/ c Proceedings of the Rational Education Association 1 9 3 7 This volume is dedicated to Horace Mann, secre¬ tary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, 1837-48, father of the American free public school system. Sec pages 754 and 858 for the report of the Centennial C ommittee. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES PROCEEDING OF THE SEVENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING HELD IN DETROIT, 'MICHIGAN JUNE 27 TO JULY 1 1937 VOLUME 75 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES WASHINGTON, D. C. • * ! • ' ■ • ) ■ ,• ■ . FOREWORD This book comprises the seventy-fifth annual Volume of Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association of the United States. It contains the papers delivered at the Detroit convention of the National Education Association and those delivered at the New Or¬ leans convention of the Department of Superintendence. In the preparation of this volume it has been necessary to abstract many of the papers, particularly those delivered before departmental sessions, owing to the abundance of material and the limited space avail¬ able. Wherever abstracting has been done every effort has been made to preserve the essential ideas the speaker conveyed in his complete address. Where the material for a given department exceeded the space avail¬ able for that department, the officers of the department were asked to indicate which addresses to include. In a few cases addresses were received too late for inclusion in the volume. A number of the addresses, of which only abstracts could be pub¬ lished in the Proceedings, have been printed in full in other publications. In cases where such information was available, it has been indicated by footnotes attached to the addresses concerned. Willard E. Givens Executive Secretary Contents of previous volumes of Proceedings of the National Education Association may he found by consulting the Education Index. CONTENTS GENERAL SESSIONS Tools for Tomorrow’s World . Address of Welcome . Greetings . Presentation of Platform Guests . Response to Addresses of Welcome . Purpose and Functions of the Advisory Committee on Educa tion . Then and Now in the National Education Association . Progress and Problems of Our Association . How Can Our Schools Contribute to a Better Social Order?. Education and the General Welfare . A Challenge to Educational Statesmanship (Abstract) . The Teacher’s Place in Social Life of Today (Abstract) .... Current Issues in Teacher Education (Abstract) . Tradition and Adventure (Abstract) . Improving Education thru Discussion Groups (Abstract) . . The Program of the Affiliated Teacher Organizations of Los Angeles (Abstract) . Discussion on a County Type of a Classroom Teachers Asso¬ ciation (Abstract) . Building, Improving, and Unifying Local, State, and National Associations (Abstract) . The Organization and Program of the Louisiana Teachers Association (Abstract) . The Washington Education Association (Abstract) . A National Education Association (Abstract) . . Society’s Interest in Human Resources . The Challenge of Our Changing Times . Birmingham’s Plan of Character Development (Abstract) . . The Problem of Life Guidance in the Schools of the Unite States (Abstract) . The Automotive Safety Foundation: Its Aims and Purposes (Abstract) . Safety Education in the Elementary Schools (Abstract) . Safety Education (Abstract) . Some Determining Factors in the Social and Economic Back¬ ground of the Teaching Profession (Abstract) . Retirement (Abstract) . Teachers’ Salaries (Abstract) . The Conservation of Natural Resources . The Place of Radio in Education (Abstract) . Educational Possibilities of Motion Pictures (Abstract) . Correction of Reading Difficulties Based on Preventive Pro¬ cedures (Abstract) . Individual Differences in Reading (Abstract) . Consumer Cooperation and Democratic Ideals (Abstract) . . . . Adult Education, A Public Responsibility (Abstract) . Drama — “Testament of Faith” . Introductory Remarks on Horace Mann Play . The Present Situation Facing the United States in Regard to the Possibility of War . The Elimination of War . — Luccock . 17 — Kelly . . . 23 — Elliott . . . 24 — Cody . . . 25 — Shaw . . . 25 — Reeves . . . 27 — Pratt . 32 — Givens . 38 — Day . . . 47 — Wallace . . . . 54 — Edwards . . . . . 64 — Kilpatrick . . 65 — Smith . 67 — M orison . . . . . . 68 — Bacon . . . 69 — Smith . . . 70 — Seagren . . . . . . 71 1 — A de . . . 72 — Phillips . . . 73 — Marsh . . . 74 — Studebaker . . . . 75 — Beard . . . 80 — Fletcher . . . . . . 90 — Glenn . I 98 L — Stolz . 99 — Hoffman 99 — Telford . . . . . . 101 — Johnson . . . . . 102 — Fowlkes . . . . . . 103 — Allen . . . 104 — Elliott . . . 105 — Chase . . . 106 — Dunham . . . 117 — May . 118 — Betts . . . 120 — White . 121 — Kallen . 122 — Bryson . . 124 . 124 — Henderson . 125 i — Buell . . . 128 — Lee . 134 [5] 6 National Education Association LIFE MEMBERSHIP DINNER Historical Note . 146 Ninth Annual Life Membership Dinner . — Martin . 147 Horace Mann and the American Ideal of Education . — Morgan . 147 Presentation of Life Membership Award to President Orville C. Pratt . — Crabtree . 150 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Historical Note . Education in Penal Institutions . — Engelhardt Educational Progress in Penal Institutions in New York State — fVallack . The Program of Social Education in Penal Institutions and Its Implications . — Morrison Vocational Education in Penal Institutions . — Grady . . . Mirages in Education . — Schorling Some of the Less Well-Known Episodes in the Life of Horace Mann . — Williams The National Council of Education: Its Past and Its Possible Future . — Smith .... Secretary’s Minutes . . 154 155 156 157 157 159 162 163 167 DEPARTMENT OF ADMINISTRATIVE WOMEN IN EDUCATION Historical Note . 174 Education of the Whole Personality . — Yoder . 175 Secretary’s Minutes . 176 DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION Historical Note . Problems of Naturalization . Effective Citizenship Programs for the Foreign Born. National Council of Students Organizations . Group Discussion — A Philosophy for Adult Education The Future of Adult Education . Education . Adult Education — What It Is and Where It Is Going. . . . Group Discussion — Next Steps in Adult Education . Secretary’s Minutes . Report of the President . Report of the National Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life . . Report of Editor of Adult Education Bulletin . 178 — Rich . . 179 — Shoemaker . . 180 — Hanessian . . . . 180 — Bryson . 181 — Kilpatrick . f 186 — Maxwell . . . 188 — Reeves . 191 — Moyer . . . 193 . . 197 — A it on . 198 — Moyer . . . 201 — JV hippie . . . . . . 202 DEPARTMENT OF ART EDUCATION Historical Note . Where Are We Leading the High-School and College Art Student? . Progress in Teaching Art in America . The Integration of Geometric Form and Art Ideas . Relation of Child Art to Primitive Art . Puppetry in the Schools . Modern Art and Social Problems . Art and Democracy . Secretary’s Minutes . 204 — Sibell . 205 — MacGovuan . . . 206 — W eidemann . . . 20 7 — Naber . 208 — McFie . 209 — Munro . 210 — Baker . 211 . 212 Contents 7 DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION Historical Note . 214 Looking Ahead in Business Education . — Zelliot . 215 Secretary’s Minutes . 216 Greetings from the State of Michigan . — Elliott . 217 A Message from Business to the Business Teachers of America — Campbell . 218 Panel Discussions Social Business Section . — Price . 219 Secretarial Section . — Nulty . 220 Training for Store Work Section . — Baldwin . 221 Clerical Office Machine Section . — Stuart . 222 Education for Business . . — Cameron . 223 Boat Trip for Business Teachers . 224 DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS Historical Note . Around the Year with the President . — Shaw . How Junior High-School Pupils Use Mathematics To Solve Some of Their Problems . — W eidemann Developing Cooperation in an Uncooperative World . — Lewis .... The Verse-Speaking Choir as a High-School Activity . — Miller Report of 1937 Committee on Academic Freedom . — Tarbell . . Secretary’s Minutes . Platform . : . . . 226 . . 227 . . 229 . . 230 . . 233 . . 236 . . 237 . 241 DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN Historical Note . Counseling High-School Girls for Twenty-five Years . — Jones Speech Training in Building Power and Personality . — Stowe Growth and Development of the Community Colleges . — Gibb DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Historical Note . Educational Research for the Consumer . — Bristow The Value of a Research Program in the Small College of Liberal Arts . — Ogan . Educational Research and the Field Worker . — Barr . ‘Research in the Influence of the Depression upon Education. . — Sears . An Approach to the Secondary-School Curriculum . — Heaton Secretary’s Minutes . . Report of the Secretary-Treasurer for 1936 . DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Historical Note . Reading for Leisure in the New Age . — Gray Remedial Reading for a Better Citizenry . — White Sane Views of Sports and Their Uses in Elementary Schools — Rice . . . The Louisiana Program of Curriculum Development . — Rogers Experiences of a Woman Columnist . — Gilmer . Experiencing a Progressive Program in Our Training School — Phillips The Three C’s of Education — Character, Citizenship, and Culture . — Hogue Horace Mann — An Exponent of Education for a Richer and Fuller Life . — Elliott Education in a Democracy . — Camerori Mental Hygiene and Behavior . — Baker Secretary’s Minutes . 7 . 246 247 249 252 258 259 262 266 267 272 273 275 280 281 283 284 287 288 290 291 292 295 297 298 8 National Education Association DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY EDUCATION Historical Note . The Kindergarten Centennial . — Baker The Young Child as a Person . — Myers . . New Ways with Poetry . — Arbuthnot Secretary’s Minutes . DEPARTMENT OF LIP READING Historical Note . Greetings . — Knisely . Greetings . — Van A destine Visual Hearing of the Spoken Word . — Mason . Speech-Reading in College . — Bunger . Lip Reading for the Younger Hard-of-Hearing Child . — Palmer . Lip Reading for the Younger Hard-of-Hearing Child . — Schleicher President’s Address . — H annegan Secretary’s Minutes . DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION Historical Note . Vocal Music and Secondary Education . — Seitz . The Development of Homemade Musical Instruments from the Materials of Nature . — W eidemann Radio and the Secondary Schools . — La Prade . 306 307 311 312 313 316 317 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 326 327 328 329 DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION Historical Note . Newer Administrative and Instructional Plans for Small High Schools . — Cyr The Administration of Transportation for Rural Schools. . . — Little . . Functions and Purposes of Supervision in Practise . — Hoffman The Union District . — Ashland Adult Education in Rural Communities . — Morriss Opportunities for Extending Vocational Education in Rural Communities . — Fife The Extension Service in Agriculture and Home Economics as Related to Country Schools . — Jacks . . The Rural Church and the Rural School . — IV alt on How May Rural Schools Help Democracy to Succeed? . — Burnham Little Red School House — 1938 Model . — Embree Citizens Junior Clubs in Rural Schools . — Wilson The Public Relations Program of the County Superintendent of Schools . — Pearson Secretary’s Minutes . Report of the Committee on Resolutions . 332 333 333 334 335 336 339 • 3+1 345 348 350 351 35+ 35+ 355 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION Historical Note . 358 A Plan for Medical Care of Injured Athletes . — Bradley . 359 The Contributions of Curriculum and Extracurriculum Ac¬ tivities to Health . — McCloy . 360 Educational Qualifications for the School Physician . — Klcinschmidt . . 361 Training the Physical Educator . — Moulton . . . 362 The Training of the Health Educator . — Turner and Riley . 363 Contents 9 The Private Physician as a School Physician . Curriculum Building in Health Education . Sources and Uses of Materials in Health Education . The Michigan State Joint Health Committee . Alcohol and Narcotic Drugs . Health Problems of School Children as Seen by the Practising Physician . The School’s Contribution to Traffic Safety . Secretary’s Minutes . — Gudakunst . . . 364 —O’Neill . 366 — Connolly . 367 —Gates . 368 — Emerson . 369 —Abt . 370 — Ireland . 371 . 373 DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Historical Note . Spring — A Season . — Garvey Photography as an Extracurriculum Activity . — Schneck Essential Factors To Be Considered in Developing an Ele¬ mentary-Science Course of Study . — Melrose A Purposeful Program for In-Service Teacher Training. . . — Fowler A Basis for Revising the Science Program in the Junior High School . — Bracken A Method of Providing for Retarded Pupils in General Sci¬ ences . . — Johnson Teacher Improvement thru a State Cooperative Testing Pro¬ gram . — Peterson Experience with a Continuous Science Program . — Blount . Secretary’s Minutes . 