpayers. There will be no easy plenty to maintain education. The stability and welfare of the whole community must of a certainty be our plea to the people. Our further aim should be federal support. It remains the only fair and just solution to augment the educational budget. How can we expect constructive social thinking without continuous education in ethical principles, in new skills to replace old, without federal and state government geared to aid? Nothing can right on tomorrow cer¬ tain wrongs of today. We might give our problems a more personal aspect by visualizing ourselves as the old people of 1955, our children bearing the burdens of our neglect, our grandchildren the sacrifice on the altar of the future. We must take the long view of things and see the ultimate consequences to our own flesh and blood. One conclusion reached after a close study of adult resources is : Egotism is passing, leisure time is making the individual conscious of his weakness, 260 National Education Association conscious also of his possibilities along creative lines and anxious to strengthen the one and fulfil the other. We have actually begun to do something to improve conditions of the underprivileged thru federal education of the adult world. The ignorant, the unemployed, and the unskilled come willingly to classes. The concept is right, the leadership is inspiring, the mass of the people are willing. Then it seems to me “the American Way” of life can be preserved by action. We have the opportunity to create a civilization with a new schedule of values, placing human values on top. We must face the problems before us in a more emphatic way. We must guarantee the security of the future by developing a people capable of self-control on high levels. We have no fear of consequences. We rest our future upon the faith that the happiness of America must depend upon the average of enlightenment, upon the attendant level of moral character, attainable by all men and women who live under the flag. On January 11, I was in the city of Washington. Returning to my hotel that evening, I directed the chauffeur to drive to the Lincoln Memorial. I had heard it was magnificent at night. I stood entranced for minutes before that consummate art portraying the great Lincoln. Then, turning, I beheld in a straight line ahead the Washington Monument, pointing majestically to the sky. I looked around and above on that perfect winter night and I said to myself, “What a beautiful country to love!” I reflected that the devotion and appreciation of an American people raised these monu¬ ments to two men who stood strong in crises of this country. Then my mind moved forward to this month of their births and to the night when I would be standing before you, the school administrators of the nation, and I said to myself again, “Cannot we who have in our hands the destiny of millions of children, inspired by the supreme courage of a Washington and the patient wisdom of a Lincoln, rise equal to the crisis before us in America when it means America, our country, America the beautiful !” CONSERVATION AND DEMOCRACY HONORABLE HAROLD L. ICKES, SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR, WASHINGTON, D. C. President Sexson : We turn now from the human resources of America to the natural resources, to take counsel as to the ways whereby we may derive from our material wealth the greatest returns in satisfaction and happiness, and how we may best bequeath to those who come after us the wealth essential for physical well-being and for the support and nourishment of a really enduring culture in this country. We do not intend to project plans. Our hope is that we train an on¬ coming generation to make intelligent choices, to devise effective behavior. We seek to conserve and to transmit to those who come after us the ma¬ terial resources essential for the adequate support of the America which is to be theirs. American Association of School Administrators 261 That we may have guidance in the furtherance of these purposes we have chosen to present to you a distinguished public servant who is interested in these matters. The American Association of School Administrators now presents the Honorable Harold L. Ickes. Secretary Ickes: During the past six years, to the extent that news¬ papers and foreign dictators have permitted me, I have been devoting my thoughts and energies to the conservation of natural resources. Just now I am wondering why we have the word “conservation” in the English language. Or rather, why we do not have a shorter one with the same meaning. Why is it that we have no one-syllable Anglo-Saxon word to express the thought of keeping things from loss or injury for the public good ? I will tell you why. It is because the thought of conservation — the bare idea of it — has come too recently into the minds of the people. In the English language nearly every idea which was in the minds of the people before the Norman conquest has two words to express it — a long Latin word and a short Anglo-Saxon word, both having the same meaning. For instance, agriculturist and farmer. Now when we get new thoughts, which require new words, we usually coin new words out of Latin or Greek to express them — long words like automobile or telephone. We never coin a new one-syllable Anglo-Saxon word. It cannot be done. So, whenever you find an idea expressed by a twelve-letter Latin word that has no short, crisp Anglo-Saxon counterpart, you may feel sure that the idea itself is something new under the sun. This is the case with con¬ servation of natural resources. One of the reasons why the principles and policies of conservation have had to struggle so long and so hard against the opposing forces of ignorance and selfishness is because the roots of the idea do not sink deep enough into our racial thinking. H owever, the fact that we had to coin the word “conservation,” or give it a special meaning in order to express the idea that it contains, reflects a change in our thinking. The new idea had to germinate before we looked for a word to express it, and the extent to which the word is now used registers the extent to which the idea has spread. Today, the conservation of natural resources is the declared policy of the government of the United States, and of practically all state govern¬ ments. Unfortunately, the declared policy is not always the actual policy. However, this much has been achieved : The goal of protection has been officially set up as a substitute for waste and destruction. But to reach this goal, the path is long and the way is difficult. The first need, both for the states and the nation, is for a real understanding of the problem. The second need is for a better organization of public agencies to deal with the problem. Why do we not teach conservation in our schools? Is the waste and pillage and threatened physical destruction of our country less important than the names of state capitals? Is the pollution of a river by sanitary sewage and industrial waste less important than the location of that river on a map? Or is conservation so new a subject, so novel a thought, that we are incapable of expressing it in simple language, either for children 262 National Education Association or adults? Must knowledge be old, with long white whiskers, before it is knowledge fit to be acquired? Carry this problem into the schools, carry the reality of it into the schools, in living words and phrases, not as dry- bone generalities, and the problem would be solved within a generation. This is no slight assignment that I offer the American educational system. The subject is as extensive as the continent. Let us observe, in the case of the national government, how broad is the field of conservation. The first notable expression of a national conservation policy occurred in the setting aside, in 1872, of nearly 4000 square miles of public land in Wyoming to form the Yellowstone National Park. This was the beginning of our national park system. Twenty years later, farsighted men began to be alarmed about the disappearance of our forests, and so our government stopped or partially stopped giving away the timber lands that belonged to the American people. From these timber reserves the national forest system developed. During the first decade of the twentieth century, it became apparent that the migratory waterfowl of North America could not withstand much longer the unending bombardment by hunters, combined with the drainage of swamps, etc., and it likewise became apparent that because these birds were migratory, they could not be protected by individual state action. This led, in 1913, to the Migratory Bird Treaty between the United States and Canada, and to the act of Congress putting the enforcement of this treaty into the hands of the Bureau of Biological Survey. Even earlier than this, in 1892, a treaty between the United States and Great Britain had led to international protection of the fur seal. Still earlier, another British-American treaty had caused the establishment of our Bureau of Fisheries, but it w^as many years before this bureau became charged with conservation duties. Thus, in the first half-century of the conservation movement, this line of development appears: first, protection of remarkable scenic areas by the establishment of national parks; second, the setting up of the national forest system ; and third, government protec¬ tion of wildlife. In the last twenty years, and more particularly during the past six years, there has been a new broadening of the conservation field. A partial awak¬ ening to the reckless wastage of petroleum and coal has led to protective measures, which, however, especially with respect to our rapidly diminish¬ ing store of petroleum, still fall far short of what we need. Finally, the American people have been forced to recognize that the greatest national possession of all, the land itself, is being destroyed. So our government is undertaking soil conservation, and the protection of watersheds, in order to stop, if already it is not too late, the loss and injury that threaten to turn millions of acres of fertile land into a desert. In building up the agencies of government to carry on this broad but haphazard program of conservation, far more attention has been paid to detail rather than to the plan as a whole. In fact, there has been no plan as a whole. Conservation activities that are closely related to each other are scattered among separated government departments, with neither rhyme American Association of School Administrators 263 nor reason to determine their location. This makes it harder to get rid of the old system of waste and despoliation. This also makes it harder to understand why some sincere conservationists oppose the creation of a de¬ partment of conservation. For generations the chief business of our government seemed to be to get rid of natural resources as fast as possible, and the richer they were the faster and more freely we handed them out. The land hunger of a growing population fostered this state of mind, but it took deeper root in a rugged individualism which turned the forests and the mineral wealth of the country over to adventurous exploiters, and made it the duty of the Indian Office to steal land from the Indians to give away to white men. This state of mind prevailed thru successive generations, down past the Civil War period, down thru the years when the railroads were getting enormous land grants from the Middlewest to the Pacific Coast, and thru those later years when these same railroads traded part of their lands back to the government again — traded back barren sagebrush plains for won¬ derful forests of pine and fir on an acre-for-acre basis, while Congress closed its eyes and the people turned their backs. Here was an era of exploitation, waste, and downright theft. Whatever belonged to the nation belonged to anybody who could filch it from the nation. However, this could not go on forever, even in the America of the 1880’s, when the robber barons reigned in their glory. Have you ever heard of Richard Franklin Pettigrew, the first senator from South Dakota? If you turn to the files of the newspapers of the period when he served in the Senate, you will discover that he was an evil, dangerous man, a demagog — a malicious liar, as they put it, who was trying to destroy the reputa¬ tion of great and good men. If Senator Pettigrew were alive today, these same newspapers would undoubtedly denounce him as a “communist.” The trouble with Senator Pettigrew was that he told the truth about the shameful exploitation of our national resources. He exposed the frauds in the western timber entries, but nobody listened except to find something to denounce, just as they denounced Tom Walsh years later when he began to expose the corruption of Teapot Dome. Nevertheless, this Dakota senator who had no friends, this senator who was excoriated by the American press, won a great victory even while he seemed to be losing. In 1891, by the sheer force of his reiterated charges, he drove thru Congress a resolution putting 150,000,000 acres of timber lands into national timber reserves. A few years later these were organized into national forests in the De¬ partment of the Interior. The creation of the national forests, like the creation of the first na¬ tional park, set up an object which people could see. It established a principle and brought standards into existence by which to judge fidelity to that principle. In other words, a true conservation policy began to reveal itself, not in the government as a whole, not in a governmental de¬ partment as a whole, but in at least two important and conspicuous spots — the national parks and the national forests, both of them in the Department of the Interior. 264 National Education Association But that was not enough. The evil is too deep-rooted. The long satur¬ nalia of waste and dissipation during the nineteenth century took some¬ thing out of the American spirit. Alexander Hamilton, the conservative spokesman of the moneyed class of his day, declared that all the minerals in the soil of America should be and should remain the property of the United States government. It is fortunate that Alexander Hamilton is not here today, for if he were, and if President Roosevelt should appoint him to the Interstate Commerce Commission, I fear that his views on the public ownership of minerals would be cited to prove him a communist; would be used as an argument against his confirmation by the Senate. This is what our historic record of exploitation, and the thinking that has grown out of it, has done for us from 1789 to 1939. When we try to round out the national park system of the country, vic¬ tories must be won by those who believe in national parks for the people against an array of selfish adversaries who spring into action whenever they fear that private commercial interests, no matter how trivial or re¬ mote, will be encroached upon by the creation of the park. Yet victories are being won. A bill is pending before the present Congress to establish the John Muir- Kings Canyon National Park in California, thus dedicating the most beautiful mountain wilderness in America to the perpetual enjoyment of the people, and saving a magnificent privately owned grove of California big trees, comprising 7000 giant sequoias, from immediate destruction. One of the trees is so enormous that if it were cut off 160 feet above the ground, 157 men could stand on the upright cross section of its trunk. I am happy to say that public opinion in California, where I have just been, is rallying to the support of this bill. Yet the supporters of this proposed national park are compelled to fight a highly organized propaganda machine based on commercialism — based rather on a false appeal to commercialism, on the claim that is not true in fact, that the area proposed for the park has an economic value which would be lost thru the establishment of a national park. The affirmative attitude of the people and their congressional repre¬ sentatives, in dealing with small segments of the problem of conservation, impresses me all the more with the need to make the issue clear-cut in its larger aspect, as it affects the entire nation. This calls for executive reor¬ ganization in our government. It calls for an assembling of conservation agencies so that the executive branch of the government can take its full share of responsibility for framing and administering a sound conservation policy. During the formative period at the beginning of the twentieth century, a great opportunity presented itself to create a department of conserva¬ tion, headed by a secretary of conservation, and thus make the principle so plain that departure from it would be virtually impossible. At that time practically all conservation activities centered in the Department of the Interior. This department administered the national forests, the national parks, the Indian lands, the unclassified lands known as the public domain, American Association of School Administrators 265 also mining, and fisheries — practically everything relating to publicly owned natural resources and those strongly affected with a public interest. Un¬ luckily, the Interior Department was overgrown in other directions. The huge Pension Bureau was a part of it. Its expenditures were greater in 1904 than those of all the other civil departments of the government combined. In 1905, at the suggestion of Secretary of the Interior Ethan Allen Hitchcock, the Forest Service was transferred from the Department of the Interior to the Department of Agriculture. Various reasons for this were given, but the real one was that the Interior Department, measured by expenditures, was twenty-five times as big as Agriculture and received its money thru numerous separate appropriation bills, which made it hard to get money for the national forests. The transfer was made to equalize the departments and make it easier to get forestry appropriations. The result was equalization that did not equalize because today, measured by expenditures, the Department of Agriculture is many times larger than the Department of the Interior. Later, the Pension Bureau, the Bureau of Fisheries, and the Bureau of Mines were transferred to the new Department of Commerce and Labor, to help build it up. In 1933 President Roosevelt retransferred the Bureau of Mines to the Department of the Interior, but the Bureau of Fisheries continues as a conservation activity in a department that has no other con¬ nection with conservation. The result of these actions was harmful in two directions. It scattered the conservation activities relating to the public land and other natural resources thru many government departments, thus making it impossible to build up a strong, coordinated conservation policy. In the second place, it made it harder to get away from the old idea that natural resources were meant to be exploited. It gave the public no central point, no focus of responsibility, at which it could hold the government to account if it failed to guard the public lands, or the petroleum, or the fish and birds and animals. The result of this has been to weaken the govern¬ ment in the face of heavy selfish pressures upon it, and to intensify those selfish pressures. Let me give a few instances of what this has actually meant in the field of conservation. You perhaps remember the great conflict over Secretary of the Interior Ballinger, during the presidency of Mr. Taft. An Interior Department investigator, Mr. Glavis, charged that the Guggenheim copper interests were getting possession of mineral lands in Alaska by mak¬ ing illegal entries on the public domain. Ballinger fired Glavis. Gifford Pinchot of the Forest Service came to his support, and President Taft fired Pinchot for criticizing a cabinet member. Public opinion then fired Ballinger. Some of us here tonight were part of that public opinion. What was the matter with Ballinger? In his home state of Washington he rated high. He had the typical, old-fashioned idea of the oldtime Westerner that the business of the government was to give away public property. His title as a member of the Taft cabinet said nothing about conservation. The law establishing his office said nothing about it. There was no legally established standard, no publicly proclaimed objective, to exert influence upon the 266 National Education Association President in naming his cabinet, or to influence the cabinet member after his appointment, or to bring public opinion to a quick, sharp focus in de¬ fense of our natural resources. The naming of Mr. Ballinger was Presi¬ dent Taft’s mistake, but the setup of the government was more to blame than was Mr. Taft. You will have such mistakes and such consequences flowing from mistakes until the conservation of natural resources is put in charge of a secretary of conservation, whose title establishes his responsi¬ bility for conduct in accordance with the objectives of the office. Until this is done, those who are fighting for the conservation of our natural resources will always be fighting against odds. It is difficult enough when we have a President and cabinet members devoted to the principles of conservation, for even in such a comparatively happy situation the lack of a visible standard of conservation increases the hostile pressure upon government agencies, and the scattering of conservation activities in various departments causes friction, discord, and waste of effort, even among men who have common objectives. I do not suppose that it would be possible to find two government estab¬ lishments more unlike each other than the Department of the Interior as it exists today and as it was under Secretary Ballinger. In saying this, I am not trying to praise myself. Rather, I would praise Walter L. Fisher, whom President Taft appointed to succeed Ballinger, and Franklin K. Lane, Secretary of the Interior under President Woodrow Wilson. For myself, I will give but one pointed illustration of the change that has oc¬ curred. Gifford Pinchot’s right-hand man, back in 1911, was a young and ardent volunteer conservationist named Harry Slattery. Working for a year or more without pay, he brought together the evidence that led to Ballinger’s resignation. Harry Slattery is now Undersecretary of the Interior. Yet I recognize the fact that, at any time, a change in the presidency may bring a man into my office who will revert to the exploitation policies of a half-century ago, and who will be able to say, in justification of his policies, “What is there in the law that says I must be a conservationist?” At any time, a change in the presidency may give us a Secretary of Agriculture who will abandon the policies of Secretary Wallace and deliver the Bio¬ logical Survey to be once more what William T. Hornaday called it, in the later 1920’s, “a football of the wealthy duck hunters of the country.” Would it not be far more difficult for a President to sabotage the conserva¬ tion work of the federal government, either deliberately or by negligence, if, when he entered upon his duties, one of those duties was to appoint a secretary of the department of conservation ? Nor is this the whole story. In fact, it is less than half of the story. Not only I, but other members of the Roosevelt cabinet, have seen, felt, and resisted the pressures that come upon government officials when they under¬ take to defend the natural resources of the country. I know that my work would have been lightened — it would have been lightened by half — if I could have said in refusing various requests: “I am the secretary of con¬ servation. My duty is to guard this property and keep it from damage. You are asking me to violate my oath of office.” American Association of School Administrators 267 Could I or any other man say this, it would seldom be necessary to say it. Men who are unthinking, not vicious, make injurious demands upon the government today. They demand of me that the public domain shall continue to be overgrazed, tho it would mean the ruin of the public lands. They demand of the Department of Agriculture that wild ducks and geese shall once more be shot over baited waters and with the use of live decoys, tho a return to those outlawed practices would mean the extermination of all the waterfowl on the continent. They demand of the Department of Commerce that fisheries shall be treated as a purely commercial affair, for present profit, tho to follow that policy would destroy the fisheries for the future. They demand that the national forests shall be opened to lumbering by private contractors, and the hope of such exploitation is back of every fight that is made by lumbermen against the transfer of lands from national forests to national parks. How could such demands be made upon a department of conservation? How could they be made effec¬ tively? How could they be made at all? In speaking of the conservation activities which might wisely be brought together in a department of conservation, I have confined myself to three functions: (a) those which relate to the common property of the people — to the publicly owned lands, the national parks, the national forests, the public domain, the Indian lands for which the nation is trustee; (b) those which relate to those resources in which the people have a common interest, as in the wildlife of the country; and (c) those which relate to petroleum and other minerals vital to the national welfare, where there is a close administrative connection between private and public holdings. This, I should point out, does not cover the field of conservation, but it covers a logical administrative field in which there is a central objective and a central problem — that of preserving and wisely using the common prop¬ erty of the nation. Outside of this, there remains a vast theater for conservation work; in particular, the conservation of the soil, a subject almost as big as the United States. The problem of soil conservation is a unit, scientifically, but politi¬ cally it is sharply divided according to public or private land ownership. Soil conservation on public lands is a simple tho sometimes difficult detail of the question of how and by whom the public lands shall be used. The problem is subordinate to control of the land itself, by its custodian, the federal government. For ease in administration, all public lands ought to be in one government department, and for effective results, to resist pres¬ sure, that should be a department of conservation. Soil conservation on lands in private ownership is a different and bigger proposition. This involves a delicate relationship between the government and millions of farmers living on their own or on rented land. Adminis¬ tratively, it fits in with other scientific aids to agriculture and with the nationwide program of farm relief. This work belongs where it is now, in the Department of Agriculture. I have said little about the waste and conflict that occur in government work because of the haphazard way the government departments have 268 National Education Association been built up. This has been discussed on many occasions, in the past year, in connection with the President’s request that he be given authority to reorganize the executive departments so as to establish some orderly con¬ nection between the bureaus and to get rid of duplications. For fifty years this necessity has been growing, and for almost fifty years Congress has been trying to deal with it, but has failed because of the pulling and hauling of conflicting interests in the government service. I had not planned to discuss government reorganization except as it bears on the special subject of conservation, but let me say that the way in which Congress meets this issue this year will indicate how our government is going to meet the critical problems of the next few years. This is a time when democracy is put to a severe test to prove its ability to function in a world of new problems and fast-moving events. There is need at this moment for an exercise of statesmanship among those qualified to lead American thought, as high and unselfish as that which presided at the birth of our country. We cannot go forward, politically or economically, in the kind of a world that we live in, leaving our destinies to the negative decrees of those who have closed their eyes to the problems of the nation. We cannot stand still in the world of today. To attempt it would be to roll backward into chaos. No matter what political party comes into powder, no matter what group rises to control within a political party, the crisis which impends in our social and economic order rises above that party and above that faction, and we can no more conjure it away than a ship in a storm can conjure away the breakers that threaten. To go forward, to ride the storm, we must keep the wind in the sails and let somebody hold the wheel who knows enough not to let go. Where in this picture is there a place for a political party divided against itself? Where is there a place for a political party, no matter what its name, that is against everything, and for nothing? Where is there a place for government by high-powered mail order propaganda, whose goal is to coerce Congress and the executive departments into a policy of doing nothing at all? The kind of propaganda campaign which was successfully conducted last year against the government reorganization bill,. a campaign conceived in deceit and born in mental dishonesty, represents a force in American po¬ litical life which cannot continue to operate successfully, in the broad field of its ambitions, without bringing our social order to the verge of dissolu¬ tion. We cannot survive indefinitely, as a self-governing republic, with our government reduced to paralyzed inertia by a sinister propaganda whose aim is national confusion and governmental prostration. Here we have conservation in its broadest aspect — the conservation of the American nation as a functioning society of human beings. It is here, in the relationship between the people and their representatives, that the mis¬ chievous hand of a powerful and unscrupulous propaganda can wreck the processes of representative government. What proportion of the keenest brains in America — not the best, but the keenest — are devoted to making American Association of School Administrators 269 government function for the people, and what proportion to keeping it from functioning for the people? Answer this, and you answer the question, Where lies the danger to America? I am not directing this criticism at the Congress. I am directing it at the forces that keep the Congress from functioning at the level of the merit that is in its membership. I am directing it at the forces that restrain the functioning of the executive department and at the forces that too often touch the judicial branch with mental palsy. I said that there was need to teach conservation in the schools — the con¬ servation of natural resources. There is an even greater need to make all America a school in which to teach the conservation of democratic govern¬ ment, by making it function; the conservation of American principles of liberty and equality by putting them into practice; the conservation of responsible citizenship* by inducing citizens to meet their responsibilities. Here is our ultimate task in conservation, in these United States of America, and it cannot be left for future undertaking. It is our responsibility, here and now. AMERICAN YOUTH LOOKS AT ITS FUTURE EDMUND E. DAY, PRESIDENT, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. President Sexson : W e now come to the third portion of this program. The speaker who is to handle the summarization of these two addresses has had a distinguished career in American education. He has been an instructor in the great institutions of higher learning in this country, he has had experience as an administrator of the great foundations of the Rockefeller Board, he has served as a member of the board of education in his own community, Bronxville, where he has lived. Since 1937 he has been president of Cornell University. As a member of the Educational Policies Commission, he has made a significant contribution in driving forward a program calculated to awaken the interest of the educators of this country in a dynamic program of citi¬ zenship — a program which includes the preparation of youth, of children, and of young people for real responsibilities and for the facing of real problems. It is my pleasure and honor to present at this time Mr. Day. Mr. Day: In my opinion, it will be a happy day for American education when it comes to be recognized in all quarters that educational administra¬ tion at all levels has a place, that the educative process is a continuing one from the lowest to the highest grades, and that whatever the necessity of differential treatment in dealing with young people at different levels and from different groupings, it is of the utmost importance that the whole profession of teaching should join in a common effort with general con¬ fidence and understanding and not allow itself to fall into warring camps or isolated groups without mutual communication. It would be a misrepresentation of what I have to say to refer to my remarks as a summarization of the two splendid papers w’e have heard on 270 National Education Association the conservation of human resources and of natural resources. Rather than undertake any such task, I have ventured to come at the problem of American youth with the idea that it is of great importance, that those of us who are called upon to deal with youth should have the fullest available understanding of youth’s present position and of 3'outh’s outlook for the future. Consequently, I shall talk on the general subject “American Youth Looks at Its Future.” Bold, indeed, would be the man who undertook to speak authoritatively these days for American youth ; and for a man past fifty to speak at all for American youth may appear to be plainly presumptuous. Nevertheless, that is what I propose to do. Middle life may have its disadvantages in this connection, but many years of association with school and college youth should have offsetting advantages. Fortified with such confidence as may be drawn from this long and wide acquaintance with young people, I am going to act for a little while as youth’s spokesman, bringing to your atten¬ tion certain views, which, I have every reason to believe, are much on the minds of a host of young people in America today. There are at least three good reasons for undertaking this rather difficult task. In the first place, youth is badly handicapped in getting its views effectively before the American public. Youth is relatively unorganized. Youth has not learned to operate thru pressure groups. On many subjects it appears to be strangely inarticulate. Thus far it has not had effective access to the instruments of propaganda. Here and there the voice of youth is being heard ; by and large even when raised it is drowned in the clamor of other parties. It is time to make an effort to give youth a chance to have its say. In the second place it is clear that a somewhat sharper competition of age groups looms in the immediate future of American life. Already in some states the question has arisen as to whether old-age pensions or public school costs are going to be covered by the diminishing public funds that are available. There is every reason to think that the aged and infirm will make increasing demands upon the national income. Evidences accumulate that the adult population will increasingly restrict the opportunities for youthful employment in industry. In still another quarter, a steadily rising burden of benefits for the veterans of the Great War promises to draw divisive lines of interests between our age groups. Among the stresses and strains of the present social order are those which stem not from conflicts of classes but from these competing interests of the successive generations. The changing age composition of the American population is almost certain to accentuate all this. The number of young people between the ages of sixteen and twenty years will reach its maximum of about twelve and one-half million in the early 1940’s. Within the next twelve years the total in this age group will probably drop about 2,000,000. In 1930 there were in the continental United States, according to the decennial census of that year, a total of approximately 123,000,000 people. Of this number about 48,300,000 were under nineteen years of age and about 6,600,000 were sixty-five years of age or older. The young people outnumbered the American Association of School Administrators 271 old more than seven to one. It is conservatively estimated that in 1960 there will be a total population of approximately 140,000,000 people, of whom about 37,000,000 will be under nineteen years of age and 15,000,000 will be sixty-five or over. The young people of all ages from birth to eighteen years, inclusive, will then outnumber the old folks by only two and a half to one. In other words, over the next twenty years the number of children and young people is expected to decline about 11,300,000, and the number of old people to increase about 8,400,000. As this fundamental shift in the age composition of our population takes place, the competing interests of the generations may be expected to become more and more sharply drawn. Under these circumstances it is important that measures be adopted to secure more effective presentation of the desires and interests of our young people. In the third place, I venture to act as spokesman for American youth because I believe it to be one of the privileges of the teaching profession to serve as mediator between each oncoming generation and those that have gone before. In times of relative economic stability and little social change, the reconciliation of the differences between the generations is not likely to prove troublesome. But in times like our own in which profoundly important changes are taking place with disconcerting speed, age groups separated by no more than fifteen or twenty years may live in totally unsympathetic worlds. Thus the World War may be said to have created a deep and almost unbridgeable chasm between those who fought in the trenches and those who carried on at home in their accustomed places. The lack of understanding between parents and their offspring during the decade following the war was a matter of common note. The depression has had like divisive effects. The adult population has been too engrossed in its own troubles to give much heed to the correlative perplexities and difficulties of youth. Herein lies a part of the opportunity and the obli¬ gation of the great company of educators: to make more widely known the interests and aspirations of American youth in the troubled times thru which we are passing. It has to be admitted at the outset that, with reason, youth might have a sharply critical attitude toward the legacy of our times. From the per¬ spective of the late 1930’s, there is a bitter, almost ridiculous irony about the idea that the World War was fought “to end all wars” or “to make the world safe for democracy.” Youth knows that whoever claims to have won that war, civilization certainly lost it. The current deterioration of international morality and the constant threat of further wars are both appallingly evident. Within our own country the national economy after several years of treatment remains sadly confused. A mounting public debt poses to youth the problem of later repayment. The burden of caring for the unemployed, the destitute, the sick, the aged, and infirm, not to mention the veterans of foreign wars, assumes larger and larger proportions. Mean¬ while the natural resources upon which the national economy is based are not what they used to be with free land gone, forest land largely denuded, millions of tons of topsoil washed to the sea, and mineral deposits substan- 272 National Education Association tially reduced. Youth would be within its rights if it commented rather caustically upon the job which has been done by its predecessors. Upon the whole, the attitude which youth has taken with regard to these matters is extraordinarily free of resentment. Happily, youth concentrates its atten¬ tion on the future, not on the past. The significant views of American youth as it looks at its future relate to a wide variety of subjects, many of which I cannot undertake to con¬ sider. I propose to confine my reporting to the views of American youth with regard to four matters: the schools, employment, democracy, and world peace. These are all very large subjects and all I can hope to do is to give you in barest outline some of the views which I believe American youth to be entertaining. The attitude of youth toward the schools has been profoundly affected by the fact that the secondary school as well as the elementary has become well-nigh inescapable. Time was — and not so very long ago — when those who did not like formal education could avoid it after a limited sentence in the elementary grades; there was always some kind of job to which to escape. That time seems to have passed with little if any prospect of its return. It now looks as if, up to the age of eighteen, or possibly nineteen or twenty, young people in America will be compelled to go to some kind of school. The high school can no longer be thought of as a school for the more academically disposed minority of young Americans; it has become a school for all young Americans of whatever disposition. The attitude of youth toward the schools is widely variant, of course, and reflects a great diversity of youthful interests, attitudes, and aspirations. It is safe to say, however, that by the time they are well along in their teens, the great bulk of our young people wish to have school programs exhibit clear and fairly direct bearing upon the life interests of the learn¬ ers. What are some of the primary roles these young people shortly expect to be playing? Obviously they wish to become workers or producers — in other words, job holders; the great bulk of them wish to become home and family builders; less uniformly and less fervently, they wish to be effective citizens. Here are approaching responsibilities for which they would like to prepare. They are not inclined to accept the doctrine that no specific preparation is in order, that the only suitable course of training is indirect and is solely concerned with the cultivation of intellectual and moral virtues. No thoughtful person is going to question the importance of these intel¬ lectual and moral virtues. No one is suggesting that society try to dispense with these virtues. On the contrary, everyone wants a more ample supply of them, and the only serious question is how to get it. One answer is to return to the traditional academic disciplines; the other is to reorganize the curriculum with specific reference to the evolving life interests of the learners. It is reasonably clear that youth leans to the latter view of the matter. By some this is thought to be due to a softening of the intellectual and moral fiber of youth. Frankly it does not seem to me that this is a fair interpretation. We must realize that the secondary school is dealing American Association of School Administrators 273 with a new kind of school population, and that young Americans of sec¬ ondary-school age are facing a new kind of world. It would be surprising, indeed, if, under these circumstances, no change of school program were in order. Youth, then, is somewhat critical of the American school of today and is looking, rather confidently I believe, for certain changes for the better. Without seeking any softening of the school program, youth expects the American school of the future to cope more successfully with vocational training and adjustment, with preparation for home and family life, with training for effective citizenship in a truly democratic America. Here is a challenge from youth to the schoolmen that cannot be brushed aside. One further idea about education gains wider and wider circulation among our young people. Increasingly it is held that individuals of excep¬ tional promise should not be kept from realizing their promise thru lack of financial means. It is argued, and soundly so, that there is inexcusable social, as well as individual, wastage in our failure to provide means by which these more gifted young Americans can obtain full development. Some system of wise selection and subsequent financial aid should be devised and supported. Where are those who will seriously question the soundness of this proposal ? It is when dealing with the problem of employment that American youth is most likely to show traces of resentment over the present situation. To young people, the full-time job is final and convincing evidence that at last adulthood has been achieved and independence established. The psy¬ chological value to youth of satisfactory employment is incalculable. Only in this way can normal home and family living become possible and self- respect be achieved. It is not at all surprising that youth views the future so largely in terms of the prospects of employment. The recent employment experience of youth has been frightfully dis¬ couraging. About one-third of all young people available for work are unemployed. The number of those in the United States between the ages of sixteen and twenty-four who are wholly unemployed is estimated at four and a third million. Nearly six million are either completely or only partly employed. Only a small proportion, 13 percent, of the youth who have no work are not actively seeking work. Surveys have shown that more than half of these young people out of work have failed to find employment after periods of effort running over two and a half years. The gap that exists between the end of schooling and the first real job is distressingly wide. Youth contemplates and experiences this gap in en¬ forced idleness — at a time in life when idleness is likely to have deeply corrosive effects. American youth has thus far met the problem of unemployment rather stoically, but it is too much to expect that it will continue to do so in¬ definitely. It is time we all recognize that no society can long endure which leaves its young men in idleness. Measures should be promptly devised for dealing more constructively with this whole problem. Capital and labor and the schools and government should all join forces in closing the 274 National Education Association present gap between the school and job. Possible extensions of the idea of the CCC should be explored. Local communities should deal more earnestly and imaginatively with the possibilities of local community work programs. If undertakings along these lines cost money, let it not be forgotten that maintenance for the aged is no more indispensable than employment for the youthful. In the matter of opportunities for work, youth must be served. Given employment, what does American youth expect of its future? In the first place it does not look for opportunities to accumulate large means ; it recognizes that the day of the great American fortune has passed, prob¬ ably never to return. But as an offset, a measurable increase in security is looked for — in fact it is demanded. At times it would appear as if American youth had grown prematurely old because of its insistence upon guarantees of securities rather than upon chances for adventure. Presumably, this atti¬ tude springs from fear that the chances of successful adventure have ceased to be reasonable. For the time being, American youth is disillusioned. For it the glamor of life is in eclipse. But the spirit of adventure which always lies latent in youth will return to life. After all, the world remains an extraordinarily interesting place. Science and technology continue to per¬ form their miracles, and thrilling careers of invention and discovery remain open. Service to one’s times still carries its rich rewards. The opportunities for social participation are expanding. Increasing leisure time lies at our disposal. If youth can come to see adequate meaning in life, if it can develop its inner resources and not attach too much importance to the material implements of daily living, it can come to view its prospects with renewed satisfaction. Young Americans regard democracy with an attitude, not of skepticism, but of frank questioning. They can see — as can all of us — that democracy is in a measure of distress, and they are led to wonder how serious the complications will turn out to be. Their ideas of just wdiat democracy means are somewhat vague and remote from their own day-to-day living. They are likely to think of democracy as a bookish ideal of government rather than as a concrete system of close-at-hand human relationships. They wonder wdiether democracy can maintain a satisfactory level of economic efficiency and whether it can solve the problem of unemployment. They hope they will not have to choose between freedom and a decent job. (Heaven forbid that they should have to!) They are impressed with the fact that great inequalities of human circumstance continue to challenge the concept of social justice that lies at the heart of democracy. On every hand they observe a distressing lack of social unity or of any consolidated social purpose. In short, they are troubled about democracy and, despite an underlying belief and loyalty, cannot but wonder what lies ahead. Let us be thankful that American youth no longer takes democracy in childlike faith. The time has arrived for dealing more openly and con¬ structively with those phases of American life which belie our democratic ideals. After all, democracy is not a blessing conferred for all time on the American people by the founding fathers; it is an aspiring purpose to be American Association of School Administrators 275 achieved only as the generations succeed in really establishing peace on earth and goodwill among men. Eternal vigilance is required for the pres¬ ervation of such democracy as we have, and unending endeavor for its improvement. If youth with its frank questioning leads America to replace its complacency toward democracy with honest concern for its future, youth will have served well those democratic purposes for which we all stand. There is much that is essentially fatalistic in the attitude of the Ameri¬ can youth toward possible future wars. After all, what does youth have to say about whether or not war shall be waged? Youth’s job is to fight the war, not to declare it ! As to the causes which provoke wars, American youth is plainly cynical. It is convinced that interests, not principles, ordinarily prevail, and that popular support for any war can be obtained provided those in power have full possession of modernized instruments of propa¬ ganda. American youth is all for peace, yet it does not appear to be for “peace at any price.” Our young men would be quick to arm if a foreign invasion were threatened or if the territorial integrity of the continental United States were endangered. But they are not now disposed to go abroad in defense of democracy. American youth knows that the inevitable centraliza¬ tions and usurpations of governmental authority in the prosecution of a great war are quite likely to mean the end of democratic institutions for the warring nations. American youth recognizes the terrible dilemma faced by the European democracies : not to fight may mean the loss of democracy thru humiliation and final subjugation; to fight may mean the loss of democracy thru political transformations deemed necessary “to win the war.” Youth on this side of the water is thankful that America does not face the same dilemma. American youth expects another European war and expects the United States sooner or later to be drawn into it; however, its attitude toward this prospect is not one of willing sacrifice but of fatalistic submission. Unhappily, as American youth views the present world, there is little left that is really worth fighting for. A young Danish contributor, Per Sorensen, puts it this way in the columns of the February Atlantic Monthly : “The Gospel of Progress is gone; left is the Gospel of Work.” It is the absence of enthusiasm, the lack of passionate devotion to any cause at all that more sharply than anything else characterizes American youth of this generation. That this is so may well give pause to those of us who are now managing the estate which American youth of these days will in due course inherit. Early manhood and womanhood is not an easy period of life; it is, in fact, one of life’s most difficult periods. Youth needs sympathetic counsel and wise cooperation in working out its problems. I am not one of those who would subordinate adult living to the demands of the oncoming gen¬ eration; on the contrary, I am convinced that each generation in its prime is entitled to its own time in the saddle. But while there and living in the present, each succeeding generation is under obligation to keep an eye on the future, and the rights and interests of youth — of the generation to 276 National Education Association come — are to be respected even if the shift of political force carries in other directions. Youth has its part to play in social planning, and let not its failure to speak be taken as a sign of either indifference or complacency. After all, civilizations, like parents, may be judged in part by the thought and care they give to their young. Let us make sure that in this respect American civilization of the middle twentieth century is not found wanting. GENERAL SESSION TUESDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 28, 1939 “ Schools in Small Communities ” The 1939 Yearbook GREETINGS REUBEN T. SHAW, PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION President Sexson : The American Association of School Administra¬ tors is, as you know, a department of the National Education Association. We are pleased this morning to present the president of the National Educa¬ tion Association for a word of greeting — Mr. Shaw. Mr. Shaw : From the very beginnings of our democracy it has been made quite clear that an educated and enlightened citizenry is absolutely funda¬ mental to the functioning of a democratic form of government. Civic leaders, statesmen, and politicians have all proclaimed the thought that education should be fully and forever encouraged thruout the nation. More than a hundred years ago we in America began talking about the importance of equal educational opportunities for all the boys and girls in America. We have made great progress in our cities and in our more wealthy states. If, however, we study the problem nationally, we find that today we are farther from providing equal educational opportunity for all the children in America than we were a hundred years ago, for our best schools are certainly better than the best schools of a hundred years ago and we still have many localities in which no schools exist. In our various designations of equal educational opportunity we have made it clear that we do not mean a uniform or stereotyped education but rather a variegated type of education devised and adjusted to study the individual needs, abilities, and capabilities of the children and adults who come to school. The study made last year by the Advisory Committee on Education, appointed by the President of the United States, brought out the following facts: 1. There are 800,000 children between the ages of seven and thirteen years who are not going to school in the United States. They are not going to school because schools are not available for them to attend, or are so located that attendance is practically impossible. 