376 377 377 379 380 381 381 382 383 383 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Historical Note . Round-Table Conferences Concerning Extracurriculum Ac¬ tivities in the D epartments of Junior and Senior High Schools In Ancient Languages . - In Art . - In English . - In Geography . - In Health Education . - In Home Economics . - In Modern Languages . - In Social Studies . - In Vocational Education . - The Function of the Library in the Secondary School . - Photography as an Extracurriculum Activity . - The Use of Enrichment Materials in Secondary Mathematics- Family Relationships and Their Implication for Curriculum- Building . - Secretary’s Minutes . . 388 -Dean . 389 -Whorl . 390 -McAndless . . . 391 -Hodgson . 392 -Brewer . 393 -Brause . 394 -Hass . 395 -Wyatt . 396 -Van Nice . 397 -Mallory . 398 -Schneck . 399 -Shuttle sworth . . 400 -Foster . 401 . 403 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Historical Note . The Functions of Secondary Education Function I . ' . Function II . Function III . Function IV . Function V . Function VI . 406 — Butterweck . . . 407 — Johnston . 407 — Heaton . 410 — Backus . 412 — Barnes . 414 — Hudelson . 417 10 National Education Association Function VII . — Floyd . 418 Function VIII . — Patrick . 419 Function IX . — Lyttle . 420 Function X . — Harvey . 423 DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL STUDIES Historical Note . 426 Tradition be Damned! . — Gellermann ... 427 The Hope for Synthesis . — Miller . 429 Neglected Opportunities for Citizenship Training in the Senior High School . — Stinebaugh .... 430 Science in the High School and Social Studies Objectives.... — IV at kins . 430 Citizenship Training Values in Commercial Subjects and Their Correlation with the Social Studies . — King . 431 Social Studies Skills and Grade Levels in the Elementary School . — McGuire . 432 Secretary’s Minutes . 433 DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Historical Note . 436 Delinquency and Maladjustment — Their Challenge to Educa- Program of the International Council for Special Education DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE Historical Note . Walking with God Today . Opening Ceremonies . Address of Welcome . Response to Address of Welcome . The Meaning of the Exhibits . Building the Profession of School Administration . The Cost of Chance . “The Improvement of Education: Its Interpretation for De¬ mocracy The 1937 Yearbook The Present Social Scene . The Present Educational Scene . The Future of Education . The Importance of a Point of View in Educational Adminis¬ tration . The Prospect of American Democracy . What Secondary Schools Should Do . The Ounce Versus the Pound . Viewing Our Work in Perspective . Administrative Obstacles to Educational Progress . Keeping Human . Problems of a Superintendent . Education in 1937 — Our Ideals and the Common Sense of the Situation . - . — Lee . . . 437 — Taylor . . . 437 — Stullken . . . . . 438 —Hegge . . . 440 — Munk . . . 440 — Lane . . 442 — McEachera . . . . 443 ICE . . 448 — Palmer . . 449 . . 457 — Bauer . . 458 — Gvoinn . . . 460 — Anderson . . . . . 464 — Strayer . . . 467 — Stoddard . . . . 475 — Barries . . 484 — Caswell . . . 486 — Bair . . 491 — Newlon . . . . . . 495 — Counts . . . 502 — Briggs . . . 515 — Bates . . . 521 — Pratt . . 531 — Reed . . . 538 — Spinning . . 540 — Sutton . . . 544 — Van Loon . . . . . 549 Contents 11 Closing Ceremonies . 555 Resolutions . 559 Report of the Board of Tellers . 562 Secretary’s Minutes . 563 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERVISORS AND DIRECTORS OF INSTRUCTION Historical Note . 568 Planning for Curriculum Development . — Rankin . 569 A Case Study in Curriculum Development . — Bader . 571 Criteria To Be Used in Evaluating Programs of Curriculum Development . — Knuds en . 574 Panel Discussions . 575 Secretary’s Minutes . 588 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERVISORS AND TEACHERS OF HOME ECONOMICS Historical Note . 592 A Philosophy of Education in Modern Times . — Ade . 593 Interrelationships between Home Economics and other Areas in the Educational Program . — Smith . 594 New Ventures in Home Economics . — Driscoll . 594 Home and School Relationships . — Langworthy .. 595 Opportunities for Progressive Home Economics in the Ele¬ mentary Schools . — McBain . 596 Opportunities for Progressive Home Economics Education in the Secondary Schools . — Falgatter .... 597 The Function of Extracurriculum Activities in Home Eco¬ nomics . — Winning . 598 Promoting Democracy thru Home Economics Education . — Nisonger . . 599 Teaching Housing in the Home Economics Program . — Woodward . 600 Trends in Home Economics Indicated at the 1937 Annual Meeting of the American Home Economics Association — Atwater . 601 The Teacher of Home Economics and a Program of Mental Hygiene . — Yoder . 601 An Experiment with Home Economics in a Functional Cur¬ riculum . — Heaton . 602 Report of the President . — Winning . 603 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHERS COLLEGES Historical Note . Education Neglects Its Fundamental Bases . — Charters Teacher Education as I See It . — Zook The Defense Answers . — Doudna Teacher-Educating Institutions and Professional Associations Working Together . — Morgan Academic Freedom . — Baker Report of the Committee on Accrediting . Report of the Committee on Standards and Surveys . An Investigation of Factors Affecting the Stability of Tenure of Presidents and Faculties of State Teachers Colleges . A Preliminary Report of the Committee Appointed To Con¬ sider the Place and Function of the American Association of Teachers Colleges . Report of the Resolutions Committee . Secretary’s Report . List of Accredited Institutions — 1937-38 . 606 607 612 618 623 626 631 633 635 641 641 642 654 12 National Education Association DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION Historical Note . Overview of Detroit’s Visual Program . — Irwin The Immediate Needs in Visual Education . — McClusky Complete Learning thru Visual Aids in Physics . — Anderson Lantern Slide Technic in Geography Instruction . — Smith . . The Teaching of Wild Life Near Home . — Gehr ... Seeking New Educational Objectives thru the Use of Films. . — Dale . . . Teacher Participation in Educational Film Production . — Gramet Resolutions . 660 661 661 662 663 664 664 666 666 DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Historical Note . . . 670 Business Behavior — Character Training thru Direct Methods — Abrams . 671 The Jacksonville Plan of Cooperative Vocational Education. — Marshall . 672 Recent Developments in Apprenticeship Training . — Patterson . 673 Recent Developments in Industrial Education . — Myers . 674 Resolutions . 675 WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS Historical Note . 678 ASSOCIATION AL RECORDS AND INFORMATION Act of Incorporation . Bylaws as Amended at the Annual Business Meeting of the Representative Assembly, Detroit . Calendar of Meetings . Officers— 1936-37 . Headquarters Staff . Officers— 1937-38 . Committees of the National Education Association — 1936-37. Minutes of the Seventeenth Representative Assembly . Minutes of the Meetings of the Board of Directors . Minutes of the Meetings of the Executive Committee . Minutes of the Meetings of the Board of Trustees . Report of the Board of Trustees . Report of Auditors . Report of Treasurer . Report of Budget Committee . . Report of Committees Academic Freedom . Amending the Charter . . Bylaws and Rules . Committee To Cooperate with the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools . Economic Status of the Rural Teacher . Educational Policies Commission . Equal Opportunity . Health Problems in Education . Higher Education . Horace Mann Centennial . International Relations . Joint Committee of the National Education Association and the American Library Association . — Smith — Shaw — Adair . . . — Newbold — Robinson — Sutton . . . . — Mallory . —Wood . . . — Crane . . . — Smith . . . — W oodward — Greer 681 686 700 702 704 708 714 730 786 791 810 813 816 832 834 843 845 846 846 847 849 852 854 857 858 861 862 Contents 13 Joint Committee of the National Education Association and the National Congress of Parents and Teachers — Langworthy Legislative Commission . — Hall . . Necrology . — T cm pci Resolutions . — Hunt . . Retirement Allowances . — Allen . . Reorganization of the National Education Association — Taylor Tenure . — DuShane Annual Report of the Secretary . Membership of National Education Association by States, 1930-37 The Seventeenth Representative Assembly . Index . 86+ 866 881 890 897 897 910 924 958 959 981 ALLIED GROUP MEETINGS The following allied groups met during the time of the conventions of either the National Education Association at Detroit or the Department of Superintendence at New Orleans: AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF VISITING TEACHERS AMERICAN CLASSICAL LEAGUE CONFERENCE ON INDUSTRIAL ARTS NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF HIGH SCHOOL SUPERVISORS AND DIRECTORS NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF JOURNALISM DIRECTORS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL SECRETARIES NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SECRETARIES OF STATE TEACHERS ASSO¬ CIATIONS NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STUDENT OFFICERS NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STUDENT PARTICIPATION IN SCHOOL AD¬ MINISTRATION NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS OF SPEECH - ELEMENTARY- SCHOOL COMMITTEE NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS NATIONAL COUNCIL OF CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFICERS NATIONAL COUNCIL OF CHILDHOOD EDUCATION NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION NATIONAL COUNCIL OF GEOGRAPHY TEACHERS NATIONAL COUNCIL OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH NATIONAL COUNCIL OF TEACHERS OF MATHEMATICS NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY NATIONAL LEAGUE OF TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATIONS NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY OF EDUCATION NATIONAL SOCIETY OF COLLEGE TEACHERS OF EDUCATION NATIONAL VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE ASSOCIATION NATIONAL YOUTH ADMINISTRATION SCHOOL GARDEN ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA SCHOOL PUBLIC RELATIONS ASSOCIATION The work on this volume, including the gathering of materials, editing, proofreading, and makeup, has been done by the following members of the Division of Publi¬ cations staff: Lyle W . Ashby, Mildred Bunch, Thelma F. Camp, Anne Morrison, and Marjorie Starr. Joy Elmer Morgan, Director Division of Publications General Sessions ' ■f VESPER SERVICE TOOLS FOR TOMORROW’S WORLD HALFORD E. LUCCOCK, DEPARTMENT OF HOMILETICS, YALE UNIVERSITY DIVINITY SCHOOL, NEW HAVEN, CONN. As background for our thought this afternoon, may I recall to your minds the words in the first chapter of the second book of Timothy: “For God hath not given us the spirit of fear; but of power, and of love, and of a sound mind.” That is a great word for an age of the jitters. With a scientific and cultural inheritance which beyond that of all other genera¬ tions ought to make for confidence, our world walks within the frame of fear. A newspaper correspondent looking out over Europe this year and trying to sum up what he finds in one phrase, takes the scriptural words, “And fear came.” Just within the last few weeks Henry Seidel Canby has tried to evaluate the literature of the 1930’s, seeking to find some basic characteristic note of it all. “What, if anything,” he asks, “does literature show to be the prevailing time-current of the thirties? I believe it to be fear,” he says, “tho fear is too strong a word for its quiet margins, and panic would better describe some of its hurrying tides . . . That fear ranges from a skeptical inquiry into the possible disintegration of culture as we have known it, to the deep pessimism of convinced alarm.” That attitude of uncertainty and tremor spreads into all fields of life. Across the Atlantic we look at a Europe congealed in fear. People are united in fear and like the Gadarene swine, rush over a steep place together. And here, as elsewhere, there is fear of war, fear of vested power, fear for security and tenure, and fear of change which freezes the mind and spirit. I think for such a time and for such a characteristic mood, these words of our text express the service of a faith in spiritual reality. They may bring to a jumpy, apprehensive world the steadying, energizing forces of power and of love and of a sound mind. It was so historically that the word of faith in a spiritual order came into the world in the first Christian century. Kenneth Kirk of Oxford has said that in every time of disintegration and change, such as the first century was and as ours is today, the prevailing question among men is, “What is the world coming to?” I think if you were home this week instead of in this serene company of educators, you could not pass twenty-four hours without hearing that ques¬ tion asked. I have recently crossed the country twice from the Atlantic to the Pacific and I think the editorial page across the country was one long jitter — “What is the world coming to?” Dr. Kirk said that the Christians of the first century pointed out that the world was asking the wrong question. The really important question was not, “What is the world coming to?” but “What has come to the world?” And 1 17 ] 18 National Education Association they felt they had the answer to that question that there had come to the world evidences of moral purpose and spiritual reality in the universe, of power and love and sanity, which made for courage. This old conviction has close pertinence to our day and the whole task of education in a changing world. Certainly one of the greatest needs of educa¬ tion today is quiet courage, rooted in the reliance on resources in the nature of reality, not constructed out of our own wit and ingenuity but in the very heart of things. The forces set forth in our text — power and love and a strong mind — are the very ingredients of an intelligent courage. They are the power which comes to a person who is convinced that he is in gear with the secret rhythm of the universe, and who acts as a true artist draws, or as a true poet sings, thru being at one with the forces that move the world — love which saves courage from being cruel, and gives it compassion and direction ; a sound mind which, because it is judgment that directs courage, can save it against stupidity or harshness. Now, as a possible help in getting a fresh look at the educational task to which these spiritual resources may be brought, I am venturing to drop a picture into your imagination. It is that of the central theme of the World’s Fair which is to be held in New York in 1939. That exposition is being organized around the idea of “Tools for Tomorrow’s World.” You can see at a glance what a fascinating field it takes us into — the scien¬ tific and mechanical tools which are to shape the framework of tomorrow’s work. It is a gigantic commentary on the text, “It doth not yet appear what we shall be.” For one thing, very clearly, a new geography demerging, a new map of America in which the key spots are not only New York and other great cities such as Detroit, Chicago, and Los Angeles, but Boulder Dam and Norris Dam, centers of new power. Only within the last two weeks there has swung into our ken a vision of stratosphere flying. Your letters will be caught up into the seventh heaven and literally mailed from there. Just think what has been on the screen of your imagination in the past few months: The cotton picker — that potential parade of the cotton picker making its experimental progress down thru the lines of cotton with its 1300 slim fingers reaching out and bringing in a new day, a day of promise and perhaps economically a day of doom. Or the sun engine tried last fall in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, another step in the old effort to extract energy from the sun. Now, it is true when performing before a company of scientists it got a sunstroke in the performance, but nevertheless it is an effort to move along that line. Or vegetables — that latest wonder story that has come out of California, not out of Southern California where most of them come from but out of Berkeley — gigantic vegetables grown in a bath of electrically charged fluid where you can grow them any size you want to ! Cauliflowers grown as big as watermelons if anybody wants cauliflowers that big. I imagine history will note the recent coronation not so much for dynastic importance as for the first demonstration of television. Yet at that gigantic General Sessions 19 fair is irony for at the very center is to be an optical illusion ; a massive globe seems to be hanging on air without any kind of visible support. I call it irony, for any vision of tomorrow is an optical illusion if the principal tools are merely to be mechanical ones. What is the value of television if all we can see thru it are scenes of slaughter like those that come from Spain every day? What is the point to a new way of picking cotton if 10,000,000 people are not to have the money to buy the shirts and dresses that are made of it? Why go to the trouble to get a new engine to harness the energy of the sun if it is to be tied up only to mechanical greed? If the principal tools of tomorrow are mechanical inventions, a vision of tomorrow is not a vision of heaven but a clear, wide peep into hell. Education has the compelling task of bringing other tools — intellectual, social, and spiritual — so our heritage may be a means of blessing and not of collective suicide. It is an undertaking in human engineering so that social relationships may keep step with physical sciences — engineering in human terms for human welfare. It grows clear more and more every day that if all we are to have today or tomorrow is new power for old ends, we have an ingenious stage setting for disaster. For, unless the ends are freshly humanized, new power for old ends may be like putting a machine gun into the hands of a baboon. H. G. Wells, in his latest fantasy, “Star Begotten,” says that the superman invents the airplane and the ape gets hold of it. But, as H. W. Van Loon said the other day, we are all likely to be like cavemen on a joy ride in a Chevrolet. I got a picture of our task, I think, in a story of a woman in New York City who went to a ten-cent store and asked if they had any compasses. The clerk said, “We have compasses for drawing circles but not for going places.” There is a difference! And education is a compass for going places. It is not the static occupation of drawing circles — neat, orthodox, perfect but irrelevant to contemporary experience. It is going places in personality and living together. The first tool is an old one, as old as the lever or the wheel — the individual personality. Our day calls for a deepening conception of the importance of individuality, of the person who can say “I” as well as the collective word “we.” The task is the old task of the development of individual minds not shaped by some vast community biscuit-cutter but minds which can stand against social pressures and taboos. In an age which thinks so largely in terms of vast numbers and impersonal social forces, there is a tremendous need for individual minds. I am sure you have all heard that one of a large brood of depression stories of a man who went out walking and whenever he would turn a corner, he would throw out his hand. And, to the friend who asked why he did that, he replied, “That is all I have left of my automobile.” Now, there are a great many people in our world who do not have more than a mere gesture left of their individual personality. I went to a movie the other day, one of these characteristic movies full of dancing and an inane plot. A friend sitting beside me said, “We seem to be in a world where the 20 National Education Association feet seem to be more important than the head.” I think that comment would go for a good part of our world. We are in a world of moving feet. There are more feet moving, goose-stepping in soldiers’ boots today than ever before in history — feet moving out in this direction and following that will-o’-the-wisp in the other direction. And I think our task is to put into this world of moving feet a company of moving minds ! . We have a very striking phrase we use — “head over heels.” I think the task of education is to put the head over the heels so that the heel does not become the turntable of the body. And, if we are to achieve that, it calls for more than an educational assembly-line where standardized parts are put together and put off in motion. A second tool that I need only mention, but it must come into the picture, a tool for an endurable world of tomorrow, is freedom of thought and speech. I need not labor in this company that obvious and much stressed truth except to reiterate that it calls for a new dedication! For without that freedom, any merely mechanical and scientific tools will never build anything but a jail or a tomb ! Where freedom of thought and speech perishes as it has perished in Germany and Italy, the schools and universities become corpses or empty mausoleums. Not for a generation has education been challenged in its function of bring¬ ing thought to bear on contemporary problems as it is today. That right roots so deep in American tradition that it ought to be obvious; but it has become a battleground, an inheritance to be won over again ! The campaign for suppression and repression of thought and speech with its manifestations of teachers’ oaths and witch-hunting at the behest of some self-appointed Caesars, either a legislature or a newspaper publisher, or overheated professional patriots, has been a veritable barbarian invasion of American classrooms and campuses. The effort has been to substitute inflam¬ mation of the prejudices for information of the mind. Such a threat calls for courage and solidarity among teachers and for a renewed devotion to the task of placing knowledge and skill at the service of the nation. We have not been given a spirit of fear but of power and of love and of a sound mind. It is important to remember that teachers’ oaths legislation in Germany and Italy was a first means by which Fascism got its stranglehold on the spiritual life of those countries. A third tool for tomorrow certainly is democracy, now threatened as never before since its appearance in the world as a way of life. Of course, we all applaud democracy but we are liable to forget that the surest way to lose it is to take it for granted and to underestimate the price that must be paid for its continuance. I think a searing picture of taking the blessings of democracy for granted and then being caught up short as we are in our day are those lines from Stephen Vincent Benet’s “Litany for Dictators.” He said : We thought we were done with those things but we were wrong. We thought because we had power we had wisdom. We thought the long train would run to the end of time. We thought the light would increase. Now the train stands derailed and the bandits loot it General Sessions 21 Now the boar and the asp have power in our time. Now the night rolls back on the West and the night is solid. Our fathers and ourselves sowed dragons’ teeth. Our children know and suffer the armed men. Our greatest danger is that that word “democracy” has a way of becoming merely a “dummy” word, one of those which, as Van Wyck Brooks says, “in common speech means nothing, but which enables the mind to go round and round in a large kind of way, without involving the difficult intellectual act of clinching something.” We must clinch this truth — that the only way to save democracy is to make it work. As Edmund Burke said, “The only way to love one’s country is to make it lovable” — and the only way to save democracy is to insure a democracy that works. It must be industrial democracy as well as political democracy, for freedom is an empty boon if it is merely freedom to starve or freedom to work at a socially insufficient task at an inadequate wage ! Particularly we are challenged by two things : first, that democracy went down in Europe under the weight of unemployment. It was too great a strain for democratic agencies to stand and if America is to continue in its democ¬ racy, one price of that is in the facing of changes necessary to solve the problem of unemployment. The second obvious thing is that democracy needs peace. It has been made very clear to us in the conscription bill of the last Congress that when the United States enters a war, it becomes a military dictatorship and if we are to have any hope of democracy tomorrow, that hope must be undergirded with the efforts that make for peace. Another tool, one of increasing importance, is that of bringing the data of our actual world to the minds of the coming generation so that we may be enabled to bring our social thinking up to the realities of the material frame¬ work of our civilization which has already been achieved. We are in an intermeshed, interdependent world mechanically and indus¬ trially, and we need minds which are geared to that reality. And we cannot meet the demands of that kind of an intermeshed world by mouthing over the shibboleths of an eighteenth- or nineteenth-century individualism. Anne Morrow Lindbergh has a beautiful passage in her book North to the Orient , describing her first airplane flight from her home in New Jersey to the summer home in North Haven, Maine. She describes the vivid impres¬ sions of that journey of well over a day’s length as made year after year in her childhood, contrasted to the sudden bolt of the airplane arriving in two hours when it used to take fourteen. She says with a good deal of insight, “My body got there twelve hours before my mind did and I had to wait twelve hours for my mind to catch up.” I think we are in just about that situation in our intermeshed and entangled social life. Our mechanical body has reached the place and we need to make wait for the mind and the soul to catch up with those realities. Romain Rolland says, “The world has achieved a unity and for that high destiny, mankind is not yet fit.” We must prepare mankind to fit that destiny by teaching in terms of the economic and social realities on which that destiny depends. 