2. Approximately 3,500,000 youths of high-school age in America are not enrolled in high school, because high schools are not located where attendance would be pos¬ sible, or do not provide the courses in which these youths would be interested. American Association of School Administrators 277 3. One and a half million handicapped children are not receiving the kind of education which is indicated as desirable for their particular needs. J. Edgar Hoover, head of the Bureau of Federal Investigation, has made in substance the following statements: 1. Four out of five of those whose fingerprints are recorded in the Criminal Divi¬ sion of the Bureau are either illiterate or have had very little education. 2. Education of the right sort at the right time is a most effective means of com¬ bating, controlling, and preventing crime. 3. The annual bill for crime in America is $15,000,000,000 as compared with $2,500,000,000 for education (one of the most significant facts, it seems to me, that should be taken home and repeated in the hearing of every citizen until it registers fully and completely). I should like for you to consider seriously and carefully the following brief definition of democracy: intelligent compromise. When we proceed about anything intelligently, we gather facts, truths, and opinions and we arrange them according to our liking. Equally intelligent people will study them and arrive at different conclusions because they place different weights or values upon these facts, truths, or opinions. The fact that different conclusions are arrived at forces a compromise to be made in order that progress may follow. Whatever compromise is made continues only as long as those who effect it are willing to have it continue. Please note that that is the procedure in a democracy, and in a democracy alone do we handle matters that way. As soon as new facts have been developed, arranged, and evaluated those participating will from time to time effect new compromises and only so far as we proceed intelligently with both those — gathering facts and compromising in view of those facts — do we really make progress. Thousands of citizens who have had practically no education attain the voting power each year. Many of those who have attended school are not well informed concerning the fundamentals of our form of government, how it came into existence, and what is really meant by “government of the people, for the people, and by the people." A study of Communism, Fascism, and other isms of any sort of anti-American character brings out the fact that they thrive only in a soil of ignorance fertilized with poverty or fear or irreligion, or some combination thereof. I wish to stress the word “ignorance,” implying, with all the force that I can, ignorance of what democracy really is, particularly our own American type of democracy. With these facts before us, education of all the citizens — in large communities, in small communities, everywhere they are in America — is the most impor¬ tant phase of an internal program of national defense. I should like to analyze briefly the teaching profession and its responsi¬ bilities as I see it. The first is the responsibility toward the child in the classroom within the school walls. The second is the obligation of the teacher to be more cognizant of the various divisions and departments within the profession. And the third is the obligation of each member of the profession toward the citizens, toward the public, and toward those who will ultimately suffer 278 National Education Association or gain by the behavior and the participation of the future citizens of America in our own type of government. In many ways we have gotten away from talking in terms primarily of teachers’ salaries and school build¬ ings. We have been talking in terms of the child but I fear we have not carried home to many angles of business, and America in general, the fact that the schools exist primarily for the development of future citizens of America and that they should be fully acquainted with and have complete understanding of all the procedures that we think of in terms of American democracy. We are not limited, as at times we feel we are, to matters pertaining to the shores of this continent, for no matter how we view these matters of international concern we must admit that it is a matter of better under¬ standing in the last analysis. The year 1938 witnessed the creation of a Division of Cultural Relations in the Department of State of our federal government. I do not believe this particular movement has been paralleled by any other country in the world. Whether or not you believe in the reduction of armament as a significant movement toward peace or in the increase of armament for defense or in the value of treaties and agreements, we must agree that none of these plans has been or will become effective unless there goes with each a full and com¬ plete understanding among nations, which can come only from education and the mingling of people of various nations. At this convention there are many meetings of a division or grouping that we are calling public relations. That covers, in many respects, the item re¬ ferred to as the obligation of the teacher as a member of the profession to the public. There is a tremendous amount, however, that we need to develop in that field and I should like to classify it under three heads: the press, the screen, and the radio. We have progressed in some places by keeping the press more nearly ad¬ vised of the needs of the schools in reference to building future citizens, yet in many respects it has dwindled down to details. We are constantly making progress on the radio. I wish to direct your attention to the four radio pro¬ grams each week that are given under the auspices of the National Educa¬ tion Association. I should like, however, to develop a little further my concept of the part that the screen may play with reference to this public side. It is not enough to talk of those who are coming to our classrooms either as young students or adults. We need in times like these to do something and to do it quickly to keep the public advised in every possible way. Since many people attend the motion picture theaters, great advances in understanding these partic¬ ular problems may come thru this medium. It has been my privilege during the past year to have conferred with some of the heads of the motion picture industry. Several companies are working on and sharing the problem of presenting to the public thru “shorts” this type of program. Some excellent short features which have been made recently are the following: “Song of a Nation” — the story of “The Star-Spangled Ban¬ ner”; ‘‘Give Me Liberty” — the story of Patrick Henry; “Man Without a American Association of School Administrators 279 Country”; “Declaration of Independence”; “Romance of Louisiana” — the story of the Louisiana Purchase; and “Lincoln in the White House.” Here is my challenge to you: Warner Brothers is working on this type of educational feature — as are Fox and other companies — and this is the issue they present to us: We propose to continue this series as long as worthy subjects present themselves for dramatization. We realize, however, that the selection of proper subjects for such a series is a public responsibility which should be strengthened by a comprehensive knowledge of our national development. They specifically ask the National Education Association to present to them as promptly as possible the ten most significant facts in American his¬ tory, and they will then proceed to produce them in these short features so that the public attending the motion picture theaters may have an oppor¬ tunity to see them. It is my privilege to announce that Warner Brothers has sent those six films for you to see. They are being shown at one of the small theaters near here this evening. It is your responsibility to attend and to send in any sug¬ gestions that occur to you. When we have matters of this kind coming up, or when we receive requests such as the recent one to the Committee on International Relations regarding the supplying of information to the teachers of South America concerning our American democracy, we should be prepared to present such information. Thru the efforts and cooperation of many of you as individuals and of the Office of Education, we are preparing a pictorial booklet translated into Portuguese and Spanish for delivery to the South American countries. This booklet is to contain desired information on our American system and will include some splendid cuts that have appeared in School Life. I hope all of you share with me in the feeling of pride when such opportuni¬ ties to serve arise. It is an opportunity to find ways to get together thru this intelligent compromise, to find ways to speak as a profession, and at all times and all places to recognize a pride in the profession. I say with all the force that I can, I am proud to be a teacher! PRESENTATION OF THE YEARBOOK H. M. CORNING, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, COLORADO SPRINGS, COLO. ) CHAIRMAN, 1939 YEARBOOK COMMISSION President Sexson : The major project of the Association is its yearbooks. In our professional life there is no contribution or publication we look for¬ ward to with greater interest. I believe I can say without any fear of contra¬ diction that no man has given more significant leadership to the small or medium sized community than has the chairman of the 1939 Yearbook Com¬ mission. He and his committee have been engaged for two years in collect¬ ing, compiling, and editing the materials which they hope will be of invalu¬ able assistance to those who lead the medium or smaller sized communities. I have the pleasure at this time of paying my respects to the fine profes¬ sional leadership of my friend and of presenting to you Mr. Corning. 280 National Education Association Mr. Corning: Thomas Jefferson, speaking of the school system of Vir¬ ginia in 1821, said, “Let us keep our eye steadily on the whole school system.” This wise admonition by Jefferson was appropriately used as the key phrase in the foreword of the 1929 yearbook of the Department of Superintendence. The commission which prepared that yearbook directed professional eyes at the whole school system thru its study of the units of American education and the relationship between them. In 1931 the same commission presented a second yearbook, this time developing the articulation of the entire school system thru five unifying factors — and again the Jeffersonian advice, “Let us keep our eye steadily on the whole school system,” was used as the motif. Today, in presenting to you the 1939 yearbook, I am convinced that the Jefferson statement is even more appropriate than it was when applied to the two former studies. In both the 1929 and 1931 yearbooks, individual school systems within communities were under consideration. No one will deny that it is appropriate and important that our eyes be on the entire school system within each community. But Jefferson was thinking more broadly. He was referring to the school system of the state of Virginia and to general educa¬ tion, not to the process within a given community. Reaction to his suggestion among school and lay groups today might well be, “What of the entire process of education in Virginia? in my state? in yours?” Indeed, the query might appropriately be, “What of the entire school system thruout the nation?” If in the Jeffersonian spirit our eyes are directed at the entire school sys¬ tem broadly conceived, the justification for the current yearbook will be obvious. For many years the profession has recognized that the smaller school systems have not received the attention which their number and im¬ portance would require. The larger school systems have received the pre¬ ponderance of emphasis in professional study and research, while the pecu¬ liarly pressing and relatively more difficult problems of the smaller school systems, altho recognized, have been comparatively neglected. The importance of small school systems, the difficulty of their problems, and their evident neglect by the profession as a whole caused the American Association of School Administrators, “with eyes upon the entire school system,” to pass a resolution at the St. Louis convention in 1936 which established “the small school system” as the subject for the 1939 yearbook and which resulted in the appointment of the commission which is reporting to you today. The members of this commission have been at work for two years. Five general meetings and several subcommittee meetings have been held. At preliminary meetings general principles were formulated, the scope of the study was determined and outlined, and assignments of specific studies and chapters were made to commission members. At later meetings written chap¬ ters and reports were submitted to the group, no one of which showed the slightest reluctance to criticize, sometimes mercilessly, the writings of his fellow commission members. The individual authors in turn defended vigorously their points of view. In every instance, however, points of differ¬ ence were so reconciled that the book in its present form represents, as nearly American Association of School Administrators 281 as can be, the thought of the group. While I have indicated that differences of opinion were frequent, I do not wish to leave the impression that our meetings were too tumultuous or that our associations together were strained in any way. We worked hard; we enjoyed it all; we learned to know each other, especially our peculiarities ; we signed off as good friends ; and we are presenting no minority report to this convention ! It is true, as in all cases of composite writing, however, that no individual should be held responsible literally for every statement in the book. Some¬ times the original form of an individual’s point of view was changed by the group action to such an extent that the authorship as it now stands is that of the group rather than that of the individual. The commission as a whole is responsible for these chapters ; as a group we invite your criticism and, as far as they are deserved, your words of commendation. Frequent reference is made in the chapters to the small school system. Two words in this phrase need some definition. The commission has not sharply defined what is meant by “small.” It has been simpler in some of the chapters to consider the systems under discussion as “relatively smaller” rather than to limit sharply the size to any population level. In general, however, school systems in communities with populations of from 500 to 5000 are considered, with a special focus of attention upon systems in com¬ munities of about 2500 population. It is hoped, however, that some value will be found in this study by superintendents in somewhat larger systems. By “school system” is meant an organization offering training thru the high school under the direction of a superintendent and a board of education. Whether the words “school” or “school system” appear, this definition ap¬ plies. No specific consideration is given to the problems of the small school unit within a larger sj^stem, of the small segregated elementary- or high- school system, or of the one-room school. It is the hope of the commission that this book will not be considered just another textbook on school administration. The profession has access to many outstanding books and articles which deal with school administration. It was not our intention to add another volume in that field. Too frequently, however, these general works on administration deal almost exclusively with city school problems and the solutions which are suggested to those problems are technics and procedures which are adapted to conditions in large school districts. The superintendent of a village system finds but little of practical value to him in these volumes. Indeed, he is quite discouraged if he attempts to apply many- of these technics, which have been successful in cities, to his own organization. This book is addressed, therefore, to the superintendents of small school systems with the hope that they will find value in the analysis of problems peculiar to the small school system and in the solutions which are in terms of small school conditions. Another original purpose of the commission was to make this volume of really practical value. Thruout the several meetings of the commission, and as a guiding factor in the work done by individual members, the original intent has been kept in mind; namely to make this report a handbook which will be of practical value as a ready reference to administrators in small 282 National Education Association school systems. General theory and explanation of technics, procedures, and standards found in other books have been omitted except by reference. The best practice from the field was obtained for inclusion in the study thru the returns from questionnaires which were sent to a wide sampling of school superintendents in small communities. In these questionnaires the superin¬ tendents were asked to list and rate their most serious problems, and to in¬ dicate whether practical solutions had been developed. Second inquiries were sent to many asking for complete details of the successful solutions. In addition, individual members of the commission thru correspondence and personal visitation gathered examples of best practice for inclusion in their chapters. The commission has approached its task with the conviction that the problems and difficulties in the administration of a small school system are unique and that their solutions, if effective, must be in terms of condi¬ tions which are found in the small school system itself. The publication of this book will be justified only so far as it presents a study of the difficulties which administrators in small school systems face, and so far as it suggests workable solutions and procedures. If this presentation of the yearbook is in the nature of a review as we know book reviews, some mention should be made of the general underlying theory which guided the authors. The philosophy of the commission with respect to the administration of small school systems can best be presented by referring to the following fundamental principles by which the commission was guided in the preparation of this yearbook. The first of these basic principles or guideposts is: (1) The small com¬ munity is an essential and important factor in American life. The number of small communities supports this thesis. There are in the nation four times as many incorporated villages as cities, to say nothing of the unincorporated villages which outnumber the incorporated ones three to one. Almost half of the total population of the nation lives in communities with populations of less than 2500. These numbers are impressive but they are not the whole story. The first chapter of the yearbook which develops a sociological setting of the small school system explains “that the changing structure of rural society, due to better transportation and communication, has resulted in the growth of the rural community as the basic unit of rural social organiza¬ tion.” Furthermore, it is shown, there are peculiar social values inherent in the rural community such as: (a) the stability and solidarity of the rural family, (b) the educative features of rural life, (c) the stability of popula¬ tion of the rural community and the resulting personal acquaintance and intimacy of group relations, (d) the larger degree of social control in the community, (e) the relative self-sufficiency of the rural community in times of stress, and (f) the possibility for the individual to grasp the social rela¬ tionships in a rural community in a more realistic manner than is possible in a large city. The second principle, which in reality is a corollary to the first, is: (2) The small school system is a vital institution in American education. If the foregoing principle is sound, this one is necessarily so for in all these afore¬ mentioned important small communities the school is or should be the American Association of School Administrators 283 center of the social organization. Numbers again are impressive. In com¬ munities with populations of 2500 or less are found nine out of ten of America’s schools, 55 percent of the teachers, and approximately half of all the school children. If a poll were taken of all school superintendents or of all members of this Association, the percent would be very high of those who superintend very small school systems. The numbers indicate that the schools which one-half the nation’s children attend are just as important, as necessary, and as deserving of study, attention, and adequate support as the schools which the other half of the children attend. In summarizing the importance of the small community and its school system, the yearbook states : The small school system should be regarded not merely as a mechanism for main¬ taining the best possible educational institutions but it should be conceived as the structure within which it may be possible to develop the best type of rural social organization and the finest rural culture. The small school system should not only make possible the best educational program for young and old but it should make the school a social center for the community and it should take responsibility for helping to build a better rural community, because the community has an essential part in the educational process. In the third place, the commission believes that: (3) It is quite possible to provide for children in sinall communities a rich and complete educa¬ tional experience. This thesis is probably contrary to general opinion. The difficulties which impede the development of an enriched offering in small communities are so real and so pressing — are, in fact, so much more over¬ whelming than the administrative problems of larger systems — that too frequently one develops an attitude of futility, a feeling that nothing can be done about it. The commission maintains the point of view, however, that many of even the most difficult problems are possible of solution, and this opinion is substantiated by evidence from the field. Outstanding ex¬ amples were found of very small school systems in which, under the ingenious leadership of the superintendent and the teachers, problems have been solved and an enriched and vital service to the children is being developed. Furthermore, the commission believes that the administration of a small system is characterized not alone by the difficulties inherent in small¬ ness, but also by certain unique advantages and opportunities. Joseph K. Hart compares the educational advantages inherent in rural or village life by showing the deficiencies of education in cities. He writes: “The city tends, more and more, to take away from children the old community mate¬ rials of education : work, play, social life, emotional enrichment, the sense of community, and the framework of a personal career. The city tends, more and more, to substitute talk about things for the old actual experience with things. City children see many things ; they handle very few. They look on at much ; they participate in little. They read about work ; they get their hands into little of it.” It is a challenge to the superintendent in a small community not only to attempt a solution to his peculiarly pressing prob¬ lems but also to discover the advantages peculiar to his situation and fully to capitalize upon them in the development of his program. In the fourth place, the yearbook is predicated on the thesis that : (4) The 284 National Education Association small school system is not a mere miniature of the larger organization. Both in actual administration of a small school and in the training of execu¬ tives for administrative responsibility, the assumption has prevailed that the small school is a mere miniature of the city school. This notion, so gener¬ ally accepted in practice if not expressed in theory, has been produced undoubtedly by the lack of attention to the small school in professional research and it has resulted too frequently in the effort to imitate the large school. This process is most discouraging and unfortunate. What the large school does — its objectives, its activities, its outcomes, its type of organiza¬ tion, its administrative technics — may or may not be appropriate for the smaller school. If not appropriate, imitation inevitably results in failure and the administrator is inclined to be overwhelmed with the hopelessness of his task. This striving to imitate should be replaced by a determination to establish the small school as an entity. With the welfare of children of small schools in mind, the administration of these schools should be made more efficient thru appropriate technics and procedures that will assure the same degree of comfort, health, educational advancement, and enrichment of opportunity which are provided thru efficient and appropriate administration of schools in urban centers. Small schools must be administered with intelligent appreciation of the uniqueness of the problem, and administrative procedures must be based upon a sound philosophy of the small school evolved thru clear thinking, research, and sym¬ pathetic understanding. The book is based upon a fifth belief of the commission which is: (5) There are two avenues thru which the small school system can be improved : thru improving practice within the framework of the administrative struc¬ ture, and thru fundamental reorganization of the administrative structure itself. The yearbook develops quite fully the possibilities of improvement thru both approaches. It suggests policies and procedures for improvement within the present organization, and stresses the importance of completely exploring the possibilities of attaining desired improvement in this way before attempting a structural reorganization. At the same time the year¬ book recognizes that in some situations the fundamental structure itself must be altered. The commission believes that these two methods are complementary and in instances of reorganization they are interdependent. The commission does not recognize consolidation as a panacea. It is probably desirable and necessary in some situations. The process of consolidation alone, however, will not necessarily accomplish the desired results. It should be preceded by a thoro study and improvement of practice within the existing organization and should be followed by a similarly thoro study of the resulting organization if desirable results are to be assured. The commission believes that when consolidation is considered, attend¬ ance areas should follow sociological community lines as far as possible. This is not too strict a limitation to consolidation when it is considered that changed methods of transportation and communication have broadened the social structure of rural communities thru the integration of the village, town, and small city with its open-country trade area, and thru the American Association of School Administrators 285 increasing cooperation between formerly isolated towns and villages in the achievement of joint enterprises. The plan of consolidation developed may well provide an administrative unit that will include several or many communities, but the attendance unit, so far as feasible, should follow these broadened community lines. The sixth tenet in the underlying philosophy of the yearbook is that: (6) The schools of the small community have a duty to serve both the child who will live in the same or a similar community and the child who will eventually reside in the large city. “The school population migrates to a considerable degree. Many children now attending small schools will continue their education in the cities, many others who will finish their educations in the rural schools will later become residents of the cities. During the decade 1920-29 there was a net migration from farms to cities of about 6,300,000 persons, and altho this was temporarily checked during the industrial depression, and the movement was reversed in 1932, the city¬ ward movement is again going forward and will doubtless continue, because of the excess of rural population and the deficiency of reproduction in the cities. Since, therefore, the educational qualifications of a considerable pro¬ portion of city workers are being determined by the efficiency of rural schools, cities have an economic interest at stake in rural education.” The small schools are of great importance, therefore, to the entire nation, and not merely to the local supporting group. It follows, then, that the improve¬ ment of conditions in small schools should be a primary responsibility of the entire nation. Society thruout the nation has an interest at stake and should insist that the offering of the small schools be made sufficiently strong and flexible to adapt to the dual needs of youth who will remain in rural com¬ munities and those who will migrate to the city. The last of the guiding principles and the one which the commission has sought to set forth most vigorously thruout the chapters is that: (7) The superintendejit of a sjnall school system occupies a most important position and has exceptional opportunities for rendering distinguished service to public education. The yearbook in discussing professional leadership in the small school states : The small school system offers opportunities for professional leadership by the superintendent of schools and the members of his staff which are limited only by their ability to appreciate the challenging situations which arise and by their skill in meeting these situations in a masterful way. The small school system is a major institution of the community wThich it serves. To organize and administer an educational program which embodies an effective training program for children and at the same time to recognize the need for extending the resources and influence of the school to the community as a whole is a challenge to the leadership abilities of an individual. The situation requires a superintendent (a) with the essentials of leadership, (b) with a grasp of the opportunities of his strategic position, (c) with a knowledge of possible coordination with the efforts of county and state author¬ ities, and (d) with an appreciation of the necessity for improving leadership. The superintendent need not look to larger and still larger towns for pro¬ fessional advancement. In his own situation he can serve with distinction. The opportunity for exceptional service is there — the challenge is inherent in the situation. When administrators avail themselves more generally of 286 National Education Association the opportunities which the small school system affords for achievement, recognition, and service, the problems of the small school system will be solved. These then are the elements of the commission’s philosophy: (a) the im¬ portance of the small community; (b) the vital significance of the small school system; (c) the possibility of providing rich educational experience in small school systems; (d) the small school system as an entity; (e) the dual and complementary methods of improving small schools; (f) the importance of the small school to the nation as a whole; and (g) the excep¬ tional opportunity for distinguished service in the small school system. These concepts express a point of view upon which the yearbook is predicated. With the members of the commission in agreement upon these basic principles, the work of assembling the material for the yearbook proceeded. The questionnaire returns were studied to determine what problems were most consistently ranked as of first importance by superintendents in the field. Those problems became the subjects of special study by commission members. Curiously, these most pressing problems grouped themselves under a small number of classifications. These classifications became the subjects of the chapters of which the book is composed, and the table of contents is in reality a listing of the most serious problems. There are two chapters on guidance; three chapters on curriculum enrichments; two chapters on consolidation and bus transportation ; separate chapters on schoolhouse planning, professional leadership, public relations, and lay leadership ; and four chapters on the basic problem of finance and fiscal management. Quite definitely, therefore, the scope of the study was determined by the expressed needs of the superintendents in small school systems. How well we have succeeded in producing a book which will be of assistance in solving these problems is a matter of conjecture with us and will be, we hope, a subject for investigation by you. I cannot complete the last act of the commission without acknowledging our deep gratitude for the invaluable assistance rendered by the professional staff from Washington. Sherwood Shankland, executive secretary of the Association, not only planned every detail of our meetings but also con¬ tributed effectively to the deliberations of the group. Frequently, when differences threatened to be too serious, he interposed wise and considered suggestions which resulted in a more harmonious reasoning together. Frank Hubbard edited all the work, exercised eternal vigilance in keeping us on schedule and, indeed, if we must admit the truth, wrote more of the material than the members of the commission are happy to admit. If the preparation of other yearbooks follow the pattern of our procedure, none of them could be produced successfully without a Mr. Shankland and a Mr. Hubbard. I take pleasure and I am honored to act for the commission in presenting to you and to the American Association of School Administrators this year¬ book. In presenting it, we address it to the superintendents in small com¬ munities and dedicate it to the children in small school systems. And to the membership of the Association at large, we would say, “Let us keep our eye steadily on the whole school system !” American Association of School Administrators 287 THE VILLAGE REVUE Amherst j Ohio , High-School Students Discuss Their Activities and O pportunities ; Conducted by ROY W. HATCH, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, UPPER MONTCLAIR, N. J. President Sexson : The next number on the program brings to the stage a man whom many of the members of this organization who attended the St. Louis convention remember. I think that no one who saw what happened there with those young people will ever forget Roy W. Hatch and the demonstration he staged regarding classroom procedure incidental to the discussion of controversial subjects. We wanted to present this morning something which would carry with it the real flavor of a rural community and something of its problems, and in the contemplation of that, the minds of every person turned unani¬ mously to Mr. Hatch. We have asked him to bring to this stage a Village Revue, a revue calculated to refresh in our minds the possibilities of the rich and sustaining culture for young people in small communities. I now surrender the stage to Mr. Hatch. Mr. Hatch : We are not attempting this morning to do wThat we did at St. Louis three years ago. Then it was our purpose to discuss a contro¬ versial issue in a classroom situation under teacher guidance. This year we have been asked to present the opportunities and activities of country boys and girls in a more or less typical rural community. I went out to Amherst recently and met, for the first time, these young people who are juniors and seniors in the Amherst High School. We have been together now for a week working very hard on this program for you. We have had a happy time and we hope that we can get something of that over to you. We know, of course, that there is no such thing as one typical community. Brunner and Lorge, in their recent studies of 140 rural village com¬ munities thruout the United States, have pointed that out very definitely. At the same time, every community has its own individuality and we are hoping that that will stand out today, for we who teach should take cognizance of that individuality in the particular community in which we are teaching. We believe in America that we can have individual guidance and individual treatment under a free school system. I have no doubt that many of you lived your boyhood or girlhood under country conditions. But if you think that today the country and the farm is as it was when you were a boy or a girl, we are hoping that we can influence you to modify that point of view. Science has transformed the social life as well as the agricultural life of these village communities and we who teach should realize that : New occasions teach new duties; Time makes ancient good uncouth. When I was a boy, I used to close the barn door at night, and to be sure that I had not missed a single one of my chores I went over this 288 National Education Association ritual: “Hayed — grained — bedded — floor swept up — pigs fed — cows taken care of — chains put up behind the horses — and the barn door locked.” And now, at the very start, we want to have you get a picture of our town so I turn this over now to Dorothy Raesler’s committee who will act as guides thru Amherst, Ohio. Dorothy Raesler: Last year the play that won the Pulitzer Prize was Thornton Wilder’s Our Town. It gave a picture of a New England town nestled in a valley of the White Mountains in New Hampshire. It is an interesting fact that many of the first settlers of Amherst came from New England. Some other fine citizens came from Pennsylvania. Today we want to give you a picture of our town — Amherst, Ohio — which is as dear to us as was Grovers Corners to its inhabitants. Maurice Paton : The population of Amherst in 1930 was 2841. We are not growing rapidly, but we are growing. We are 32 miles southwest of Cleveland and we are tied to the city with one railroad, the New York Central, with a bus line, and with good hard-surface macadamized roads. Esther Sprenger: The first settlers were of old New England and Pennsylvania stock, coming here just at the turn of the nineteenth century. This year we are celebrating our one hundred and twenty-fifth anniversary. Today we have added to that old English group many Dutch, Scotch, German, French, Russian, Scandinavian, Czechoslovakian, Irish, Italian, Hungarian, Syrian, and Polish inhabitants. We have one Jewish family and no Negroes. You see, we have a little League of Nations all our own. Henry Edwards: Our town has a mayor-council type of government. The mayor and council are elected every two years. Our town is protected by a volunteer fire department. We have two regular and three special police. The most recent addition to this department is the new police car. Betty Braun : For the most part, we are a community of small farms. However, we do have one major industry, the sandstone industry. Our slogan is: “Amherst, the Sandstone Center of the World.” We have two other industries, the U. S. Automatic Company and the American Specialty Company. These companies employ about three hundred men. We have only 26 men on WPA. Maurice Paton : The area of our community is about three square miles. The general picture of our town is a group of small residences and at the center we have the two banks, the school, the town hall, the Carnegie library, the hospital, one motion picture theater, the newspaper office, the stores, and the churches. Beyond this center are the outlying farms. Henry Edwards: The sandy loam soil around Amherst makes various types of agriculture abundant. This rich, productive soil makes it possible for the farmers to have large, prosperous fruit farms. Truck gardening facilities are also helped. Dairying is a very important part of the farm program along with poultry raising, both of which are done on a large scale. Amherst is particularly well known for its fine apples. The average farm of our community is about eighty acres. Esther Sprenger: As we enter the typical farmhouse, we notice that “Mom” has a modern gas range in which to bake her bread, and a radio American Association of School Administrators 289 to keep her company. She also has other conveniences such as electric iron, refrigerator, sweeper, toaster, and mangle. For the most part, the furniture is modern. However, there are a few old farmhouses equipped with old- fashioned rockers, poster beds, and the ancient type sofa. Hot and cold running water is enjoyed in some of the farmhouses. A few people in the country have their water pumped in by gas or electric motors. Each farm has its own well and cistern. You will find that you have really as many conveniences in the farmhouse as in the city home. Dorothy Raesler: Now we are going to take you on a tour of our town. It is Sunday morning and you will see a large majority of the inhabitants of Amherst going to church. The churches they attend are St. Peter’s Evangelical-Reformed, First Evangelical, Congregational, Method¬ ist, Catholic, Lutheran, and Aimee McPherson’s Four-Square Church. For the most part these churches are located near the center of town and the farmers are coming into the churches in cars, chiefly Pontiacs, Fords, Chevrolets, and Plymouths. Here and there you will see a Cadillac or a Packard. In nearly all these churches, Sunday school precedes the services and these classes are well attended. Betty Braun : On Sunday afternoon neighbors have little backyard visits ; the young folks go for walks around the town or out into the country. Relatives from the city have the old-fashioned custom of visiting their fam¬ ilies out on the farm. The children attend the one moving picture theater, the Mary Jane. It is open on Sunday and in the afternoons many of the children spend their dimes there. Maurice Paton : In the evening the older folks go to the movies. A number of the young people, if they can get the family car, will go to the theaters and dance halls in the larger centers. The curfew rings at 9 :00 o’clock but this is not rigidly enforced. As a general rule, however, the lights of the homes in the town center begin to go out about 10:00 or 10:30 but the lights of the farmhouses have been out much earlier. Esther Sprenger: On weekdays many of the men and women of the town attend various club meetings such as church clubs, Rotary, W.C.T.U., American Legion and Auxiliary, Eagles and Auxiliary, Odd Fellows, East¬ ern Star, Yellow Dog Club, Pythian Sisters, Knights of Pythias, Garden Club, Study Club, Noonday Club, Businessmen’s Association, Cloverleaf Club, parent-teacher association, and bridge and pinochle clubs. You see, we are well clubbed. Henry Edwards: For recreation in Amherst, in the summertime, we have a softball league which occupies much of the boys’ time. We have a fine recreation field, on which there is a baseball as well as several softball diamonds, four tennis courts, and swings and seesaws for the younger chil¬ dren. In the fall the high-school students have a chance to try out for the school football team and in the winter for the school basketball team. We have a natural pond for ice skating and many hills for coasting and skiing. Betty Braun: Of course, on weekdays our boys and girls go to school. Many of the Catholic children attend the parochial school as far as the eighth grade, when they are ready to enter high school. Our superintendent, 290 National Education Association F. R. Powers, is proud of the good school system that has been organized. We have good teachers at Amherst High School. Our curriculum is quite extensive. Our high school is on the accredited list and our standards are high. We do not have to take college entrance examinations. Our principal, Miss Marian Steele, says that about 10 percent of our graduates attend college. The colleges most attended are Baldwin-Wallace, Ohio State, Bluff- ton, Oberlin, Western Reserve, Wooster, and John Carroll. It is very sel¬ dom that any of our graduates attend an eastern college. Maurice Paton : Perhaps the most outstanding citizen to come from our town was Frank Hitchcock who became the Postmaster General of the United States. He served during the administrations of Theodore Roose¬ velt and William Taft. He was one of the most efficient heads of the postal service this country has known. Esther Sprenger: Another important person from Amherst is Henry Bruce who is now vicepresident of the University of Southern California. Henry Edwards: Howard Hall, professor of political science at Madi¬ son, Wisconsin, co-editor of a recent set of law books, also graduated from Amherst High School. Betty Braun : Richard T. F. Harding, who now writes for the Cleve¬ land Plain Dealer , is another graduate from Amherst. Dorothy Raesler: Our town may not be large but we think it is rather beautiful. One of the outstanding features is the Old Spring. This natural spring was the center of the first settlement here in Amherst. This year we are celebrating the one hundred and twenty-fifth anniversary of that settlement. The spring has been beautified by the planting of many flowers and the building of a stone arch over the steps leading to the spring and some benches for picnic purposes. The streets of Amherst are well lined with beautiful sugar-maple trees which were set out by the early settlers. We think our town is a pleasant, quiet place in which to live. Let not our town be large, remembering That Athens was the Muses’ home That Oxford rules the heart of London still That Florence gave the Renaissance to Rome. Mr. Hatch: And now we present, “Headlines and High Lights in the World of Schools in Small Communities.” (A large reproduction of the 1939 yearbook was placed on the stage, from which the students emerged, one by one, each repeating a statement from the yearbook.) Evelyn Stark: From the beginning of our national existence, democ¬ racy has flourished in the villages and towns. And yet today in many small communities children are denied the educational opportunities to be ex¬ pected under a democratic form of government. The problem is how we can preserve the unique contribution of the small community to American civilization. Le Roy Tyler: The school is the central institution of rural life. Nine out of every ten schools and 55 percent of the teachers in the United States American Association of School Administrators 291 The Hillbilly Buckaroos do their bit in the Village Revile are in communities of less than 2500 inhabitants. The proportion of our population which is rural is less than that which is urban, but there are slightly more children under fifteen years of age in the rural areas. Ruth Miller: There has arisen during the last twenty-five years a new concept, that of the rural community. The rural community, as thus conceived, is composed of two definite parts, the people of the village and those of the open country tributary to it. The farmer is no longer an outsider to the villager; he no longer comes to town only on Saturday to buy his supplies and to get the mail, but is back and forth maybe several times a day, and his children mingle in school with the children of the village and are indistinguishable. Jim Schulz: The rapid extension of telephone lines and rural free de¬ livery also expanded the farmer’s means of communication and gave him many new contacts. The automobile, good roads, and the telephone made possible the formation of many more rural organizations: the Farm Bureau and the farmers cooperative associations, the Grange, Home Bureaus, farm women’s clubs, and parent-teacher associations, as well as organizations for youth, such as the Future Farmers of America, the Four-H Clubs, and the Scouts. Edna-May Lehman : Rural electrification, once only a dream, is now becoming a stirring reality. Rapid communication makes it possible for hun¬ dreds of thousands to live “the good life” in small communities and to do business in large communities. In other words, it is the age of cheap elec¬ tricity, power, sunshine, more air, and more abundant living. 