22 National Education Association When we consider that task, I think there are at least two grave warnings that come up. Certainly, as I see it, if that task of bringing the data and the pictures of our world to the fresh minds coming on is to be accomplished, we must guard against the seductive picture of higher education that has recently been presented of a back-tracking to the Middle Ages where in a philosophic calm, the main content of education would be authority and tradi¬ tion remote from the urgent complexities of contemporary life. I think there is a danger in that sort of education becoming too much like regulating life at the nod of a mummy. The other warning I think is to be issued against that type of mind, so natural in all of us, which likes to peg down our present world as something that is all fixed and nailed and cannot be changed. Lawrence Hyde, the English philosopher, threw out a great sentence the other day. He said, “The significant minds of our times are those which can orient themselves to the potentialities of life rather than to its actualities, and in that effort we must set ourselves against those whose only habit of thought is in terms of thinking against a settled and fixed world.” The other day, I heard of a lady who last summer took her first trip across the ocean. She left New York about 11 a. m. and was amazed what an immense hotel she had entered under the impression she had taken a ship. She spent two hours finding her stateroom after luncheon. It was way down on the X, Y, or Z deck. And then she was afraid to leave it for fear she would not be able to find it again that afternoon. She was standing across from her stateroom and finally a great peace came over her soul. She looked out of the port hole as they were passing Fort Hamilton. “Ah, now I know where my stateroom is. It’s just opposite the lighthouse.” The English ship steward, who was the soul of courtesy, replied, “Madam, I don’t believe the lighthouse will be there at supper time.” It is not so easy to believe we are on a moving world and the landmarks will not be there at supper time. But, if we are to move on with this task of preparing minds for tomorrow that can take and direct the kind of world the last fifty years have made for us, we must remember and think in terms of potentialities. And, the other caution, of course, is the particular type of resistance that any real look into our world meets. Only about five weeks ago a company of scientists, anthropologists, and other students of ancient man met in Philadelphia, and one of the headlines that appeared in the newspapers was this: “Prehistoric skulls sit in at the council table.” Well, now, of course, that was just a statement of what went on at the meeting. There they were at the table, the skulls of your ancestors and mine, plaster casts of the Neanderthal man and the Java man. There the models were at the council table. But what a picture that gives to the imagination ! How many council tables in our modern world do prehistoric skulls sit in at and give advice! Diplomatic council tables where the old Stone Age men gather around to measure clubs and see which has the biggest! Military councils! Many a business council and possibly even on boards of education! What we need is not prehistoric skulls but those out of today’s wisdom ! General Sessions 23 And, finally, among the tools for any kind of a world that is fit to live in tomorrow is the faith in a spiritual order of life. Today as in the first century, the words apply, “We have not been given a spirit of fear; but of power, and of love, and of a sound mind.” A mind in which love is the basis of cohesion is a sound mind, for it is rooted in the ultimate reality in the universe. A faith in the moral and spiritual foundations of the world is being given an impressive validation by the pageant of contemporary history. We are having demonstrations that the only things which last in our world are those things which make for mutuality and cooperation. Religion not merely comes into the world and tells us, “You ought to live like brothers,” but history is telling us that you must learn to live like brothers or you cannot live at all in such a world as we have, and that moral judgment is thundering over our world today. One last picture, if you will. Gilbert Stuart, the Colonial who painted so many pictures of George Washington that one wonders how either of them had time to do anything else, was looking at the French statesman, Talley¬ rand, on his visit to the United States. He looked at him with a keen, apprais¬ ing artist’s eye and said to a friend who stood next to him, “If that man is not a scoundrel, God does not write a legible hand.” God writes a legible hand, all right. Sometimes he writes it on a human face. Sometimes he writes it on the face of a fiend. And what a legible hand God has been writing on the physical face of America during this last year of dust storms and floods, a land where everything about its face emphasizes this: that whatsoever a man or a nation soweth, that also shall it reap. A land which has been denuded under the impulse of quick profits — the top of the land skimmed ; the forests slaughtered ! God writes a legible hand, that all that must be paid for! And there has been a legible handwriting in our industrial and political and international life that we are members, of one or another. An effective democracy has its roots in religion in a high valuation of the worth of man and a faith in the ultimate vindication of man’s highest values. With faith in God’s moral purpose and love in the universe, we go out to the struggle for a fairer future not as on a fantastic whim of our own or some quixotic enterprise, but in league with the final Force in the universe! FIRST GENERAL SESSION ADDRESS OF WELCOME RAYMOND J. KELLY, CORPORATION COUNSEL, DETROIT, MICH., REPRESENT¬ ING THE MAYOR OF DETROIT The official family of the city of Detroit is happy and proud to welcome this most impressive gathering to our city. We have had many great con¬ ventions visit the city of Detroit but I know of no group which we would be more pleased, more happy, or more proud to entertain than the group that we are having with us this week. Detroit is proud of her accomplishments in the realm of education. We are proud of our great educational institutions. We are proud of the fact 24 National Education Association that we have within the borders of our city the opportunity for our boys and our girls to go from kindergarten thru the university in the public school system. We are also proud of the fact that we think we have here a beautiful city, a city to which visitors will be happy to come and where we feel they will be properly entertained. We know we have many points of interest which you will wish to see. We hope that your gathering here will be of mutual advantage both to the city of Detroit and to your organization and to yourselves individually. And so, on behalf of Mayor Frank Couzens and the official family of the city of Detroit, I extend to you a most hearty welcome. I trust that your stay here will be beneficial and that you will carry away with you fine memories of our city and a desire to return again soon. GREETINGS EUGENE B. ELLIOTT, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, LANSING, MICH. I am very happy to be here and to extend greetings to you people from every state in the Union, from Hawaii, and from Canada. It is a pleasure, indeed, and the official family at Lansing are extremely happy that you are here. Also five million people in the state of Michigan welcome you. You will find us most hospitable. Michigan is a great state in many ways. In fact, if you were going to travel from here to some of the more distant places of the Upper Peninsula, you would find they are farther away than the City of New York. We have in the state thousands of lakes, five thousand miles of shore drive, pavements practically all the way. Many of you think of Michigan as being an automobile center. However, the state is noted for copper mining, silver mining, and some gold. We also are said to be the salt of the earth in certain places in the state. The western part of the state is noted for its fruit growing industry. Thru the central part of the state you will find the dairy industry. We welcome you to the various spots of interest in the state. We also would call to your attention the Michigan school system because there are 36,000 public and non-public school teachers who welcome you to the state. There are 1,400,000 boys and girls on our school census with 1,000,000 of them in our public schools and 150,000 in our non-public schools. We are a state which has a highly decentralized school system. There are 6,700 school districts. We have schoolboard members — almost enough to go around one for each teacher! It has its advantages, however, because it means that in every locality are lay people who are vitally interested in education. We have three universities, four state teachers colleges, and many private and denominational colleges. All bid you welcome on this seventy-fifth anniversity of the National Education Association. The ideals which you people have been sponsoring, which you people have been teach¬ ing for three-quarters of a century, are ennobling, indeed, and we hope in Michigan to catch from you some of those ideals. General Sessions 25 PRESENTATION OF PLATFORM GUESTS FRANK CODY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DETROIT, MICH. Chairman Samuelson : When you come to a great convention like this and see all the details functioning smoothly, you perhaps do not realize how much work there has been back of it — done by the local committees, by the local school system, and all who are interested in the success of the program. We are now going to meet the inimitable Frank Cody, superintendent of schools of Detroit. In his hand of welcome there will be extended an excur¬ sion on the Great Lakes, a vacation in the northern Michigan woods, an automobile, some celery, and any other products that he would like to give us, along with wishes for a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year! At the same time, incidentally, he will introduce the platform guests who have been responsible for the organization of the hospitality and friendliness that you are receiving on every hand. Mr. Cody: I greet you! My part on this program is to be a brief one. It probably will be the best part of the program because there will be no speeches but I shall be pleased to present to you the good looking represen¬ tatives of education in the state of Michigan ! Now, if this good looking group at the rear will just rise and smile and remain standing while their names are being called, we will be delighted. I think you will agree with me they are well worth looking at. (Mr. Cody then introduced a number of prominent Michigan educators and laymen.) RESPONSE TO ADDRESSES OF WELCOME ALBERT M. SHAW, HOLLENBECK JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. ; PRESIDENT, N. E. A. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS It is indeed a high honor and a pleasure to have this opportunity of responding to these gracious and felicitous expressions of cordial welcome, and in behalf of those attending this meeting of the National Education Association, to accept the kind hospitality of the people of this fine state and your enterprising city, Detroit. We came here as strangers but mindful of your most cordial and friendly invitation of last year, we knew that we would not be strangers for long. Your cordial welcome, giving us the freedom of your beautiful city and offering us the facilities of the many attractive and refreshing features in your picturesque state with its many natural beauties and recreational op¬ portunities, is deeply appreciated by all of us. Many of our members and friends will be delighted, I am sure, to tarry for a while after the conven¬ tion to refresh themselves after an arduous week of convention duties and a busy school year. We know that we shall enjoy the friendship of the Michi¬ gan educators and of your other citizens as well, and this friendship will be sincerely treasured as we leave the convention city to take up again the regular activities of our daily lives. 26 National Education Association It is an inspiration to learn of the rich historical background which your state has in educational work. The same determined spirit which actuated the pioneers in the early colonies of the eastern seaboard to build schools almost as early as they built homes, prevailed in the early days of Michigan. Many of your people are of that same hardy pioneer stock that established the cultural and educational institutions of early New England which have meant so much in the progress and development of our country. We learn with deepest respect of the outstanding leadership which Michigan has shown in educational affairs and which has served as a model in many ways for other states. A long line of educational leaders of noteworthy character, headed by the distinguished and greatly revered John D. Pierce, first state superintendent of public instruction for Michigan, have always held the educational aspira¬ tions of the people in this state up to a high standard. This has been exemplified in many ways — a long-time, four-phase program of publicly supported elementary and secondary schools, compulsory attendance, well- trained teachers, and a strong state university. This has produced a 1owt percentage of illiteracy and a high standard of cultural and intellectual achievement. Michigan was one of the first to recognize that teaching should be con¬ sidered as a science and art, and has been an outstanding leader among other states in the number and quality of teacher-training institutions. It was the first state to recognize the value of training in scientific agriculture which has had so profound an influence in American rural life. It estab¬ lished the first schools for underprivileged children and did effective pioneer work in this most important humane activity. As a result of this work, the American public school has come to be recognized as a great socializing influence in addition to its regular functions in education. Some prominent people have expressed the idea that special training for teaching is unnecessary — that all there is to do is merely to get a good gen¬ eral education and then go about the business of teaching. Notwithstanding this opinion, we still adhere strongly in American education to the great principle advocated by Horace Mann and established ninety-eight years ago — that broad training in psychology, pedagogy, methods of teaching, the philosophy of education,4 and practise teaching under supervision, in addition to a well-rounded general education — is necessary for the highest success in the teaching profession. This well-recognized principle which has been so well exemplified here in the schools of Michigan undoubtedly has accom¬ plished more than any other single influence in making teaching a real profession and placing American education on the high plane which it oc¬ cupies today. Not only has Michigan been a leader and example to other states in an educational way but has shown the same type of leadership in industrial affairs. When Antoine La Mothe Cadillac explored the area where we are now sojourning and when in 1701 he founded the humble little settlement which later developed into the great, virile, pulsating city of Detroit, little did he realize the subsequent importance of his own humble efforts. Who can measure the profound influence which the industries of Detroit and adjacent General Sessions 27 communities have had on the social and cultural development of the whole United States? The automobile industry alone has changed the whole social and business structure of our country. The millions of automobiles which have come to be in such common daily use have brought to the people in a most demo¬ cratic way, comfort, convenience, leisure, pleasure, and a most versatile serv¬ ice which could not have been purchased by the golden hoards of kings and princes a comparatively few years ago. Without doubt, many of us have come prepared to drive away with some of these useful and most popular products and thus claim for ourselves souvenirs which this great city offers to its sojourning guests. We recognize and greatly appreciate the marvelous part which the people in this city and state have taken in the social, industrial, and intel¬ lectual development of our country, thereby making it progressively a far better place in which to live. We appreciate the brotherhood and fraternal spirit which you have shown in the past by your leadership in social, educa¬ tional, and other worthwhile activities. And, as you may come among us at future times in the various cities and states which we represent, we shall be honored by your presence and we in turn shall be happy to extend the right hand of fellowship and friendship as you have done and which you have exemplified in such a gracious manner on this occasion. In behalf of the members and friends of the National Education Association, it is my pleasure and privilege to thank you for your most cordial welcome, and for all your gracious courtesies. t PURPOSE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION FLOYD W. REEVES, CHAIRMAN, THE ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. On April 19, 1937, the President addressed a letter to me as chairman of the Advisory Committee on Education in which he referred to the numerous bills now pending in Congress in connection with educational matters, and requested the Committee to give more extended consideration to the whole subject of federal relationship to state and local conduct of education. The Committee accepted this responsibility, and it is expected that its report will be completed in time for early consideration next winter by the President and Congress. The Committee has been engaged during the past few weeks in the formu¬ lation of its plans for necessary studies and in making suitable arrangements to proceed with the work requested by the President. It is eminently fitting and appropriate that these plans and arrangements should now be brought to the attention of the National Education Association. The importance of the task the President has given the Advisory Com¬ mittee on Education requires no emphasis before this group. The exigencies of widespread breakdown in our national economic life made it necessary in 28 National Education Association 1933 for the federal government to come to the financial support of many local governmental services. This is a familiar story, but the extent to which it has been necessary for the federal government to enter into new and unaccustomed relationships to public education in order to meet public needs and public demands has not been commonly realized. First of all, it was necessary to provide funds to keep schools open in many rural areas; federal aid of this type amounted to $21,800,922 during the fiscal years 1934 and 1935. For the first time, there was here implied recog¬ nition of a federal obligation to maintain at least a low minimum of educa¬ tional opportunity thruout the nation, relieving the strain of acute local financial distress. Second, as a part of a general program designed to stimulate useful public works, aid was extended in the financing of thousands of school buildings. Up to the end of 1936, the PWA had made loans totaling $84,271,822 for the construction and repair of educational buildings, and it supplemented by outright grants to the amount of $213,832,458 almost $300,000,000 for educational buildings during this period. Facilities have been provided for our growing population, and many out-worn, hazardous, and obsolete buildings have been replaced. Third , the program of student aid under the NYA has been carried on for the past two years at a total estimated cost of $52,663,546. Almost a half million needy students received aid from this program at its peak during the school year just closed. Fourth, the emergency education program of the WPA has given em¬ ployment to as many as 42,000 unemployed teachers in recent months and has offered instruction during the same period to enrolments in excess of 2,000,000. Fifth, approximately 1,500,000 of the young men of the nation have already passed thru the ranks of the CCC, which was first established as a form of work relief but which has acquired educational objectives of increas¬ ing breadth and of great public interest. At the same time that these developments have been taking place with reference primarily to emergency programs the federal government has continued and expended its older and more familiar types of aid to vocational education in the high schools, to agricultural extension work for the men, women, and children of rural areas, and to the land-grant colleges — increas¬ ing aid in all these fields. We are now coming out of the depression that produced so many of the developments just noted. Public attention consequently is rapidly shifting from the existing emergency programs to a proposed permanent program. The major permanent federal program in the field of education that has been under consideration this year is undoubtedly that proposed by the Harrison-Black-Fletcher bill. This bill would authorize an initial annual appropriation of $100,000,000 by the federal government, to be increased over a period of years to a total of $300,000,000. These sums would be granted to the states for the improvement of their educational systems. Exten- General Sessions 29 sive hearings on this proposal were held by legislative committees of both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The bill was reported favorably to the Senate and is now pending upon its calendar, but unfavorable action was taken by the Committee on Education of the House. Other proposals that are pending but which have received much less atten¬ tion include a number of bills to provide federal aid for special educational purposes. Among these may be noted the various bills to provide aid for the education of crippled children, to promote adult civic education, to pro¬ vide for nursery schools and other forms of pre-school education, to promote conservation education, and to provide federal support for libraries. This brief review of existing activities and of proposed legislation in the field of federal relations to education indicates the present necessary for a reexamination of the entire subject and supplies the background for the work of the Advisory Committee on Education. This Committee, when first set up last fall, was made up of eighteen members who came to the Committee from a diversity of backgrounds and interests. They are as follows : Oscar L. Chapman, Assistant Secretary of the Department of the Interior Ernest G. Draper, Assistant Secretary of the Department of Commerce Katharine F. Lenroot, chief of the Children’s Bureau in the Department of Labor Mordecai Ezekiel, economic adviser to the Secretary of Agriculture. Gordon R. Clapp, director of personnel in the Tennessee Valley Authority T. J. Thomas, president of the Valier Coal Company, and vicepresident of the Burlington Railroad John H. Zink, a Baltimore contractor who is president of the Heating, Piping, and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association W. Rowland Allen, personnel director of Ayres Department Store in Indianapolis Thomas Kennedy, secretary-treasurer of the United Mine Workers, and lieutenant governor of Pennsylvania Elizabeth Christman, secretary-treasurer of the National Women’s Trade Union League John P. Frey, American Federation of Labor (originally a member of the Committee but found it necessary to resign because of pressure of other duties) George Googe, chairman of the Southern Organizing Committee of the A. F. L. (re¬ placed Mr. Frey) George Johnson, director of the Department of Education, National Catholic Wel¬ fare Conference Arthur B. Moehlman, editor, Nation’s Schools, and professor of administration and supervision at the University of Michigan Edmund deS. Brunner, Teachers College, Columbia University Alice Edwards, Resettlement Administration, and the Regents’ Inquiry into the Character and Cost of Education in New York State Henry Esberg, actively interested in the field of vocational rehabilitation for many years, New York City Henry C. Taylor, formerly chief of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics in the United States Department of Agriculture, now director of the Farm Foundation at Chicago When the President enlarged the functions of the Committee to include studies of all phases of federal relations to education, he also appointed four additional members, Frank P. Graham, president of the University of North Carolina; Luther Gulick, of Columbia University and now in charge of the 30 National Education Association Regents’ Inquiry into the Character and Cost of Education in New York State; Charles H. Judd of the University of Chicago; and George F. Zook, president of the American Council on Education. Since the Committee’s assignment calls for a completed report by next December, the Committee has been forced to move rapidly. It is expected that the major part of the staff work for the Committee will be com¬ pleted during the next three months. Plans have been developed for brief but comprehensive studies in the financing of education ; in the quality of existing educational programs in the states; of the new and emergency federal education programs; of education in special federal jurisdictions; and of the social, economic, and governmental factors basic to a consideration of federal relations to education. The Committee has been fortunate indeed in the staff that it has secured to