292 National Education Association Lois Ehlert: There is a growing belief that genuine and more abundant living can be had best thru the human associations in the smaller communi¬ ties. The small community is a fundamental unit in American democracy. Hilda Scharein : There is one fundamental characteristic of the farm family in that its members have a common interest in the farm as a family occupation and means of support. The family is bound together in a way which does not occur when the occupation is separated from the home. It is well known that the farm family is larger and more stable than the city family. It is nearly one-third larger, while divorce is three times as prevalent in cities as in towns. Bill Raab : In the small community, teachers can more easily come to understand the pupil as a whole and the community life in which he lives. If we look upon education as personal guidance, the small community fur¬ nishes a setting for an ideal educational program. Esther Sprenger: A curriculum making possible the acquisition of good character and personality is proposed by the New Jersey Character Educa¬ tion Committee. This committee states that “it is idle and worse to suppose that character can be built in any satisfactory fullness apart from action in life and its concrete situations.” Betty Braun : There must be an intimate relationship between the “doings” life of a community and the educational program. The rural com¬ munity may thus become a real factor in the life of children. The early New England towns once furnished such a pattern. All its citizens, young and old, felt the community mind and sensed its demands. Joe Whiton: Schools, like most public agencies, require community goodwill. As one schoolboard member put it, “It is far better to build up in advance an attitude on the part of the public of swearing by the schools than at the school tax rate.” Bob Hoffman : In many small communities, recreational development has not been as rapid because of the old idea that people living in small com¬ munities do not need recreational facilities. One of the imperative problems for the small school system is to provide for the leadership in making these recreational needs apparent. Jeff Gerber: The Commission on Youth Problems of the American Association of School Administrators in its “Criticisms of the Present Cur¬ riculum,” wrote, “It seems, therefore, worthwhile to take stock of the wide¬ spread criticisms of the public school curriculum. Those criticisms are that the curriculum: (a) is remote from the student’s daily life outside of the school; (b) is not adjusted to modern life; (c) does not reflect the aspira¬ tions of youth; and (f) gives too little attention to the emotional and social attitudes.” Ruth Flecker: Recently, in the village community schools, certain trends appear reasonably clear. The social studies have become far more important than formerly. Many village school systems have added courses not counting history. The subjects most frequently added are sociology, economics, social problems, social civics, and international relations. Dorothy Raesler: The next major change relates to vocational educa- American Association of School Administrators 293 tion. This is seen chiefly in the increase in commercial education. Schools are turning out graduates far in excess of the power of their communities to absorb them ; and if the slackening of urban opportunity for rural youth should continue, the development in this field may come under fire. Hazel Diedrick: The next trend of importance seems to be the begin¬ ning of an effort toward facilitating mental adjustments and toward guid¬ ance. This is particularly true of the Middle Atlantic village communities and in the Far West. Edna-May Lehman : It is quite evident that Latin and modern language are under pressure. The contractions of various history courses into one general course, was paralleled in science in a few cases, as well as in mathematics. Betty Ehlert: Despite the agitation against “fads and frills,” the cul¬ tural arts survived the depression quite well in these village communities. Music was introduced, or expanded, and also drama, public speaking, pho¬ tography, journalism, photoplay appreciation, and highway safety. Alma Masters : In view of the difficulties thru which these village com¬ munity schools have passed, the curriculum expansion is quite remarkable. It is to be explained, in part, by the opening of the high-school doors to the unemployed youth for a year of postgraduate study. But most of all, the ex¬ planation lies in the willingness of teachers, who are better trained as a rule. Henry Edwards: Some idea of the ramifications of teacher influence is indicated by the report from a town of about 3500 population: “There are fifty teachers in the faculty. Just now teachers hold key positions in the following organizations: Rotary, Lions, Junior Chamber of Commerce, all the churches, Boy Scouts, Business and Professional Women, American Legion, Recreation Committee, and the Coordination Council.” Marjorie Sennett: The superintendent of the small school occupies a most important position with exceptional opportunities for rendering dis¬ tinguished service to public education. Horace Mann once said, “One former is worth a thousand reformers.” Marilyn Pietch: Rural Superintendents Crowe and Brady, of Geauga County, Ohio, are somewhat new types of rural school superintendents — energetic, ambitious, impressed with the belief that today the school must exert an unprecedentedly great influence over community life. Rosemary Radde: In Geauga County in two centralized schools that have supplanted the little red ones which once dotted rural areas, they have taken that formal-sounding thing, adult education, and converted it into a growing, stimulating, highly democratic movement that is making educa¬ tional history in rural Ohio. In these two schools have been brought together persons whose ages range from eighteen to seventy-six for not only classroom education but also for the development of aptitudes in dramatics, singing, woodworking, home decoration, public speaking, photography, and even cherry canning. Bob Edwards : The numerous and highly vocal critics who are denounc¬ ing modern education as too hidebound and unfitted to meet the problems of a democracy might take a look-in on rural Geauga County. Jeff Gerber of Amherst, Ohio, on the stage with his tractor American Association of School Administrators 295 Evelyn Stark: Our slogan is: “Let us here highly resolve that in democratic America there shall be equal opportunities for every child in every community, rich or poor, large or small.” Mr. Hatch : Do you old boys remember how after supper, just about the time dusk was beginning to fall, you got out on the three-cornered fence of the lot near the old store and one of the boys reached into his back pocket and took out his harmonica, tapped it on his knee to get the dust out, while perhaps another got out his jew’s-harp or a homemade pair of old bone clappers, and you began to strike it up, just as the moon was beginning to come up over Huckleberry Hill and the first soft stars were looking down on Dunham’s Pond — well, we have its counterpart in Amherst and I am proud to introduce the Hillbilly Buckaroos! Jack Wilhelm: We are going to start off with the jig of all jigs — “Turkey in the Straw.” (The Hillbilly Buckaroos played “Turkey in the Straw.” At the conclu¬ sion of this number, J. B. Golden from Wichita, Kansas, arose in the audi¬ ence and shouted “Give me that hillbilly band and I’ll be elected governor of Kansas !”) Jack Wilhelm: We will now play “She’ll Be Coming Round the Mountain When She Comes!” (The Hillbilly Buckaroos played “She’ll Be Coming Round the Moun¬ tain When She Comes.” The Amherst boys and girls sang, adding a verse “He’ll be riding an old red tractor when he comes. ...” A tractor was driven on the stage by Jeff Gerber. Bob Edwards : And here she comes, boys ! Joe Whiton: Look at the four-wheeled mousetrap! Margie Lawrence: Where did you get that jitterbug? Jeff Gerber: Jitterbug! Bob Edwards: What do you call that thing then? Jeff Gerber: Why, this is a tractor. Dad and I made it. We made it ourselves. Bob Hoffman: Do you call that thing a tractor? Why, our horses will do twice the work that thing will do, I’ll bet. Jeff Gerber: I’ll take that bet, for that is just where you’re wrong. Margie Lawrence: All right, what can you do with it? Jeff Gerber: It will cultivate better and it will cultivate faster than a team of horses, and it comes in very handy for hauling on the road. We have heavy lug wheels which we can change for plowing. We sold one team of horses since we made this tractor. Edna-May Lehman : Well, you can feed a horse off the farm, but you can’t feed a tractor that way. Jeff Gerber: That’s all true, but you don’t have to feed a tractor every day and bed it down at night. Bob Hoffman: How much did it cost to make it? Jeff Gerber: Well, we had a couple of old Model T’s lying around. We tore them apart and with a few other parts which we had we constructed this Lizzie. Our total cash outlay was about fifty dollars, certainly not any 296 National Education Association more than that, and that was chiefly for welding and machine work. We’ve had it on the farm a long time now. Edna-May Lehman: Do you drive it yourself, Jeff? Jeff Gerber: Sure! Of course, it isn’t like the new tractor Dad got last spring. Our new tractor doesn’t use so much gas and it will plow a lot more in a day. It also has a lot more power. But, considering the price of con¬ struction, this old Lizzie has paid for itself many times over. Bob Hoffman : Well, it sounds OK to me. If you can make a serviceable tractor out of a couple of Model T’s, then you’ve got me beat. Jeff Gerber: Of course, we have to have a team of horses around the farm, for there are a lot of things horses can do that a tractor can’t do but for all-round farm work I’ll take a tractor. Well, clear the way. Twist her tail ! (Dick Griffin cranked up the tractor and Jeff Gerber drove off the stage, while the Hillbilly Buckaroos played and the class sang “The Old Gray Mare, She Ain’t What She Used To Be!’’) Mr. Hatch : Now, Jeff’s jitterbug is a symbol. It shows you what scien¬ tific equipment can do on the farm today, for science has changed the face of rural America. And that shows us in our teaching, it seems to me, that we should handle the subjects of science and social studies almost as one. John Dewey told us this years ago in his book Democracy and Education: “It is the interdependence of subjectmatter that justifies their place in the curricu¬ lum. When one is divorced from the other, they both fail in the interpreta¬ tion to living social experience.” Now, Jeff’s tractor for him was a unit of living social experience. He made it with his dad ; made it himself. He’ll never forget the old red tractor. And now we are going to present to you another unit of “living social experience.” You were told in the report on “Our Town” that Amherst was famous for her apples and so we are now producing: “The Big Apple of Amherst.” (While Mr. Hatch was speaking, the students were busily engaged setting the stage for the next number. An apple tree about twelve feet high, badly in need of pruning, was rolled in. Across the front of the stage were four long tables. At the first two tables boys were seated grading apples ; at the other two tables were girls in cooking garb peeling and slicing apples for the apple pies they were about to make. Nearby was an oven with a large repre¬ sentation of a time clock on it. The boys pruned the tree and graded the apples while the girls prepared the molasses apple pie for the oven.) Mr. Hatch: And here I’d like to introduce Carl Deeds, the teacher of agriculture at Amherst High School. Mr. Deeds, go to town! Mr. Deeds : The ability of an apple tree to produce heavily and to main¬ tain heavy fruiting ability all depends on how that tree was pruned when that tree was first planted. Bill, you have had considerable experience grow¬ ing apples and you were on the apple judging team that went to Columbus a few weeks ago. Suppose you take a look at that ten-year-old Jonathan apple tree and tell us how it could have been improved. American Association of School Administrators 297 Bill Raab: Well, Mr. Deeds, it does need pruning badly. It appears as tho it were planted and then forgotten. Mr. Deeds: What do you mean? Bill Raab: You see those two large scaffold branches directly opposite each other? That crotch is weak and one side will split off when the com¬ bination of a high wind and heavy crop comes along. Jim Schulz: Very interesting, but what could be done? Bill Raab: Well, Jim, when a tree .is first planted, a wise orchardman will prune so those large limbs alternate on the main trunk much like this two-year-old tree I have here. See those branches? That’s what should have happened to that tree. It’s better to start them well than to correct them later. Jim Schulz : I can see that but what would you do if this was a tree in your orchard. Would you cut it down? Bill Raab: No, Jim, I wouldn’t. I would start a bridge graft between the two large limbs. Jim Schulz: Never heard of it! What is it anyway? Bill Raab : Well, it’s simple. Just take two water sprouts and twist and fasten them so they will grow together. That will strengthen the crotch enough so as to stand the strain from a heavy crop. Dick Griffin: You spoke of pruning. I would like to know something about pruning apple trees. Bill Raab : Jeff is our pruning expert. Jeff Gerber: The main point to remember is to make all cuts parallel and close, such as Bob is doing now, and likewise most of these cross branches should be cut out. Dick Griffin: Why cut the limbs so close? Jeff Gerber: So they will heal properly. A long cut will decay in time thus weakening the main branch. Dick Griffin : How do you know how much wood to cut out? Jeff Gerber: Experiments at the experiment station show that light pruning gives higher yields of fruit and if size is preferred, you can thin during the summer. Dick Griffin : I think I’ll have to have you come over and help me get started on my orchard. Jeff Gerber: I’ll be glad to, Dick. Mr. Deeds : Let’s move over and see what the boys are doing with the apples. Gerald Anthony: We are grading these apples according to the United States standards. Jim Schulz: I didn’t know there was such a thing. Apples are apples to me! Le Roy Tyler: That’s what quite a few people think, Jim. Jim Schulz: You spoke about United States standards. What do you mean? Gerald Anthony: They are classified into four groups: United States Fancy, United States No. 1, Standards, and the Commercial. 298 National Education Association Amherst girls make a pie Jim Schulz: What’s the difference — the siz£? Gerald Anthony: No, it’s the quality. These have a better color. A bright red is preferable to a deep red or those having a green cast. Of course, all grades dare not have more than 20 percent of the apples with blemishes. Jeff Gerber: Does it pay to grade, Gerald? Gerald Anthony: I would say so. I believe that’s one of our weak spots as apple growers. Jeff Gerber: What do you mean by that? Gerald Anthony: Well, for example, all western apples are boxed and graded closely. The local stores can sell those apples at a higher price than we can get for ours. It’s the looks that sell. Experts tell us Ohio apples have no superiors when it comes to quality. Mr. Hatch : Speaking of quality, I want to introduce the domestic science class under the leadership of Selma Warkentin, the domestic science teacher at Amherst High School. Miss Warkentin : And now girls, we have a very interesting and important part in the program this morning. We are going to make an old- fashioned molasses apple pie. Hazel Diedrick: My, these are lovely apples! American Association of School Administrators 299 Amherst girls serve the pie Nadine Aldrich: Yes, these are from some of our choicest Amherst trees. Hazel Diedrick: These will certainly make luscious pies. But what is the recipe for a molasses apple pie? Hilda Scharein : Haven’t you heard? We sent all the way to Mont¬ clair, New Jersey, for the famous old Hatch Cape Cod recipe! Miss Warkentin: Yes, it was sent here by Mrs. Hatch. Here’s the telegram: “molasses apple pie use deep plate line with crust fill WITH SLICED APPLES GOOD HALF CUP MOLASSES SALT LITTLE FLOUR CIN¬ NAMON AND BITS OF BUTTER COVER WITH PASTRY HOT OVEN AT FIRST THEN SLOW BAKE ONE HOUR EAT WITH A PIECE OF CHEESE AND FOAMING GLASS OF COLD MILK. (Signed) BERTHA.” Hazel Diedrick: M-m-m-m! That sounds good! I can’t wait until we get it finished. Hilda Scharein: Here’s a deep dish for the apples. Esther Sprenger: I’ll slice the apples in it now and put some cinnamon on top to give it flavor. Now the molasses. Hilda Scharein: And now for the nice thick crust. Margie Lawrence: You know, Mr. Hatch said it wouldn’t be a real Hatch pie unless it had a lot of crust ! 300 National Education Association Ruth Miller: This linen strip is to keep the molasses from running out. You see, the molasses seeps into the crust and makes it simply delicious! Marilyn Pietch : Isn’t it time to put the pie in the oven? Edna-May Lehman: Yes, here it goes. It’s 10:00 o’clock now. It will be out in an hour. Nadine Aldrich: You know, wouldn’t those pies be a wonderful ex¬ hibit for our county fair ! What are you going to exhibit, Edna-May ? Edna-May Lehman: I think I’ll display some of my canned peaches and some of my cherry jam. Hazel Diedrick: I’m going to enter one of my chocolate fudge cakes and some filled cookies. Esther Sprenger: That chocolate fudge cake sounds good. May I have your recipe? Hazel Diedrick: Yes, the next time I see you, I’ll give it to you. Lois Ehlert: You know, girls, I am going to design and make a new dress in our sewing class. Edna-May Lehman : Yes, I’m making one, too. Miss Warkentin : I have sent for some books and magazines so that you girls may get some ideas for your dresses. Edna-May Lehman (turning the hands of the clock on the front of the stove from 10 to 1 1 ) : Time marches on ! Marilyn Pietch: Isn’t it time for the pie to be out now? Edna-May Lehman : Yes. (Edna-May Lehman removed the pie from the oven.) Edna-May Lehman: And smell its delightful aroma! Ruth Miller: I’ll pour milk to go with this pie, and here is some cheese, too. You know what they say about apple pie without cheese. Esther Sprenger: Here you are, girls. (Esther Sprenger cut the pie.) Edna-May Lehman: Paging President Sexson of California! Is Presi¬ dent Sexson in the house? (President Sexson came forward. Lois Ehlert handed him a cafeteria tray with a serving of pie and cheese and milk.) President Sexson : This is the first time I really appreciated being president ! Margie Lawrence: Paging Secretary Shankland from Washington, D. C., Ohio, and all points West, East, North, and South! Secretary Shank- land ? (Marilyn Pietch handed Secretary Shankland a tray.) Secretary Shankland: Oh, isn’t that nice! I must kiss the cook! Edna-May Lehman : Paging Mr. Corning of Colorado! Is Mr. Corn¬ ing in the house? (Ruth Miller handed Mr. Corning a tray.) Mr. Corning: I just want to tell John Sexson that you don’t have to be president to be appreciated ! Margie Lawrence: Paging Miss Samuelson from “out where the tall corn grows” ! American Association of School Administrators 301 (Hazel Diedrick handed Miss Samuelson a tray.) Miss Samuelson: This goes good with corn! Edna-May Lehman: Paging Superintendent Bosshart of New Jersey! (Lois Ehlert handed Superintendent Bosshart a tray.) Mr. Bosshart: This reminds me of my old home town! Margie Lawrence: Paging Superintendent Powers from Amherst! (Ruth Flecker handed Superintendent Powers a tray.) Edna-May Lehman : Paging Miss Marion Steele, principal at Amherst. Come on, Miss Steele, don’t be bashful! (Marilyn Pietch handed Miss Steele a tray.) Margie Lawrence: Paging Professor Roy Hatch of Montclair, New Jersey ! (Nadine Aldrich handed Mr. Hatch a tray.) Mr. Hatch : I can see there has been a great deal of apple polishing going on here ! Now, Nadine, please serve some of these nice red Amherst apples to other members of the yearbook committee. I want you to know that I am particularly proud of our next number. It takes a very fine type of courage to do what these next young people are going to do. They represent the “out-of-school” group and have been out of school from one to five years. They are going to tell you what has really happened to them. I have not touched their statements at all. I introduce this number as “Square Pegs and Round Holes.” Our first speaker is Gilbert Fairchild of Brownhelm, Ohio. Mr. Fairchild. Gilbert Fairchild: This is the first time I have had an opportunity to tell of my high-school preparation for life work. I find myself four years after graduation from school, a young man of normal ability, unprepared except for agriculture. My agricultural training has been wholly by associa¬ tion, with no experience in vocational guidance. Now, as I look back on my high-school curriculum, it seems to me that it was nothing more than a hit-or-miss collection of studies — a curriculum that does little more than lay a background for further education depending upon each individual’s finding his vocation in that further study. This puts the educational emphasis upon a minority who will continue on rather than upon the great majority who will pick up their life work after high school. This large majority, either because they are financially unable to continue their education or because they have no desire to do so but wish to take up their life work after high school, have been given little consideration in their high-school courses. It seems to me that a thoro, intelligent investigation into the needs and makeup of each community would make possible the estab¬ lishment of a curriculum to meet all needs. Some methods of establishing education so that it conforms to all types of people would be much more effective than trying to make all types of people conform to a set curriculum. Education is a part of our lives and if it does not become a useful ingredient, it fails of its purpose. Mr. Hatch : Our next speaker is Marjorie Bechtel. Marjorie Bechtel: I suppose I am just one of the many thousands of 302 National Education Association young people who are trying to find a solution for the individual problem of unemployment. My parents have given me the opportunity to get a fine edu¬ cation. In return, I want to show them that I can be independent. I live in Amherst and am a graduate of Amherst High School. In this small town there are not enough industries and business to employ a large number of people. If I try, as I have, in a larger city, it is also difficult to secure work because it doesn’t pay enough to live in the city ; preference is given to local people ; and one needs to have experience. Everyone had to start out in the world some time or other without experience. H ere I have given you my personal problem. It took quite a little courage to get up here and say these things but, frankly, I am very much concerned and don’t know what to do or where to turn. I need help and want help. Can you help me? Mr. Hatch : And now let us turn to the positive side of the picture. I wish to introduce William Stiers. Mr. Stiers comes from Alexandria, Ohio. He is the first vicepresident of the national organization, Future Farmers of America. William Stiers: The Future Farmers of America is a national organi¬ zation comprised of nearly 200,000 farm boys in the United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. This group is organized by the boys themselves and includes local, state, and national setups. The officers of this organization are selected by the boys themselves. Annually in Kansas City, representatives from all the forty-seven states and the two insular possessions meet to select the fol¬ lowing year’s officers and to plan the policies for the following year. In the brief time I have, I want to bring out one point our organization stresses: to develop competent and aggressive rural and agricultural leader¬ ship. To do this, we receive training by holding responsible positions in the organization, by travel, and by practice of parliamentary procedure. As a little proof of this, I should like to point out that all of the boys in the organization are working toward the degree of an American farmer, the highest degree of the organization. To do this, they must have proved leader¬ ship ability. We consider leadership as a boy’s ability to progress in farming as well as to lead group discussions. As proof of our travel, during the past two years over 14,000 farm boys have cooperated and traveled to Kansas City, Missouri. As proof of our parliamentary procedure, nearly all the 6000 chapters offer some training in parliamentary procedure. I have discussed only one point in our program. There are eleven others similar to this one. The Future Farmers of America is an extracurriculum activity in school. It is comprised of boys studying vocational agriculture and advised by the agriculture teacher. The motto of the national organization is : Learning to Do Doing to Learn Learning to Live Living to Serve Mr. Hatch: Next, Kirby Barrick of Johnstown, Ohio. Mr. Barrick American Association of School Administrators 303 holds the American farmer degree, which is the highest degree of the Future Farmers of America. Kirby Barrick: In high school I was enrolled in vocational agriculture and F.F.A. My projects, when I started, were: 2 pure bred Southdown sheep, 1 grade sow, 5 acres of corn, and 5 acres of wheat. My continuation projects last year were: 13 pure bred Southdown sheep, 14 pure bred Poland China sows, 50 acres of corn, 12 acres of wheat, and 35 acres of soy beans. My father and I farm a total of 240 acres. My labor income for four years was $3055 and the total invested in agriculture was $1029. I mix balanced rations and keep farm accounts. I have introduced to our farm the following: pure bred livestock, hybrid seed corn, balanced rations, alfalfa, and farm accounts. My prizes show 22 champions, 77 firsts, 42 seconds, 19 thirds, and others. It was thru the cooperation of my agriculture teacher, my parents, and myself that I was able to carry on such a program. I urge all boys to try for the American farmer degree because it is worth working for, and if it isn’t, the trip to Kansas City is! Mr. Hatch: And now, William Kneisel of Brownhelm. William Kneisel: Mr. Hatch, we who are out of high school are be¬ wildered. An older generation taught us to seek values we cannot obtain. Economic upsets have denied to many of us the college education we were taught to expect, and the business world will not receive some of us. We have a choice, to drift or to work constructively. The Farm Bureau sponsors a movement that offers to rural youth of America a plan. In regular meetings we gather to discuss the problems we face. We try to provide for ourselves the recreation so necessary to our age. We doubt the wisdom of depending on commercialized recreation. We listen to noted speakers and then, in groups, discuss their messages. We realize the diffi¬ culty in finding our niche in life and look forward to the day wffien the rural youth of America will have the aid of competent help in finding their life work. We enjoy fine music and the companionship of kindred spirits. Moreover, we are just beginning a kind of placement service which we believe will be of some value in seeking our life work. We study cooper¬ ation because we believe together we can work out a plan for ourselves and rural America and make the farm life as satisfactory as any life on the globe. Mr. Hatch: And now Dale Hastings, a senior at Lodi, who last year won the prize for sheep grading at Ohio State University. He has been a leader in the Four-H Club for four years. Dale Hastings: In the Four-H Club we are guided by four H’s, each having one definite meaning. In my own club experience, these H’s have meant much. The first H stands for Head. We are taught to use our heads for our own betterment and then as wTe grow older, we have formed a lasting habit. The second H stands for Heart. All true Four-H Club members are loyal not only to their clubs but also to their country. For instance, in my first year in Four-H work, my project was goose raising — 304 National Education Association and I turned out to be a very poor goose raiser. My adviser had a heart- to-heart talk with me and after that I never gave up and my harder trials were more easily taken. The third H stands for Hand. We are taught to use our hands for doing creative work and we pride ourselves very much in doing so. The last H stands for Health. The highest aim of every Four-H member is to make his body strong. Every year we hold health contests and the person who is picked in the state contest is a very envied person. We Four-H’ers believe if all the people would follow our four H’s, the country as a whole would benefit. Mr. Hatch : And now, Leonard Wilson of Amherst. Mr. Wilson is a married man with three children. Leonard C. Wilson: Five years ago I graduated from high school. At that time I had very high hopes and ambitions. After a year of steady employment, I married. It wasn’t very long after that that I was laid off. Then followed about a year of odd jobs, none of which were steady enough to rely upon. In rapid succession I was an iceman, a sailor, a sales¬ man for numerous concerns and a variety of articles. Finally I got a job in the steel mills of Lorain. This work was fairly steady. In fact, I figured I was pretty well situated. About a year ago I was laid off. After four months of idleness, I finally got a job on the WPA digging ditches. At present I am one of the recreation leaders at Amherst. As we now have three children, I naturally feel I must have a permanent and well-paying job to keep my family and also to keep my head above water. My present job keeps my head out about to my chin, with frequent submersions. I have often wondered if it’s all myself, my education, or just the nation¬ wide unemployment situation which holds me back. Perhaps it is a little bit of each. My education was, I thought, complete, but after a few months, I realized it was very inadequate to prepare me for the work I have encoun¬ tered. My French is forgotten; my history is useless; and many other courses I studied are dead and buried as far as my work is concerned. My math is not complete enough even for me to do my shop math. In fact, I found out I didn’t know a darned thing about shop math. I believe my fellow graduates would agree that the math curriculum received in the majority of high schools is insufficient for shop mathematics. I’m not extra smart and I’m not dumb, but nevertheless, I’m not equipped for job competition. I would like to know what the trouble is — myself, my training, or the general situation. You are educators — you tell me! Mr. Hatch : And lastly, Marjorie Sennett of Seville. She is a senior, a delegate this year to the Four-H Club meeting at Ohio State University. She is also the county health champion. Marjorie Sennett: Four-H to me is a sea filled with beautiful ships, all of them important and each meaning a great deal to its members. The ships of Four-H are friendship, ownership, leadership, scholarship, show¬ manship, and sportsmanship. The ideal and aim of the American Four-H Clubs is to develop these characteristics in its members. I have been a American Association of School Administrators 305 member of the Four-H Club for five years and each year has helped me to improve, enlarge, and develop these traits. In the three summers I have spent at the Four-H Camp, I have learned a great deal. While there I met boys and girls from other communities who have become some of my dearest and truest friends. I have learned to spend my leisure time to the best advantage of myself, my community, and my country thru craft classes and project work included as part of the Four-H Club program. I think Four-H has taught me pride of ownership better than I could have learned it elsewhere. It is really quite a thrill to work on a project thruout the summer and then feel that your work has been a success. It doesn’t make very much difference whether you are graded an A, B, or even a C. The fact remains it has been your work, your plan, and your success. I feel that Four-H is important in another respect. It is one of the best cures in the world for poor sportsmanship. I think we all realize the poor sport is not a success, no matter what he attempts. Four-H tries to develop good sportsmanship. We never “gripe” when somebody else wins a coveted prize. We don’t win or lose as a poor sport. Four-H Clubs are trying to make better citizens of both their boys and girls. The complainer, the boaster, the griper, or the poor loser just does not belong in Four-H Clubs. Last fall when I had the privilege of representing Medina at the twenty- fourth annual Ohio State Four-H Congress, I really began to appreciate what Four-H meant. The Ohio State Congress was made up of some five hundred rural boys and girls who, like myself, were interested in making Four-H a vital part in the lives of the rural boys and girls. The delegates to this congress were like most boys and girls — fun-loving, vigorous, vital, and jolly — but apart from this fun-loving spirit, you realized that here was a group of boys and girls who had something everyone needs. They had learned to play and to work, but, more important, they had learned when to play and when to work. After listening to some of the serious, weighty discussions these boys and girls were taking part in, you began to realize they were getting at some of the important social problems that every young person faces. They were exchanging ideas and developing a broader interest in the field of knowl¬ edge. I am only sorry that every boy and girl does not have the opportunity to belong to such an organization. I appreciate what Four-H has done for me and I am very proud to be one of the members of such a marvelous organization. Four-H has helped me and I feel it has helped hundreds of other boys and girls who are facing the same problems. I think Four-H is an excellent organization and I should like for everyone to join it. My only regret is that every boy and girl is not given the same opportunities and experiences I have had the privilege of enjoying during my Four-H Club work. Mr. Hatch : Last week I went into a farm home and found a young pair in that home who finally consented to come here today to tell you about their life on the farm. I am introducing here to you now Mr. and 306 National Education Association Mrs. Howard Hite of Brownhelm. Mrs. Hite was a former teacher. Mr. Hite is a member of the village schoolboard. Mr. and Mrs. Hite. (The Hillbilly Buckaroos played “The Farmer Takes a Wife” as Mr. and Mrs. Hite were introduced.) Mrs. Hite: You know, Howard, as we drove in to Cleveland this morning, I saw many fine homes and wonderfully landscaped lawns and gardens but there were some drab-looking apartments, and the streets were dirty and slushy, and there was soot all over everything. Honestly, I didn’t envy any of them. Mr. Hite: Do you mean you really aren’t sorry you married a farmer? Mrs. Hite: Of course, not! Why should I be? We have in our home all the advantages of the city — electricity for lights and other equipment, gas stove, furnace, running water, bathroom — what more could one ask? Our good roads take us to a city of 45,000 in less time than it takes Aunt Lena to come from her home here in Cleveland to the downtown business dis¬ trict. Besides these, we have all the country things — fruits, flowers, vege¬ tables — and there is a community friendliness and neighborliness which offers encouragement and help when you need it, a feeling that the whole community is interested in you. Then, too, it’s a grand place for Clayton to grow up. He will have lots of space in which to play, fresh air, and sunshine, and, being a farmer’s son, the opportunity to join the Four-H Club or Future Farmers and to gain a wealth of knowledge and experience he couldn’t get any other place. Would you trade these things for a place in the city? Mr. Hite: No, I wouldn’t, and I’m glad you’re satisfied. In fact, I’m wondering why we let Professor Hatch get us off the farm this morning! I like farming. Some folks think it’s a dull job and a lonely life but there is a challenge in farming not found in skilled labor jobs. Mrs. Hite: What do you mean by that? Mr. Hite: Well, everybody knows a farmer has to work but he’s also a capitalist and an employer. And, to keep all the machinery running, he must be a mechanic, also. If he’s a successful farmer, he must know how to conserve soil and control insects and diseases, and that requires considerable scientific knowledge. When a crop is matured, he needs to be a salesman to sell it to advantage. These things should challenge any wide-awake man. While working with growing things, he is living a life and gratifying the desire for creative achievement. Moreover, he has had to get away from the old idea that leisure is sinful. He is learning that recreation is necessary for a well-rounded life. You know what I mean. You must get tired spend¬ ing all your time in the kitchen. Mrs. Hite: Goodness, yes, but it seems to me even our leisure is busy. There are so many things to do I hardly know when to stop. The rural church and its various organizations and the school in the community play an important part in our lives. They welcome the whole family. They have something to do and something of interest to everyone. And there’s no end to the new things we can learn thru our county extension service. They American Association of School Administrators 307 offer advice to individuals or groups. They give us ideas for our serious problems or our entertainment. The garden and garden club give much pleasure to the farm woman. Then there are the usual book clubs, study clubs, card clubs, theater parties, and dances, if you prefer them. Mr. Hite: \es, and speaking of learning, these new Farm Bureau dis¬ cussion groups open an entirely new field to us. It’s so stimulating to meet with a group of our friends who are well read and to discuss everything from local politics to the commodity dollar and reciprocity trade agreements — and intelligently, too. It’s my observation that the average farmer can discuss these things at least as intelligently as the average city dweller. Our community churches, our schools, our extension agents, and farm bureaus are all engaged in the task of bringing out the best in rural life. I see farm¬ ing as a way of living. Mrs. Hite: And I see the farm home as a place where the farmer will gladly come at night, toward which his children will hurry from school, a home in which a woman can spend the whole day without becoming bored or despondent and from which a future America will come. Mr. Hatch : This closes our presentation of the Village Revue. And once again we repeat our boyhood list of chores but with a new emphasis: “Hayed — grained — bedded — floor swept up — pigs fed — cows taken care of — new tractor covered — garage closed — electric power switch off — and the barn door closed.” President Sexson, the chores are done. Edna-May Lehman : Professor Hatch, in behalf of the students of Am¬ herst High School, we bring this present to you and we wish you lots of luck and success. (Edna-May Lehman presented a brief case to Mr. Hatch. Singing by the Glee Club of The Andrews School for Girls from Willoughby, Ohio, Jacob Hines, directing, concluded the Village Revue.) THE DILEMMA OF DEMOCRACY JAN MASARYK, FORMER MINISTER TO ENGLAND FROM CZECHOSLOVAKIA President Sexson : The next speaker exemplifies in a way the whole in¬ ternational scene of democratic practice, democratic policy, democratic ideology. In mentioning his name I introduce beyond what any words of mine can picture a figure standing out and speaking for the great democra¬ cies of the world and for the cause of democracy — Jan Masaryk. Mr. Masaryk: I am glad that I am coming a little later than I expected to speak to you, because the performance we saw for the last hour was exactly what I wish to speak about. That is just what I understand de¬ mocracy is — free children, children of free parents in a free country, show¬ ing what they have acquired thru the free educational system of your great democracy and thru being allowed to criticize, which is always a special prerogative of democracy ! I was delighted to hear that. These young people say, “Now, you teachers, you behave yourselves!” And, that is the way our civilization is going to be saved. I must say I was looking forward today to 308 National Education Association my speech with pride and yet with trepidation. To face 10,000 educators, for a man as unacademic as I am, is a large order! But, let me get down to what I am trying to say. It is a few words about education. It is your remarkable privilege, duty, and burden to lead the youth of this country within the liberal curriculum of your educational sys¬ tem. You are supervisors of the development of the souls of these children. What a wonderful job! And what a grave responsibility! My responsibility today is grave enough but only temporary. My speech is a “washout” to start with, so that’s that ! But you are responsible for the youth of your country. Before I came to Cleveland to face this kindly but formidable assembly, I studied the educational system of the United States and its latest development, and drew a comparison of what is going on in other countries. I am, as you know, half European and half American, proud of both ! Here you are trying to learn the truth honestly, to find it, to stick to it, and to give it to your children for their ripe consideration. In other countries there is quite a different effect of education lately. The whole edu¬ cational system is put into pills just like we all take vitamins. The children are fed education like we feed vitamin A, B, or C. The whole thing is abso¬ lutely impossible. The tragedy, and I have seen it with my own eyes, is that there is no choice, there is no freedom of movement, there is no liberty. The curriculum is handed down from the head of the state to every teacher and he must stick to it absolutely rigidly — and woe betide him who does not ! Now, before I go any farther, let me say this: This is a community meet¬ ing that we are having here. There are approximately 13,000 people here this morning who think for themselves, take counsel together; but there you quit, whether president of a great university or head of a small coun¬ try school. Now, you have leaders whom you elect or whom you choose according to their ability or according to what you think of them. And then next 5^ear or year after, someone else is elected. Now, in the countries of the dictators — because I am a product of Germany, I know German culture and the German people — in those countries we have a different situation. The individuality of the child in schools simply does not exist. First comes the great head of the state. Then comes the All-Mighty State, then the All-Important Race. Then comes Physical Fitness or preparation for which Mr. Hitler so often calls in his book, Mein Kampf , “later at the front.” It is one of his favorite expressions: “We must change these people for later at the front.” The whole system is sharpened in the direction of that “later-at-the-front.” We have in Europe lately been forgetting certain of the fundamentals. In these dictatorial countries, they also have their “truth,” but it is National Socialist, Fascist, or Bolshevist truth — half-truth or plain false¬ hood. And if you happen to have a different opinion — which is not a very healthy thing to do these days — you are very likely to land up against a wall or in a concentration camp. I would like to open my heart to you about what I feel that America can, should, and will do. You have heard many people say, “America must American Association of School Administrators 309 come to the aid of Europe in case of conflict.” I am not saying that. Far be it from me to suggest anything of the sort! But, I believe in fundamentals and I have never been more sure of anything in my life. Your great con¬ tribution today, whether you like it or not, is the spiritual leadership of our civilization. It is your country that holds the banner of liberty and carries it as high as you are carrying it today, and maybe lifts it up a little ; and that does not mean war or submarines and it does not mean poison gases. What I mean is that if you people — and especially, apropos of our meeting, you educators — watch over your democratic institutions as ardently as only a mother could watch over a child, the civilization of Europe is saved because we are looking forward to you people, to your leadership. Now, whatever the political situation may be, a statement by your responsible people is listened to most eagerly all over Europe, and when your President — whether you agree with him or not, and I know how numerous are the opinions about the present administration — when your Chief Executive says something about international affairs, I believe a very great help is given to Europe — a continent that is sad and weary and be¬ mused and does not quite know where it is going. I presume you want me to say a word or two about Munich. It has been hashed to death — too much has been written about it. There are plenty of books by different authors that really do explain what happened in Munich. You know it better than I do, because sometimes when your leg is cut off, you do not know as much about it as the people who do the cutting or watch the operation. If I dwell one fleeting minute on Munich it is to show the deterioration of method in international affairs, especially in Europe. Whatever faults there were of my country, and there were many, no opportunity was given to correct them. Democracies have the great privilege of making mistakes and acknowledging them and, with the help of God, of correcting them! In dictatorial countries, mistakes are not allowed. I have seen signs as wide as this hall in Italy, II Duce ha sempre ragione, which means, “The leader is always right.” Imagine the stern dilemma constantly hanging over professional leaders to be always right! We have made mistakes. Our treatment of the Sudeten Germans was fairly good compared with some others, altho better treatment might have been due. The Sudeten Germans know that and have told me so since they were incorporated in Germany. But there were many unfortunate little pinpricks. The little trials are sometimes more unpleasant than a real whack over the head ! The totalitarian propaganda is outstanding, remarkable ! It is the best thing I have ever seen in my life of that kind ! I heartily disapprove in my conscience of what is being sold at the moment. But the machine, the running of it, is absolutely perfect ! You will remember about three or four years ago you suddenly heard the words “Sudeten Germany” or “Sudetenland.” Is there one lady or gentleman here who had heard them as long as five years ago? Suddenly this magnificent steam roller run by this little man Goebbels began to talk 310 National Education Association “Sudeten.” It is just a small range of mountains along the ancient Bohemian frontier. And suddenly, as the son of my father — the wisest thing I ever did was choose my father ! — I began to hear about the Sudeten Germans and our bad treatment of this minority and I was faced with the fact that many people — many nice people — honestly thought that the one country which was wan¬ tonly cruel to minorities was Czechoslovakia. And this thing was kept up. While in Russia they were disposing of their opponents in a very efficient manner, putting them against the wall, and while the Jewish persecution was being carried on, suddenly the whole world reverberated with the cruelty to the German minority of Czechoslovakia. And people believed it. If you are told something often enough, it sticks. I believe that certain statesmen believed it when they went to Munich and that really the peace of Europe hung on this surgical operation, without the use of any anesthetic, that my country was about to undergo. Now, what are we going to do about this propaganda? My answer is this: I am opposed to propaganda, to immoral propaganda that means going into a neighbor’s house and trying to disrupt his married life; one mayor going into the town of another and trying to make trouble for that mayor ; or the head of one country going into another country and trying to disrupt affairs. I think you will agree with me that every country has enough on its own hands in trying to keep its own house in order. But what I do think is that we must meet lies with truth when we are accused. I think we made a little mistake when we did not yell louder, “No, no, we are not guilty!” But you know that we Bohemians are rather proud people and we make mistakes sometimes. Anyway, unless democracy responds by telling the truth, even in your country some of your great institutions are going to suffer from propa¬ ganda; because, do not forget, there is a determination in those countries to make us as much trouble as possible and it is up to us to stand up. And, I repeat, if you keep your country as the outstanding exponent, as the speaker, as the mother, as the leader — not of people but of democracy, the imper¬ sonation, let me say, of democracy — then this propaganda will not have the disastrous effect it has been having in Europe. We come finally to Munich, where we see, as I said, the deterioration of foreign affairs. There were three parties at the table. At one side was the party that has a very forceful way about him and can talk longer and louder than any speaker, I think. On the other side were the inarticulate, tired, umbrella-ridden statesmen of Western democracy. And little Czecho¬ slovakia. They did not speak the same language and I would like to make a point there. We have to understand that when two men say the same thing, it does not always mean the same thing. When Senor Mussolini says, “The justified requirements of my beloved Italy,” it does not mean the same as when Mr. Chamberlain says, “The justified