carry on these studies, and is deeply indebted to the many institutions that have recognized the importance of the Committee’s work by releasing personnel at considerable inconvenience. I want to take this opportunity to express our gratitude to the representatives of the many institutions that have recognized the importance of the Committee’s work by releasing personnel at very short notice and at great inconvenience. Between eighteen and twenty members of our staff had arranged for summer work in the larger universities and we had to ask for their release. Up to the present moment that request has not been refused by a single university or a single individual asked to serve on our staff. Among those who will direct major units of the studies for the Committee are Lloyd E. Blauch, who has been serving on the senior staff of the Com¬ mittee since the beginning; Doak S. Campbell, director of the Division of Surveys and Field Studies, George Peabody College for Teachers; Walter D. Cocking, formerly Tennessee State Commissioner of Education; Newton Edwards of the University of Chicago; Paul R. Mort, director of the Ad¬ vanced School of Education at Columbia University; John Dale Russell of the University of Chicago; and Payson Smith, formerly Commissioner of Education in Massachusetts and now a member of the faculty of the Grad¬ uate School of Education at Harvard University. Raymond M. Hughes, president emeritus of Iowa State College at Ames, is serving the Committee as a general consultant and will assist in coordinat¬ ing the various groups of studies. Some of you may have noticed the announcement in the press this morning of the release of a report of the President’s Committee on Administrative Management. Paul T. David assisted me in the report which was released in Washington, a report dealing with reorganization of personnel service in the federal government. The personnel problem is a major problem and Dr. David, the economist, who served on that staff as well as a number of other federal agencies, has been made secretary of our Committee and will also serve as assistant director of studies. The names I have mentioned and the additional staff that we are providing will indicate to you the very great desire of the Committee to provide itself with the most expert technical and professional counsel. In the nature of the General Sessions 31 case, however, it will be impossible for the Committee to carry on elaborate researches. The time is too short. Our objective is to organize effectively the results of the professional thinking and the research studies that have already been completed. In other words, we intend to skim the cream off the work that has already been done. Definite arrangements are being made for the cooperation of a number of important federal agencies. The National Resources Committee will co¬ operate in studies of the social and economic aspects of federal relations to education. We are consulting closely with the Advisory Committee of the NYA in our studies of the program of that agency. The United States Office of Education is assigning certain of its personnel to make studies needed by our Committee, and will make available its collection of research materials bearing upon federal relations to education, the most extensive collection of such materials in the United States. Plans are also under way for cooperation with the numerous non-govern¬ mental organizations and agencies that are in a position to make an important contribution to our studies. These plans are already rather definite in a num¬ ber of cases. The American Youth Commission is now engaged in an extensive study of the educational work of the CCC. An agreement has been reached by which the Youth Commission will expedite certain phases of our survey in order that the findings may be available in time to be of service to our Committee. The Council of Chief State School Officers, which as you know includes the heads of departments of education — that is, the superintendents and com¬ missioners — in each of the forty-eight states, has extended its full coopera¬ tion and has been of major assistance in planning the field studies for the Committee. Recently we met with the Executive Committee of that Council to discuss general plans. Also arrangements have been completed for a co¬ operative committee from the American Library Association. The Educational Policies Commission of the National Education Associa¬ tion was already making plans for a survey of educational administration thruout the United States when it became apparent that the Advisory Com¬ mittee on Education would have a major interest in this subject. Representa¬ tives of the two groups met in conference in Washington on June 12, and a working relationship was agreed upon that should enhance greatly the value of the studies to be made by each group. In conclusion, may I say that we realize fully that satisfactory solutions for the problems of federal relations to education can be obtained only thru the cooperative studies of many agencies, organizations, and individuals. I appreciate greatly the opportunity to make this statement to the members of the National Education Association, and hope very much that we shall con¬ tinue to have your active interest and cooperation. 32 National Education Association THEN AND NOW IN THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ORVILLE C. PRATT, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SPOKANE, WASH., AND PRESIDENT, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The year 1937 is especially a centennial year for education. In 1837 Horace Mann began his epochal career for the establishment of free, tax-supported public schools. In that year Froebel started the first kindergarten; and the legislature of Massachusetts created what Cubberley called “the first real State Board of Education in the United States.” While the educational renaissance of 1837 centered in Massachusetts, its influence was widespread. Ohio established the office of state superintendent, Indiana chartered DePauw University, and Michigan organized its State University. The growing appreciation of the importance of education was well expressed by Daniel Webster in a speech he made at Madison, Indiana, in 1837 : “On the diffusion of education among the people,” he said, “rests the preservation and perpetuation of our free institutions.” The new interest in education was doubtless due in part to the political success of Andrew Jackson and his new deal with the extension of manhood suffrage and the introduction of the spoils system. Thoughtful leaders viewed universal education as an absolute essential if the new democracy was to survive. The score of years from 1837 to 1857 was a period of crude public school beginnings in the wake of the advancing frontier. Teachers were poorly pre¬ pared and even more poorly paid. They managed to exist by working at other jobs a part of the time and by boarding around with school patrons. Yet the appearance of the Webster speller and the McGuffey readers shows that real progress was being made. By 1857 there were about 100,000 teachers in the public schools. However, sectionalism and the question of slavery were becoming increasingly domi¬ nant. The conflicting issues of the approaching Civil War were absorbing the attention of the people largely to the exclusion of other interests. It was in this atmosphere of uncertainty and strife that a small but devoted group of educators met at Philadelphia eighty years ago and organized what is now the National Education Association. The next twenty-year period, from 1857 to 1877, was one of war and re¬ covery from war, in many respects similar to the interval since the World War. In 1877 the nation had reached about the same stage of emergence from a severe post-war depression as we have attained with our depression. Educationally, it was largely a time of stagnation. Among other indications of this is the fact that in five different years the National Education Associa¬ tion held no meeting. That is why this is the 75th instead of the 80th anni¬ versary meeting. James Truslow Adams has called this period “the nation at dead center.” Education, along with other cultural interests, marked time. The score of years from 1877 to 1897 was a period of renewed educational growth and vigor, marking the transition to presentday problems, The tech- General Sessions 33 nological unemployment of children caused the high schools to double in attendance between 1880 and 1890, a performance which they have dupli¬ cated each decade since then. An evidence of the greater interest which patrons of the schools were beginning to take was the formation of the parent-teacher association in 1897. Notwithstanding the inestimable value of this association to education, its much greater potential value is as yet only dimly realized by educators. The twenty years from 1897 to 1917 were years of unparalleled advance¬ ment in science and in its offspring, industry. They were years, too, of un¬ paralleled growth in education, altho the growth was in quantity more than in quality. Thruout the sixty years of its existence to 1917, the National Education Association had grown only slowly, with a membership chiefly among school administrators. In this brief running sketch, we come now to the score of years just ending, the period from 1917 to 1937. It began with our rather blind and thought¬ less entrance into the World War; the war, ironically enough, as we now view it, to end war and to make the world safe foydemocracy. In the begin¬ ning of this period occurred that great forward step of the Association, its reorganization on a representative basis. Under the impetus of this change the membership in the Association grew rapidly to about 200,000. During the depression years, there was a loss of membership and only this year has it again mounted above the pre-depression level. In this centennial year for public education and the eightieth for our Association, as we honor the prophetic vision of Horace Mann and view the educational achievements since his time, it seems to be a propitious time to give thought to some additional forward steps which the National Education Association ought to take. The most immediate and practical forward step, as I view it, is a vast upsurge in membership similar to that which followed the reorganization of twenty years ago. How can such an increase in member¬ ship be brought about? It seems to me that the answer is: by convincing teachers generally that the National Education Association is of direct prac¬ tical benefit to them and that membership in it is an investment yielding generous returns. Teachers will be thus convinced if the National Education Association will make the attainment of the various phases of teacher welfare its major objective and vigorously set about its accomplishment. Take the troublesome problem of teacher tenure as an example. It is troublesome because it in¬ volves a delicate balance of social values. The schools exist for the pupils and their rights must be safeguarded. On the other hand, one of the commonest ways by vyhich the rights of children are violated is thru the insecurity of teachers in their positions. The Representative Assembly has repeatedy adopted resolutions favoring teacher tenure, and the Association has a Tenure Committee. This committee is composed of capable educators deeply interested in securing reasonable tenure for teachers. What more can be done? In my opinion there ought to be in the headquarters in Washington one person free to devote his entire time to the matter of tenure. This person should be an expert in tenure, 34 National Education Association versed in its history. He ought to know in detail the provisions of the various teacher tenure laws. He should know by investigation on the ground just how well each of these laws functions and in what respects it is defective. Such a person should be made available as an expert consultant to the tenure committees of the National Education Association and of the various state associations. The function of this expert on teacher tenure would be purely advisory. His relation to a tenure committee would be similar to that of a lawyer to his client : Out of his greater knowledge and experience he would give advice as requested. The decision as to what should be done would rest wholly with the committee. In this suggestion for the employment of an expert on tenure, there is implied no criticism whatever of existing tenure committees. The difficulty in the present situation is that the educators, who are members of tenure com¬ mittees, have full-time jobs as teachers and consequently can devote only a small fraction of their time to tenure. They have done a fine piece of work in demonstrating the need for effective tenure laws. In my opinion the Na¬ tional Education Association ought now to supplement their work by furnish¬ ing the expert aid by which the passage of suitable tenure laws by state legis¬ latures can be more speedily attained. What has been said about the need for expert service in the field of tenure to be furnished by the National Education Association is quite as true of salaries, retirement, or any other phase of teacher welfare. Take, for instance, the matter of salaries. The Association has available up-to-date statistics about salaries and has printed several pamphlets relating to salary schedules. When the revision of salary schedules is up for consideration in a city, how¬ ever, it would greatly facilitate correct action if an expert on salaries could go to the city from headquarters in Washington. He would be there in the capacity of an expert consultant available to the administration and to salary committees to answer such questions as: Is a single salary schedule advisable? Should the quality of teaching be a recognized factor in the schedule? By what increments should additional education be recognized ? Over how many years should increments based on experience extend ? What portion of the school budget ought to go to salaries? How should the salaries of teachers compare with those of other governmental emploj^ees? What salaries can the city well afford to pay? Much the same is true of teacher retirement. In these days when social security is in the forefront of public discussion, the time is ripe for the passage of teacher retirement laws in all the states which do not have them. The National Education Association has published material on retirement, but again it would be much more helpful and effective if it would make available the services of an expert on retirement. This year our legislature in the state of Washington enacted a new teacher retirement law. Now that we have it, no one knows certainly what parts of it mean. It would have been a simpler and better law if we had had expert assistance in framing it. I am happy to report that the National Education Association has taken steps to furnish such expert service in the fields of tenure, salaries, and retire¬ ment next year. General Sessions 35 The Department of Classroom Teachers plans to extend its field service with a view to increasing membership in the National Education Association. With that plan, I am in entire accord and the expert services which I am recommending, and which the N.E.A. is undertaking, will make a large increase in teacher membership easier to attain. Up to this point we have discussed the timeliness and desirability of a large increase in the membership of the National Education Association and the ways by which it can be done. Let us now turn to a consideration of why it should be done. There ought to be, in the United States, one dominant, powerful, and all-inclusive educational organization which on occasion could speak authoritatively for education as a whole. Its being all-inclusive is a necessary prerequisite to its being dominant and powerful. With a member¬ ship of only one-fifth of the nation’s teachers, the National Education Asso¬ ciation cannot presume to represent or speak for all of them and so is right¬ fully considered to express a mere minority opinion. This is the first weak¬ ness which needs to be remedied and the definite objective of teacher welfare in all its phases is the open door to its attainment. Teachers are specialists and like all specialists are subject to the tempta¬ tions of narrowness. The right kind of a specialist is a broad man, sharpened to a point. Breadth of view is quite as essential as depth ; seeing one’s work in perspective is as important as knowing it in intimate detail. Just as the American Medical Association and the American Bar Association speak with authority on matters of medicine and law, so there must be in America an organization of educators who can speak with equal effectiveness. There has been no dearth of national organizations of educators aspiring to this role. With a single exception all of these organizations other than the National Education Association, make more or less the mistake, fatal to their aspirations, of leaving classroom teachers out of account. A national educa¬ tional organization which excludes classroom teachers from membership is like a nation which excludes the common man from the franchise. Whatever else it may be, such a nation is not a democracy. Among these other national educational organizations, the single exception which seeks classroom teacher membership is the American Federation of Teachers, affiliated with the American Federation of Labor. This organiza¬ tion is to be commended for the value it places on classroom teacher mem¬ bership and for the aggressive way in which it seeks teacher welfare. Its underlying philosophy, however, differs from ours. We vision teaching as being, at least potentially, a profession. As with other true professions, we believe that education should have its own nationwide, independent organ¬ ization, free from entangling alliances whether with labor or with capital. Every situation should be frankly faced. Perhaps what is now going on in the labor world may have a lesson for us. The present bid for power by the C. I. O. is due to the feeling of a segment of labor that the interests of labor are not being looked after aggressively enough. The National Education As¬ sociation is in danger of finding the fertile field of classroom teacher member¬ ship sown and reaped by another organization if it fails of aggressiveness in furthering teacher welfare. 36 National Education Association An educator’s loyalty, like that of a citizen, should be double: First should come his loyalty to the interests and welfare of education as of national con¬ cern; as the conserver of the social heritage and the preserver of American democracy. It is this broad function which the National Education Associa¬ tion must fulfil, or eventually give place to some other national organization which will. The second loyalty of an educator should be to his immediate local group ; to the problems and interests held in common with others similarly situated. This local or class loyalty is necessarily of secondary importance since its objective cannot be fully attained until the nationwide loyalty receives proper recognition. It is at this point that organized education has chiefly failed. Our brethren, the college teachers (of whom I was once one), have formed the American Association of University Professors. Relatively few of them belong to the National Education Association altho higher education cannot thrive unless education below college level is thriving. No matter how well paid a professor may be or how well endowed his institution, his work will suffer if the public schools are handicapped by inadequate financial support. The Progressive Education Association has done a splendid piece of work in making education more realistic, in emphasizing the here and now, and in seeing that experience precedes symbols. But that vision of possible progress for education should not prevent progressive educators from participating, thru the National Education Association, in the formulation of large-scale, long-range, national educational policies. Please note that I am not criticizing the organizations mentioned or the many similar ones which might be mentioned. The point I am attempting to make is that teachers too generally have joined educational organizations to secure certain rather narrowly specific ends in which they were interested and have not so clearly recognized the many objectives which they have in common with all educators. I have previously indicated my belief that, if the National Education Asso¬ ciation is to become truly national, it must enlist the great majority of class¬ room teachers in its membership. Classroom teachers already far outnumber all other educators in membership and will inevitably henceforth determine the policies of the Association. If the present trend toward disintegration into class-conscious groups is to be ended, the policies of the National Educa¬ tion Association must be broadly based, all-inclusive, with education as a unitary influence in America in the forefront. The great advantage of the United States in the modern world is that it consists of one nation instead of many as in war-mad Europe. Education will have a similar advantage in our nation when, in addition to our present special interest groups, educators gen¬ erally vision the need for and the possibilities of a great national organization to which all belong. The present Educational Policies Commission points the way to the kind of continuous research needed for long-range planning. In addition to the specific objectives of special groups, the unique function of education in America must be widely understood by the citizenry. It is not enough for people generally to have a blind, traditional belief in the value of education ; General Sessions 37 rather they must clearly comprehend the direct relationship between educa¬ tion and the preservation and prosperity of our nation. Each of us, within the limits of his opportunities, needs to be a missionary for education. We all need to be fired with something of the prophetic zeal and missionary spirit of Horace Mann. As educators we know that in whatever respects America may fall short of the abundant life, education of the right kind and in a broad sense offers the only road to improvement. We have not always been as aggressive as we might well be in stressing this general truth. Too many of us have been more interested in getting for ourselves and our groups a larger piece of such pie as there was, rather than in increasing the size of the pie which, when fairly divided, would give everyone a larger piece. We need to do our very utmost to make education the best instrument we possibly can for national growth ; and along with making it fully worthy of liberal support, we need to set about practically to see that such support is forthcoming. The surest way to attain special group objectives is to work enthusiastically and unitedly for education as a whole. In order to make sure that the National Education Association has the unity and the balanced wholeness of viewpoint which is imperative we need to centralize our work in the headquarters at Washington. In no other way can it be properly coordinated and harmonized. No organization can be effec¬ tive if it has more than one head, and the executive secretary should be the one to carry out the policies of the Representative Assembly. The president is merely the temporary interpreter for the Association, giving the steering wheel a slight pull in this direction or in that. He is like the barkers at the county fairs who used to say of themselves, “here today and gone tomorrow.” Consistency of policy must depend upon the leadership of the executive secretary. At the end of a year of close association with Mr. Givens, I am happy to affirm that he is a leader whom we may fittingly follow. I am sure that he is sympathetic with the aspirations and the ultimate destiny of classroom teachers in the National Education Association. I am equally confident that he visions the National Education Association as the unified and effective policy-making agency for education as a whole, with all lesser educational interests in balanced cooperation. I doubt if we educators fully realize what education has done for our nation or what the National Education Association has done for education. Our deep-rooted faith in American institutions and our relative freedom from social turmoil are due far more to universal education than to all other causes combined. The same is true of our standard of living. It may be a mixed blessing, but we have five-sixths of the world’s automobiles, and three- fourths of its telephones and radios. Our homes are better and larger, require less work, and have more electrical gadgets and bathtubs than those of any other nation. As a nation we are gradually learning the economic wisdom of the widest possible distribution of the good things of life. We equally eschew dictators of every breed, communistic, fascistic, or nazistic. We re- 38 National Education Association serve the right to grumble and complain, but below the surface we know that we are better off than any other people in the wide world. Teachers, too, are better off. Back in 1870 the average salary of teachers was only $1 89 ; by 1910 it had risen to $485 ; and now it is about $1250. Too small, to be sure, but as elsewhere in life, the important thing is not so much where we are as it is the direction in which we are going. Our National Education Association has a long and honorable past, replete with worthwhile accomplishments for education. What it has been able to accomplish is only a faint indication of what it can do when it enrols in its membership the great majority of teachers of every kind. Education is worthy of all the idealism and intelligence of all of America’s teachers. If the edu¬ cators of America would unitedly support the National Education Associa¬ tion, we could make more educational advance in the next decade than has been made in a generation. In conclusion, I wish to tell you how keenly I appreciate the high position of trust in which you placed me