requirements of Italy.” Not at all. We must learn to distinguish between the vocabularies and their meanings. I have studied these languages. Outside of seven happy years in this country, I have lived in Europe all my life and I have seen these languages being used American Association of School Administrators 311 and hundreds of misunderstandings coming out of them. So that is one point I want to make in speaking about democracy; namely, that you cannot com¬ bine the two methods. You cannot build little bridges over these aisles; you either have to sit in this aisle or that aisle. If you do not, it interferes with traffic. And we must learn that. We can sit alongside any kind of regime. We have on our street a man we do not care about. I was in public work in directorates before I was forced to become a diplomat. There were directors I did not like or whose family life did not appeal to me but we transacted our business, signed the “book of presence,” and went home. It has been a great mistake that people absolutely believe that they can effect a compromise between totalitarianism and democracy. It cannot be done. If it is cut and dried that the United States of America believes in what Abe Lincoln believed, it is easier for Mr. Hitler and Mr. Mussolini because they can expend their robust, dynamic energies elsewhere. That is what I claim. We have had many dictators, from Julius Caesar and Alexander to the funny man from Corsica who went to Saint Helena. We have had these phenomena before and we have them now and I suppose we will have them in the future. A German whom I met the other day — he was very happy about the happenings in Germany and rightly so ; it is his way to happiness and I am not going to interfere with that — tried to explain to me that he simul¬ taneously and honestly believes in what George Washington believed and in what is stated in Mein Kampf which is the little bible of the Germans. Now, I say there is no such animal ! There cannot be any man who is think¬ ing honestly who does combine the two documents. You can go off to some strange country and live the totalitarian life, but when you come to this country you cannot be proud both of the Gettysburg address and of the speeches that we hear from the rulers of the great totalitarian countries. The other day I found this statement by one of the great leaders: “The plain truth is that men are tired of liberty and that the tired youth of today wants to pass over the decayed form of the Goddess of Liberty to ordered hierarchy, war, and glory.” You see, that is a thesis, a way of looking at life, but you cannot combine that with democracy! Now, I would like to say that I was delighted to see those youngsters on the stage. I was glad you have boys in uniform. I used to wear a uniform. We all need to dress up occasionally. It is very good for all of us. But when I see the youth of this country doing this voluntarily, marching just as well as the other citizens, I sometimes think we do not make our young ones quite realize what they have ! Every morning when I get up I say, “Thank God you are in a free coun¬ try with nobody to look at what you are eating, what your tastes are, what your religion is, what your thoughts are !” And I, with all my heart and soul, believe that it is not the ideal of education to prepare the most precious thing we have, our young ones, for the trenches ! I do not believe in the glory of war ! I have been thru the last war from beginning to end, under very trying cir¬ cumstances. As some of you know, I was an Austrian officer and my father 312 National Education Association was on the other side — and my family did not have too easy a time. Even in the last war, the glory was far between. But there were marches and color and already in the beginning poison gases and vile middle-class hatreds bobbing up. I believe that we must just make up our minds that we are bringing up our young ones for peace, orderly peace, democracy, orderly democracy, disciplined democracy, by all means! People sometimes think that democracy is unorderly or without discipline. I think that is erroneous. Let me tell you what I mean by democracy. I do not mean going and putting a ticket in a box electing some man to be alderman from the seventh ward. Democracy means freedom of the soul, nothing less ! And when I gave up my job on the day of Munich, I pledged my remain¬ ing years — I am fifty-three and perhaps I have a few years to live — to work for the freedom of the human soul. I am absolutely convinced that the most beautiful and interesting of God’s creations is the individual soul and it must be safeguarded, and if we continue to safeguard it we will be all right. We must cherish our culture, literature, music, art, and science because they are all part of democracy. In my estimation, only a free human soul can give what these children gave you this morning. It was not drill ; it was prepared, of course, but they were happy and they had a sense of humor and they were relaxed in intensity and intense in relaxation. A great friend of mine said the other day, “Is it not interesting that there has not been a good book of lyrical poetry written in Nazi Germany?” But if we stick to our institutions, art, science, religion — and I stress “religion” (I believe that religion, really loving the Great Unknown that is ruling over us, is a very important ingredient in our educational cur¬ riculum) — these things will survive, these things will continue. Economically, you see, Europe is in a bad way. Even your young vigorous country is not having too good a time. I see by your statistics that your unemployment continues to increase. If we continue to be messy, if we continue this dilly-dallying, undecided policy, we are bound to have its reflections. We must keep our souls clean even if we sometimes make mistakes and democracy must be honest about mistakes. I repeat myself because I am full of it. My gramophone only plays one tune, which is democracy, freedom of the human soul, the liberty of the individual. Do not let us overlook that the new method of race and religious intol¬ erance certainly will not help to bring about any understanding. Coming back to Europe just for a minute: That is what I consider is the mistake of Europe. We are staggering about. The English and French do not know how far they can go, how far they can give in. Naturally, the dictators will ask more and more of their giving. They would be very unintelligent if they did not. As I compared it the other day, Munich was a poker game. Munich was one fellow raising all the time ; the second fellow not calling. Well, if you play poker and you do not call, the other fellow is bound to win. And then there was a sad little fellow hanging around, not in the council chamber — Czechoslovakia — and his duty was to supply the chips for both parties! And Czechoslovakia had no chance of winning, whatever would have happened. We were told before Munich that we were going American Association of School Administrators 313 to be heard among equals, but somehow it did not happen. We were not asked anything about it. I am not trying to hand you any “sob stuff” about Czechoslovakia. We have been down before and we have been up again. But we are down now. We were treated with unprecedented lack of decency in international behavior. I asked an international lawyer who knows much more than I (I am not terribly educated) to find a precedent. There is no precedent of this action, at least that I can find. We are finished ; there we are. But the methods, if continued, are bound to lead us into — I hate to say the words and it is that I have been warning you about — the destruction of democracy. Giving away property that does not belong to you is very easy. In Munich they decided, these four wise men from the West, to give away things that did not belong to them ; which is neither a very heroic nor very intelligent thing to do, and not even too honest. But there are not many more things going around that do not touch directly upon papa’s pocket. They can not be giving away other people’s stuff much longer. Hence, the situation is narrowing to, “How about it, folks?” And I believe that there is a possibility of saving the peace of Europe and I think maybe it will be saved, but I think it needs courage and open language. One side must be told how much and when and how. Unless that is done, then there is very little hope for democracy. I think I have almost said what I want to say. I think maybe I have pulled some “wisecracks” here in your august presence that might better have been left unsaid. But that’s that. This is a lovely thing I discovered the other day that your Chief Justice said: “The safeguards of democracy are education and public discussion.” I like that. Yes, we must do it all thru discussion. There is no more dis¬ cussion in Europe. It is a terrible situation. We are afraid to discuss things, afraid to awaken the lion or tiger or whatever it may be. The one side is not at all afraid to awaken the British lion. It has been doing things with his tail that are simply shocking. But on the other side, there has been far too much pussyfooting and inde¬ cision. Remember this: Europe is not down and out. Great Britain is not down and out! We hear occasionally that it is. I even heard it here. I have been living in England fourteen years — thirteen very contented years and one very unhappy one, the last one. England is a very healthy country. Eng¬ land has a government elected by democratic electors who have the full right to elect a government that does not suit them. That is the great prerogative of democracy. And, because they are democratic, they must sit on hard or soft seats and wait for the next election. There is nothing to help. They have to beat with the government which they themselves elected and let them rule according to the best of their ability. In other countries, de¬ stroying government is much easier. They start destroying a couple of high officials, a little shooting, a little concentration camp, and there you are ! Now, if we are going to remain civilized, cultured people, we are very often going to elect governments that do not suit us. I do not say that its present government does not suit England altogether, but I know from my 314 National Education Association own experience that public opinion in England, which is infinitely less articulate than in this country, was just every bit as much outraged as you were in this country about Munich, and also because they were one of the guilty parties. I think France really was the very naughty girl this time but England was close by. I think you will be interested to know that I received 9000 letters from within the British Isles after Munich, and I have not found one in which there was not an apology, even if they were anti-Chamberlain or pro-Chamberlain. If they were delighted with this word “appeasement” — I haven’t quite found out what it means — they always said, “What an awful price you have paid.” I am definitely convinced at this moment that the cooperation of the two countries that read Shakespeare and the Bible is essential. I do not mean submarines! But, Great Britain — I have just come from Canada where I had an extremely interesting trip — represents a very strong democracy indeed. If you compare in age, your great country is twelve years old while it is eighty-two. People there are realizing what is going on, just as we all are. They are under no illusions. There may be some one or other states¬ man who believes you can trust the other side but, believe me, the majority of the people do not, for they know that if democracy is to be saved, it has to be done by saying, “We are not having any, thank you very much.” I am especially glad to have come to Cleveland at this time because it gives us Europeans hope. I sit about your hotels. You have several hotels here and I go from lobby to lobby and sit there and listen to your people talk. It does my heart good because there is no fear, you are free, and you must hunt and teach truth ; and by doing that the human soul is kept sacred. There are two ways of approaching the graveyard, which we are all doing, whether we like it or not. One is God’s way and the other is the devil’s way. My sweet mother used to say, “The word ‘good,’ you take the ‘o’ out and it is ‘God’ ; you take the ‘d’ away from devil and it is ‘evil.’ ” I am convinced that certain countries in Europe have been flirting with the devil and must get back to God. Our salvation lies in knowing that we must get back to God, that we must follow God’s way and we will be all right. There is no better timetable for a man’s soul than the Bible and those who take God’s way, instead of the devil’s, keep their own souls. And, with those words, back to God and back to love — do not let us hate! The hatred in Europe is rising. Even in this country, I have been with statesmen where the acrimoniousness of the argument is a little more than necessary. We must get back to telling the truth instead of lying and to loving instead of hating, because only if we love as all of you love these youngsters — these free children — can we save this wonderful civilization of which you people are the outstanding representatives in this country. God bless you ! American Association of School Administrators 315 SECRETARY’S MINUTES Cleveland Convention, 1939 February 25 The sixty-ninth annual convention of the American Association of School Administrators, a Department of the National Education Association of the United States, was held in the Public Auditorium at Cleveland, Ohio. Registration and exhibits opened Saturday, February 25, 1939. In all, 266 firms and organizations participated in the exhibit. Slightly over 106,000 square feet of floor space were required for the exhibits and necessary sup¬ plementary services. Immediately adjacent to the regular exhibits, eight exhibit-conference booths were erected, each with seating capacity for fifty persons and adequate space for rather extensive displays of related materials. These exhibits repre¬ sented the best thought of school workers in every part of the country. Dur¬ ing the period of the convention, over one hundred specialists conducted small informal conferences in these booths on topics related to the exhibits. A complete schedule of these conferences, with the names of the leaders and subjects to be discussed, was printed and distributed. About two hundred school systems participated in this project. February 26 The opening Vesper Service was held in the main arena of the Cleveland Public Auditorium on Sunday afternoon. The Singers Club of Cleveland, under the leadership of Boris Goldovsky, provided a musical program of unusually high quality. Superintendent E. C. Fisher of Peoria, Illinois, con¬ ducted the memorial service which consisted of appropriate readings from the Scriptures, personal tribute, and music by the Singers Club. Taps, played by John J. Hruby and C. Aubrey Moore of the Cleveland school faculty, concluded this part of the program. Professor Theodore G. Soares of California Institute of Technology, the speaker of the occasion, had as his theme, “The Spiritual Quality of Democracy.” “The People’s Platform,” a regular Sunday evening program of the Co¬ lumbia Broadcasting System, was reproduced on the stage of the arena imme¬ diately following its broadcast over a coast-to-coast network. The topic for discussion was “Propaganda and Intellectual Freedom.” Stimulated by the leadership of Lyman Bryson, the members of the panel went straight to points of importance and punctuated their comments with many lively sallies. February 27 After the convention was called to order on Monday morning, Superin¬ tendent Charles H. Lake of Cleveland presented to President John A. Sex- son a gavel made at West Technical High School. The wood was taken from the original home of Moses Cleaveland in Canterbury, Connecticut. 316 National Education Association On Monday afternoon, six group meetings of the American Association of School Administrators were held for the discussion of current educational problems. These groups met again on the afternoons of Tuesday and Wednesday. Among the topics discussed were: The Place of the School- board in the Administration of Education; Planning the School Building for the Future School; Enriching the Educational Offering in a Small School System; Unique Problems of the Small School System; Propaganda Analysis in General Education; and Public Relations. On Monday evening the Cleveland High School Festival Chorus of one thousand voices appeared in the first of a series of public school musical programs of unusual excellence. The music department of the Cleveland Public Schools has a national reputation, which was fully maintained at the convention. On the mornings of Tuesday and Wednesday, Russell V. Mor¬ gan, directing supervisor of music, conducted festival choruses of 2500 singers each from the Cleveland junior high schools and from the elementary schools. Not only did the audience thrill to the excellent harmony of the young voices, but also it sensed the enormous task of assembling and training the vast choruses. When the curtain was raised on Wednesday evening, the audience was greeted with a remarkably colorful spectacle. Over four hun¬ dred players from Cleveland high schools, constituting the festival band, each in the uniform of his own high school, were massed row above row on the great stage of the arena. Conductors were J. Leon Ruddick and Harry F. Clarke. Prolonged applause followed each number. The boys’ choir from the junior high schools charmed the audience at the final session on Thursday evening. February 28 Schools in small communities had the place of honor on the Tuesday morn¬ ing program. Members of the commission which prepared the 1939 Year¬ book on this theme were platform guests. The official presentation of the yearbook was made by Chairman H. M. Corning, superintendent of schools, Colorado Springs, Colorado. Important features of the yearbook were em¬ phasized in a Village Revue, in which a group of high-school students from Amherst, Ohio, discussed their activities and opportunities. They were directed by Roy W. Hatch of New Jersey State Teachers College at Mont¬ clair. The girls’ glee club of The Andrews School at Willoughby, Ohio, furnished music, after which “The Dilemma of Democracy” was vigorously set forth by Jan Masaryk, former minister to England from Czechoslovakia. At the business meeting, nominations for officers were as follows: For sec¬ ond vicepresident, Homer W. Anderson, superintendent of schools, Omaha, Nebraska, and E. W. Ireland, superintendent of schools, Somerville, Massa¬ chusetts; for member of the Executive Committee for four years, William J. Hamilton, superintendent of schools, Oak Park, Illinois, and Paul T. Rankin, supervising director of research and informational service, Board of Education, Detroit, Michigan. Union Superintendent David J. Malcolm of Charlemont, Massachusetts, presented a proposal for amendment of the constitution of the American American Association of School Administrators 317 Association of School Administrators which will come up for action at the 1940 convention. The proposal was as follows: I move that the constitution of the American Association of School Administrators be amended by striking out Article I and substituting the following: Article I — Name The name of this association shall be the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association of the United States. On Tuesday evening the members of the American Association of School Administrators and of the National Education Association were the guests of the Associated Exhibitors at a program in the arena. The exhibitors, in accordance with their annual tradition, presented the American Education Award. The recipient of this honor for 1939 was Payson Smith. Following the presentation of the award, the program was continued in lighter vein, with many well-known artists participating. March 1 Superintendent Otto W. Haisley of Ann Arbor, Michigan, reported for the Committee on Certification of Superintendents of Schools. He stated that a 64-page booklet, entitled Standards for Superintendents of Schools , had been printed under the auspices of the committee and mailed to all mem¬ bers of this Department. The Research Division of the National Education Association supplemented this report with several large-sized tables and charts. Acting Superintendent Louis Nusbaum of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, presented the report of the Audit Committee, which was adopted and ordered printed in the Official Report. March 2 The Detroit Schoolmen’s Club Chorus, under the direction of Howard A. Love, with Eugene Fenby at the piano, furnished music for the Thurs¬ day morning session. The Chorus, which consists of about 40 men selected from the teaching force of the Detroit Public Schools, also appeared on two coast-to-coast broadcasts — one on the Red Network of the National Broadcasting Company and the other over the Mutual Broadcasting System. The report of the Committee on Resolutions was presented by Superin¬ tendent E. W. Jacobsen of Oakland, California. It was adopted without amendment. The resolutions are printed in full elsewhere in this report. Superintendent Raymond C. Burdick of Huntington, New York, chair¬ man of the Board of Tellers, reported the election of Superintendent Ben G. Graham of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, as president for the year beginning March 15, 1939; Superintendent Homer W. Anderson of Omaha, Ne¬ braska, as second vicepresident for one year; and Superintendent William J. Hamilton of Oak Park, Illinois, as a member of the Executive Committee for four years. 318 National Education Association Superintendent Frank Cody of Detroit, Michigan, presented to President John A. Sexson a past president’s key as a token of appreciation for his services. At the afternoon general session there was distributed a 32-page booklet which gave a complete official summarization of the general sessions, discus¬ sion groups, and other convention activities. About twenty educators had been enlisted in advance to cover the meetings and to write the summary reports, which were edited by Secretary William G. Carr of the Educational Policies Commission. The outstanding features of the convention were fur¬ ther analyzed for the audience by a panel under the leadership of United States Commissioner of Education John W. Studebaker. Thus, there was developed, both by printed and by spoken word, a fair appraisal of the con¬ vention and its significance for educational policy and practice in America. The attendance Thursday afternoon was much larger than expected and for a time the demand for copies of the printed summary outran the supply. Altogether 14,500 copies were printed and distributed. America’s Town Meeting of the Air, a regular radio feature of the Na¬ tional Broadcasting Company, had its first presentation outside of New York City at the closing session of the convention on Thursday evening. “Are the Schools Doing Their Job ?” was the topic selected for consideration by Moderator George V. Denny, Jr. Mechanical arrangements were ad¬ justed so that the audiences in the Cleveland Music Hall and in the New York Town Hall participated jointly in the discussion. Sherwood D. Shankland Executive Secretary American Association of School Administrators 319 RESOLUTIONS Report of the Committee on Resolutions Adopted March 2, 1939 Democracy The American Association of School Administrators reaffirms its faith in democracy as the pattern of human relationship most likely to bring about the maximum happiness and well-being of all peoples. In order to maintain, to uphold, and to apply ever more widely the principles and ideals inherent in democracy, we urge the educational profession to promote and support a nationwide program, particularly within the school, to insure that all youth and adults achieve an intelligent understanding of problems democracy faces — social, political and economic; and thru this understanding, to facili-' tate the changes which society from time to time finds indispensable to the effective realization of such democratic ideals as : the guarantee of life, lib¬ erty, and the pursuit of happiness ; the establishment of social and economic security ; the control of public politics by all peoples ; the equality of oppor¬ tunity for each personality; and freedom of expression. The Association recommends an active recognition of the educator’s responsibility in defending and maintaining democracy by building a better world understanding in these days of conflict among nations. The Asso¬ ciation insists that it is utopian to believe that enduring world peace can be built upon any system of human relationships other than one which permits the masses of men to order their own ways for their own benefit and makes the state the servant of the individual. Educational Policies The American Association of School Administrators commends the recent work of the Educational Policies Commission and calls upon the membership to aid in carrying out the pronouncements of the Commission that this continuing program of public education in America shall become operative in a continuously increasing degree thruout the United States of America. In terms of an educational program, the Association urges its members: a. To make the work of schools include more definitely the study of economic and social realities and the problems of American democ¬ racy today. b. To provide youth, whether in or out of school, with adequate services for adjustment, guidance, and vocational placement. Our Associa¬ tion views with alarm the large number of unemployed youth be¬ tween the ages of sixteen and twenty-four years and calls upon the schools to give special consideration to furnishing these services to this group of young people. c. To coordinate school activities with the activities of many other desirable agencies that influence and affect the lives of youth. 320 National Education Association Federal Aid to Public Education The American Association of School Administrators expresses unqualified support of the policy of federal aid for public education. It extends to the President of the United States wholehearted appreciation of his pronounce¬ ment upon the principle of federal aid to education in the various states, based on an equalization program, as voiced in his address given at the con¬ vention of the National Education Association in New York City last July. An equalization program is the essential feature of federal aid since states (and localities within states) are. beyond all possible doubt, extremely un¬ equal in ability to support the educational program so necessary to the con¬ tinuance of democratic government. The Association urges a forceful campaign by educators for the enact¬ ment by Congress of legislation that will provide a desirable program of federal aid for the American public schools. We believe that such a program is embodied in Senate Bill S. 1305. Duplication of Educational Agencies Consistent with our historic principle of the control of education by the states, the American Association of School Administrators warns the Amer¬ ican people that the development of two public school systems in this country, one controlled by Washington, the other controlled by the localities and the states, will not only result in needless duplication, waste, and inefficiency, but will be particularly dangerous at a time when authoritarianism and regimentation are gaining the upper hand in so many countries. This danger comes from the creation of various federal educational agencies which, it is true, perform indispensable services. Federal support for these agencies is essential, but federal control is neither necessary nor desirable. Since every state has a going school system, the administration of these services should be lodged in the states. Local and state control is one of the strongest sup¬ ports of our civil liberties and of intellectual freedom. Similarly, we warn against the growing tendency of federal departments and bureaus to establish educational agencies and quasi-educational activities which function without regard to the legally established federal Office of Education and frequently result in confusion and waste of public funds. The administration of all federal services to education should be lodged in the LYited States Office of Education. Allocation of Public Funds Since the primary obligation of the states and the communities is caring for the training, education, and placement of the youth of America, the needs of children and youth should have first consideration in the allotment of public funds. Independent Educational Control The Association recognizes with pride that the American system of elect¬ ing boards directly by the people to control public education without inter¬ ference from city councils and commissions has been responsible for a large American Association of School Administrators 321 share of the independence of schools and the educational achievements of the country. The Association condemns vigorously recent attempts to break down this system by subordinating the control and support of education to boards charged with many other responsibilities in government. The Improvement of Administration The American Association of School Administrators recommends that steps be taken toward setting up study groups or conferences in administra¬ tive practice designed for training administrators and for improving admin¬ istrative practices. The Association urges that schools of education study and adapt courses to the problems of education in small communities. Reduction of Postal Rates The American Association of School Administrators commends the Presi¬ dent’s action in reducing the postal rates on books and urges Congress to enact legislation making permanent the flat rate now in effect. Appreciation The 1939 convention of the American Association of School Administra¬ tors commends with deep appreciation the leadership of President John A. Sexson. We also extend to Superintendent Charles H. Lake, the Cleveland Board of Education, the Cleveland schools, the Cleveland Public Library, and the local convention organization our thanks for the gracious hospitality ex¬ tended by the entire community to the Association. To the local and national press, the National Broadcasting Company, the Columbia Broadcasting System, and the Mutual Broadcasting System, and all other agencies of public information, we record our gratitude for in¬ telligent and generous cooperation. The convention recognizes that the service rendered by these and all others will be translated directly in terms of continued improvement and deepened significance of education thruout the United States. E. W. Jacobsen, Chairman Merle J. Abbett Harold Benjamin Emma Pritchard Cooley B. M. Grier James L. Hanley H. E. Hendrix A. H. Hughey Harry W. Langworthy Mrs. Inez Johnson Lewis Paul Loser Caroline S. Mary B. McAndrew Worth McClure Frederick J. Moffitt William B. Mooney Jesse H. Nevclon Bertram E. Packard G. E. Roudebush William F. Shirley Thomas J. Walker Curtis E. Warren Woodruff * ^American ^Association of Teachers Colleges HISTORICAL NOTE The American Association of Teachers Colleges, a Department of the National Education Association , takes the place of the Department of Normal Schools, which was formed at the Cleveland meeting, August 19, 1870, by a reorganization of the American Normal School Associa¬ tion which had been organized in 1858. See proceedings, 1870:176; 1906: 524. In 1924 it was voted to appoint a committee to discuss the possi¬ bility of combining with the American Association of Teachers Colleges. See proceedings, 1924:614. In 1925 the combination was effected. The officers of the Department for the year 1939-40 are: president, Charles C. Sherrod, President, State Teachers College, Johnson City, Term.; vicepresident, Frank D. McElroy, President, State Teachers College, Mankato, Minn.; secretary-treasurer, Charles W. Hunt, Principal, State Normal School, Oneonta, N . Y .; executive committee, Marvin S. Pittman, President, South Georgia Teachers College, College- boro, Ga. ( term expires 1940 ) ; Frank E. Baker, President, State Teachers College, Milwaukee, Wis. ( term expires 1941 ) ; H. L. Donovan, President, State Teachers College, Richmond, Ky. (term expires 1942). Other officers are listed in the Secretary’s Report. The Department publishes a yearbook. The annual dues, $50, are pay¬ able to the secretary-treasurer. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of PROCEEDINGS aS follows l 1870: 1- 88 1871 -.117-156 1812:165-223 1818:164-198 1814:214-253 1815:138-152 1816:157-210 1811:139-173 1819:1 13-134 1880 :176-192 1881:199-217 1882 -.173-180 1883:xvi-xvii 1884 :236-258 1885:223-247 1886 :387-420 1881:465-508 1888:463-512 1889 :555-610 1890 :715-756 189 1:709-740 1892 -.407-434 1894 :8 19-870 1895:672-717 1896 :642-665 1891:709-735 1898:728-756 1899:835-903 1900 :480-490 1901 :635-645 1902 -.529-643 190 3:539-594 1904 -.567-592 1905 :5 17-556 1906 :707-711 1901:739-758 1908 -.703-738 1909 :547-596 1910:563-594 1911:695-708 1912:809-896 1913:523-552 1914 :497-564 1915 :763-814 1916 :441-460 1911:383-416 1918:209-234 1919:221-258 1920 :237-262 1921:515-516 1922:1063-1084 192 3:737-743 1924:613-636 1923:863 1926 :839-948 1921:873-950 1928 :8 33-948 1929:827-936 1930 :801-910 1931 :845-946 1932 :713-786 19 33:709-778 1934 :705-776 1935 :659-718 1936:555-618 1931:605-658 1938:283-340 [ 324 ] CLEVELAND MEETING IN the following pages appear abstracts from the Eighteenth Yearbook of the American Association of Teachers Colleges, which may be ob¬ tained from the secretary, Charles W. Hunt, State Normal School, Oneonta, New York. A CENTURY OF TEACHER EDUCATION PAYSON SMITH, GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. The most important educational issue before the people of our country a century ago was precisely the same one that is before them today. As long as there are schools that issue will remain the most fundamental one. It relates to the qualifications of teachers. In the early part of the last century there was evidently well-warranted dissatisfaction among parents and citizens about the quality of instruction. This dissatisfaction was by no means restricted to Massachusetts; neither was the expression of it confined to the public officials of that common¬ wealth. True, Governor Lincoln, in three successive inaugurals, those of 1826, 1827, and 1828, brought the matter to the attention of the Great and General Court. In the same decade, however, the governors of other states, including Maine, Vermont, New York, Rhode Island, Maryland, Connecti¬ cut, and Ohio, pointedly asked that attention be given to what must have been recognized as an important public question. Various efforts to provide for the professional education of teachers had been made. Reverend Samuel Hall had early established in a Vermont academy at Concord a course of instruction for prospective teachers. His work there was extended into other places. He wrote treatises on teacher education which were circulated to some extent among teachers. So well were those treatises regarded that the Massachusetts legislature proposed that they be printed and sent to the teachers of that state. New York was first among the states to adopt a policy of giving financial support to teacher education. This was done thru legislation authorizing courses in academies with state grants of money. It remained, however, for Massachusetts to go the whole way by establish¬ ing schools for teachers under full public jurisdiction. This step carried implications of great significance to general policies of education. It settled not alone the question of the part to be taken by the state in the education of teachers. In answering that question the state likewise set an example of assuming complete responsibility for establishing and protecting the stand¬ ards and the policies of public education. It is not probable that the people generally realized all the implications of this new proposal. They knew that the schools were badly taught. They desired a better state of affairs. Whether that better condition was to be [ 325 ] 326 National Education Association had by courses in private colleges and academies, or in state schools, was perhaps to them a matter of no great consequence. Some of the educational leaders of the time had a wider conception ; they had keener foresight; they had a conviction that it does make a great deal of difference to the advancement of democratic education whether or not the state controls the sources of teacher training. One thing is clear, namely, that the leaders of the educational reform movements of the first quarter of the last century regarded the institution of some kind of training facilities for prospective teachers as the paramount educational need of the times. All were agreed on that point. Brooks had returned from Europe, having been deeply impressed by the schools for teachers, particularly those of Prussia. He brought back not only ideas. He brought what is often more effective for a campaign, that is, a slogan. His famous “Eight Words” have been sounded from a thousand platforms, and remain today our most generally accepted, if most trite, expression for describing the commanding place of the teacher in determining the quality of the school. The cause was espoused by political leaders and, as already said, was endorsed by governors of states and other leaders of public opinion. Webster, himself first a teacher, gave his eloquent voice to the cause. John Quincy Adams enlisted in it. When Edward Everett became governor of Massachusetts he brought keen disappointment to the advocates of legislation for courses for teachers by veering from that objective which had been adopted by his immediate predecessors and by throwing his strength and influence toward the estab¬ lishment of a state board of education and of a state school fund. His was however, the course of wisdom, since, as he foresaw, there must be sub¬ stantial bases both of prudent administration and of assured support if state-controlled teacher education institutions were to be well organized, well directed, and permanent. The records of those early efforts, the debates, the sharp conflicts, and the bitter opposition of schoolmen and of a large part of the clergy show that interest was widespread and that feeling was intense. These records are of absorbing interest and are a part of the larger story of those stirring times when that which had been virtually the established church of Massachusetts was reluctantly losing its hold ; when the new sense of nationalism was increasing; and especially when the entire intellectual life of the common¬ wealth was being quickened as it had never been before, and perhaps as it may never be again. Among the forces that were influential in developing sentiment for the better education of teachers, a leading one was the American Institute of Instruction, founded in 1829. A memorial of the Institute was submitted to the Massachusetts legislature in January 1837. The entire resolution would be well worth reading if time permitted. Portions of it belong here: American Association of Teachers Colleges 327 MEMORIAL OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INSTRUCTION TO THE LEGISLATURE OF MASSACHUSETTS ON NORMAL SCHOOLS (Submitted* January 1837) To the Honorable the Legislature of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The Memorial of the Directors of the American Institute of Instruction, praying that provision may be made for the better preparation of the teachers of the schools of the Commonwealth, respectfully showeth: 1. That there is, thruout the Commonwealth, a great want of well-qualified teachers. 2. That this is felt in all the schools, of all classes, but especially in the most important and numerous class, the district schools, 3. That wherever, in any town, exertion has been made to improve these schools, it has been met and baffled by the want of good teachers; that they have been sought for in vain; the highest salaries have been offered, to no purpose; that they are not to be found in sufficient numbers to supply the demand. 4. That their place is supplied by persons exceedingly incompetent, in many re¬ spects; by young men, in the course of their studies, teaching from necessity, and often with a strong dislike for the pursuit; by mechanics and others wanting present employment; and by persons who, having failed in other callings, take to teaching as a last resort, with no qualifications for it, and no desire of continuing in it longer than they are obliged by an absolute necessity. 5. That those among this number who have a natural fitness for the work, now gain the experience, without which no one, whatever his gifts, can become a good teacher, by the sacrifice, winter after winter, of the time and advancement of the children of the schools of the Commonwealth. . . . For every other profession requiring a knowledge of the principles of science and the conclusions of experience, there are special schools and colleges, with learned and able professors, and ample apparatus. For the preparation of the teachers, there is almost none. . . . We respectfully maintain that it ought not so to be. So much of the intelligence and character, the welfare and immediate and future happiness of all the citizens, now and hereafter, depends on the condition of the common schools, that it is of necessity a matter of the dearest interest to all of the present generation; that the common education is to such a degree the palladium of our liberties, and the good condition of the common schools, in which that education is chiefly obtained, so vitally important to the stability of our State, to our very existence as a free State, that it is the most proper subject for legislation, and calls loudly for legislative provision and protection. The common schools ought to be raised to their proper place; and this can only be done by the better education of the teachers. . . . We therefore pray you to consider the expediency of instituting, for the special instruction of teachers, one or more seminaries, either standing independently, or in connection with institutions already existing, as you shall, in your wisdom, think best. We also beg leave to state what we conceive to be essential to such a seminary. 1. There should be a professor or professors, of piety, of irreproachable character and good education and of tried ability and skill in teaching. 2. A library, not necessarily large, but well chosen, of books on subjects to be taught, and on the art of teaching. 3. Schoolrooms, well situated, and arranged, heated, ventilated, and furnished, in the manner best approved by experienced teachers. 4. A select apparatus of globes, maps, and other instruments most useful for illustration. 5. A situation such that a school may be connected with the seminary, accessible by a sufficient number of children, to give the variety of an ordinary district school. . . . Establish a seminary wherever you please, and it will be immediately resorted to. We trust too confidently in that desire of excellence which seems to be an element in 328 National Education Association our New England character, to doubt that any young man, who, looking forward, sees that he shall have occasion to teach a school every winter for ten years, will avail himself of any means within his reach, of preparation for the work. In the first place, he will see there an example of right ordering and management of a school ; the spirit of which he may immediately imbibe, and can never after be at a loss, as to a model of management, or in doubt as to its importance. In the second place, by listening to the teaching of another, he will be convinced of the necessity of preparation, as he will see that success depends on thoro knowl¬ edge and a direct action of the teacher’s own mind. This alone would be a great point, as many a schoolmaster hears reading and spelling, and looks over writing and arithmetic, without ever attempting to give any instruction or explanation, or even thinking them necessary. In the third place, he will see put in practice methods of teaching; and tho he may, on reflection, conclude that none of them are exactly suited to his own mind, he will see the value of method, and will never after proceed as he would have done, if he had never seen methodical teaching at all. In the next place, he will have new light thrown upon the whole work of educa¬ tion, by being made to perceive that its great end is not mechanically to communicate ability in certain operations, but to draw forth and exercise the whole powers of the physical, intellectual, and moral being. He will, moreover, hardly fail to observe the importance of the manners of an instructor, and how far it depends on himself to give a tone of cheerfulness and alacrity to his school. In the last place, if the right spirit prevail at the seminary, he will be prepared to enter upon his office with an exalted sense of its importance and responsibility — not as a poor drudge, performing a loathsome office for a miserable stipend, but as a delegate of the authority of parents and the State, to form men to the high duties of citizens and the infinite destinies of immortality , answerable to them, their country, and their God for the righteous discharge of his duties. . . . For the elevation of the public schools to the high rank which they ought to hold in a community, whose most precious patrimony is their liberty, and the intelligence, knowledge, and virtue on which alone it can rest, we urge our prayer. We speak boldly, for we seek no private end. We speak in the name and behalf of those who cannot appear before you to urge their own suit, the sons and daughters of the pres¬ ent race, and of all, of every race and class of coming generations in all future times. With the background, then, of popular dissatisfaction with the general condition of education, of years of public discussion, of legislative debate, and, at last, of the private donations of Charles Sumner and others, there followed definite action. We move now to the grand event itself; to that rainy day, the third of July 1839, when Cyrus Peirce and three young women met in a building, still standing opposite Lexington Common, there to constitute the first of that long line of institutions that for over a century have, of all forces, most profoundly affected public education in the United States. We who meet in this place are representative of various phases of teacher education in all parts of the nation. We are the inheritors of noble tradi¬ tion ; we are the beneficiaries of the work and sacrifices of thousands of men and women who have thought and planned and acted in behalf of the better education of teachers. There is not now the time; indeed, perhaps here is not the appropriate place even to outline the great number of outcomes of the particular event we here and now celebrate. We are aware of the expanding and continuing American Association of Teachers Colleges 329 service to the education of teachers given by the colleges of liberal arts; we are mindful of the indispensable leadership that has been provided by the schools of education of the endowed and public universities. Yet there are likely to be few to dissent from the view that the yeast which has leavened public education in the United States for the past ten decades has been provided chiefly by the institutions that have been an integral part of the public school system. Clearly, since there is in a century’s record so broad a field upon which to report on an occasion like this, there must be a narrow selection of the things of which one will speak. It may be there are those of you who would wish that choice might be the record of the struggles and contentions that more than once threatened the early destruction of the new schools. It would be interesting to some of you, perhaps, if the choice were to be a retelling of the stories recorded so humanly in the journals of Cyrus Peirce and his student, Mary Swift. To describe the curriculum of that first school and to note its relation¬ ship to the public schools of the times, and to trace that relationship across a span of a hundred years, would open a field of speculation that could end not even with our own generation. To set forth the varied ways in which there went across the country into new fields and new institutions the philosophies that prevailed in that group of pioneering institutions, might prove the most interesting of all. The modifications and expansions of the original ideals and plans as they were applied in the newer and often more fertile fields of the West bear testimony to the soundness and the vitality of the seed that had been planted in New England. But I turn from these attractive possibilities that I may indulge myself in setting forth some impressions of what seem to me to have been most far- reaching of the results of the decision made in Massachusetts to establish teacher education as a separate and distinct function of schools of teacher education, to be conducted under full support and control of the state. Obviously, even here a choice must be made, without extended discussion of the points that will be raised. First, then, the decision mentioned had a prompt, direct, and permanent bearing on the secularization of public education. Now, at the end of the century, we can see in better perspective a fundamental social and political issue that was very much to the front at the start of the last century. It was an issue of distinct concern to those who were then trying to found a system of public education adapted to the requirements of a new nation that had decided on a complete separation of church and state. Remember, education came to the shores of Massachusetts to serve not as the handmaiden of the state, but as that of the church. The Puritans founded schools primarily for the purpose of protecting and fostering the Puritan faith. For a full two hundred years, well into the first years of the Constitu¬ tional Era, this close relation of education to the church was to continue. Clergymen by law were members of school committees, and hence were the supervisors of public education. Moralistic instruction based on the ideology 330 National Education Association of Puritanism pervaded the schools. As to secondary schools and colleges, nearly all of them for the first third or half of the century were under the patronage and support of religious denominations. While there were a few clergymen who courageously and vigorously supported the proposed re¬ forms of the day, the clergy as a whole, as well as many of the schoolmasters, sharply opposed every proposal of Horace Mann and his associates on the ground that he and they wanted to turn the schools to atheism. It was inevitable that sooner or later American public education would be completely separated from church control. There can be no doubt, how¬ ever, that the period of adjustment was greatly shortened by the decision that the state itself should direct and control the preparation of those who were to teach in the public schools. But this decision had not only its negative aspect. It had likewise a strongly positive one. Hence we may list as another important outcome of state teacher education the effect of it upon democratic citizenship. For half a century and more, prior to 1830, there had been rapidly developing on this continent a new conception of human relationships, and with it a new conception of political government. The War of Independence had been fought and won. A constitution had been written and adopted. A nation had been founded. The patriots of the Revolution and the founding fathers had been constant and vigorous in their appeals to the people that they support schools for the education of all the people so that popular gov¬ ernment might be made safe, secure, and lasting. In that remarkable decade of the thirties the educational leaders were trying to have put into practical effect the principles that had been ex¬ pounded. They wanted to create schools that would acquaint the youth with the duties and privileges of citizenship, and would help them worthily to fill their places in state and nation. There is, indeed, a significant, if accidental, symbolism in the fact that the doors of the first state normal school in America opened on the eve of the Fourth of July, and that thru its open windows blew the winds that had swept across Lexington Green. Happily this point need not be left alone in terms of symbolism, since there can be no doubt that the normal schools of the several states sent increasingly into the public schools young men and women who, with wisdom and quickened spirit, have helped to make the American public school what it today is, the strongest of all forces for the protection and the promotion of the “American Way.” With the establishment of each unit of state teacher education there has been founded a center from which have radiated influ¬ ences of incalculable value to the purposes of democracy. And, thus, it was an important decision for democracy when Massachusetts decided that the state itself was to provide for the education of its teachers. A third gift of the normal schools to the century of education has been their service in enriching the education of the common man. For many years the elementary school was to provide most of the schooling for the majority of the people. The elementary school at the start of the century was in both content and method a pretty poor thing. This new institution, American Association of Teachers Colleges 331 the normal school, had only one business in hand, that of educating teachers for the common school. Happily it was unfettered by tradition, and was soon to be made the ready vehicle for transmitting new ideas, new principles, and new methods for the use of elementary education. It is easily possible to believe that many reforms that came to education in the past ten decades would have been long delayed if it had not been for the quick readiness of the normal schools to carry the message. For example, there was Guvot, whose contribution to geography, literally flowed into the lower schools thru the channels of the normal schools. There was Agassiz who wanted the common man to share the secrets of natural science hitherto open only to the learned. It was the normal school that made it possible for the common schools to open the eyes of children to the wonders of nature. Without conscious planning on the part of the universities, the normal schools became their agencies of popular enlightenment. As with Agassiz, so with James, who, working in a university, yet found not among his colleagues but in the normal schools keen and receptive listeners to his views on the place of psychology as an aid to teachers. It would indeed be interesting to trace in detail this broadening and vitalizing influence of the normal schools, to discover in how many instances it pro¬ vided the open door of intellectual commerce. Such instances must indeed be very great in number. That this broader service was within the purpose of him who led the first normal school is clearly shown in the letter which Peirce wrote to Henry Barnard in 1851 : Dear Sir: — You ask me “what I aimed to accomplish, and would aim to accom¬ plish now, with my past experience before me, in a Normal School.” I answer briefly, that it was my aim, and it would be my aim again, to make better teachers, and especially, better teachers for our common schools; so that those pri¬ mary seminaries, on which so many depend for their education, might answer, in a higher degree, the end of their institution. Yes, to make better teachers; teachers who would understand, and do their business better; teachers, who should know more of the nature of children, of youthful developments, more of the subjects to be taught, and more of the true methods of teaching; who would teach more philosophically, more in harmony with the natural development of the young mind, with a truer re¬ gard to the order and connection in which the different branches of knowledge should be presented to it, and, of course, more successfully. Again, I felt that there was a call for a truer government, a higher training and discipline, in our schools; that the appeal to the rod, to a sense of shame and fear of bodily pain, so prevalent in them, had a tendency to make children mean, secretive, and vengeful, instead of high-minded, truthful, and generous; and I wished to see them in the hands of teachers, who could understand the higher and purer motives of action, as gratitude, generous affection, sense of duty, by which children should be influenced, and under which their whole character should be formed. In short, I was desirous of putting our schools into the hands of those who would make them places in which children could learn, not only to read, and write, and spell, and cipher, but gain information on various other topics (as accounts, civil institutions, natural history, physiology, political economy, etc.), which would be useful to them in after life, and have all their faculties (physical, intellectual, and moral), trained in such harmony and proportion, as would result in the highest for¬ mation of character. This is what I supposed the object of Normal Schools to be, Such was my object, , , , 332 National Education Association It would be difficult to overestimate the importance of another contribu¬ tion which state teacher education originally made, and even now for the most part defends. Reference is made to what has often been disparaged by academic education, and, it is to be feared, often accepted with some apologies even by some institutions of teacher education. The practice demonstration and the later experimental schools of normal schools and teachers colleges belong in the very forefront of their activities. It is worth while often to recall that normal schools and all later institutions of teacher education are vocational or, if you prefer, professional schools. Their frank, open, and declared purpose has been and is that of producing the best pos¬ sible practitioners. This central purpose is one of dignity and is no more narrow than that of the medical school in the broad fields of health. For quite the span of the full century teacher education has been braving the attacks of those who have held to the premise that academic accomplishment alone guarantees good teaching. If there had prevailed the idea that the education of teachers should be left to the colleges, it is hardly possible to guess at what late date, if ever, the real vitilization of the lower and then of the secondary schools would have begun. With emphasis, it may be repeated, normal schools and teachers colleges have had their strongest allies for the betterment of public educa¬ tion in the practice and demonstration schools which have made both realis¬ tic and inspiring the work of teaching to unnumbered students who were teachers in the making. Finally, there remains for mention that primary duty which from the first was enjoined upon the normal schools. Thru the process of producing better teachers for the schools, the schools themselves were to be made pro¬ gressively better. The “Eight Words” were to describe an active and a dynamic principle. Thus it has turned out to be. Let it be recalled that in 1830 the limits of public education were defined within the bounds of the common or elementary school. Not yet were the people generally ready to accept more than the merest responsibility for any education beyond that common school. It was that school and not the lack of secondary education that was the reason for popular anxiety. It was to improve the quality of the common school that the normal schools were started. It was to the business of that improvement that state education of teachers promptly gave attention. It was that business to which it was to devote its entire thought and energies for more than half of the century that is now closing. Even now the burden of improvement of the lower schools rests most directly upon the state normal schools and the state teach¬ ers colleges. If there be any slight sense of inferiority because the functions of these schools have been thus restricted, there should be some compensatory thought in the contemplation of the results. No other part of our entire school system has reached so clear an under¬ standing as the elementary school has reached of its proper objectives. No other part has so diligently tried to acquire a knowledge of the needs of the pupils to be served as the elementary school has tried to do. No other part has been more successful in the use of methods designed to promote American Association of Teachers Colleges 333 growth — physical, mental, and moral — than the elementary school has been. No other part of our educational system has had a deeper consciousness of its obligations to society or has been quicker and more eager to meet the changing demands of the changing years. It is not claiming too much for the state normal schools and state teachers colleges to say that they have provided the inspiration and the leadership that has brought this elementary school, with all its admitted defects, to a decent state of efficiency. But that influence has by no means ended with the lower schools. The philosophy that has increasingly controlled the education of children has extended into upper areas of education and has expanded in all areas. Admit¬ ting that secondary and higher education has been improved by forces work¬ ing from within, and, like all education, in great measure by forces entirely outside the schools, yet it remains the fact that the teaching and methods used with elementary children have modified those of the schools to which children have later gone. The line separating the elementary school and the secondary school has been gradually becoming less marked. Universal education comes now to comprehend secondary as well as elementary education. The common school in a very real sense is now the universal school. Without any serious measure of dissent the public now accepts full responsibility for the education of all youth thru the secondary-school age. So, it is not surprising that state teacher education has recently been keeping pace with this growing conception of the full range of public education, or that state schools of education increasingly are playing a greater part in the training of all teachers. It is indeed a noble record, that of the service of the institutions spread across our land, all looking across the century to that small beginning, the end of which might not then be seen, or even yet be fully known. Wider and deeper becomes that stream which bears the youth of a nation from childhood to a more nearly complete appreciation of the privileges and duties of citizenship in an increasingly intricate and complex civilization. Make no mistake about it — all institutions that educate teachers must and will expand in purpose ; will increase in scope of service ; will grow in strength and influence. A considerable part of the service of educating teachers will be performed by other than public institutions. Colleges and universities not under public control have, as said, become more conscious of the possibilities of the part they can play in building the profession of teaching. Whether public or private, all of them may pay tribute to that occasion when a tiny candle was lighted there on the edge of Lexington Common. What I have said may seem to reflect a sense of attained perfection. Not so. The end of the century finds us with more unsolved than solved problems. There are errors to be corrected, there are pitfalls to be avoided, there are new courses to be charted, there are new challenges to be met. Every day sees a new parting of the ways. Each end is a beginning. On March 13, 1838, Horace Mann sent to the Senate and House of the Massachusetts Legislature a letter saying that $10,000 had been made avail- 334 National Education Association able from private sources to promote the cause of popular education. On the following day he wrote these words in his journal: This appears to be glorious! I think I feel pretty sublime! Let the stars look out for my head! . . . Then four years later, on March 3, this entry appears: The brightest days which have ever shone upon our cause were yesterday and today. Yesterday, resolves passed the House for granting $6000 per year for three years to the normal schools; and $15 to each district for a school library, on condition of its raising $15 for the same purpose. Language cannot express the joy that pervades my soul at this vast accession of power to that machinery which is to carry the cause of education forward, not only more rapidly than it has ever moved, but to places which it has never yet reached. This will cause an ever widening circle to spread amongst contemporaries, and will project influences into the future to distances which no calculations can follow. As with Horace Mann, so with us there are occasions when we too may look to the stars! In the span of four years confident promise of permanency came to the realization of a great ideal. To us is given the privilege of observing in retrospect across a century how the cause of education has moved forward, of observing how that circle has indeed ever widened. And from the past we gain, too, the confidence that influences may still be projected to distances which no calculations can follow. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON GRADUATE STUDY Your Committee on Graduate Study, appointed in 1936, was directed to con¬ cern itself with the aims, purposes, practices, and procedures of graduate study in teachers colleges. The Committee has had two meetings during the current year. It has been especially interested in the graduate programs being set up in the member institutions. The teachers college recognizes that the obligation placed upon it by the public is to provide teachers with as adequate preparation as is received by the members of other learned professions. It recognizes that it is a professional school and as such, in contemplating any program of graduate work, its first object must be to provide a professional program directed to the types of positions for which it pro¬ poses to prepare teachers. In the development of this professional program it is assumed that the institution giving work beyond the bachelor’s degree will comply with all the recognized standards for graduate work. This means that, at least dur¬ ing the present stage of the development of its graduate program, the teachers col¬ lege has an added obligation over that placed on ronprofessional graduate schools. It must do a special kind of graduate work. Any definition of the nature and pur¬ pose of graduate work in the teachers college should recognize these added obliga¬ tions. The Committee on Graduate Study in its report at the New Orleans meeting in 1937 set forth tentative aims, purposes, practices, and procedures which it believed, if followed, would justify the graduate program in the teachers colleges. A year ago the Committee in its report drew attention to several definite limitations and weak¬ nesses surrounding the offerings of member institutions leading to the master’s degree. Since then the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools an¬ nounced five criteria which it expects to use in evaluating graduate programs in member institutions. These criteria relate to the following points: American Association of Teachers Colleges 335 1. Percent of earned doctor’s degrees and months of graduate study combined of the entire faculty 2. Reference books available in the library 3. Periodicals accessioned 4. Annual expenditure for books 5. Annual educational expenditures per student. It is the policy of that association that any institution below the sixtieth percentile on any of these items be subjected to survey. In reckoning the percent of earned doctor’s degrees and months of graduate study of the faculty, the faculties of those departments in which advanced study does not lead to the earned degree are to be omitted. Such departments are music, art, library science, engineering, and medicine. Also, the Association of American Universities has approved the admission to its accredited list of those teachers colleges which met the approval of the accrediting committee. In order to provide a basis for further consideration of this problem, the Com¬ mittee has been engaged during the past year in a further study of practices and pro¬ cedures in teachers colleges now offering graduate work. Of necessity such study could not be comprehensive. However, ten teachers colleges were selected by the Committee for this special study. Cooperating institutions are as follows: Ball State Teachers College, Muncie, Indiana East Texas State Teachers College, Commerce, Texas North Texas State Teachers College, Denton, Texas School of Education, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio State College of Education, Greeley, Colorado State Teachers College, Emporia, Kansas State Teachers College, Flagstaff, Arizona State Teachers College, Montclair, New Jersey State Teachers College, Pittsburg, Kansas Indiana State Teachers College, Terre Haute, Indiana. A questionnaire was designed in order to secure detailed information which might serve as a guide in setting up a program of graduate work in member institutions. Replies from all the cooperating institutions were received, tabulated, and sum¬ marized. The Committee presents here a brief summary of the replies which indicate in general the practices of these institutions in regard to various aspects of graduate work. Without exception each institution has provided an administrative agency directly responsible for the program of graduate instruction. Just how carefully the program of professional preparation on the graduate level is administered has not yet been ascertained or can it be determined under the limitations of this Committee. The replies indicate that the schools have followed a definite policy with respect to defining the areas in which graduate work has been developed. The extent to which this policy is followed in actual practice could not be accurately determined. However, from replies received it appears that other considerations than those in¬ herent in the professional program have influenced their practices in this regard. Five institutions specified the requirement of a thesis as a part of the graduate program. The inquiry did not provide information with respect to the nature of the thesis or the amount of work required for its completion. However, the Committee is of the opinion that there is a wide diversity of practice at this point. Five institutions made the thesis optional. Requirements in lieu of the thesis vary considerably. In some institutions additional work in courses is accepted, in others one or more papers in thesis form are required, in others the requirement is met by a special examina¬ tion, while in others there is a combination of the above requirements. Data received indicate that the institutions recognize the professional aspects of their graduate work in their stated policies with respect to admission to graduate study. For example, five institutions stated that they do not admit without penalty all 336 National Education Association graduates of their own undergraduate schools. Six do not admit without penalty graduates of other accredited colleges. This would seem to indicate that a pattern of undergraduate study consistent with the purposes of the graduate program is de¬ manded before full admission to the graduate school. All but two of the institutions state that they make some provision for the admission of graduates of nonaccredited colleges. From such similar studies as have been available, the Committee is led to believe that there is considerable variation from these policies. The minimum residence requirements for the master’s degree are specified in all institutions included in this report. In most cases whether the candidate is a graduate of another institution or the one in which he is a candidate for the master’s degree, the requirement is one academic year or thirty-six weeks. The lowest stated require¬ ment is one-half year. Where the work is done in summers three or four summers are required. However, the length of the summer sessions varies from eight to twelve weeks. The practice of the institutions studied in respect to guidance and counsel of stu¬ dents seems to be fairly uniform. All but two institutions indicate that a special committee is provided to direct the graduate program of these students. This com¬ mittee is directly responsible to the graduate council. Accumulative records are provided for use of such committees. The responses from each of the ten schools indicate that they maintain a definite policy of selective retention of students on the graduate level. Just what means are used by the various institutions to carry out this policy could not be determined from the information at hand. With respect to the teaching staff of graduate instruction, four institutions state that they require the Ph.D. degree or its equivalent. In all the institutions the master’s degree is the minimum. Four institutions maintain a separate graduate faculty or an organized separate instructional unit for graduate work. In order to present data concerning training of faculty and also concerning the faculty load, two tabulations have been prepared: the summer of 1938 and the fall quarter or semester of 1938. Due to some differences in interpretation in the ques¬ tionnaire, the data presented here are not comparable in all respects. However, the committee believes that they do provide a basis for serious consideration of this im¬ portant aspect of the program of graduate instruction in teacher-training institutions. The percent of faculty members holding Ph.D. degrees averages about 30 percent in this study. Data received regarding the amount of graduate study by faculty members in terms of months were not reported in such a manner as could be used. The average number of course hours taught in the fall of 1938 by faculty members who teach graduate courses ranged from 10.4 to 15.5. Attention is drawn to the fact that a rather large percent of teaching loads exceed sixteen hours in the fall of 1938 tabulation. The range of teaching load in the different institutions is fairly constant in the fall of 1938. The number of theses directed by individual faculty members should be consid¬ ered in estimating the total individual faculty loads. The range in the number of theses directed by individual faculty members is from one to seventy-four in the summer of 1938; from one to twenty in the fall of 1938. Furthermore, the proportion of the total graduate program devoted to strictly graduate courses as indicated by the number of strictly graduate course hours taught is significant. In the summer session of 1938 this ranges from twelve to one hundred and sixty-nine course hours. The fall of 1938 session ranges from four to sixty-six course hours. Some indication of the institutional attitude toward the competency of its graduate program may be reflected in the extent to which its courses of strictly graduate char¬ acter (undergraduate students not admitted) are assigned to faculty members with the highest amount of training. This need not necessarily be at the expense of the undergraduate program. The percent of courses of strictly graduate grade assigned to members with Ph.D. degrees ranged from 40 to 100 percent. On the other hand, the percent of graduate faculty members who teach only courses not open to under¬ graduates ranges from 0 to 28.6 percent. These data are for the summer of 1938 only. American Association of Teachers Colleges 337 The history and development of graduate work in teachers colleges show that it has been inaugurated as a result of recent public pressure. The data presented in this report show that even at this time graduate instruction in these institutions is primarily a problem relating to the summer sessions. In other words, the primary response has been to the demand for further training of teachers already in service. Whatever standards or suggestions may be set up by this Association for construc¬ tive guidance of institutions confronted with the necessity of developing graduate study should anticipate a similar process of gradual induction and development. The Committee recognizes that materials here presented are somewhat frag¬ mentary and do not present a comprehensive picture of present practices. It is the opinion of the Committee that some agency could profitably carry a similar study considerably farther. O. P. Dellinger, Chairman Ralph Noyer D. S. Campbell REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON STANDARDS AND SURVEYS At the St. Louis meeting of the American Association of Teachers Colleges in 1936 action was taken authorizing the appointment of a research committee to undertake any special studies in the interest of the Association. This responsibility was later delegated to the Committee on Standards and Surveys and since that time this committee has been concerned not only with the consideration of necessary alter¬ ations in existing standards but also has served as a clearinghouse or the actual agency for special studies in the interest of teacher education. During these years the Committee has followed a policy of delegating to special groups the responsibility for such studies as might have a direct bearing on the content and application of standards as well as for studies concerned with other specific areas of teacher education. For at least the past four years there has been a realization on the part of the Committee that serious consideration should be given to a thoro revision, if not a complete rewriting, of the standards of the Association. To carry out a thoro piece of work, called for careful study of numerous problems rather than a mere group of statements based upon subjective reaction. Therefore, many of the studies already completed or in process of completion or even those planned for the near future center around an attempt to establish standards that place an emphasis on qualitative rather than quantitative considerations. With the completion of such studies it is hoped that materials, beyond mere statement of standards, will be available as guides and incentives to member-schools in the furtherance of their own activities. The meeting of minimum standards does not afford the stimulation and attendant satisfaction to an institution that comes from optimum attainments. Within the past year there have been three meetings of the Committee, two of these in New York City, April 20 and November 28, 1938, and in Cleveland February 23-24, 1939. In addition to these meetings the chairman of the Committee attended the sessions of the Accrediting Committee in Washington, D. C., January 2-3, 1939. The April meeting immediately followed a two-day session of the Com¬ mittee on Projects and Resources of which President H. A. Sprague is chairman. Consideration by this special committee of a list of needed studies and possible ways and means of financing such a program of profit to our Association provided much of the basis of activity for the three meetings of the Committee on Standards and Surveys. Contacts have been made with agencies, boards, and foundations by individuals or groups from some of the committees concerned looking toward the possible subsidizing of certain special studies. At the present time there is nothing of a definite nature to report on this activity. The generous offer of the Research Division 338 National Education Association of the National Education Association to render assistance on some studies is appre¬ ciated and will meet real needs. The cooperation of our association, in any manner acceptable to the Commission on Teacher Education of the American Council on Education, has been offered in the interest of our common problem of the improve¬ ment of teacher education. Certain financial resources of our own association, even tho of a limited nature, are being used to advantage. Perhaps the greatest single type of contribution toward the successful completion of these special studies is the gen¬ erous service of the many capable friends of teacher education who have responded to recpiests for them to donate their time and ability to a worthy cause. The studies completed during the past year and to be reported at this meeting are “Graduate Work in Teachers Colleges” by E. S. Evenden and “Administrative and Faculty Stability” by Roscoe L. West. These studies started prior to this year are now in their final form and serve in the case of graduate work to establish a new set of standards on that level and in the case of the study of stability to imple¬ ment Standard XII dealing with Administrative Stability. Studies already initiated and some of them well under way are: “Curriculum Practices in Normal Schools and Teachers Colleges” under the direction of Mr. Even¬ den ; “A Biographical Dictionary of Teachers College Presidents from 1839 to 1939” under the direction of A. L. Crabb; and “Admission and Student Personnel” by a committee headed by M. E. Townsend. In addition to the foregoing studies, one on “Health and Athletics” was assigned to the Accrediting Committee and by them delegated to a special committee with President George A. Selke as chairman. Newly proposed studies to be initiated immediately deal with needed improvement in the organization and administration of library service in the teachers colleges and with extension work offered in teachers colleges. The latter study probably will be carried out in conjunction with the Teachers College Extension Association, which organization has expressed a desire to cooperate in such a study. A study dealing with the ways and means of an effective presentation to the public of the wrork of teachers colleges thruout the country will undoubtedly receive the consideration of some committee in this one-hundredth year since the founding of the first state normal school in Massachusetts. In addition to studies of a general and special nature the Committee on Stand¬ ards and Surveys is concerned with close cooperation with the Accrediting Com¬ mittee in such alteration of the present standards as will make for a more satisfac¬ tory interpretation and functioning of these standards by all concerned. Altho slight changes might profitably be made in the wording of some of the standards, it is the belief of the committee that, unless alterations are imperative, marked changes should not be made until complete rewriting is accomplished following necessary special studies for that purpose. At this time the Committee on Standards and Sur¬ veys recommends the addition of two paragraphs to Standard XII, on Adminis¬ trative Stability, to read as follows: It is presumed that administrative officers and faculty members will be ap¬ pointed on merit rather than for political or other nonprofessional considerations. It is presumed that faculty members and administrative officers should not be removed without cause, and that in the case of a dismissal of an administrative officer or faculty member the person to be dismissed should be entitled to (a) a statement in writing of the reasons for his dismissal, (b) a hearing before the board with the opportunity to refute the charges and to present witnesses if he desires to do so. The committee further recommends the elimination of the words “of February 1938 and thereafter” from the first line of the next to the last paragraph of the 1938 edition of the standards as printed. R. W. Fairchild, Chairman E. S. Evenden R. L. West A. L. Crabb F. B. Haas (Absent) American Association of Teachers Colleges 339 PROPOSED MINIMUM STANDARDS FOR GRADUATE WORK LEADING TO THE MASTER’S DEGREE IN TEACHERS COLLEGES SUBMITTED BY THE COMMITTEE ON STANDARDS AND SURVEYS CLEVELAND, OHIO - FEBRUARY 25, 1939 Note: A set of tentative minimum standards for graduate work leading to the master’s degree in teachers colleges was proposed at Atlantic City, February 26, 1938, studied by 123 cooperating institutions, revised in the light of the suggestions re¬ ceived in the “followup study,” and were presented for consideration and action at the Cleveland meeting, February 25, 1939. The proposed minimum standards for graduate work are supplementary to the standards for undergraduate work and, unless otherwise stated, assume that the standards for teachers colleges offering undergraduate work have been met. The minimum standards for graduate work leading to the master’s degree in teachers colleges as adopted by the American Association of Teachers Colleges are as follows: The teachers college recognizes that the obligation placed upon it by the public is to give teachers as adequate a preparation as possible in the time available. It recognizes that it is a professional school and as such, in contemplating any program of graduate work, its first object must be to provide a professional program directed to the types of positions for which it proposes to prepare teachers. In the development of this professional program it is assumed that the institution giving work beyond the bachelor’s degree will comply with all the recognized standards for graduate work. This means that, at least during the present stage of the development of its graduate program, the teachers college has an added obligation over that placed on nonprofes&ional graduate schools. It must do a special kind of graduate work. I. Nature of Graduate Work in a Teachers College Graduate work in a teachers college should be distinguished from undergraduate work in the following respects: 1. Graduate work should be adapted to the increased maturity, to the richer in¬ formational and experiential background, to the stronger professional motivation and to the greater range of intellectual interests that should characterize post-bacca¬ laureate students in comparison with undergraduates. 2. A distinct majority of the students enrolled in courses listed as graduate courses and carrying graduate credit should hold earned bachelor’s degrees or be within less than a semester’s or term’s wrork of the bachelor’s degree. 3. Graduate work should put greater emphasis upon student self-directed reading and investigation and less upon textbooks than is usually done with undergraduate classes. Graduate work should also emphasize independent and constructive thinking; ability to find, organize, and evaluate evidence; and ability to formulate and defend conclusions. 4. Graduate work in a teachers college should provide for one or more of the following purposes: a. To continue study of the previously obtained undergraduate preparation for the purpose of supplementing phases already studied or of exploring new phases. b. To provide a period for the concentrated study of the more strictly professional phases of a teacher’s preparation for students whose undergraduate study did not provide for those phases. c. To supply an opportunity to study another form of educational service — either as an addition to present work or to assist in changing to a different type of work. d. To provide some training and experience in the field of educational research and in the more intensive specialization usually associated with it. 5. a. Each teachers college should prepare a Garefully formulated statement of its objectives for graduate work and indicate how its total program is expected to realize the objectives. There should be such a definite organization of the gradu¬ ate program that the objectives of coordination and professional development and 340 National Education Association the guidance of individual students will be guaranteed. The program of graduate work should indicate the fitness of the institution to perform any special functions assigned to that institution. b. Provision for the continuous evaluation and revision of the objectives should be made. 6. Work in a teachers college should not be considered for graduate credit unless offered in an institution which has legal authority to grant a master’s degree. II. Admission Requirements A. Admission to courses for graduate credit shall be restricted to: 1. Students who hold an earned bachelor’s degree from: a. A teachers college that is accredited by the American Association of Teachers Colleges; or b. A teachers college, college, or university that is accredited by the appropriate regional accrediting agency or is on the accredited or approved list of either the state board of education or the state university of the state in which the teachers college offering the graduate work is located. 2. Students who hold earned bachelor’s degrees from institutions not on the accredited or approved lists provided for in Sections II-A-l-a and b may be admitted to graduate courses but graduate status should be withheld until the ability to do ac¬ ceptable graduate work has been demonstrated during at least a semester (term or quarter) . 3. Students who require for a bachelor’s degree less than the work of a semester (quarter or term if used in the institution). Students in this group should not be permitted to earn graduate credit for more work than the difference between the amount required to complete the requirements for the bachelor’s degree and the amount considered a normal full-time program (not over 16 hours). B. Admission to candidacy for the master’s degree shall be restricted to: 1. Students who meet the requirements of Section II-A-1 and those who have satisfactorily passed the probation period provided for in Section II-A-2. 2. Students who have completed all of the requirements for the bachelor’s degree in the teachers college in which they are enrolled for graduate work or in one of the institutions provided for in Section II-A-1 but whose degrees have not yet been awarded. 3. Students who meet the requirements of Section II-A-1, 2, or 3 must also demon¬ strate, by means of special examinations or by acceptable records of previous scholar¬ ship, that they possess the general ability to do in a satisfactory manner the work required of graduate students. Students who meet the requirements of Section II-A-1, 2, or 3 but who lack certain undergraduate background courses prerequisite to a graduate curriculum may be admitted subject to the completion of such courses, some or all of which may not receive graduate credit (see limitations in Standard VII). III. Standards for Graduate Degrees 1. The quantitative requirements for the master’s degree shall be the completion of at least 30 semester hours of graduate credit or the equivalent in term hours, quarter hours, points, majors, or courses. 2. Anv teachers college may increase the amount of time required to obtain a master’s degree above the minimum amount of 30 semester hours or its equivalent. 3. No degree or certificate or diploma shall be issued by a teachers college to a student who has not completed a minimum of a year’s work (30 semester hours except as provided in Sections 4 and 5 of this Standard) in on-campus residence work in the institution issuing the degree, certificate, or diploma. One year of resi¬ dence work shall be understood to mean one academic year of full-time study or its equivalent in semesters, quarters, terms, or summer sessions done within a period of five consecutive years. 4. a. Not more than six semester hours or its equivalent in any curriculum leading to a master’s degree in a teachers college shall be taken in “off-campus” extension classes. In order to be accredited for graduate work extension courses must be taught American Association of Teachers Colleges 341 by regular members of the teachers college faculty who teach the same courses on the campus and must cover the same content and be provided with equal laboratory, library, and instructional facilities as the regular graduate courses on the same subjects when taught on the campus. b. Students holding what would ordinarily be considered a full-time position should not be permitted to receive graduate credit for more than six semester hours (or its equivalent in term or quarter hours) during any semester, term, or quarter. 5. Students doing graduate work in the same institutions in which they did their senior college work may be allowed in accordance with their approved individual needs, to take part of the work for the master’s degree in another institution having equal standards of graduate work. The part to be allowed would be not more than one-half, one-third, or one-fourth, depending upon whether the student is doing his work for the master’s degree in two semesters, three terms or quarters, or in four or five summer sessions. Students in this group who are doing their work for the master’s degree in residence classes but on a part-time basis may be allowed not more than one fourth of their program in another institution. 6. Graduate work in teachers colleges leading to the master’s degree should be maintained at a high level of scholarship and should result in the desirable pro¬ fessional outcomes mentioned especially in Standards I and VII. Student programs for the master’s degree should provide for the field of majo* emphasis or concentra¬ tion and for other work in terms of the professional needs of each individual student. The teachers college should satisfy itself by means of examinations or other means of evaluation that these results have been obtained before the degree is awarded. IV. Preparation of the Graduate Faculty 1. In addition to the preparation of the faculty already recognized as standard for teachers colleges offering only undergraduate work the members of the graduate faculty should exemplify the personal qualities, the scholarly attainments, the tech¬ nical skills, and the professional information and skills that will enable them to guide and stimulate students to scholarly attainments worthy of graduate recog¬ nition and at the same time to prepare master teachers and professionally proficient practitioners in the other forms of educational service for which the graduate stu¬ dents are preparing. 2. In estimating the adequacy of the preparation of the graduate faculty such items should be considered as: the amount and kind of educational preparation (of which earned doctor’s degrees and years of graduate study are important measures) ; amount and nature of experience; number and significance of published contribu¬ tions; participation in the work of appropriate professional organizations; and contributions to the professional life of the institution and the area it serves. V. Teaching Load The teaching load of members of the graduate faculty should be such that ample time is provided for the research, writings, professional services, and the many con¬ ferences with students on research and other problems that should characterize satis¬ factory work of the graduate faculty. The accomplishment of such results will require a lighter load in teaching hours than is recommended for the undergraduate level — probably not above an average of 10 or 12 hours for the graduate faculty (two- thirds to four-fifths of the undergraduate teaching load). VI. Laboratory School Facilities Laboratory school facilities (or cooperating school facilities) adequate for obser¬ vation, demonstration, experimentation, and supervised experience should be avail¬ able for the types of service for which preparation is offered in the graduate curricu- lums. In general, sufficient practical experience should be given to insure competence in a given field unless the student has had student teaching in an undergraduate curriculum or has had approved experience in the field of graduate specialization. At least 90 clock hours of supervised teaching or practice in the special type of work for which the graduate student is preparing should be considered a minimum for those who have not had approved student teaching or satisfactory experience. 342 National Education Association VII. Graduate Curriculums 1. The organization of graduate curriculums should make possible the furtherance of the following four important objectives in teacher education: broad general culture; specific competency in a given field; necessary skills in the field of pro¬ fessional work; and desirable personal and social qualities. Graduate curriculums also should be organized to provide for one or more of the distinct purposes of graduate work in a teachers college as indicated in Section 1-4. 2. In cases in which graduate courses require as prerequisites the work of undergraduate courses on the junior college level such junior college courses should be required but without graduate credit. Not more than half of the work for a master’s degree may be taken in senior college classes. All such undergraduate work should, however, be approved on the basis of individual needs as indicated by previous courses and present objectives. 3. Among the desirable outcomes of graduate work on the part of all students, are the abilities to find and use source materials of various kinds, to organize their thinking around professional problems, and to extend their control of some phase of their field of specialization. These outcomes may be obtained in connection with the work of some of the graduate courses or by means of a master’s thesis. The require¬ ment of a thesis should depend upon its value to the program of an individual student. , 4. If a thesis is required for the master’s degree it should show, among others, the following characteristics: (a) ability of the candidate to work independently on an approved problem; (b) a reasonably wide familiarity with the literature of the sub¬ ject; (c) a practical working knowledge of research methods; and (d) conclusions justified by supporting data. The amount of credit that should be allowed for a master’s thesis should not exceed six semester hours (or the equivalent in term or quarter hours) depending upon the nature and scope of the thesis. If a thesis is not required, definite measures should be set up by which the teachers college may ascertain whether or not the outcomes usually resulting from the thesis requirement have been obtained. VIII. Student Health and Living Conditions Same as provided for undergraduate students in teachers colleges. The desir¬ ability of a complete medical examination will depend upon the time that has elapsed between the completion of the undergraduate work and the beginning of graduate work. IX. Library, Laboratory, and Shop Equipment 1. The library must be carefully adjusted to the research and specialized needs of the graduate program. It is assumed that the library staff will be sufficiently trained to assist and direct the graduate students in meeting their specialized library needs. Attention must be given to the provision of reference materials and the better secondary sources. Original source material should also be provided for those fields in which special research work is offered. 2. To the extent that scientific laboratories and equipment are required for ad¬ vanced instructional, experimental, and research work in the fields of science provi¬ sions should be adequate for these purposes. 3. Where graduate work involves the use of shops, studios, and other special types of equipment these should be of a nature commensurate with the advanced require¬ ments in each special field. X. Financial Support Because of such items as the larger amount of individual work with students, more extensive and expensive equipment, and smaller classes the per-student cost of grad¬ uate instruction will exceed that of undergraduate instruction. Teachers colleges embarking upon a program of graduate work should be in a position to expend proper amounts for the library, for other equipment, and for necessary additions to the staff without loss to the fields for which the institution has already assumed respon¬ sibility. American Association of Teachers Colleges 343 FACTORS AFFECTING THE STABILITY OF TENURE OF PRESIDENTS AND FACULTIES OF STATE TEACHERS COLLEGES ROSCOE L. WEST, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, TRENTON, N. J., FOR THE COMMITTEE ON STANDARDS AND SURVEYS Statement of Purpose At the annual meeting of the American Association of Teachers Colleges in New Orleans in February 1937, a report was presented by the Committee on Standards and Surveys on “An Investigation of Factors Affecting the Stability of Tenure of Presidents and Faculties of State Teachers Colleges.” This investigation presented data to show the following facts: 1. How presidents of state teachers colleges are appointed 2. The term of office of teachers college presidents 3. Constitution of boards of control of teachers colleges 4. Method of selection of state superintendent of public instruction or the com¬ missioner of education 5. Method of selection of faculty of state teachers colleges 6. Typical practices concerning appointments of presidents and faculties of state teachers colleges 7. A summary of practices dangerous to stability and of practices making for stability. The summary presented in the last item was as follows: Practices Dangerous to Stability Practices that would seem to work against stability in the tenure of office of presi¬ dents and faculties of teachers colleges: 1. A small number of members on the governing board 2. Expiration of terms of office of board members at the same time 3. Short terms of office of board members 4. The state superintendent of schools elected by the people as party candidates 5. Appointment of presidents and faculties by one person only 6. The governor as a member of governing board 7. Separate governing boards for the different teachers colleges in a state 8. Other governmental officials on the governing board 9. Members of board removable at pleasure of the governor. Practices Making for Stability Safeguards and principles used in some situations which would seem to work toward stability in the tenure of office of presidents and faculties of teachers colleges: 1. A large number of members on the governing board. Ten of the 32 states have from 10 to 12 members 2. Expiration of terms of office of board members at different times. Twenty-six of the 32 states studied 3. Long terms of office of board members 4. An educator, such as commissioner of education, who is responsible for the nomination of presidents 5. An educator appointed by a board as commissioner of education 6. Lay board members having a degree of educational interest 7. Recommendation and nomination for appointment and dismissal of faculty members by president of the college. Approval of a board required 8. The governor, superintendent of schools, or other political appointees should not have the power of a board member 9. The terms of office of president and faculty indeterminate — based on satis¬ factory service 10. The necessity of having approval of appointments and dismissals by a gov¬ erning body 344 National Education Association 11. One board of education for all the teachers colleges in a state instead of separate governing bodies for each institution. The significant conclusion from this study is to be found in the great variety of methods and combinations of practices that are legal in the United States. They are principles, however, that are running thru the practices that lead to very definite trends as indicated in the typical practices. It should be obvious that statements concerning practices “dangerous to stability” or “making for stability” are not entirely objective and, so far as the first study was concerned, not actually related to definite experience in teachers colleges studied. It was thought, therefore, that a second study would be of service to attempt to de¬ termine whether or not the theoretical practices presented could be substantiated by actual experience in the institutions themselves. It was thought that possibly some helpful information on this problem could be secured by finding out some definite facts concerning experience of institutions and also by getting opinions of presidents concerning factors in colleges that have made for stability or instability. The ques¬ tionnaire asked, therefore, for the following information: 1. The presidents of the institutions since 1900 with years of service and reasons for termination 2. Termination of service of members of the faculty since January 1934, accord¬ ing to classification of twelve reasons 3. The opinion of the president as to whether the tenure of administration and faculty in the college is stable or unstable 4. The opinion of the president, if he is willing to give this, as to reasons for any instability 5. Developments in the relationship of the president to state office or board of control in the past few years which have worked to increase or decrease stability 6. An analysis of departments represented among faculty members who were asked to resign because of “inefficiency”; asked to resign or dropped, reason not given; and asked to resign or dropped for reason that could plainly be called “political.” A. Factors Affecting Stability of Tenure of Presidents The Presidents of the Institutions Since 1900 < with Years of Service and Reason for T ermination Returns from the questionnaire were received from 127 institutions in 39 states. The number of presidents that have terminated service since 1900 is 362. The act¬ ing and present presidents were not included. The length of service of the presidents ranged from 1 to 42 years. The state average for the tenure of presidents ranged from 4 to 25 years. One state has had 33 presidents terminate service since 1900 with an average annual length of service of 4.1 years. A table divided into 5-year periods is presented showing the average length of service, by states, of the 362 presidents. It is interesting to note that the average length of service is 12.2 years. TABLE I.— THE MEAN NUMBER OF YEARS OF SERVICE OF PRESIDENTS OF TEACHERS COLLEGES IN 39 STATES YEARS OF SERVICE 0-4.9 5-9.9 10-14.9 15-19.9 over 20 Total Number of states according to average length of service of presidents 2 17 11 5 4 39 states Number of presidents according to length of service 117 110 54 37 44 362 presidents Mean length of service of presidents — 12.2 years. American Association of Teachers Colleges 345 Of these 362 presidents, 72, or 20 percent, have been asked to resign. Twenty-three of the 72 were reported to have been asked to resign for political reasons. The mean length of service of the 72 presidents was six years. A comparison of the different periods from 1900 to 1937 shows that the number asked to resign has been prac¬ tically the same in each period of five to seven years. A table showing the date of termination of service of the 72 presidents is presented. On examining the data con¬ cerning the location of presidents that were asked to resign from 1926 to 1937, it was found that 12 of the 21 presidents asked to resign were from two states. Eight of the 21 were from one state. TABLE II.— NUMBER OF PRESIDENTS DROPPED FOR POLITI¬ CAL REASONS OR ASKED TO RESIGN FROM 1900 TO 1937 Date of terminating service f Total by periods of 5 to 7 years 1900-01 1 11 1902-03 3 1904-05 2 1906-07 5 1908-09 3 14 1910-11 8 1912-13 3 1914-15 2 16 1916-17 5 1918-19 9 1920-21 3 10 1922-23 6 1924-25 1 1926-27 5 11 1928-29 2 1930-31 4 1932-33 4 10 1934-35 3 1936-37 3 N. 72 The reasons for terminating service of presidents were investigated in order to throw some light on the question of stability. The reasons are grouped under nine major headings. A table is presented showing the findings. TABLE III.— REASONS FOR TERMINATING SERVICE OF PRESIDENTS OF COLLEGES Number of presidents Percent of total number of presidents Asked to resign for political or other reasons 72 20 Retired 48 13 Change of position or better position 77 21 Further study 4 2 To take up work in some other occupation 26 7 Reorganization of the institution 2 1 Death 53 15 Illness 10 3 Reason not known 70 19 Total 362 • The Relation of the Constitution of Boards of Control to Stability of Tenure of Presidents of Colleges The first study of tenure included an investigation of the constitution of the boards of control of teachers colleges. The purpose of that inquiry was to determine the re- 346 National Education Association lationship of various practices and patterns to the stability of tenure of administrators and faculty members. A study of the size of the boards of control showed that mem¬ bership ranged from 3 to 12 in number. Ten of the 33 states had boards with 10 to 12 members. The method used in this study for finding whether there is any relation between stability and size of board was to determine how many presidents had been asked to resign from teachers colleges under large boards of control. A table is presented showing the number asked to resign from these teachers colleges since 1900. These numbers are compared with the total number of colleges and presidents asked to resign. TABLE IV.— RELATION OF NUMBER OF PRESIDENTS ASKED TO RESIGN TO THE NUMBER OF TEACHERS COLLEGES WITH LARGE BOARDS OF CONTROL States Number of teachers colleges Number of presidents asked to resign Boards of control with 10 or more members 10 38 6 Total number 33 127 72 (in previous study) Percent (large boards to total) 30 30 9 The above table shows that 9 percent of all the presidents that have been asked to resign were presidents of teachers colleges under the control of large boards. Thirty-eight, or 30 percent, of the teachers colleges are located in the states with large boards of control. The results would seem to indicate that there is a relation¬ ship between stability of tenure and the size of the boards of control. The usual method of selecting members of the boards of control is appointment by the governor with the consent of the senate. In 23 of the 33 states in the first study the boards are selected in this way. In six states the boards are appointed by the governor without the consent of the senate. Four states have other individual ways of selecting board members. The method used for finding whether the factor of having the appointments of board members approved by the senate had any relation to stability of tenure was to determine the number of presidents asked to resign from teachers colleges under such boards of control. TABLE V.— NUMBER OF PRESIDENTS ASKED TO RESIGN FROM TEACHERS COLLEGES WITH BOARDS OF CONTROL APPOINTED BY THE GOVERNOR WITHOUT THE CONSENT OF THE SENATE Number of states Number of teachers colleges Number of presidents of colleges asked to resign 6 20 11 33 (in previous study) 127 72 Percent (boards without consent of senate to total) 18 16 15 The above table shows that 15 percent of the presidents that have been asked to resign since 1900 have come from 20, or 16 percent, of the teachers colleges with boards of control appointed by the governor without the consent of the senate. The Relation of Instability to the Method of Selection of College Presidents The previous study of stability showed that the majority of presidents of teachers colleges are selected by a state board of education. In an endeavor to find whether American Association of Teachers Colleges 347 the method of selection has anything to do with instability the 72 presidents who have lost their positions were classified according to method of selection. The method is not known for 2 of the 72 presidents. The methods of selection, the number of presidents from these states, and the number and percent of the total number are presented. All of the presidents asked to resign were in 19 states. There were 311 presidents from these 19 states. The other states included in the study had no presi¬ dents that were asked to resign. The average length of service of these 72 presidents was six years. TABLE VI Method of selection Total number of presidents from these 19 states Number asked . to resign Percent — number asked to resign of total number 1. State board of education 121 39 32 2. Board of trustees for each college 3. Board of trustees for each college 42 16 38 with approval of governor 4. Board of trustees for all teachers 39 6 15 colleges 5. Commissioner or director of edu¬ cation with approval of state 65 5 8 board of education 6. State board of education with rec¬ ommendation of state superin- 35 2 6 tendent 9 2 22 Method not known 2 The method of selection of college presidents is definitely related to stability. The percent of presidents asked to resign of the total number of presidents from the states using the above methods indicated the difference in the methods. “A board of trustees for all teachers colleges” and “the commissioner or director of education with the approval of the state board of education” are the methods that have the lowest percent of fatalities. The Relation of Instability to the Method of Selection of State Superintendent or Commissioner of Education There seems to be no relation between the method of selecting the state superin¬ tendent or commissioner and the stability of administration and faculties of teachers colleges. One of the states having the greatest instability has a commissioner ap¬ pointed by the governor. On the other hand, a state with great instability has a state superintendent elected by the people. One would expect this lack of relation¬ ship when one realizes that the state board of education, boards for teachers col¬ leges, and boards for each teachers college appoint the presidents in most cases. In general, the commissioners and state superintendents have little to do with the ap¬ pointment of presidents. Summary — Factors Affecting the Stability of Tenure of Presidents of State Teachers Colleges The average length of service of presidents of teachers colleges is 12.2 years. Twenty percent of the 362 presidents included in the investigation have been asked to resign for political or other reasons. All of the presidents that have been asked to resign have come from approximately one-half of the states. During the years 1926-37 there have been 21 presidents asked to resign. One-half of these presidents have come from two states. B. Factors Affecting Stability of Tenure of Faculty Members of Teachers Colleges The first part of the inquiry was concerned with the stability of tenure of presidents while the second part has to do with stability of tenure of faculty members. The 348 National Education Association number of faculty members who have terminated service in 127 teachers colleges since 1934 were classified according to the reasons for termination of service. The number terminating service in the 5-year period was 2126. Approximately 17 faculty members terminated service in each teachers college in the last five years. A table is presented showing the number and percent of faculty members terminating service for each reason. TABLE VII.— REASONS FOR TERMINATING SERVICE OF 2126 FACULTY MEMBERS OF TEACHERS COLLEGES, 1934-38 Reasons Number of faculty members Percent of total 1. To take better position 687 32 2. To carry on advanced study 139 7 3. To be married 296 14 4. Illness 76 4 5. Death 130 6 6. To take up work in some other occupation 101 5 7. Decrease of enrolment in institution or department 50 2 8. Retirement 227 11 9. Asked to resign or dropped because of inefficiency 183 9 10. Asked to resign or dropped — reason not given 45 2 11. Asked to resign for “political” reasons 10 0.5 12. Other reasons 182 9 N. 2,126 Total 9, 10, 11 238 11.5 The Relation of Stability to the Method of Selection of Faculty Members In the states where the method of selecting faculty members is the “recommendation by the president of the college to the board of education for election,” the number asked to resign is 140. In the states where the method is “recommendation by the president of the college, nomination by the state director, and elected by the board of education,” the number asked to resign is 45. In the states where the method is “recommendation by the head of the department, nomination by the president of the college, and election by the state board,” the number is seven. This would indi¬ cate that the latter system of appointment is superior. Due to the small number of states using the latter system, it can only be said that it is true in the cases where it has been tried. A table showing the relation of method of selection to stability of tenure is presented. TABLE VIII.— RELATION OF METHOD OF SELECTION OF FACULTY MEMBERS TO THE NUMBER ASKED TO RESIGN Method of selection of faculty Number of states Number of colleges Number of fac¬ ulty members asked to resign Recommendation by the president of the college to the board of education for election 21 70 140 Recommendation by the president of the col¬ lege, nomination by state director, and elect¬ ed by board of education 6 21 45 Recommendation by head of department, nomi¬ nation by president of college, and election by state board 2 5 7 Four other methods 4 14 21 Method not known 17 25 Total 33 127 238 American Association of Teachers Colleges 349 Relation of Stability to Departments in Teachers Colleges In order to find whether there is any relation of stability to the department in college in which faculty members teach, an analysis of the department represented was made. A table listing the departments in which faculty members have been asked to resign is presented. The percent of the total of 238 is figured for each department. TABLE IX.— DEPARTMENTS IN WHICH FACULTY MEMBERS WERE ASKED TO RESIGN Department Number of faculty members asked to resign Percent of total Music 34 14 Training school 32 14 Education 27 11 Health and physical education 24 10 Science 16 7 English 12 5 Library 10 4 Languages 10 4 Home economics 9 4 Art 8 3 Social science 8 3 Commerce 8 3 13 other departments 1-5 12 Not given 14 6 Total 25 238 Summary — Factors Affecting the Stability of Tenure of Faculty Members of State Teachers Colleges The average length of service of faculty members was not investigated. The reasons for terminating service were grouped into twelve groupings. The number of faculty members that have terminated service since 1934 is 2126. The percent asked to resign was 11.5. Only .5 of 1 percent of faculty members were reported to have been asked to resign for “political reasons.” One-third of the teachers terminated service in order to take better positions. The five departments in which the greatest number of faculty members were asked to resign are music, training school, educa¬ tion, health and physical education, and science. C. Opinions of Present Teachers College Presidents Regarding the Absence or Presence of Stability for the Faculty and Administration When the present administrators in the 127 teachers colleges were asked their opinions regarding the stability of tenure of administration and faculty, 111, or 87 percent, replied that the situation is stable. Only 12 designated the situation as un¬ stable. Of these 12 schools in which instability seems to exist, five of them are unstable for presidents only. A further evidence that there is greater instability for the ad¬ ministration than for the faculty is the fact that 20 percent of the presidents that terminate service are asked to resign while only 11.5 percent of the faculty members are dismissed. Only 10 faculty members were reported to have been asked to resign for political reasons, while 23 presidents were asked to resign for that reason. In general, it can be said that tenure of administration and faculty are stable accord¬ ing to the opinions of the presidents. The presidents were asked to give their opinions regarding the reasons for instability if it existed. The following table shows a classifi¬ cation of these reasons. 350 National Education Association TABLE X.— OPINIONS OF PRESENT TEACHERS COLLEGE PRESIDENTS REGARDING THE REASONS FOR INSTA¬ BILITY OF TENURE OF THE FACULTY AND ADMINISTRATION Reasons for instability Frequency of mention I. Political Board setup, three members, two appointed for two years coterminous with governor. State superintendent is third member. Causes instability in policies 1 Political patronage 2 Governor appoints boards, but in most cases takes the recommendation of the county chairman of the political party in power of the county where the institutions are located. Board members have established a custom of resigning at the end of each two years when elections are held. This makes the institution subject to the whims of local merchants and other individuals 1 Removals by governor 1 Custom of changing presidents with changes in administration of state government 1 Trustees appointed by governor for terms coterminous with his own 3 II. Economic conditions Lack of sufficient funds 1 Low salaries, no sabbatical year, and inadequate teachers’ retirement allowance 2 III. Miscellaneous reasons Annual employment of faculty and employees 1 Shifting enrolment 1 Teachers doing advanced work 2 Marriage of women 1 No tenure law 1 Undemocratic administration (faculty too liberal in policy) 1 Inertia of policies 1 Summary I. Political 9 II. Economic conditions 3 III. Miscellaneous reasons 8 D evelopments in the Relationship of Administrators of Colleges to State Officers or Boards of Control That Have Increased or D ecr eased Stability of Administration and Faculty The presidents were asked what developments there have been in recent years that would affect stability. The developments indicate what the presidents in service think are contributing or detrimental factors to stability. The developments are grouped into those that have increased stability of tenure and those that have decreased it. TABLE XI.— DEVELOPMENTS IN THE RELATIONSHIP OF ADMINISTRATORS OF COLLEGES TO STATE BOARDS OF CONTROL Frequency Developments of mention I. Factors that might increase stability of tenure Work on a revised salary schedule and plan of faculty classification 1 Plan for sabbatical leave 1 Adoption of plan or ruling of state board for permanent tenure of the faculty after a period of probation 3 Salary cuts have been restored 1 Faculty placed on indefinite tenure by board about four years ago. Popular repudiation of governor should be an object lesson to governors for many years 1 The enlightened leadership of the present department of education; the philosophy in favor of a continuous body in all boards of control 1 Plan for regulation regarding retirement based on tenure 1 The appointment of a high-class and capable man as secretary to the board of normal regents 1 Plan of enlarging the state board of education with greater control over instruction and finances of the state teachers colleges 1 II. Factors that might decrease stability of tenure Placing of political appointees in business office 1 A state policy of withholding salary increments 1 The governor, thru the budget director, has exercised more direct control over salary increments and over appointments to vacancies during the depression years 1 American Association of Teachers Colleges 351 A Description of a State in Which Great Instability of Tenure of Administration and Faculty Exist The presidents of the teachers colleges in the state that has had the greatest instability are appointed by the state board of education. This board is not one of the smallest boards, neither is it one of the largest. The term of office is not specified in this state. Five colleges in the state are represented in this study. The average length of service of the presidents in the five colleges is 5.5 years, 4 years, 3 years, 4 years, and 5 years. Thirty-three presidents have terminated service since 1900, with an average length of service of 4.1 years. One college president states the reason for instability as “custom of changing presidents with changes in administration of state government.” One report from that state indicates that a particular governor caused the schools to be political footballs during his administration. On examining the instability during other governors’ terms since 1900, it is found that the insta¬ bility was equally great during others. It seems to be the thing to do to change presidents at each new state election. The faculty members in the state are more stable than the presidents. There were, however, 17 or 19 faculty members in the 5 colleges dropped for “inefficiency” or for “political reasons” during the year 1935. In one school 10 or 12 faculty members that were appointees of the former governor were dismissed for alleged inefficiency that year. There have been 19 presidents in the 5 colleges that have been asked to resign since 1907. The state superintendent of schools, a political appointee, is a member of the state board of education. The state superintendent is elected by the people. The board of education elects the faculty in this state. In this state, the board membership, being political in a part of its membership, is probably one large factor in the instability of college presidents and faculty members. Eight presidents have been asked to resign for political reasons since 1926. This is twice the number for any other state included in this study and 40 percent of the total number of dismissals in 39 states. One large factor affecting the length of service of administration and faculty is suggested by present presidents — the custom of changing presidents with the change in other political offices. Public opinion regards the position as a “job” to be passed around. Conclusions 1. Presidents of colleges are more insecure than are faculty members. 2. The average term of office for presidents is 12.2 years. 3. Twenty percent of presidents terminating service since 1900 were asked to resign. 4. Eleven and five-tenths percent of faculty members who terminated service were asked to resign or were dropped. 5. Only 10, or 5 percent, of the 2126 faculty members have lost their positions for purely “political” reasons, according to the presidents. 6. Most of the instability for presidents and faculty has been located in a small number of states. 7. The state that has shown the most instability for the presidents has also dropped more faculty members for political reasons than has any other state. 8. Practices making for stability suggested in the first study that were found in this second study are: a. A large number of members on the governing board b. Expiration of terms of office of board members at different times c. An educator, such as a commissioner of education, who is responsible for nomination of presidents d. No political appointee, such as governor, having too much power in ap¬ pointing faculty and presidents e. “A board of trustees for teachers colleges” or “the commissioner of education with approval of the state board of education” responsible for the selection of presidents of colleges 352 National Education Association f. The term of office of board members should be indeterminate and should not be terminated at the end of the governor’s period. 9. Public opinion must be changed to the idea that college presidents and faculty members are not political appointees but should serve as long as they are efficient. REPORT OF THE ACCREDITING COMMITTEE The Committee on Accrediting takes pleasure in presenting for your approval a summary report of its activities during the year closing at this time. It has been a genuine pleasure to serve on this committee for the past five years. This has been a period of growth and outstanding achievement within the various institutions. Each year has brought additional satisfaction to the Committee as it has observed pronounced and continual progress in all phases of the work. In its efforts to interpret, apply, and enforce the standards of the Association the Committee has constantly endeavored to render what it conceived to be justice and fairness to all concerned. In the performance of its duties the Committee has held two sessions of two days each during the year — one in Washington, D. C., on January 2 and 3, and the other on Wednesday and Thursday immediately preceding this meeting. During these sessions the various annual reports were checked, hearings were conducted, reports of inspections were reviewed, new procedures were evaluated, and new policies were formulated. In the Committee’s report last year emphasis was placed upon the need for gradual refinement of the standards to the end that they may become more qualitative in nature, also, that the association look forward to having requirements dealing with selective admission of students to the teaching profession, personnel service, and with the physical plants, so that there may be a direct relationship between the facili¬ ties of the college and its functions. During the year the Committee collected information on the item of selective ad¬ mission which will be used as a basis for further thinking and recommendation in the endeavor to improve the quality of teachers entering the profession. Again the Com¬ mittee calls your attention to the matter of periodic inspection as the surest means of giving a truer picture of an institution than can possibly be had by the mere use of a yardstick largely quantitative in nature. Your Committee recommends that Standard VI — Student Teaching — be rewritten. It is the most difficult of all the standards to interpret and apply. There are wider ranges of practice in this standard than any other. This is true whether reference is made to the amount of practice, the quality of practice, the cost of operation, or the nature and amount of supervision given. This recommendation is not made with the view to uniformity, but to the guarantee of better procedures and more efficient services. We say that the training school and student teaching are the peculiar con¬ tributions of the teachers college. But our practices in a large percent of the member institutions are of such nature as to raise some significant questions. Before presenting the statistical data of this report, and speaking for the Accredit¬ ing Committee, we wish to give credit where credit is due for the phenomenal progress which has been made by the association. Unless one has served on this committee, and especially as chairman, he cannot begin to understand the enormous amount of efficient work done by our genial executive secretary and his tireless, efficient assistant, Ethel Mattison. The association is most fortunate in having this excellent service rendered by our secretary and his assistant. The Accrediting Com¬ mittee feels that we owe it to these people to voice our admiration and extend our gratitude to them for splendid services which they render. Statistical Report 1. The total membership of the association is 186. Of these, 156 are accredited and 30 hold the non-credit status. American Association of Teachers Colleges 353 2. Inspection and accreditmcnt — During the year your committee has inspected seven institutions — one was a new institution and six were reinspections. Two of the institutions, which were on the non-credit list, were reinspected, approved, and placed on the accredited list. They are: (1) Appalachian State Teachers College, Boone, N. C. (2) Sisters College, Cleveland Two others were reinspected, their conditions removed, and continued on the accredited list. They are: (1) College of Education, Southwestern Louisiana Institute (2) Chicago Teachers College 3. Withdrawals — During the year we have had five withdrawals, or resignations, from the association. Of these, two were on the accredited list and three held the non-credit status. Besides these, six institutions have failed to pay their membership fees. Of these, one was an accredited institution and five were on the non-credit list. 4. Warnings — Of the 156 institutions on the accredited list of this association, 35 do not fully meet all the standards and, under the regulations of the association, they are to be warned and given an opportunity to correct the deficiency before they can be dropped from the accredited list. These institutions will be notified of such deficiencies soon after the adjournment of this session. The deficiencies on eight of the institutions are of such serious nature as to require reinspection. The deficiencies are distributed as follows: 1. Standard IV — Faculty Preparation . 7 2. Standard V — Teaching Load . 6 3. Standard VI — Student Teaching . 11 4. Standard VIII — Health Service . 18 5. Standard IX — Library . 1 Total deficiencies . 43 Respectfully submitted, Charles C. Sherrod, Chairman George A. Selke Alonzo F. Myers C. H. Fisher G. W. Diemer REPORT OF STUDY ON COSTS OF STUDENT-TEACHING FOR THE YEAR, 1936-37 ALONZO F. MYERS, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. For the Committee on Accrediting At the meeting of the Accrediting Committee of the American Association of Teachers Colleges in New Orleans in February 1937, it was agreed that the standard relating to student-teaching was in need of improvement. It was agreed that more information was needed relative to the conduct of student-teaching in accredited institutions than was available to the Accrediting Committee thru the annual reports of institutions. More specifically, additional information was desired relative to the costs of student-teaching. Consequently, it was agreed that a questionnaire should be sent to accredited institutions relative to costs of student-teaching and other pertinent items. The data collected relate to the school year 1936-37. Questionnaire returns were received from 138 accredited institutions. Returns from municipal teachers colleges were not included in the report owing to the fact their costs for student-teaching were not readily separated from regular public school costs. Several other returns were not included because the information which was 354 National Education Association supplied was insufficient for useful tabulation. The report which follows is based upon questionnaire returns from 127 institutions. In analyzing the returns, and in the preparation of the report, institutions were classified into three groups: (a) institutions having off-campus facilities only for student-teaching (no campus school) ; (b) institutions having a campus school only; and (c) institutions having both a campus laboratory school and off-campus facilities for student-teaching. Studies of cost and of other pertinent information were made on the basis of this classification. Certain inaccuracies are present in the data, the most common of which are occa¬ sioned by variability in bookkeeping practices among the member institutions. For example, a few of the institutions were unable to report the total cost of operation and maintenance of their campus laboratory schools owing to the fact that certain important cost items, such as heat, light, and janitorial services are not charged to individual buildings. In such cases, we included under the total cost item only those cost items which the institutions were able to report. In spite of the presence in the data of several such inaccuracies, however, it is the belief of the writer that the con¬ clusions drawn from the data are defensible, and that the summarizing statements are valid. Of the 127 institutions included in the study, 20 had off-campus laboratory school facilities only (no campus school), 33 had a campus laboratory school only (no off- campus facilities), and 74 had both a campus school and off-campus facilities. The institutions having no campus laboratory school were on the average the smallest of the three groups. The average enrolment of the twenty institutions in this group was 634. The range was 270 to 1388. The group having a campus school only was second in enrolment. The average enrolment in these thirty-three institutions was 869. The range was 387 to 1784. The third group, having both campus and off-campus facilities, was the largest. The average enrolment in these seventy-four institutions was 972. The range was from 211 to 3278. In certain cases the percent of total budget devoted to the student-teaching pro¬ gram was not included. In one it was because information was lacking. In others it was because the institutions concerned did not devote their chief attention to prepara¬ tion of teachers, and, therefore, the inclusion of this item would not be meaningful. One of the most significant items revealed by the study is the fact that so large a number of the teacher-preparing institutions, 74 of 127, have both a campus labora¬ tory school and off-campus facilities for student teaching. Altho the writer does not have information relative to the situation which existed in respect to this matter ten or twenty years ago, it is his opinion that the number of teacher-preparing institu¬ tions which are provided with both campus and off-campus facilities has increased considerably in recent years. The comparison of costs of the laboratory school programs and of percent of total budget devoted to this aspect of the work among the institutions in the three classifi¬ cations is interesting and revealing. Those institutions having no campus laboratory schools spent the least, on the average, upon their student-teaching programs. The median expenditure per student teacher was $79.75. Q1 was $44.75. Q3 was $112.25. The range was $18.75 to $189.55. The median percent of total budget devoted to the student-teaching program in the institutions having no campus laboratory school was 9.25. Q1 was 6.67. Q3 was 12.43. The range was 3.65 to 15.29. Institutions having a campus laboratory school, and with no off-campus facilities, or practically none, spent more than twice as much upon their student-teaching facili¬ ties, on the average, as did those which had no campus laboratory school. In these institutions the median expenditure per student teacher was $177.25. Q1 was $123.58. Q3 was $232.25. The range was $77.00 to $472.50. The median percent of total budget devoted to the laboratory school program also was greater in these institutions than in those having no campus school. The median was 12.5. Q1 was 9.76. Q3 was 16.5. The range was 4.57 to 24.18. The median cost per pupil enrolled in the campus laboratory schools of these institutions was $81.88. Q1 was $61.93. Q3 was $101.83. The range was $35.70 to $165.11. American” Association of Teachers Colleges 355 In these institutions having no off-campus facilities the median number of pupils enrolled in the campus school for each student teacher was 2. Q1 was 1.55. Q3 was 2.85. The range was .63 to 4.81. In these institutions the number of students enrolled in the college for each pupil enrolled in the campus school was 2.3. Q1 was 1.5. Q3 was 3. The range was .84 to 5. As might be anticipated, those institutions which were provided with both a campus school and off-campus student-teaching facilities spent more for their student-teaching programs than did those in either of the other two classifications. In these institutions the median cost of the student-teaching program for each student teacher was $198.50. Q1 was $134.75. Q3 was $249.75. The range was $74.08 to $450.00. In these institutions the median percent of the total budget devoted to the student-teaching program was 17.3. Q1 was 10.6. Q3 was 22.5. The range was 4.43 to 38.3. These institutions spent more per pupil enrolled for operation and maintenance of their campus laboratory schools than did those having no off-campus facilities. Their median expenditure per pupil enrolled was $115.50. Q1 was $95.06. Q3 was $140.37. The range was $39.14 to $215.76. Perhaps the most startling item revealed by this study is the extreme variability which exists among the teacher-preparing institutions with reference to the amount which they spend for their student-teaching programs. The range of costs per student teacher is from $18.75 to $472.50. The range of percent of total budget devoted to the student-teaching program is from 3.65 to 38.3. The range of cost per pupil for operation and maintenance of the campus laboratory school is from $35.70 to $215.76. These differences are so startling that they can have no satisfactory justification. They indicate clearly the need for an intensive study of all phases of the laboratory school programs in the teacher-preparing institutions with a view to the development of a meaningful, qualitative standard for this most important aspect of the teacher- education program. A majority of the institutions having no campus laboratory schools are to be criti¬ cized for investing too little in their student-teaching programs. For example, one state normal school which had 168 student teachers and no campus school utilized 10 off-campus classrooms. Its total expenditure for subsidies to the teachers in these classrooms, and for supervision, amounted to $3150. If this institution had invested in its student-teaching program as much as the median expenditure among institu¬ tions having no campus school, it would have spent $13,400 for its student-teaching program. On the other hand, certain institutions having no campus schools provide excellent facilities and programs of observation, participation, and student teaching. Two examples of such institutions are the New Haven State Teachers College and the State Teachers College at Dillon, Montana. The New Haven institution has three good city elementary schools employing 42 teachers under its complete control. There were 166 student teachers. The cost to the teachers college for the salaries of these teachers, which was in addition to the regular salary scale paid by the city, was $15,321. In addition to this amount, the teachers college spent $3206 for supervision in these schools, exclusive of part-time services of special subject supervisors. It also spent $900 for supplies and equipment, in addition to that supplied by the New Haven Board of Education. The New Haven institution devoted 13.5 percent of its total budget to its student-teaching program. An arrangement similar to that at New Haven exists at the State Teachers College located in Dillon, Montana, except that in this case the entire town school system constitutes the student-teaching facilities of the teachers college. There were 44 off- campus classrooms and 124 student teachers. The teachers college spent $6430 in supplemental salaries to the teachers. It spent $7570 for supervision, and $75 for supplies and equipment. This institution invested 14.18 percent of its total budget for its student-teaching program. It is the belief of the writer that both the New Haven and the Dillon institutions provide much better laboratory school facilities 356 National Education Association and experiences than do a majority of the institutions which have a campus labora¬ tory school only. A majority of the institutions which have a campus laboratory school only are to be criticized for having too few pupils in relation to the number of student teachers and in relation to the total enrolments of the colleges. In these institutions it must be borne in mind that the campus school must serve not only for student teaching but also for demonstration, observation, participation, and experimentation. A majority of these institutions indicated that all of these activities were carried on; yet, on the average, there were only two pupils in the campus school for each student teacher. In general, the institutions having both a campus school and off-campus facilities for student teaching have the most favorable situation. Many of these institutions, however, are investing too little in their off-campus student-teaching programs. For example, one-fourth of these institutions made no payment for salaries of the teachers in the off-campus classrooms. Approximately one-sixth made no expenditure for supervision in the off-campus classrooms. One institution stated that it spent nothing for its off-campus student-teaching program. Still others spent only a negligible amount. One of the most serious situations revealed by the study is the extent to which the institutions having a campus school relieved the community of its responsibility for paying the cost of the education of its children. It is this fact which accounts, in large part, for the large percent of their total budgets which these institutions devote to their student-teaching programs. Of course, they are not actually using their money for their student-teaching programs, but rather to give to the community free of charge something for which the community should pay. Many serious abuses grow out of this practice. When the community does not bear the cost of the education of its children in the campus school, this school must necessarily be kept small in order that the cost to the teachers college may not be excessive. When the teachers college spends its appropriation for the education of the children of the community it usually does not have funds available for financing a good off-campus program. The fact that the teachers colleges pay the entire cost of the operation and maintenance of the campus schools accounts for the fact that these schools are so inadequately supported. One finds it impossible to justify a situation in which some of the campus laboratory schools are operated at a cost of less than $50 per pupil per year, and in which one- half of these schools are operated at a cost no greater than that necessary for the operation and maintenance of a good public school, with no allowance at all for costs properly chargeable to the distinctive activities of the school as a laboratory school, demonstration, observation, participation, student teaching, and experimentation. Of the 107 institutions having a campus school, 74 received nothing from the local schoolboards toward the cost of education of the children. Receipts from tuition were nothing at all or negligible in all but 13 of the 107 institutions which had campus schools. Recommendations 1. It is recommended that the American Association of Teachers Colleges should investigate further this whole problem of facilities for student teaching, or that it should interest some other agency in financing such an investigation. It is obvious that our present standard relating to this matter is almost meaningless. 2. Tentatively, it is the judgment of the writer that teacher-preparing institutions should spend at least $100 per student teacher for their student-teaching programs, and that this amount should be exclusive of the normal cost of the education of chil¬ dren in those situations in which the local community does not bear the cost of the education of its children who are being educated in the campus school. 3. It is recommended that all institutions be expected to provide off-campus facili¬ ties for student teaching. Possible exemption from this requirement might be granted in cases of those institutions which have four times as many pupils as student teachers, or as many pupils as students enrolled in the college. The method of calcu¬ lation to be employed should be the one which would yield the larger number of pupils. American Association of Teachers Colleges 357 4. It is recommended that all institutions be expected to have a campus laboratory school, or a school under the complete control of the institution, and sufficiently accessible to be usable for demonstration, observation, and participation purposes. 5. A subject which greatly needs further study relates to the number of hours which should be devoted to actual teaching by the student teacher and to the experi¬ ences which should be included in student teaching. The institutions having no campus school reported that the median number of hours of actual teaching was 77. Q1 was 46. Q! was 90. The range was from 40 to 108. The institutions having no off-campus facilities reported that the median was 72. Q1 was 46. Q3 was 87. The range was from 27 to 135. The institutions having both a campus school and off- campus facilities reported that the median was 90. Q1 was 65. Q3 was 125. The range was from 30 to 330. There is some evidence in these figures to support the belief that institutions in the first and second classifications have found it necessary to restrict the student-teaching experience because of lack of facilities. Expert opinion on the subject generally favors a greater time allotment to student teaching and a much greater variety of student-teaching experiences than is at present generally provided. This matter is too important to permit it to continue to be neglected merely because the teacher¬ preparing institutions have failed to provide adequate facilities to make possible the amount and the variety of student-teaching experiences which should be provided for the prospective teacher. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY Charles W. Hunt The work of the office of the secretary-treasurer becomes more varied each year. At the present time it carries on the following activities: 1. It arranges the details for the annual meeting. The program of the meeting is made by the president. 2. It edits, prints, and distributes the yearbook. 3. It serves as a center for distributing information about the institutions. This service is increasing. 4. It collects the annual dues and pays all bills. 5. It serves as a liaison agency for the committees of the association. The form for the institutional report to the Accrediting Committee is planned; the data on these reports are analyzed and reported to the association; inspections are arranged; meetings of the Committee are planned. The secretary is asked to serve as a liaison officer between committees of the association and with other associations and commissions. This work is increasing and constitutes a difficult problem for the secretary to meet. If the association is to meet its obligations it seems necessary for it to carry its community responsibilities. There is a constant effort in this office to distribute the responsibilities among the membership of the association. The steady expansion of the work of the secretary’s office has increased the cost and raises problems of organization and value which should have the attention of the executive officers and indeed all members of the association. The secretary cooperated with the Carnegie Corporation in the program for im¬ proving the library service in teachers colleges. Appropriations totaling $180,000 were made early in 1939 to twenty-nine institutions to be spent over a period of three years. Because of the special need in this field, additional data have been collected and reported in regard to the present conditions of library service in the teachers college. More should be available. The detailed work in organizing the data from the institutional reports has been done this year by Charles H. Brush, a graduate of the State Teachers College at Montclair, N. J. The interpretation of the pattern maps which follows was prepared by him with the secretary. 358 National Education Association Interpreting the Institutional Pattern Map 1 2 One hundred and fifty institutions on the accredited list have been furnished two profile charts of their individual institutions. It is the purpose of these charts to present (a) the percentile standing of the individual teachers college in each of a number of items, and (b) a picture of the general percentile standing of an insti¬ tution. The first of these two charts is comparable with those furnished in previous years where the per student computations are based on figures for “total enrolment.” The second chart is almost the same except that the per student computations are based on figures for “average enrolment.” Both charts differ from those of previous years in one respect. The profile was changed from a broken line graph to a chart of vertical bars. These vertical bars represent the distance from zero to 100 percent; they are cut by horizontal lines at the tenth, twenty-fifth, fiftieth, seventy-fifth, and ninetieth percentiles. Each of these bars represents the range of the 150 institutions in eleven items of the standards wrhich can be treated statistically. The items used in this statistical study are only a beginning in this field; they may be refined and extended to give a more complete picture of an institution. An example of this growth may be seen in the library study. In 1937 the single item “expenditure for library books and periodicals per student” was used; in this year’s chart three items were used: (a) expenditure for library books and periodicals, (b) ratio of the total library budget to the total college budget, and (c) ranking of college libraries according to the number of volumes. The standings of two institutions are shown in the profile chart reproduced below. The institution represented by the solid line stands relatively high, that represented by the broken line stands relatively low. The first important fact that appears is that no institution was uniformly high or low in all items. However, the general institutional tone is readily apparent in this comparative chart. The teachers college listed as “high” has nine items out of eleven above the seventy-fifth percentile and five of those nine lie above the ninetieth per¬ centile; the institution listed as “low” has only four items above the seventy-fifth percentile and only one above the ninetieth percentile, while seven out of eleven items lie below the twenty-fifth percentile and six of those seven lie below the tenth percentile. Thus from the profile charts the general standing of an institution may be read directly. The individual items should be readily understandable once the data upon which they are based and the method of computing them are explained. Item 1 ' has been termed the “holding power” of the institution. The enrolment in the final year was divided by the enrolment of the same class during its freshman year. For example, the school listed as “high” in the accompanying chart is a four- year school. Therefore, the number in the fourth year in 1938 (128) was divided by the number in the first-year class in 1934 (172) giving 74.42 percent and falling in the 85.3 percentile. An important question arises in connection with item I when the percent derived is greater than 100. Should an institution be given a high rank in “holding power” when a given class is considerably larger in its fourth year than it was during its first year? Where this situation exists a lack of selection after admission is implied. This was disregarded this year, because it was considered a temporary situation existing in a very few schools in which some extraordinary occurrence, such as a change from a three- to four-year curriculum, had recently occurred. A second question respecting the validity of this item arises from the fact that the membership of the fourth-year class undoubtedly includes students who did not enter in the first-year class. There is no way of determining this from the available data. 1 The term “institutional pattern map” is from Principles of Accrediting Higher Institutions by Zook and Haggerty. 2 The numbers of the items refer to the number of the standard to which they apply. IXa IXb IXc XIa Xlb XIc Xld XIc VIII £ Vt_i I O «**> “ O' n — ~ C hO C u •r « £ £ g-S U £ r- 3 t: o O o o "I -S C S JSl w 3 **-< G o hC C O ‘u'O o -c 4-» <_> c •» O o -C >s «J I o ~ £ o *"* O i— M, O t-i '*-* «D O' 3 • ** «J ns *3 * co 'O c O' * ~a o (X "3 T3 O j: #b0 *C £ > > .1 -C CX ^ " n o o ^ JZ a •— —4 _ G " o u • — m “ O -O s G o hO ■S ^ s 5 s bo os G ’> -a > t .2 E £ 3 G w ho > < - Cl o -a 2 3 3 m c u ho u O O \ o -o <-> c _ » CJ — .c u "O u O u re ^ c ‘z “ £ s CX ct «J •T3 C a <0 O O U3 c _r o .2 § u «-» • — CO -3 G ho -a 3 -O -a ~ c F w a. T3 X 3 w « X hO T3 « 4J CX ho E “ CJ ^ u -Q X o H u X 2 X G o ~o 3 ? 5- g ° ex ~o * C W w -o *— < X -a 3 ex T3 G 3 O nJ o *TJ 3 «o Cl Cl •4-1 c* C O 4-S G 0 "O per OJJ •» ex u 0 tx -* 0 0 c 0 u O ex 3 4-J CO lo IE CO 4-. <0 c 0 ~o 3 so u. 0 4h l_ Cl (X P3 *c5 > CJ 0 -C rt u ho \— tj E V l— -1 G O rs O co ** u -0 P O rs CO ^3 -TD r-1 O XXX o o w > 3 £ n -3 o rs U -02 1) 2 w *3 G T3 O *4-1 *j o E .* W CO o ^ O > s ^ o ^x E v*-« £ 0 ~o ^ 0 « 4-. 1 -a « u. t- w o h G •O -M C Percentile Standings, 1937-1938 Note: Item* III and Vb of last year’s percentile chart have been omitted. High Institution - Low Institution 360 National Education Association The percents obtained in item I are not directly comparable with those of previous years because the basic data employed in the computations was changed. Before this year, the percent was obtained by taking the figures for a given year, such as 1937, and dividing the number in the fourth-year class by the number in the first-year class. Item IV is a comparison of the average preparation of the faculty of the 150 institutions. This weighting was carried out by taking the faculty analysis according to earned degrees of each institution from its annual report. The number holding each degree was then multiplied by a given weight according to the following table. Preparation Weight Doctor’s degree 7 Sixty hours graduate study 6 Master’s degree 5 Bachelor’s degree 4 No degree 2 As an example take the hypothetical case of an institution having ten faculty mem¬ bers; three of these members hold earned doctor’s degrees, one has sixty hours of graduate credit beyond the bachelor’s degree, five hold master’s degrees, and one holds no degree. This faculty would be weighted in the following manner: Degree Frequency Weight Weighted score Doctor’s degree . . 3 7 21 Sixty hours of graduate credit . . 1 6 6 Master’s degree . . 5 5 25 Bachelor’s degree . . 0 4 0 No degree . . 1 2 2 Total . . 10 — 54 To find the average weighted score, the total weighted score (54) is divided by the total number of faculty members (10). This institution has, therefore, an average weighted score for its faculty preparation of 5.4. It meets the standards of the asso¬ ciation because less than 15 percent of its faculty has less than a master’s degree. This system of weighting is applied to the college faculty and to the faculty of the training school in those cases where the salary of the training school faculty is paid by the college. The weighting is applied to both full- and part-time members of the instructional staff and the president of the college, but it does not include members of the nonteaching administrative and business staff. Item V is the average teaching load of the college teachers. The average is found by dividing the total number of classes (including extension) taught per week by the number of college teachers. Item IXa, the expenditure for library books and periodicals per student, is obtained by dividing the annual expenditure for those items by the total number of students in the school. In some instances this derived amount was relatively low. To supple¬ ment this figure a second study of the library compares the total library budget with the total college budget for educational purposes. This was done in an effort to determine whether the budget of the college restricted this expenditure, or whether the relative size of the expenditure was a matter of administrative policy. This is item IXb. One other study of the library was made in item IXc. This was a ranking of the institutions according to the number of volumes in the college libraries. Training school libraries were omitted because it was not possible to evaluate them. American Association of Teachers Colleges 361 All subdivisions of item XI are based upon computations using the figure in the annual report of total enrolment. In the tabulation of data for the statistical study the interpretation of the answers on many annual reports was difficult. It is difficult to word any questionnaire so that it will fit the organization of all phases of all the institutions reporting. The first question of this type occurred in connection with the report on “En¬ rolment.” The item total enrolment should have included the total number of full¬ time students enrolled in the academic year 1937-38. For example, an institution might have an enrolment of 150 in the first semester, and 175 in the second semester, 150 of the enrolment of the second semester being the same 150 who were enrolled in the first semester. Therefore, the total enrolment is 175. The average enrolment for this institution is the sum of the enrolments for each term divided by the number of terms and is 162.5. The figures for enrolment for years one to four should include only full-time students in the regular academic year. The term “graduate students” applies only to those institutions which offer work for graduate credit; postgraduate or special students working for certification should not be included under this heading. In item IX a difficulty in interpretation arose because the questions were not answered. Where the number of duplicates was asked for, many institutions an¬ swered in percent; or the number of volumes in the training school and college libraries were not separated. The arbitrary assignments which are necessary in these cases cause statistical errors which are unnecessary. The answer to the question on the training of the library staff should have listed the training by individuals, giving the academic degrees held and the professional library’ training if it was not repre¬ sented by one of the degrees. Under item XI, considerable difficulty arose because different institutions made different breakdowns of their financial statements, and many found it difficult to analyze them to fit the questionnaire. This situation will probably be remedied when the Teachers College Manual of Accounting Procedure, which is now being pre¬ pared under the direction of the American Association of Teachers Colleges and the Financial Advisory Service of the American Council on Education, is finished and is generally accepted. Two items need additional explanation. Income from student fees should be interpreted to mean income from tuition which is available to the college for operating expenses. Section 5, total loan funds available to students, should be interpreted to mean the capital of all loan funds. Aside from the specific points which have been mentioned as involving difficulty of interpretation, a more general difficulty arises in connection with those studies of “per student” income, expenditures, etc. Many of the institutions reporting have junior college or other nonprofessional departments. Unless these institutions break up their administrative and financial structures into teachers college and nonteachers college, they should furnish figures of total college enrolment so that their figures will be comparable with those institutions which are purely professional schools. This is the eleventh year for which statistical data is available, and the improve¬ ment in the majority of reporting institutions has been accompanied by a raising of the minimum standards. It has also been accompanied by a refining and extension of the statistical study of these institutions. The danger of judging an institution on a small number of statistical studies, some of which are questionable by themselves, is evident. Many important administrative policies may be neglected to the detriment of the general picture of an institution, and weak spots may be given undue emphasis. A picture of one phase of administrative policy is the study of the library. This shows the relative standing of an institution in the expenditure per student for library books and periodicals, the ratio of the library budget to the total college budget, and the relative standing of the number of volumes in the library. Unfortu¬ nately, other sections of the pattern map are not so complete. With the improvement in accounting and reporting the pattern map may become more refined and more comprehensive; it can give an increasingly better and more 362 National Education Association complete picture of each institution. This will be important for accrediting but much more so in determining institutional and state policy. The secretary again includes in his report the graphs showing trends in relation to faculty preparation, student load, expenditures for the library, and the number of students graduated at different levels from the teachers colleges. The charts on faculty preparation indicate that for the first time since 1926 the median faculty preparation was slightly less than the previous year. It is worth noting, however, that both at the 25 percentile and the 75 percentile the level of preparation is still rising. We present this year for the first time the percents of the various levels in 150 institutions. To many it will be surprising that nearly one- quarter of the total faculties have the doctor’s degree, and that two-fifths of the faculties have sixty hours or more of graduate training. Faculty Preparation — minimum Requirement — 75th Percentiles — Medians — . 25th Percentiles Values Given Doctors 7 6o hours Grad. Study 6 to Degrees masters 5 Bachelors 4- Ho Degree 2 150 Institutions 8568 Instructors The expenditures for library books and periodicals per student since 1932, as shown in the graph, indicates a major problem for the institutions in our association. Over 25 percent of our institutions spend less than $3 per student, over 50 percent Expenditure in Libraru Books and Periodicals, per Student - 75th Percentiles -Medians - 25 th Percentiles Expenditure for Library Books and Periodicals bb Schools Accredited in 1927 American Association of Teachers Colleges 363 less than $4 per student, for library books and periodicals. This is not enough and the amount is decreased slightly over the previous year. The comparison of total expenditures for sixty-six schools since 1927 indicates that this problem has not received as much attention from our executives, faculties, and appropriating bodies as it deserves to have. The changes which have taken place within our institutions and the demands for wider understanding should be accompanied by a development of the library and of the student experiences that center in it. Change in methods of teaching and learning in our better institutions is more revolutionary than is gener¬ ally recognized. It seems fair to expect that very significant changes will come about in our institutions as a result of the stimulation provided by the Carnegie Corpora¬ tion grant in the institutions to which it was given and eventually in all our insti¬ tutions. The institutions chosen have a definite responsibility for experimentation in the use of the library and in reporting generally the practices which are found most satisfactory in connection with the use of the libraries. The ratio of students to teachers and the teaching load measured in other ways is a definite measure of the opportunity to do for the individual what is necessary in the preparation of good teachers. The trends shown in the graphs for student- teacher ratio and teaching load in periods per week indicate a gradual improvement. It is significant, however, that the median student-teacher ratio is still about twice that of the best private institutions. The teachers college, as a public institution, is called upon to carry in varying degree in different parts of the country the responsi¬ bility for general education. It seems clear that the education of teachers has, in consequence, paid a heavy penalty in quality. Pressure to provide general education to students in the area close to the institution at a low cost has caused severe problems of administration in many institutions. R A T I 0 Student Teacher - 75 th Percentiles . - Med i ans - - 25 th Percentiles Ratio Medi &ns 25 th Percentiles The table giving the number of graduates in 107 teachers colleges since 1927 is again presented. In 1927 less than 25 percent of the graduates were at the four-year level. In 1938 almost 75 percent were at the four-year level. The tendency indicated has been accelerating over the past two years and it seems inevitable that in about 364 National Education Association five years our teachers colleges will not graduate any persons into the teaching profession with less than four years of education. 1 927' V/////////M//////77777, I928G . I929~ TZzzzzzmmzzmiL 1950- % 1 i f (931; 1932; V7Z7Z7V7777mm< 1 I | 1 1933; , vm/z/zr/z/iz/w, 1934 1935 ' ' ASS 1936; y/x/ //////////, >//, mmmmm I937| 1938; o/zz/tm ‘ E3 Ycir* 1— jThr*« Vein 5X5 B *«K#lor‘j D*« Graduates Fi rom 07 Teach er5 Colleges The secretary wishes to record his belief that the committee work of the association has been increasingly significant. The demands upon the executives who serve on these committees are sometimes heavy. It is to be remarked, however, that the com¬ mittee members give their time willingly and that this is one of the better ways of securing self-training for our executives. The secretary is grateful for the oppor¬ tunity to enter into the problems of teacher education thru his association with the institutions, and again solicits specific suggestions for improving the work of the secretary’s office. Committee on Standards and Surveys A. L. Rowland, President, State Teachers College, Shippensburg, Pennsylvania. Five Years. E. S. Evenden, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Four Years. R. L. West, President, State Teachers College, Trenton, New Jersey. Three I cars. A. L. Crabb, Professor of Education, George Peabody College, Nashville, Tennessee. Two Years. R. W. Fairchild, President, Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois. One Year. Chairman. Committee on Accrediting and Classification Grady Gammage, President, State Teachers College, Tempe, Arizona. Five 1 ears. G. W. Diemer, President, State Teachers College, Warrensburg, Missouri. Four Years. C. H. Fisher, President, Western Washington College of Education, Bellingham, Washington. Three Years. Alonzo F. Myers, Professor of Education, School of Education, New \ ork Univer¬ sity, New York City. Two Years. George A. Selke, President, State Teachers College, St. Cloud, Minnesota. One 1 ear. Chairman. American Association of Teachers Colleges 365 Delegates to the American Council on Education J. L. Jarman, President, State Teachers College, Farmville, Virginia. Three Years. M. Ernest Townsend, President, State Teachers College, Newark, New Jersey. Two Years. W. P. Morgan, President, State Teachers College, Macomb, Illinois. One Year. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Cleveland, Ohio February 24-25, 1939 The annual meeting was called to order by President Frank W. Thomas in the Assembly Room of the Hotel Hollenden at 9:30 on February 24. The following program was carried out as announced: General Topic: The Place of General Education in the Program of Teacher Prepa¬ ration: How Much, How Organized, and How Related to Professional Elements — A Symposium. J. G. Flowers, president, State Teachers College, Lock Haven, Pa. Roscoe Pulliam, president, Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale, Ill. Paul V. Sangren, president, Western State Teachers College, Kalamazoo, Mich. Discussion from the floor, led by Walter H. Ryle, president, Northeast Missouri State Teachers College, Kirksville, Mo. At the conclusion of the program President Thomas announced the appointment of the following committees: Resolutions — Dean E. J. Ashbaugh, Oxford, Ohio, chairman; President R. G. Buzzard, Charleston, Ill.; President J. T. Anderson, Wayne, Nebr. ; President Leon R. Meadows, Greenville, N. C. ; President C. A. Howard, LaGrande, Ore. Audit — President Grady Gammage, Tempe, Ariz. ; President R. W. Swetman, Oswego, N. Y. Election — President W. W. Parker, Cape Girardeau, Mo.; President Guy H. Wells, Milledgeville, Ga. President Parker made the report for the Nominating Committee. President Morgan presented, at the request of the joint committees, a questionnaire covering possible variations in the schedule of meeting, as follows: Preferential ballot with respect to the sessions of the American Association of Teachers Colleges in its annual meetings I. Shall the Association continue with four regular sessions and one joint session as at present? Yes Q No □ a. If “yes” shall more time be provided for general business including the pre¬ sentation of committee reports and their discussion? Yes □ No □ II. Shall the Association provide one additional session annually so as to give more time for committee reports and the general business of the Association? Yes □ No □ a. If “yes” what is your preference for arranging that extra session? Note: Indicate your first, second, and third choice of the options given below. □ 1. Provide that a session be added Thursday evening preceding the beginning of our present plan. □ 2. Provide that a session be added on Saturday evening following the close of our present plan. □ 3. Provide if possible that the joint meeting in which the Association now 366 National Education Association takes part be held the following week so that our Association may hold an additional session on Saturday afternoon. □ 4. Provide for the additional session on Monday afternoon of the week fol¬ lowing the regular program. It was voted to include this questionnaire in the election procedure. The afternoon meeting was called to order by President Thomas at 2:00 p.m. The following program was carried out as announced: General Topic: The Responsibility of Institutions for Teacher Education To Prepare Teachers for Their General Professional and Community Responsibilities (a) The Present Situation as Revealed by a Survey Frank W. Hubbard, associate director, Research Division, National Education Association (b) The Teachers College Turns Professional A. L. Crabb, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. (c) What Next in Preparation for Community Relationships F. E. Engleman, president, State Teachers College, New Haven, Conn. General Discussion, led by George A. Selke, president, State Teachers College, St. Cloud, Minn. The evening program was held in the ballroom of the Hotel Hollenden. The attendance was 182. This meeting was a special observance of the centennial anni¬ versary of the first publicly-supported institution for the education of teachers in America. The president had invited the school of education of Western Reserve University to provide the music for this occasion. The songs for the normal school of 1839 were sung in costumes of the period. The program was not only interesting historically, but was entertaining and of high quality. The presentation by the Mount Auburn and Hazeldell Training Schools demonstrated the modern methods with children and indicated the high distinction of the program of music in the Cleveland public schools. The school of education printed a special program, “One Hundred Years in Public School Music,” which included program notes indicating the sources of the materials used in the program, with amusing quotations from the early books on music for the schools and the diaries of Cyrus Peirce and Mary Swift. The address of the evening was given by Payson Smith of the graduate school of education at Harvard University. His title was “A Century of Teacher Education.” The address was of such distinction in content and delivery that the Association has ordered a large number of reprints to be furnished to the members. The morning session on Saturday, February 25, opened at 9:15. This meeting was planned in cooperation with the Teachers College Personnel Association, the presi¬ dent of which, C. F. Malmberg, presided. The program was as follows: General Topic: Ijnprovcd Teacher Personnel (a) Personnel Programs and the National Survey of Teacher Training — Daniel A. Prescott, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N. J. (b) The Cooperative Program of Teachers College Personnel Association — J. D. Heilman, Colorado State College of Education, Greeley, Colo. (c) An Evaluation of the Results of the Personnel Work of Teachers Colleges — M. Ernest Townsend, president, State Teachers College, Newark, N. J. Mr. Prescott did not make a formal address and it is not therefore included. After the conclusion of the formal program President Thomas took the chair and presided over the business session. O. P. Dellinger, chairman of the special Committee on Graduate Work, presented its report, which was adopted and the Committee continued. Frank D. McElroy, chairman of the Committee on Finance Forms, reported that a suggested Manual of Accounting Procedure for Teachers Colleges had been com- American Association of Teachers Colleges 367 pleted under the direction of Edward V. Miles, Jr., associate professor of economics and business manager of the Southern Illinois State Normal University. This manual has been mimeographed and distributed under the joint auspices of the American Association of Teachers Colleges and the Financial Advisory Service of the Ameri¬ can Council on Education. Professor Miles was employed by the committee to do the detail work on the manual. The report was adopted, the Committee continued, and the report referred to the Executive Committee for further action. President R. W. Fairchild, chairman, reported for the Committee on Standards and Surveys. The report was adopted. President Fairchild introduced Mr. Even- den, who presented the new Standards for Graduate Work in Teachers Colleges. These standards were an outgrowth of an investigation under the direction of Mr. Evenden into the practices and problems of the teachers colleges in this field and reported upon at the meeting in 1938. A further investigation was made during the past year and the results considered by the Committee on Graduate Work and the Committee on Standards. The Standards were adopted. President C. C. Sherrod, chairman of the Committee on Accrediting, made his report. The report was adopted. The secretary asked and was granted permission to print his report. Dean Ashbaugh presented the report of the Resolutions Committee, which was adopted, as follows: REPORT OF THE RESOLUTIONS COMMITTEE Having given careful consideration to all topics suggested to us and feeling that it is impossible to pay tribute individually to all persons to whom it is due, the committee decided to leave out all names of living persons and presents herewith its report. Resolved: 1. That the American Association of Teachers Colleges express its appreciation to the officers responsible for this series of programs and to all participants thereon. 2. That we hold in affectionate memory the names and services of our colleagues who have passed on since the last annual meeting: President G. E. Maxwell, State Teachers College, Winona, Minn., 1904-39 President G. A. McFarland, State Teachers College, Minot, N. Dak., 1922-38 President R. E. Offenhauer, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, 1937-38 President G. M. Snodgrass, State Teachers College, La Crosse, Wis., 1926-39. 3. That we express to the National Education Association our appreciation for the service of the Research Division during the past year, and respectfully request the continuation of this markedly valuable assistance. 4. That we recommend to the member institutions that they observe in an appro¬ priate manner the centennial of the founding of the first publicly supported teacher-training institution in America. 5. That the American Association of Teachers Colleges commend the federal government for the services of the National Youth Administration during the past year and request the continuance of financial aid to students. 6. That we commend the achievement in certain states in establishing a four- year preservice training period for elementary teachers and the movement in other states toward this same goal. E. J. Ashbaugh, Chairman Robert G. Buzzard J. T. Anderson Leon R. Meadows C. A. Howard 368 National Education Association President Gammage reported for the Auditing Committee as follows: REPORT OF THE AUDITING COMMITTEE We have carefully examined the official audit of the accounts of the Association and find everything accurate and in order. The audit was made by Forest E. Fergu¬ son & Company, certified public accountants of Binghamton, New York. The income of the Association for the year ending December 31, 193S, was $10,429.66. The expenses were $6,S50.70, leaving a net income for the year of $3,578.96. The net worth of the Association on December 31, 1938, was $8,712.65, represented by Cash on Hand in Banks . $7,885.60 Accounts Receivable . 431.75 Furniture and Office Equipment . 450.30 $8,767.65 Less — Deferred Income . 55.00 Net Worth . $8,712.65 One section of the report is of particular interest. We submit a brief summary of income and expense for the past several years: Years 1935 1936 1937 193S Total income . $3,929.77 $5,559.63 $5,603.18 $10,429.66 Total expenses . 4,282.44 4,452.05 4,416.59 6,850.70 We submit this report together with the recommendation that the accounts and the audit for the year ending December 31, 1938, be approved. Grady Gammage Ralph Swetman The report was adopted. The secretary called the attention of the association to the change in the con¬ stitution which had been proposed the previous year and of which the members had been notified in accordance with the constitution. This change in the constitution was adopted, without discussion, as follows: “That on and after 1942 all member institutions shall meet the Standards of the Association, and that no applicant shall be accepted after 1939 who does not fully meet the Standards of this Association.” The elections committee reported the election of the following officers: President — Charles C. Sherrod, President, State Teachers College, Johnson City,Tenn. Vicepresident — Frank D. McElroy, President, State Teachers College, Mankato, Minn. Member of the Executive Committee, for three years — H. L. Donovan, President, State Teachers College, Richmond, Ky. The new officers were introduced. President Thomas turned the gavel over to President Sherrod, who replied appropriately, and the meeting adjourned. On Saturday afternoon the American Association of Teachers Colleges joined the Second Annual Joint Conference on Teacher Education in the United States. The program was planned by Karl W. Bigelow, director of the Commission on Teacher Education of the American Council on Education, as the representative of the co¬ operating groups. The meeting was held in the ballroom of the Hotel Hollenden which was filled to capacity. The general topic was “Next Steps in Teacher Edu¬ cation.” Payson Smith presided, as chairman of the Commission on Teacher Edu¬ cation. The following program was carried out: American Association of Teachers Colleges 369 Speakers : Needs and Challenges in Teacher Education Grayson N. Kefauver, dean, School of Education, Stanford University Cooperation in the Improvement of Teacher Education Karl W. Bigelow, director, Commission on Teacher Education, American Coun¬ cil on Education Symposium: Mary D. Barnes, eastern regional director, Department of Classroom Teachers, National Education Association Fred G. Holloway, president, Western Maryland College Lloyd W. King, state superintendent of public schools, Missouri Harl R. Douglass, director, Division of Education, University of North Carolina E. E. Oberholtzer, superintendent of schools, Houston, Texas H. A. Sprague, president, State Teachers College, Montclair, N. J. The addresses of Dean Kefauver and Mr. Bigelow are printed in the Eighteenth Yearbook of the association. Thru the courtesy of W. M. Gregory, director of the Educational Museum in Cleveland, arrangements were made for displaying stereopticon slides furnished by the members of the association in the lobby outside the assembly hall before and after the meetings. The celebration of the one hundred years of publicly-supported teacher education has received the attention of the committees of the association. During the meeting an exhibition of materials from the State Teachers College at Framingham, the first publicly-supported institution for the education of teachers to be founded in the United States, was held in the lobby and created a great deal of interest. It in¬ cluded original documents and was arranged by Anne Rochefort from the staff of the Framingham State Teachers College. In connection with the annual meeting, the Accrediting Committee met on Febru¬ ary 22 and 23; the Standards Committee on February 23; and the combined com¬ mittees on February 23. The Executive Committee met on Saturday evening following the general meet¬ ings of the association, to receive the requests of the committees and plan the activi¬ ties of the association for the following year. The Standards Committee reported the activities which were planned in connec¬ tion with the revision of the Standards. Arrangements were made for a study of personnel, under the chairmanship of President M. Ernest Townsend. The printing of the Manual of Accounting Procedure for Teachers Colleges in cooperation with the American Council and the arranging of conferences was approved. A program for the celebration of the one hundredth year of publicly-supported teacher education was approved and President R. L. West accepted the responsi¬ bility for carrying out this program, a committee to be appointed. All these activities received budget support, and indicate the expanding pro¬ gram of the association. President Albert Lindsay Rowland, State Teachers College, Shippensburg, Penn¬ sylvania, was appointed for five years to the Standards Committee. President R. W. Fairchild was designated as chairman of the Standards Committee. President Grady Gammage, State Teachers College, Tempe, Arizona, was appointed a member of the Accrediting Committee for five years. President George A. Selke was designated as chairman of the Accrediting Committee. President J. L. Jarman, State Teachers College, Farmville, Virginia, was ap¬ pointed to act as a delegate to the American Council on Education. The following Nominating Committee was appointed: Zone I. Principal L. R. Gregory, Fredonia, N. Y. ; alternate, President H. D. Welte, New Britain, Conn. 370 National Education Association Zone II. President R. M. Steele, California, Pa.; alternate, President E. G. Rohr- bough, Glenville, W. Va. Zone IIT. Dean Wm. H. Zeigel, Cleveland, Miss.; alternate President W. H. Mc¬ Connell, Denton, Texas. Zone IV. President Paul V. Sangren, Kalamazoo, Mich.; alternate, President Ralph N. Tirey, Terre Haute, Ind. Zone V. President J. T. Anderson, Wayne, Nebr. ; alternate, President J. D. Hill, Superior, Wis. Zone VI. President C. A. Howard, LaGrande, Ore.; alternate, President H. C. Gossard, Las Vegas, N. Mex. Charles W. Hunt was reappointed as secretary-treasurer of the association. LIST OF ACCREDITED INSTITUTIONS— 1939-40 Longest curriculum which has been approved indicated in number of years before each institution. The Association does not attempt to accredit graduate work. Location Institution President Alabama Florence . 4/State Teachers College Jacksonville . 4/State Teachers College Livingston . 4/State Teachers College Troy . 4/State Teachers College J. A. Keller C. W. Daugette N. F. Greenhill Charles B. Smith Arizona Flagstaff . 4/Arizona State Teachers College . T. J. Tormey Tempe . . . . . 4/Arizona State Teachers College . Grady Gammage Arkansas Arkadelphia . Conway . California Fresno . San Diego . San Francisco. . . . Colorado Greeley . Gunnison . . . . Connecticut New Britain . New Haven . District of Columbia Washington . Washington . Georgia Collegeboro . Milledgeville . 4/Henderson State Teachers College . Joseph A. Day 4/Arkansas State Teachers College . H. L. McAlister 4/Fresno State College . Frank W. Thomas 4/San Diego State College . Walter R. Hepner 4/San Francisco State College . A. C. Roberts 4/Colorado State College of Education. . . George W. Frasier 4/ Western State College . C. C. Casey 4/State Teachers College . H. D. Welte 4/State Teachers College . F. E. Engleman 4/Miner Teachers College . E. A. Clark 4/Wilson Teachers College . E. C. Higbie 4/South Georgia Teachers College . Marvin S. Pittman 4/Georgia State College for Women . Guy H. Wells American Association of Teachers Colleges 371 Location Institution Illinois Carbondale . 4/Southern Illinois State Normal Uni¬ versity . Charleston . 4/Eastern Illinois State Teachers Col¬ lege . Chicago . *3/Chicago Teachers College . DeKalb . 4/Northern Illinois State Teachers Col¬ lege . Macomb . 4/Western Illinois State Teachers Col¬ lege . _ - _ . Normal . 4/Illinois State Normal University . Indiana Indianapolis . 4/College of Education, Butler Univer¬ sity . Muncie . 4/Ball State Teachers College. . . . Terre Haute . 4/Indiana State Teachers College Iowa Cedar Falls . 4/Iowa State Teachers College. . . Kansas Emporia . 4/Kansas State Teachers College . Hays . 4/Fort Hays Kansas State College . Pittsburg . 4/Kansas State Teachers College . Wichita . 4/College of Education, University of Wichita . Kentucky Bowling Green. . . 4/Western Kentucky State Teachers Col¬ lege . Morehead . 4/Morehead State Teachers College . Murray . 4/Murray State Teachers College . Richmond . 4/Eastern Kentucky State Teachers Col¬ lege . Louisiana Lafayette . 4/College of Education, Southwestern Louisiana Institute . Natchitoches . 4/Louisiana State Normal College . Maryland Towson . 4/State Teachers College . Michigan Detroit . 4/Teachers College, Wayne University. . . Kalamazoo . 4/Western State Teachers College . Marquette . 4/Northern State Teachers College . Mt. Pleasant . 4/Central State Teachers College . Ypsilanti . 4/Michigan State Normal College . Minnesota Bemidji . 4/State Teachers College . Duluth . 4/State Teachers College . Mankato: . 4/State Teachers College . Moorhead . 4/State Teachers College . St. Cloud . 4/State Teachers College . Winona . 4/State Teachers College . President Roscoe Pulliam Robert G. Buzzard John A. Bartky Karl L. Adams W. P. Morgan R. W. Fairchild W. L. Richardson, Dean L. A. Pittenger Ralph N. Tirey O. R. Latham Thomas W. Butcher C. E. Rarick W. A. Brandenburg Leslie B. Sipple, Dean Paul L. Garrett Harvey A. Babb James H. Richmond H. L. Donovan F. M. Hamilton, Dean A. A. Fredericks M. Theresa Wiedefeld W. E. Lessenger, Dean Paul V. Sangren W. H. Pearce E. C. Warriner J. M. Munson Charles R. Sattgast Herbert Sorensen Frank D. McElroy R. B. MacLean George A. Selke A. T. French, Acting *First degree class June 1939. 372 National Education Association Location Institution Mississippi Cleveland . . 4/Delta State Teachers College . Hattiesburg . . 4/State Teachers College . Missouri Cape Girardeau. . 4/Southeast Missouri State Teachers Col¬ lege . Kansas City. . . . . 4/Teachers College of Kansas City . Kirksville . . 4/Northeast Missouri State Teachers Col- lege . Maryville . . 4/Northwest Missouri State Teachers Col- lege . St. Louis . . 4/Harris Teachers College . St. Louis . . 4/Stowe Teachers College . Springfield . . 4/Southwest Missouri State Teachers Col- lege . Warrensburg. . . . . 4/Central Missouri State Teachers Col- lege . Montana Dillon . . 4/Montana State Normal College . Nebraska Chadron . . 4/Nebraska State Teachers College . Kearney . . 4/Nebraska State Teachers College . Peru . . 4/Nebraska State Teachers College . Wayne . . 4/Nebraska State Teachers College . New Hampshire Keene . . 4/Keene Normal School . Plymouth . . 4/Plymouth Normal School . New Jersey *Glassboro . . 4/State Teachers College . Jersey City . . 4/State Teachers College . Newark . . 4/State Teachers College . Trenton . . 4/State Teachers College . Upper Montclair . 4/State Teachers College . New Mexico Las Vegas . . 4/New Mexico Normal University . Silver City . . 4/New Mexico State Teachers College. . . New York Albany . . 4/State College for Teachers . Buffalo. . . . . 4/State Teachers College . Fredonia . . 3/State Normal School . Geneseo . . 3/State Normal School . New Paltz . . 3/State Normal School . Oneonta . . 3/State Normal School . President W. M. Kethley J. B. George W. W. Parker James C. Bond Walter H. Ryle Uel W. Lamkin C. G. Vannest, Principal Ruth M. Harris, Chairman in Charge Roy Ellis G. W. Diemer Sheldon E. Davis Robert I. Elliott Herbert L. Cushing W. R. Pate J. T. Anderson Wallace E. Mason Ernest L. Silver Edgar F. Bunce Roy L. Shaffer M. Ernest Townsend Roscoe L. West H. A. Sprague H. C. Gossard H. W. James A. R. Brubacher Harry W. Rockwell L. R. Gregory, Principal James B. Welles, Principal L. H. van den Berg, Principal Charles W. Hunt, Principal ^Subject to reinspection. American Association of Teachers Colleges 373 Location Institution *Oswego . 3/State Normal School . Potsdam . 3/State Normal School . North Carolina Asheville . 4/Asheville Normal and Teachers College. Boone . 4/Appalachian State Teachers College. . . Cullowhee . 4/Western Carolina Teachers College. . . . Greenville . 4/East Carolina Teachers College . North Dakota ^Dickinson . 4/State Teachers College . *Ellendale . 4/State Normal and Industrial School. . . . *Mayville . 4/State Teachers College . *Minot . 4/State Teachers College . *Valley City . 4/State Teachers College . Ohio Bowling Green. . . 4/Bowling Green State University . Cleveland . 4/School of Education, Western Reserve University . Cleveland . 4/Sisters College . *Kent . 4/Kent State University . Oxford . 4/School of Education, Miami Univer¬ sity . Wilmington . 4/ Wilmington College . Oklahoma Ada . 4/East Central State Teachers College. . . Alva . 4/Northwestern State Teachers College. . Durant . 4/Southeastern State Teachers College. . . Edmond . 4/Central State Teachers College . Tahlequah . 4/Northeastern State Teachers College. . . Weatherford . 4/Southwestern State Teachers College. . . Oregon Ashland . 2/Southern Oregon Normal School . La Grande . 2/Eastern Oregon Normal School . Monmouth . 2/Oregon Normal School . Pennsylvania Bloomsburg . 4/State Teachers College . California . 4/State Teachers College . Clarion . 4/State Teachers College . East Stroudsburg 4/State Teachers College . Edinboro . 4/State Teachers College . Indiana . 4/State Teachers College . Kutztown . 4/State Teachers College . Lock Haven . 4/State Teachers College . Mansfield . 4/State Teachers College . Millersville . 4/State Teachers College . Shippensburg . . . . 4/State Teachers College . Slippery Rock _ 4/State Teachers College . West Chester. . . . 4/State Teachers College . President R. W. Swetman, Principal O. H. Voelker, Acting Principal Frank C. Foster, Dean of Education B. B. Dougherty H. T. Hunter Leon R. Meadows E. S. Hatch, x^cting J. C. MacMillan Cyril W. Grace C. C. Swain James E. Cox Frank Prout H. N. Irwin, Dean John R. Hagan, Director Karl C. Leebrick E. J. Ashbaugh, Dean Walter L. Collins A. Linscheid E. E. Brown H. V. Posey John O. Moseley John Vaughan W. W. Isle Walter Redford C. A. Howard J. A. Churchill Francis B. Haas Robert M. Steele Paul G. Chandler T. T. Allen Carmon Ross Samuel Fausold Q. A. W. Rohrbach J. G. Flowers Joseph F. Noonan Landis Tanger A. L. Rowland Charles S. Miller Charles S. Swope •Subject to reinspection. 374 National Education Association Location Institution South Dakota Aberdeen . 4/Northern State Teachers College . Madison . 2/Eastern State Normal School . Spearfish . 2/State Normal School . Tennessee Johnson City. . . . 4/State Teachers College . Memphis . 4/State Teachers College . Murfreesboro. . . . 4/State Teachers College . Nashville . 4/Tennessee Agricultural & Industrial State Teachers College . Texas Alpine . 4/Sul Ross State Teachers College . Canyon . 4/West Texas State Teachers College. . . . Commerce . 4/East Texas State Teachers College . Denton . 4/North Texas State Teachers College. . . Huntsville . 4/Sam Houston State Teachers College . . Nacogdoches . 4/Stephen F. Austin State Teachers Col¬ lege . . . San Marcos . 4/Southwest Texas State Teachers Col¬ lege . Virginia East Radford. . . . 4/State Teachers College. . . Farmville . 4/State Teachers College. . . Fredericksburg. . . 4/Mary Washington College Harrisonburg. . . . 4/Madison College . Washington Bellingham . 4/Western Washington College of Edu¬ cation . Cheney . 4/Eastern Washington College of Edu¬ cation . . . Ellensburg . 4/Central Washington College of Edu¬ cation . West Virginia Athens . 4/Concord State Teachers College . Fairmont . 4/Fairmont State Teachers College . Glenville . 4/Glenville State Teachers College . Huntington . 4/Marshall College . Shepherdstown. . . 4/Shepherd State Teachers College . West Liberty. . . . 4/West Liberty State Teachers College. . . Wisconsin Eau Claire . 4/State Teachers College . La Crosse . 4/State Teachers College . Menomonie . 4/The Stout Institute . Milwaukee . 4/State Teachers College . Oshkosh . 4/State Teachers College . Platteville . 4/State Teachers College . River Falls . 4/State Teachers College . Stevens Point. . . . 4/Central State Teachers College . Superior . 4/State Teachers College . President C. G. Lawrence V. A. Lowry E. C. Woodburn C. C. Sherrod J. W. Brister Q. M. Smith W. J. Hale H. W. Morelock J. A. Hill S. H. Whitley W. J. McConnell Charles N. Shaver A. W. Birdwell C. E. Evans D. W. Peters J. L. Jarman M. L. Combs S. P. Duke C. H. Fisher R. T. Hargreaves R. E. McConnell J. F. Marsh Joseph Rosier E. G. Rohrbough J. E. Allen W. H. S. White Paul N. Elbin H. A. Schofield C. A. Whitney, Acting B. E. Nelson Frank E. Baker Forrest E. Polk A. M. Royce J. H. Ames Philip H. Falk J. D. Hill c. American Educational T^e search Association HISTORICAL NOTE The American educational research association, a Department of the National Education Association , was formed at the Cincinnati meet¬ ing in 1915. At first its name was the National Association of Directors of Educational Research. This organization met regularly at the time of the winter convention. In 1929 the Association applied to become the Department of Educational Research in the National Education Associa¬ tion. The proper notice was given at the Atlanta meeting in 1929, and final action in creating the Department was taken at the Columbus, Ohio, meeting on July 3, 1930. The research organization brings with it a history rich in achievements and places the National Education Associa¬ tion in closer touch with colleges, universities, and research agencies. The officers of the Department for the year 1939-40 are: president, Bess Goodykoontz, Assistant Commissioner of Education, United States Office of Education, Washington, D. C.; vicepresident. Carter V. Good , Professor of Education, Teachers College, University of Cincinnati, Cin¬ cinnati, Ohio; secretary-treasurer, William G. Carr, Director, Re¬ search Division, National Education Association, Washington, D. C.; executive committee, Douglas E. S cates, Associate Professor of Edu¬ cation, Duke University, Durham, N. C.; W. A. Brownell, Professor of Educational Psychology, Duke University, Durham, N. C.; officers of the Department, ex officio. The annual dues, $5, are payable to the American Educational Research Association, 1201 16th Street, N. W ., Washington, D. C. The chi-ef pub¬ lications are the review of educational research and the official report. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1930 -.331-332 19 33:377-394 1936 -.231-237 1931 -.415-432 1934 -.361-386 1937 -.257-278 1932 -.357-376 1935:327-348 1938:341-362 [ 376 ] THE STANFORD SOCIAL EDUCATION INVESTIGATION I. JAMES QUILLEN, CODIRECTOR, STANFORD SOCIAL EDUCATION INVESTIGA¬ TION ; AND ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CALIF. The Stanford social education investigation is an effort to work with selected teachers from Denver, Colorado; Salt Lake City, Utah; Seattle, Washington; Eugene, Oregon; Los Angeles, Pasadena, Long Beach, Menlo School and Junior College, Redwood City, and Fortuna, California, in order to aid them in experimentally developing more effective programs of instruc¬ tion and social education. The major objectives of the investigation are: I. To set forth a clear conception of the desirable directions of student growth on the secondary-school level. This involves a statement of A. The nature of the present culture and its trends B. The values to be achieved in terms of the democratic conception of life C. Desirable characteristics of behavior necessary to the achievement of the desired democratic values within the realities of our culture D. The place and role of social education in developing these characteristics. II. To help cooperating teachers become leaders in their schools and regions in developing programs of social education by using the resources of the social studies in developing the desired behavior characteristics and achieving the values of a democratic culture. This involves assisting teachers A. In developing a social philosophy of education fired by the democratic heritage of our people and their hope for the future, and tempered by the realities of a presentday world B. In seeing the implications of that philosophy so that they may develop pro¬ grams of social education for their schools which will lead toward the most effective development of the personalities of their students and the achieve¬ ment of democratic values C. In selecting and experimenting with the materials that are now available for use in such a program D. In developing and experimenting with new materials that are needed and are not now available E. In developing and experimenting with new and old technics of teaching in order to determine the most desirable kinds of learning situations F. In developing effective programs of evaluation that will measure the amount and direction of growth and development that take place as a result of the program. III. To provide leadership in developing relationships with controlling individuals and groups in the community and region which will facilitate the changes in social education that seem desirable, and particularly to strengthen the hand of those administrators and teachers who are working in their own com¬ munities for such changes. IV. To place special emphasis upon such problems of major concern in social education as A. Social education and the community B. Language interpretation and communication as factors in social education C. The implications of newer researches into the nature of individual growth and development for social education [ 377 ] 378 National Education Association D. The implications of newer researches in social education (e.g., Commission on the Secondary School Curriculum, Commission on the Relation of School and College, Commission on the Social Studies of the American Historical Association, etc.) E. The relationship of the subjectmatter of the social sciences to social education F. The relationship between social education and regional planning. V. To make available and circulate as widely as possible the results of the experi¬ mentation and study developed by this project to all interested teachers of social education, administrators, faculties of teacher-education institutions, and the like, on such problems as A. Stating a philosophy B. Formulating objectives C. Organizing programs of study D. Providing and utilizing materials E. Technics of teaching F. Building evaluation programs G. Technics of stimulating in-service growth. VI. To develop technics for evaluating the effectiveness of the type of experimenta¬ tion that this project involves. The plan for the investigation is as follows: Establishing cooperating centers — The directors and staff members visited high schools and junior colleges in the western states and selected cooper¬ ating schools for the project. These schools were selected on the basis of (a) leadership in the area, (b) quality of teaching staff, and (c) the attitude of the administration. An effort was made to select schools where the situa¬ tion is most favorable to investigation and experimentation and where good work will have the widest influence upon social education in the area. Selecting cooperating teachers — With the cooperating centers decided upon, the directors of the project spent some time in each center observing social studies teachers at work. On the basis of this survey, key teachers were selected for the project. Teachers were selected on the basis of readiness for and interest in investigation and experimentation and leadership in the local situation and surrounding area. The objective was to get able teachers who could not only carry forward investigation and experimentation but who could also assume leadership in interpreting the results of their work to others. Selecting members of the staff and establishing a library for the project — During the early part of 1939 members of the staff were chosen and a library of materials established. The members of the staff include: Lavone Hanna, specialist in evaluation ; Robert N. Bush, who has had training in sociology and done extensive experimental work in the social studies curriculum ; Matthew Evans, who has done extensive work in the use of artistic resources in civilization courses; James Price, especially trained in economics, who has done extensive experimental work in contemporary problems; Carlton C. Jenkins, a leader in the Virginia curriculum revision program in the social studies. In addition to these the summer staff included the following: Mar¬ garet Bennett, specialist in guidance and adolescent psychology; F. Melvyn Lawson, who has developed experimental practices in relation to the civili- American Educational Research Association 379 zation approach ; and William B. Brown, who has had extensive experience in directing programs of curriculum development. Planning with the cooperating teachers during the summer — The teachers cooperating in the project worked on the Stanford campus during the sum¬ mer of 1939. At this time the group studied and discussed such problems as the following: What cultural factors are important for social studies educa¬ tion? What is the nature of individual growth and development? What is the nature of adolescent needs and how do they affect the education program ? What are sound purposes and objectives for social education? How can social studies content best be selected? How can the social studies program best be organized? What materials are most useful and how can these materials be obtained ? What technics of teaching and learning are most appropriate in social studies instruction? What are the best technics for evaluating adolescent growth and development in the direction of desir¬ able characteristics of behavior? In studying these problems the results of various research projects in the social studies and education were utilized. Case studies were used in con¬ sidering adolescent development and needs. Discussions were held daily for the purposes of pooling knowledge and clarifying ideas. As a conception of the basic issues became clarified the group of teachers from each school began to consider a conception of social studies instruction most adequate for the particular needs of its school situation. In all cases the starting point was the curriculum program now in operation in each of the cooperating schools. The staff of the project and the teachers from other schools were helpful wherever and whenever possible. The objective was to utilize the best experience and thought of the whole group. As the plan for each school program took form, materials were tentatively selected, source units developed, and evaluation technics decided upon in preparation for changes to be instituted in local programs during the coming fall. Developing experimental programs in the cooperating schools — In the fall of 1939 the teachers in the cooperating schools will put the programs planned during the summer into experimental operation. As the programs develop the directors and members of the staff of the project will keep in continuous contact with the cooperating teachers thru correspondence and visitation. Members of the staff will aid in selecting materials and trying them out ex¬ perimentally. Aid will also be given in evaluation, in keeping records con¬ cerning the experiment, and in interpreting and reporting results. Selecting and preparing materials — The staff of the project at Stanford selected and prepared materials suitable for use in the experimental programs. As complete a selection of materials as possible was collected in the library and used by the cooperating teachers during the summer. Analyses were made of such materials as the radio, newspaper, periodical, pamphlet, and cinema, and suggestions for experimental use made to the cooperating teachers. Where adequate materials are not available, the staff of the project will prepare such materials whenever possible. Outstanding researches in the 380 National Education Association social sciences will be analyzed for suitable readings, photographs collected and organized, and some writing of pamphlets and similar materials carried forward. The staff will also prepare annotated bibliographies of materials suitable for use in the cooperating schools. Developing evaluation technics — The evaluation specialist on the staff made evaluation materials developed in various centers of the country avail¬ able for teacher use, aided the cooperating teachers in preparing evaluation technics, keeping records and making reports, and developed evaluation technics when needed by the cooperating teachers. This type of service will be continued thru the school year. Providing in-service educational opportunities for teachers — Teachers will have opportunity to secure aid from members of the staff of the project while actually meeting their problems in the classroom. They can also con¬ sult with the members of the staff thru correspondence and request staff visits from time to time. Conferences will be held at Stanford each summer during the period of the project. At these conferences the work of the previous year will be carefully analyzed and evaluated ; new developments in the social sciences and educa¬ tion will be studied and discussed; and new plans will be projected for the succeeding year. Interpreting and extending the values of the investigation and experimen¬ tation — As the programs in the cooperating centers begin to function effec¬ tively, technics for interpreting results to teachers in the surrounding areas can be developed. This might be achieved thru (a) programs of visitation in the cooperating schools; (b) regional meetings; (c) providing speakers for institutes and other local educational meetings; and (d) writing articles, pamphlets, and monographs to be circulated among teachers. Materials and evaluation technics that have proved helpful will also be published. Direction of the investigation — The project is under the direction of Grayson N. Kefauver and I. James Quillen of the Stanford University school of education. They will be aided by the administrative staffs of the cooperating schools. The project will attempt to make the following contributions to general education: It will (a) aid in clarifying educational purposes and values for social studies teachers; (b) establish closer cooperation between the work of the university and the work of the public schools; (c) demonstrate virtues and deficiencies of various types of curriculum organizations, materials, and teaching and evaluation technics; (d) utilize research results already avail¬ able in the social sciences and in education ; (e) test the value of an in-service educational program for teachers; (f) develop teaching and evaluation technics for various curriculum needs in the social studies; and (g) aid di¬ rectly in the task of developing social competence thru social studies instruc¬ tion in the cooperating schools, and, to some extent, in education generally. American Educational Research Association 381 HEARING: AN EDUCATIONAL PROBLEM PETER L. SPENCER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, CLAREMONT COLLEGES, CLAREMONT, CALIF. Much is expected of a modern educational institution. Educators have called attention to the fact that the “whole child comes to school.” Natu¬ rally, such an assertion implies that the school is expected to serve the whole of the child while he is in attendance. That is rather a large order, but it is one which must be met with reasonable effectiveness. Someone has called to our attention the concept that there is no such actual phenomenon as a “whole child.” All that the expression can signify is the particular conception of wholeness which is possessed by the one who uses it. Each day adds some modification and some increment of perceptive understanding concerning the nature of that wholeness. Frequently, the new understanding discloses inadequacies in educational practices which were previously unchallenged. Correction of such practices in the light of better understanding of students’ needs is a basic aim of educational research. Not infrequently demands are made upon the schools by agencies outside the organized educational institutions. Commonly such agencies have been developed for the purpose of studying or of serving some particular aspect of human need. As they advance in their studies or as they develop effective services, the agencies sense the importance of having their fields of interest incorporated within the concern of the school’s educational program. The social pressures from such agencies and their friends sometimes serve as an embarrassment to school administrators. More often they furnish an oppor¬ tunity to secure desired adaptations of school practices. In 1935 the National Society for the Prevention of Blindness issued a bulletin in which the assertion was made that “there is no good reason why teacher-training curriculums should not include instruction in the technic of testing vision. Most teachers can master the intricacies of the objective achievement test in reading and arithmetic; likewise, they should be held responsible for learning how to determine the ability of the child to gather by means of vision the knowledge measured by the achievement test.” Educationists have been stimulated by such an implied rebuke of their practices. Widespread and serious attempts have been made to discover what visual functions are most important for educational achievement. How those visual functions can best be measured and how the results of measure¬ ment may be interpreted with the greatest validity for educational prac¬ tices are problems which have been studied intensively. Studies in that regard have disclosed many aspects of visual behavior which offer interesting possibilities. It may not be long before teacher-training curriculum will include an extensive consideration of visual problems. We may hope to de¬ velop educational practices which will not only conserve the visual abilities of the students but which may be able to develop even better visual func¬ tioning than the pupils at present possess. 382 National Education Association The problems with hearing do not seem to have the dramatic appeal which are found with those of seeing. Some thirteen years ago the house of delegates of the American Medical Association adopted the following resolution: “Recognizing the fact that the most effective means for the prevention of deafness consists in the early detection of hearing impair¬ ment, thereby giving opportunity for the prompt removal of contributing causes, and believing it to be one of the important functions of our public school authorities to safeguard the integrity of the special sense organs as well as the general health of the school child ; be it Resolved , by the Section on Laryngology, Otology, and Rhinology of the American Medical Association that it heartily favors the provision by our public school authorities for regular, periodic examinations of the hearing of all public school children, such examination to be adequate to detect even slight degrees of hearing loss.” During recent years some progress has been made toward developing instruments which are capable of measuring more adequately the hearing functions and there has been a gratifying growth in the number of schools which conduct regular caudiometric surveys. However, the studies of hear¬ ing and sound conducted in the schools are much less exhaustive in number and scope than are the studies of seeing and light. One wonders why such should be the case when there is such an essential similarity between the two fields. The statement occurs frequently in educational literature that a large percent of all that is known is experienced thru the eyes. Mills states that “fully 85 percent of all educational experience is visual.” Opposed to that idea, at least so far as language communication is concerned, is the finding reported by Rankin. He found that “listening ability or the ability to un¬ derstand spoken language is the most frequently used of the four language arts.” If that is actually the case the question, How well do we hear? is a pertinent and timely one. Data concerning the prevalence of hearing defects and inabilities thru- out the United States are not available. The studies which have been con¬ ducted in various centers give data which have been used in estimating the degree of deafness likely to be found. The 1937 report of the WPA project for the conservation of hearing of school children in New York City in¬ dicates that of 770,130 children tested some 30,763 were found to have “impairments” in both ears. The number with “impairments” in one ear only added about 4200 more to the group. This indicates that between 4p2 percent and 5 percent of the children examined were judged to have an auditory impairment. That figure is roughly comparable with the results obtained in a survey conducted in Minneapolis as reported in an article by Mr. Newhart. He states that the percent of auditory defect reported in 1936 was 5.3. How¬ ever, Mr. Newhart also cites a WPA project which considered the hearing conditions of rural children in Minnesota. The incidence of hearing loss among the rural group was 13.6 percent. That indicates that rural as com- American Educational Research Association 383 pared with urban children in Minnesota possess more than two and one- half times as much hearing deficiency. This suggests that hearing may be affected by factors of the environment and by opportunities for proper medical care. In substantiation of that point, Newhart cites a ten-year accomplishment in Minneapolis. He says: ‘‘The periodic testing of school children with the audiometer in Minneapolis over a ten-year period has proved the effectiveness of this procedure in definitely reducing the inci¬ dence of hearing impairment in the school population. While this in part has resulted from such factors as immunization, stricter isolation of cases of contagious disease and better hygiene, the marked drop from 8 percent in 1926 to 5.3 percent in 1936 is due chiefly to the production of a greater community ear consciousness, especially on the part of parents.” Striking evidence of the need for the awakening of “ear consciousness” is disclosed by the results of the audiometric tests administered in the schools of Long Beach, included sixteen dren tested, and are as follows: California, during the current year. The testing program schools. The names of the schools, the numbers of chil- the number and percent of cases of hearing deficiencies Name of school Number Number with tested defective hearing Percent Starr King . . 73 0 0.00 Jefferson . . 958 19 1.98 Fremont . . 244 5 2.05 Longfellow . . 295 8 2.71 Lafayette . . 346 10 2.89 Burbank . . 433 15 3.46 Naples . . 76 3 3.95 Lee . . 275 11 4.00 McKinley . . 139 6 4.32 Avalon . . 237 11 4.64 Horace Mann . . 322 15 4.66 Willard . . 349 18 5.16 Signal Hill . . 113 6 5.31 Edison . . 488 26 5.33 Roosevelt . . 414 23 5.56 Stevenson . . 374 27 7.22 Total . . 5136 203 3.95 The percent of auditory deficiency for Long Beach is lower than that reported for either New York City or Minneapolis. However, there are some striking variations among the different school populations within the Long Beach system. For example, the populations of the three schools showing the smallest amount of hearing deficiency almost exactly equals that of the three schools having the highest number with deficient hearing. The numbers are respectively 1275 and 1276. The percent of deficiency for the better hearing group was 1.88. That for the group with most 384 National Education Association defective hearing was 5.96. In other words, the prevalence of hearing de¬ ficiency within three schools is more than three times as great as that which exists among three other schools within the same school system. What are the causative factors which explain such a condition? What are the results of the condition upon school efficiency and pupil adjustment problems? These are questions which we should like answered, but we have little available data. One hundred and ninety-two children were examined by James Houloose to determine the condition of their ears and coincidental conditions which have pertinence to auditory conditions. The results so far as the nine most frequently occurring conditions are concerned are as follows : Percent of Occurrence Name of school Number examined Enlarged turbinates Retracted ear drums Enlarged tonsils Discolored ear drums Moist turbinates Tonsils removed Adenopath cervical Cerumen Malocclu¬ sions Starr King . . . 2 100.0 50.0 0.0* 0.0 100.0 100 .0 0.0 0.0 50.0 Jefferson . . . 18 88.9 83.3 33.3 33.3 44.4 55. 5 11.1 27.8 50.0 Fremont . .. 5 60.0 100.0 66.7 60.0 60.0 40. 0 60.0 40.0 60.0 Longfellow . . . 8 100.0 100.0 25.0 0.0 62.5 50. 0 25.0 75.0 50.0 Lafayette . . . 8 100.0 37.5 33.3 75.0 50.0 62. 5 62.5 75.0 12.3 Burbank . . . 14 50.0 14.3 100.0 85.7 14.3 50. 0 28.6 14.3 35.7 Naples . .. 3 100.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 66.7 66. ,7 33.3 100.0 33.3 Lee . . . 11 90.9 154.6 77.7 72.7 63.6 18. 1 45.5 18.1 18.1 McKinley . . . 6 66.7 133.3 25.0 100.0 66.7 33. .3 66.7 66.7 16.7 Avalon . . . 11 81.8 81.8 42.9 0.0 45.5 36. .4 27.3 0.0 27.3 Horace Mann. . . . . . 13 76.9 23.0 100.0 53.8 46.2 38. .5 23.0 53.8 53.8 Willard . . . 17 82.3 64.9 66.7 70.6 52.9 29 .4 58.8 35.3 35.3 Signal Hill . .. 5 100.0 180.0 66.7 0.0 80.0 40 .0 40.0 0.0 20.0 Edison . . . 26 92.3 69.2 93.3 15.4 23.1 42 .0 30.7 42.3 38.5 Roosevelt . . . 18 72.2 61.1 54.5 66.7 38.9 36 .9 55.6 38.9 11.1 Stevenson . . . 27 74.0 7.4 93.8 66.7 29.7 40 .7 44.4 40.7 29.7 Total . .. 192 81.2 65.6 60.4 48.9 42.7 42 .2 38.5 37.5 33.3 * The percents in this column were calculated on the basis of cases who had not had their tonsils removed. These data reveal that the school physician found enlarged turbinates in 81 percent of the children with defective hearing. Retracted ear drums were found in about two out of three instances. Sixty percent of the chil¬ dren with tonsils suffered some enlargement of their tonsils. Practically one-half of the children had discolored ear drums. The children from the Stevenson school, the school having the highest percent of children with hearing deficiencies, exceeded the percents of coin¬ cidence of symptoms reported for the whole group in the instances of dis- American Educational Research Association 385 colored ear drums, enlarged tonsils, adenopathy (cervical), and cerumen. They had fewer tonsils removed than was the case for the city as a whole. The children from the Jefferson school, a school with less than 2 per¬ cent of children with hearing deficiencies, exceeded the percent of coinci¬ dence of symptoms reported for the whole group in the instances of en¬ larged turbinates, retracted ear drums, moist turbinates, and malocclusion of the teeth. More of these children had had their tonsils removed than was true of the city as a whole. In order to examine further this divergent pattern of symptoms as shown by the children having greatest hearing deficiency as compared with those having the least hearing deficiency a comparison was made between the profiles of the forty-one children from the schools showing least deficiency and the profiles for forty-five children from the schools having the greatest percent of hearing deficiency. The results are as follows: Comparison of percents of occurrence of symptoms among the forty- one children from the schools having the smallest percents of hearing deficiency with forty-five children from the schools having the highest per¬ cents of such deficiency. The pupils from Starr King, Jefferson, Fremont, Longfellow, and Lafayette compose the first group. Those from Roosevelt and Stevenson Schools make up the second group. Percent of Occurrence Least percent deficiency _ 41 2.1 90.2 78.0 31.6 36.6 53.6 56.2 26.7 43.9 43.9 Largest percent deficiency.... 45 5.7 73.3 28.9 78.6 66.6 33.3 40.0 53.6 40.0 22.2 These results reveal that the children from the schools having the least percents of hearing deficiency show greater amounts of enlarged turbinates, retracted ear drums, moist turbinates, cerumen, and malocclusions than do the children from the schools having greater percents of hearing de¬ ficiencies. Comparably, the children from the schools having the greatest percents of hearing deficiencies show greater amounts of enlarged tonsils, discolored ear drums, and disease of the neck glands. Fewer of these children had had their tonsils removed. It appears, therefore, that the divergence of symptoms found to exist between the children with hearing deficiencies who are in the schools hav¬ ing least deficiency in that regard as compared with the children from the 386 National Education Association schools having the greater deficiency holds relatively constant as the number of cases of each population is increased. Those with the greatest hearing deficiency tend to have greater amounts of symptoms pertaining to the throat and neck. The reasons why this divergence occurs should be sought. Hearing depends upon sound. However, sound patterns frequently in¬ clude elements which are comparable in their effects to glare in the field of light. These affect the making of audiometric examinations as Newhart has pointed out. He says, “No test can be accurate when made in the pres¬ ence of distracting or masking noise.” However, children pursue their educational tasks under such conditions. There is great need for studies of the sound problem in order to determine how noise may be controlled in school situations and what effect the lack of such control has upon educa¬ tional efficiency and general health. Such evidence as is available indicates that about 5 percent of the public school children are deficient in auditory ability. There are wide variations between conditions found in different regions and also between different school populations within the same system. Likewise there are wide differ¬ ences between the symptoms coincident with the hearing deficiency among children in the schools where much deficiency exists as compared with those where little deficiency exists. This field has been neglected too long. Serious study of it is badly needed. SCIENCE EDUCATION AND PUPIL PREJUDICE HARRY HOWARD GILBERT, LECTURER, UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. The complexity of presentday economic and political situations necessi¬ tates an increasingly large proportion of citizens who are able to think objectively concerning their daily problems. The stimulation of growth in ability to think objectively has long been an aim of the school science laboratory. Frequently, educators have as¬ sumed that contact with the methods of problem solving used in the tech¬ nical science field would produce an automatic carry-over of this objective attitude from the laboratory to nonschool life situations. Evidence sustain¬ ing this assumption is nebulous and unconvincing. An investigation was undertaken to discover what influence contact with upper grade secondary science exerted upon a pupil’s ability to ignore his prejudices when he was confronted with nontechnical situations. Prob¬ lem situations involving no scientific factual material were presented to an experimental group and to a control group. This was a test for objectiv¬ ity. Both groups were tested for prejudice on certain issues involved in these problem situations. Both groups were tested for objectivity at the beginning and at the close of the school year. It appears that contact with science instruction produces no measurable effect on a pupil’s ability to ignore his prejudices. American Educational Research Association 387 COMPARISONS BETWEEN CLASSMATES’ ESTIMATES AND SELF-ESTIMATES OF PERSONALITY DURING ADOLESCENCE CAROLINE MC CANN TRYON, INSTITUTE OF CHILD WELFARE, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CALIF. Study of the findings of other investigators reveal that self-estimates of personality or of personal and social adjustment, obtained thru the medium of questionnaires or other paper-and-pencil tests, show very little relationship with estimates made by clinicians, teachers, or other observers. Similar lack of relationship was found comparing self-estimates with classmates’ estimates of personality for some 200 children during seven successive annual testings from the sixth to the twelfth grades. A verbal portrait-matching (guess who) test which included some forty word pictures was used to obtain these data. The children were directed to fill in the names of their classmates to fit the verbal portraits. In addition, each child was asked to regard himself as a member of his class group and to put down his own name if he thought the description fitted him. The children were members of a group (U. C. Growth Study of Adolescents) on which a variety of other information, including clinical and observational data had been accumulated over the same seven-year period. The suggestion is offered that we abandon attempts to ‘ Validate” scores on personal adjustment tests against “objective criteria” of emotional adjust¬ ment. It is further suggested that we examine test responses to determine why so many subjects perform in such a highly consistent and reliable fashion on such tests. The general hypothesis is presented that subjects respond to test items in a fashion appropriate to their needs. Specific hypotheses which I believe our data support, include the following: (a) Many children, when they are having a difficult period in their development and when they are tense, unhappy, sensitive, and anxious, have a tendency to “close up,” to admit less, to protect themselves. When they feel buoyant, secure, and happy they are free to say damaging things about themselves, (b) Many individu¬ als arrive quite early in their lives at a way of looking at themselves, and such a stabilized attitude which is reflected in these tests simplifies their adjust¬ ment to the world in which they live. Amount of self-mention on the verbal portrait-matching test from the sixth to the eighth and ninth grades decreased. There was some increase in amount again in the eleventh and twelfth grades. Amount of mention of classmates did not follow this same pattern. I would suggest that the reason there is this decrease and later increase in amount of self-mention is that in the eighth, ninth, and tenth grades many children are anxious and uncer¬ tain about their personal attributes and about their status in and relation to a rapidly changing social structure. Reticence would increase because they feel insecure. In later years of high school other interests crowd out this primary interest of establishing oneself with the group and they feel freer to mention themselves. 388 National Education Association Agreement between self-estimates and classmates’ estimates varied widely from one characteristic or trait to another. To mention oneself in a fashion that agreed with group opinion on such nonemotionally toned qualities as talkative or silent was fairly common. To mention oneself as unkempt, humorless, unfriendly, or fearful was rare; many of those who were judged by their peers to have these undesirable qualities said they were tidy, humor¬ ous, friendly, and daring and persisted in this type of self-estimate over a long-time period. Such a set of stabilized attitudes probably served as a buffer against unpleasant reality. It was rare for anyone to say of himself that he was liked, sought after, or that he was considered good looking. In the group mores such braggadocio is not tolerated. For most subjects the pressure of the group mores simplifies their approach to the test. For the few who do mention themselves in connection with these items, we have a suggestion of an overpowering need to assert superiority. Abbreviated case studies of twelve individuals and their records over a six-year period were examined. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Annual Business Meeting, February 27, 1939 President W. A. Brownell presided. Approximately sixty members of the Association were present. The minutes of the 1938 annual meeting were approved. The report of the Secretary-Treasurer was read and accepted. Reports were received and accepted from the following committees : Committee on Awards — Walter S. Monroe, chairman. Auditing Committee — In the absence of the chairman, the report was presented by Dr. Dreese and accepted. Necrology Committee — The following tribute was paid Lotus D. Coffman by Dr. Peik. Motion carried that a copy be sent to Mrs. Coffman. LOTUS DELTA COFFMAN 1875-1938 Lotus Delta Coffman was born at Salem, Indiana, January 7, 1875. He died in Minneapolis, Minnesota, on September 22, 1938. His life and career symbolize the open outlook toward the top and the wide area of service which democratic America offers to its favorite sons. The steps of progress from a farmer boy to one of the great contemporary university presi¬ dencies were these: rural school pupil; graduate, State Normal School at Terre Haute, Indiana, 1896; principal and superintendent of schools in Indiana, 1896- 1907; bachelor’s degree from the University of Indiana in 1906; supervisor of the Training School at Charleston, Illinois, 1907-09; graduate student at Indiana University (M. A. 1910) ; graduate student and lecturer at Teachers College, Columbia University (Ph.D. 1911) ; supervisor again of the Training School, Charleston, Illinois, 1911-12; professor of education, University of Illinois, 1912- 15; dean, College of Education, University of Minnesota, 1915-20; president, University of Minnesota, 1920-38. Three states — Indiana, Illinois, and Minnesota — were in turn the local scene American Educational Research Association 389 of his activities as an educator, but the whole nation benefited from the contribu¬ tions which he made as an author, teacher, administrator, research worker, and public speaker. His contributions to American education have been recognized by the award of honorary degrees by Carleton College, Indiana University, the University of Michigan, Northwestern University, the University of South Dakota, Williams College, George Washington University, and the University of Denver. He served many educational commissions, institutions, and organizations with sane educational counsel and vigorous leadership. These included ten educational surveys (North Dakota, Kansas, Texas, Missouri, California, North Carolina, Rutgers University, New York University, the University of Chicago, and North¬ western University). He was a trustee both of the Carnegie Corporation and of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. He has been president or chairman of the National Association of State Universities, the North Central Association of Colleges, the National Society for the Study of Education, the Association of Urban Universities, the College Teachers of Edu¬ cation, the American Council on Education, the American Youth Commission, the Minnesota Commission on Land Utilization, and the National Commission of Inquiry on Public Service Personnel. Very early in his career he collaborated on texts on methods in reading and arithmetic. Later his productivity turned to the field of teacher education, his two chief contributions being The Social Composition of the Teaching Popula¬ tion and Teacher Training Departments in Minnesota High Schools. Later his publications and addresses dealt with higher education, one of the best known being The State University : Its IV ork and Problems. The characteristics of Mr. Coffman which made all respect him, and those who knew him intimately love him, were: his democratic philosophy of life and education; a frank, sincere, courageous spirit; an objective, penetrating analysis of problems which gave him exceptional clarity of thought and expression, an unbiased judgment and intellectual honesty. The democratic view, the scientific orientation of education, and responsible academic freedom controlled his theory and practice. As an educator they gave to all his contributions a consistency and strength. Above all, he was modest, sympathetic, and loyal. Thruout his professional career, he emphasized the painstaking, scientific approach to educational problems. As president of the University of Minnesota, he pioneered in a movement for widespread research on the problems of higher education. He was unusually successful in evaluating men and succeeded remark¬ ably in attracting to his institution young men of scholarship and of future dis¬ tinction. His faith in education was unflinching. He said: “It is my settled conviction that democracy is nothing but a process of continuous education. To halt the process will mean the disintegration of democracy.” (From an address at the University of Minnesota, 1932.) Mr. Coffman was struck down in the midst of an attempt to assume again the vigorous leadership he had given the university, after a year of what had appeared to be a successful effort to regain his health. He is survived by Mrs. Coffman; his daughter, Mrs. Catherine Knutson; his son, William Mansfield Coffman; and his mother, Mrs. Laura C. Coffman. Editorial Board — Douglas E. Scates, chairman. Report presented advised the membership: (1) that the Editorial Board was contemplating a cumulative index to cover all issues of the Review since its beginning, to be published in about a year; (2) a revised manual for contributors was prepared during the past year; (3) some slight physical changes were contemplated in the make-up of the Review, including elimination of some of the material now appearing on the front cover and listing the entire set of issues of the Review on the inside or outside of the back cover page in topical order rather than in chronological order. 390 National Education Association Joint Yearbook Committee — Final report presented by Dr. Rankin with rec¬ ommendation that since the committee’s work had been completed and the yearbook published, this committee be officially discharged. (Committee discharged with vote of thanks.) Committee on N omenclature — Report presented by Dr. Good pointed out that even tho Phi Delta Kappa is carrying forward the preparation of a dictionary of educational terms, it would seem strategic for the American Educational Research Association to retain a Committee on Nomenclature in order that there may be a medium of cooperation between the two groups on the dictionary project. Agreed that the committee be continued. National Committee on Research in Secondary Education — Dr. Ashbaugh, repre¬ senting the American Educational Research Association on this committee, reported that the committee had renamed itself “The National Committee on Coordination in Secondary Education.” He recommended that the relationship of the American Educational Research Association to the new organization be continued. Representative on the National Council of Education — In the absence of Dr. Nor¬ ton no report was presented. Nominating Committee — The Nominating Committee, H. A. Greene, chairman, Oscar K. Buros, and Earle U. Rugg, submitted the following recommendations for officers for the ensuing year: Pf •esident: Bess Goodykoontz, Assistant Commissioner of Education, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. Viccpr esident: Carter V. Good, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Uni¬ versity of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. The report was unanimously accepted. Report of the Executive Committee — Dr. Brownell reported the following actions taken by the Executive Committee: 1. Dr. Freeman had been requested to succeed himself as a member of the Editorial Board for a three-year term and had consented. 2. Newton Edwards had been appointed a member of the Committee on Awards succeeding Miss Goodykoontz. 3. The Executive Committee voted to take out associate membership in the American Council on Education and has authorized the appropriation of $10 in the budget to take care of this. 4. The Executive Committee voted to affiliate temporarily for one year with the American Association for the Advancement of Science. 5. Two new honorary members are recommended, namely, John W. Studebaker, U. S. Commissioner of Education, and Frank N. Freeman. Approved. Recommendations of the Executive Committee: 1. Encyclopedia of Educational Research — The following proposal for sponsor¬ ship of the Encyclopedia of Educational Research by the American Educational Research Association and creation of a Board of Editors to review same was adopted : (1) That the Executive Committee be authorized to accept from the Macmillan Company a contract for the publication of the proposed Encyclopedia of Educational Research. (2) The contract shall not impose a financial obligation upon the American Educational Research Association except as noted below. American Educational Research Association 391 (3) That from the royalties received the treasurer of the American Educational Research Association be authorized, with the approval of the Executive Committee and on the basis of vouchers submitted, to reimburse Walter S. Monroe for expenses incurred in connection with the project. (4) That the $2000 conditionally appropriated to the encyclopedia project at the 1938 annual meeting be set aside as a contingent fund from which the Executive Committee may authorize payment of future editorial ex¬ penses not now anticipated. (5) That the Executive Committee appoint a board of editors of six members for the Encyclopedia of Educational Research and that this committee shall advise with Dr. Monroe concerning the entire project and shall approve the same before it is published. (6) That the Executive Committee arrange for members of the American Edu¬ cational Research Association to purchase a personal copy of the Encyclo¬ pedia of Educational Research at a special prepublication price. 2. Personnel of Board of Editors approved as follows: J. Cayce Morrison, chairman; Carter Alexander (former member of the Encyclopedia Committee), W. W. Charters (former member of the Encyclopedia Committee), Frank N. Freeman (former member of the Encyclopedia Committee), Charles W. Knud- sen, and Douglas E. Scates. Appreciation was expressed to Dr. Monroe for his very splendid attitude as exemplified by his active interest in the Encyclopedia of Educational Research. 3. Committee on Awards — Motion presented by Dr. Monroe as follows: That the incumbent president appoint, before he goes out of office, a committee of five persons, one of whom shall be a member of the present Committee on Awards, to review the present procedure followed by the Committee on Awards and present recommendations to the Executive Committee not later than June 1939, with the understanding that these recommendations if approved by the Executive Com¬ mittee shall be followed in making awards for 1940. The committee should give special attention to making the selections more up to date and any other desirable changes. A pproved. The following personnel for this committee approved: Newton Edwards, chairman ; Oscar K. Buros, Walter S. Monroe, Douglas E. Scates, and Helen M. Walker. 4. Method of Electing Officers — It was agreed that the Executive Committee should canvass the method of electing officers, which canvass would include what officers there should be, the whole method of selection of officers, and consider whether modifications are desirable and what those modifications are. This report to be submitted to the membership in writing thirty days before the 1940 meeting so that it may be voted upon at that meeting. 5. Annual Program — The chairman suggested that members send their criti¬ cisms and suggestions for improving and shortening the program to the new president. The meeting adjourned at 5 :40 p.m. William G. Carr, Secretary - T reasurer. 392 National Education Association REPORT OF THE SECRETARY-TREASURER FOR 1938 Membership The December 1938 records indicate an increase of 13 active members over the records of 1937. The table of membership is given below: Dues New Members Net December December Resigned unpaid members rein- Deaths increase 1937 1938 1938 1938 1938 stated 1938 for 1938 Active 425 438 — 11 20 4 — 13 Honorary 11 10 — — — — i — Life 1 1 — — — — — — Affiliated — 47 — — — — — 47 Subscriptions and Sales There was an increase of 43 subscriptions to the Review of Educational Research during 1938, there being 482 subscriptions in 1937 as compared with 525 subscriptions in 1938. Letters urging renewal were mailed at various times during the year as subscriptions expired. The income received from the sale of single copies of the Review and the Official Report during 1938 amounted to $1472.50* slightly less than the amount anticipated in the budget for 1938. The income from the sale of these publications during 1937 amounted to $1586.38. Applications for Membership and Action Taken Of the 32 applications for membership submitted to the Executive Com¬ mittee for consideration, 26 were approved and six were not approved. Of the 26 which were approved, 13 accepted membership for 1938, 12 accepted membership for 1939, and 1 is pending. In addition, 7 others accepted invita¬ tions to membership which were extended them in 1937, making a total of 20 new members during 1938. Review of Educational Research and Official Report The publications of 1938, together with related information, are listed below : Number Cost of Distrib - On Title Chairman printed PRINTING UTED ] HAND Vol. VII, No. 5, Special Methods and Psychology of the Elementary-School Sub- j ects Arthur I. Gates 1,578 $559.36 1,409 169 Vol. VIII, No. 1, Psychology and Methods in the High School and College Charles W. Knudsen 1,500 445.59 1,110 390 Vol. VIII, No. 2, Finance and Business Administration Alfred D. Simpson 1,500 442.16 1,083 417 Vol. VIII, No. 3, Psycholog¬ ical Tests and Their Uses Percival M. Symonds 1,500 667.32 1,116 384 Vol. VIII, No. 4, The School Plant and Equipment T. C. Holy 1,500 538.91 1,236 264 Official Report, 1938 700 720.67 485 215 American Educational Research Association 393 Other Activities and Reports Practical Values of Educational Research — Each member of the Depart¬ ment received a copy of the 1938 Official Report. The Implications of Research for the Classroom Teacher — This, the joint yearbook of the American Educational Research Association and the Depart¬ ment of Classroom Teachers of the National Education Association, was sent to members of the Association early in February 1939. Research Bulletin — Five issues were mailed to members during the year, entitled: “Population Trends and Their Educational Implications,” “From High School to College,” “Why Schools Cost More,” “Statutory Status of Six Professsions : Accountancy, Architecture, Law, Medicine, Nursing, Teaching,” and “Safety Education thru Schools.” Advisory Committee on Education — A copy of the Report of this com¬ mittee was sent to members of the American Educational Research Associa¬ tion in March 1938, and arrangements have been made whereby members of the Association will also receive a copy of the staff report entitled “Organiza¬ tion and Administration of Schools” when it is available early in 1939. Consumers Guide — A copy of the September 1938 issue of Consumers' Guide was also sent to all members of the Association early in January 1939. Affiliated Organizations — At its annual meeting in February 1938, the Association adopted the plan whereby local educational research associations may affiliate with it. Shortly thereafter, the Pennsylvania State Educational Research Association took advantage of this opportunity and affiliated their 47 members. Affiliated membership dues are twenty-five cents per year, which entitles a member to receive one copy of the Review of Educational Research or the Official Report. The December 1938 issue of the Review includes the names of the affiliated members as part of the annual directory of members of the American Educational Research Association which is pub¬ lished each year in this particular issue. In addition to the above activities the Secretary-Treasurer’s office, as in past years, has furnished on request information concerning the American Educational Research Association, qualifications for membership, the Review , etc. Activities in connection with the annual meeting and dinner of the Department have been handled, including the printing of the Program for the meeting, the program and tickets for the dinner, and a leaflet com¬ prising the second report of the Committee on Awards. As has been done in previous years, an effort was made to increase the sales and subscriptions to the Review and the Official Report. A letter and advertising leaflet were sent under date of April 20, 1938, to approximately 700 libraries and 200 deans of schools of education. A letter calling attention to the Official Report was sent to subscribers to the Review. A circular ad¬ vertising the joint yearbook of the American Educational Research Associa¬ tion and the Department of Classroom Teachers was sent to subscribers to the Review , with an accompanying letter. 394 National Education Association In connection with the preparation of the Review and the Official Report, the Association is indebted to various members of the staff of the Research Division and of the editorial staff of the Division of Publications of the National Education Association, who have spent considerable time editing manuscripts, checking references, reading proof, and otherwise getting manu¬ scripts ready for the printer. Summary of Receipts and Expenditures There follows a summary of the receipts and expenditures from January 1, 1938, thru December 31, 1938. Receipts Dues of active members . Subscriptions . Sale of single copies of the Review, Official Report, and reports. . Sale of tickets to the annual banquet . Miscellaneous . ^Transfer from Reserve for operating expense . ^Transfer from Reserve for Encyclopedia of Educational Research Total . Expenditures Clerical service at N. E. A. headquarters . Printing programs for annual meeting . Printing the Review (6 issues at $500 per issue — Dec. 1937, Feb., April, June, Oct., and Dec. 1938) . Printing membership cards . Postage and mailing, supplies, publicity, addressographing, etc. . . Editorial Board . Annual banquet . Research Bulletin . Printing Official Report . Joint Yearbook Committee of the A. E. R. A. and the Department of Classroom Teachers . Committee on Awards . Miscellaneous . Bad accounts . Contingent appropriation to Encyclopedia of Educational Research Total . Balance N. E. A. treasury, January 1, 1938 . *Less transfer from Reserve Balance as of January 1, 1938 . Budget $2,200.00 1,900.00 1,600.00 150.00 986.00 1,000.00 $7,836.00 Budget $ 800.00 85.00 3,000.00 51.00 1,000.00 350.00 200.00 75.00 775.00 150.00 200.00 50.00 100.00 1,000.00 $7,836.00 $7,530.82 1,986.00 Received $2,177.00 1,756.10 1,472.50 405.00 13.42 * 986.00 1,000.00 $7,810.02 Disbursed $ 666.00 110.95 2,124.43 1 2 26.35 695.63 260.11 474.50 91.99 720.67 217.13 122.64 14.56 151.63 $5,676.59 Net balance N. E. A. treasury, January 1, 1938 . $5,544.82 Receipts . 7,810.02 Total Disbursements 13,354.84 5,676.59 Cash balance N. E. A. treasury, January 1, 1939 $7,678.25 1 Of this amount $11.75 received for affiliation dues of Pennsylvania Educational Research Associa¬ tion — 25 cents each for 47 members. 2 Includes printing of four issues of the Review (December 1937, February, April, and June 1938). American Educational Research Association 395 REPORT OF THE AUDITING COMMITTEE January 24, 1939. Dr. W. A. Brownell, President American Educational Research Association Duke University Durham, North Carolina Dear Dr. Brownell: Your Committee appointed to audit the books of the American Educational Re¬ search Association has completed its work and found the accounts of the Secretary- Treasurer regular and correct. Receipts : The audit reveals a balance on hand December 31, 1937, of $7,530.82. This item was checked against the previous audit. The receipts during 1938 totaled $7,810.02. Of this amount $1,986.00 was transferred from the Reserve Balance as of January 1, 1938, in order to meet anticipated budget requirements during 1938. This leaves the net receipts for 1938 $5,824.02. The sub-items making up this item ($5,824.02) were checked by the Committee from the books of the Secretary-Treasurer and found to be correct. Expenditures : The total expenditures as revealed by the books of the Secretary-Treasurer and as checked by the Committee were $5,676.59. Balance on hand December 31, 1938, $7,678.25. The balance was checked by the records of the National Education Asso¬ ciation furnished by the Assistant Treasurer of the Association. Very truly yours, Committee: Carl A. Jesses*, Chairman Mitchell Dreese Charles F. Hob an, Jr. BRIEF REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON AWARDS PRESENTED AT THE BUSINESS MEETING Cleveland, Ohio, February 27, 1939 The activities of the Committee on Awards have continued along the lines indi¬ cated in the report a year ago. Nominations of outstanding studies were solicited from the members of the committees preparing the issues of the Review of Educa¬ tional Research for 1937. The nominations received from this field were assembled in lists, one for each of the five research areas dealt with in this volume. Each of these preliminary lists of nominations was submitted to a number of other persons — about twenty — with a request for additional nominations in the area. Revised lists were then compiled and each was sent to a number of judges, with a request for rating the researches nominated. On the basis of the ratings obtained and other information collected by the members of the Committee on Awards, the selections were determined. These were announced at the annual dinner meeting Monday night, February 27. Since the research areas covered during a given year are those included in the Review of Educational Research for the preceding calendar year, the report of the Committee on Awards a year hence will complete the first cycle. Hence, the Com- 396 National Education Association mittee suggests that a reviewing committee be appointed for the purpose of exam¬ ining the procedure being followed and considering possible improvements. The Committee on Awards desires to express its appreciation for the coopera¬ tion of the members of committees of the Review of Educational Research and those who rated the studies nominated for consideration. Without this cooperation, the Committee could not have fulfilled its responsibilities. Respectfully submitted, Carter Alexander Bess Goodykooxtz Walter S. Monroe, Chairman The Awards with Comments by the Committee In the field of the Curriculum. Wrightstone, J. Wayne. Appraisal of Newer Practices in Selected Public Schools. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1935. 117 p. Wrightstone, J. Wayne. Appraisal of Experimental High School Practices. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1936. 194 p. These studies are significant as a pioneering effort to evaluate results of teaching that are not adequately measured by conventional tests and examinations. The findings are convincing and the measurement technics developed should lead to a more satisfactory evaluation of curriculums and instructional procedures. In the field of School Organization. Edwards, Newton. The Courts and the Public Schools. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933. 591 p. A scholarly compilation and interpretation of court decisions bearing upon various aspects of the public schools. The author is the first to present such a comprehensive review of court decisions. The usefulness of the volume is enhanced by a wise or¬ ganization, a detailed table of contents, and an index. In the field of Special Methods and Psychology of the Elementary-School Subjects. Hardy, Martha C., and Hoefer, Carolyn H. Healthy Growth. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1936. 360 p. Care in planning, thoroness of procedure, and application of the “longitudinal” method of research have made this an outstanding study. After two years of prelim¬ inary study of the local situation, a five-year controlled experiment was organized for the purpose of ascertaining the effects of certain health instruction procedures. Elaborate data were collected. The findings support the conclusion that the program of health education as planned by the authors was highly successful. DEPARTMENT OF