this year. The National Education Associa¬ tion is not a one-man institution. No one man has the vision or ability to guide it well or wisely. In the multitude of council there is wisdom. If wisdom is to be found at all, it is most apt to emerge in the work of associated minds. It is my honor and responsibility to preside over your minds in association this week. I trust I may have your sympathetic cooperation and that the out¬ come of our deliberations may be to the lasting benefit of education. We, in¬ dividually, fill our little niches in the world and cease to be; but education in the modern world constantly grows in importance. Perhaps this week we can make certain adjustments that will enhance its standing and influence in our great nation. As Plorace Mann said a century ago: “If ever there was a cause, if ever there can be a cause, worthy to be upheld, by all of the toil or sacrifice that the human hand or heart can endure, it is the cause of education.” PROGRESS AND PROBLEMS OF OUR ASSOCIATION WILLARD E. GIVENS, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. I want to express my deep appreciation to President Pratt for his able leadership during the year; to the members of the Executive Committee, Board of Trustees, and Board of Directors for their wise guidance and counsel ; to all secretaries of state teachers associations for their most helpful cooperation ; and to the state superintendents, presidents of state teachers associations, and the thousands of other outstanding educational leaders in our classrooms, principalships, and superintendencies thruout the country for their helpful suggestions, constructive criticisms, and fine spirit of cooperation. I express also my appreciation to each of the 205,000 members for interest, cooperation, and loyalty. General Sessions 39 I am deeply indebted to all members of the headquarters staff for their efficient help and loyal cooperation. This is true of every member of the staff from my most worthy predecessor, Dr. J. W. Crabtree, secretary emeritus, down to the boy who runs the elevator. The first fourteen pages of the Official Program for this meeting deal with the 19 general session meetings. Pages 15 to 24 carry the programs of our 24 Departments with their 55 meetings. The 19 Allied Organizations are holding 41 meetings with programs outlined on pages 43 to 56. There are 84 programs accompanied by food and fellowship listed in the program on pages 57 to 60. On page 61 you will find listed the 44 states that this year have head¬ quarters in the Statler Hotel. On page 67 is a subject index arranging alphabetically the 56 different subjects which are being discussed at this convention. You will find a great variety of titles of addresses, running all the way from “Streamlining Latin” to “Traditions be Damned.” On pages 68 and 69 is an index of the 498 speak¬ ers arranged alphabetically showing where and when the 565 speeches of this convention are being given. “X” is the only letter in the alphabet under which we find no speakers listed, the names of speakers ranging from one beginning with Q to fifty-five beginning with B. As usual the Smith family leads, there being eight Smiths on the program. On pages 70 and 71 you will find a directory of meetings arranged by morning, afternoon, and evening of each convention day. The numbers in the table refer to the pages on which programs of the meetings listed will be found. May I call your special attention to page 13 where you will find outlined the program of “Testament of Faith,” a drama in three acts portraying the life of Horace Mann. This play will be given in this Auditorium at two o’clock Thursday afternoon by the Antioch College Players from Yellow Springs, Ohio. Admission will be by membership badge. Act I shows Horace Mann’s struggles against religious and educational bigotry. Act II covers his years as a vigorous opponent of slavery serving as Congressman from Massa¬ chusetts. Act III shows him as the first president of Antioch College, strug¬ gling with financial need. The authors of this play have tried to penetrate some of the spiritual and psychological conflicts which made Horace Mann what he was — a great human being. When you registered you received the Directory of Exhibits. This Exhibit is organized and operated by the National Education Association in coopera¬ tion with the officers and participating firms of the Associated Exhibitors. It is rich in its offerings of practical help in every phase of classroom work and schoolroom equipment and aids. There are 125 firms and organizations here with exhibits this week. Each exhibit is in charge of an expert who is glad to explain to you the newest things in education. You will find the latest in all lines of supplies, equipment, and materials that are helpful in making education richer for the youth of our land. It will pay you to take some time to visit the exhibits. In the balcony of the Crystal Ballroom you will find 40 National Education Association an outstanding exhibit of the Detroit public schools and their headquarters for convention hospitality. As we face the perplexing problems of our times we must realize, as teach¬ ers, our obligations and responsibilities not only in connection with the edu¬ cational well-being of children and the welfare of all the members of our profession but also our responsibilities and obligations as citizens of this great democracy. There are more than 127 million of us living under the Stars and Stripes. Approximately 75 million are adults past twenty-one years of age. Of these, less than 3 percent are college graduates, while approxi¬ mately 5 percent are illiterate. Seven percent of our adult population have had some college work, while almost 50 percent have not finished the ele¬ mentary school. Less than 15 percent have graduated from high school, while approximately 68 percent have had no formal education beyond the elemen¬ tary school. This brief picture gives you some idea of the vastness of the problems before us. Recognizing this, the National Education Association and the Department of Superintendence created the Educational Policies Commission, which has been facing squarely some of the most difficult of these problems, among them the need for a strong national professional organization of teachers. In a 48-page bulletin, entitled A National Organization for Education, the Com¬ mission states that the problem of a national professional organization in the field of education is the maintenance and improvement of the educational service; that the national professional organization should define and pub¬ licize the civic and professional rights and obligations of teachers; that it should be concerned with programs calculated to improve the quality of edu¬ cational service ; that it should welcome the active cooperation of lay groups in measures designed to inform the public on educational matters and to improve educational conditions ; that in no case, however, should it enter into organic affiliation with any lay organization which has as its primary purpose the promotion of interests outside the field of education ; that it should pro¬ vide a department for each important branch of educational service ; that membership in any local and state or territorial organization should so far as possible be made co-inclusive with membership in the national organiza¬ tion so that membership in one would carry with it membership in the others. The achievement of local, state, and national unity in professional organ¬ ization has been studied at various times in the past by committees and by individuals. All reach a common conclusion and all agree that if a profes¬ sional organization of teachers is to be effective, it must have local, state, and national unity. If our professional organizations — local, state, and national — are to become most effective we must become more interested in all phases of life as well rounded citizens. We must be more aggressive in behalf of the professional interests of our members and we must keep in mind that as teachers we are serving all the people in our democracy with no favors to any special class or group. Our Association has been especially active in applying this policy to educa¬ tional legislation. We have worked strenuously against the “Red Rider.” The repeal of the District of Columbia “Red Rider” by the United States General Sessions 41 Congress on May 24, the day the Supreme Court handed down its decision on Social Security, marks a turning point in the attack on freedom of teaching. We have secured the passage of the bill to amend the charter of our Asso¬ ciation by unanimous vote of both houses of Congress. It was signed by President Roosevelt on June 14. We are now carrying on a vigorous campaign in an effort to secure a Horace Mann postage stamp. You would be surprised how much work it takes to get a little thing like that. Any time any of you want to write to your Congressman urging the issuance next fall of the Horace Mann postage stamp, I am sure you will be helping along the good cause. Every effort has been made during the past year to secure widespread sup¬ port for the Harrison-Black-Fletcher Bill which provides federal assistance to the states for the financial support of public schools. This bill provides an initial appropriation of $100,000,000 and an increase of $50,000,000 an¬ nually until $300,000,000 annually is reached. These funds are apportioned to the states and territories according to the number of persons five to twenty years old in each, as shown by the United States census. The funds received by the states and territories are to be used by them in the manner designated by their respective legislatures for the improvement of their public schools. In order to qualify for receiving the federal allotments each state or terri¬ tory must, after receiving the first apportionment, maintain a system of public schools available thruout such state or territory for at least 160 days each year; and during the year preceding the year for which any apportionment is made, each state or territory must have spent from its combined state or territorial and local revenues for public elementary and secondary schools a sum not less than was spent in the school year ending in 1936 for each person five to twenty years old. All control, administration, and supervision of schools and educational programs are reserved strictly to the states and forbidden to all federal offi¬ cers and agencies. During the past year federal aid for public education has received wide¬ spread support from people interested in public education thruout the United States. The Committee on Education and Labor of the United States Senate unanimously approved the Harrison-Black-Fletcher Bill and sent it to the floor of the Senate for consideration and action. This bill has its place upon the Senate calendar, and can be brought up for action at any time during this session or the coming session of Congress. The Education Committee in the House of Representatives had an ex¬ tended hearing on this bill. In Executive Session the Committee decided not to vote the bill out at present. For this reason, it is being held but can be reported out of Committee at any time that a majority of the Committee petition for a meeting for that purpose and so vote. The possibilities there are good because just last week the Education Committee in the House of Repre¬ sentatives promoted its chairman to the District of Columbia Committee and we now have as chairman of the Education Committee in the House of Rep¬ resentatives, Congressman Larrabee of Indiana. Congressman Palmisano of Baltimore became chairman of the District of Columbia Committee. 42 National Education Association It is generally recognized that the Harrison-Black-Fletcher Bill has gained wide and enthusiastic support. It is conceded that it would pass both Houses of Congress by substantial majorities if it could be considered on its merits, separated from the confusion concerning the present status of the federal budget. It is important that the 1,000,000 teachers of this country and the parents of the 30,000,000 children attending the public schools realize that a law giving federal aid to education thruout this nation in order to provide any¬ thing approaching an equal opportunity for all the children will come only as a result of public opinion and demand. The Senators and Congressmen in Washington, taken by and large, are a fine group of men trying hard to do what they believe their constituents would have them do. Ninety percent of them will vote for federal support for education whenever they are con¬ vinced that the people who send them to Washington really want federal support for their schools. The fine cooperation of the school people of the United States was demon¬ strated by the fact that during the hearing on this bill in the Education Com¬ mittee of the Elouse of Representatives delegations were present from forty of the forty-eight states. Seven other states sent letters of endorsement and encouragement. More expert testimony was given in the hearings on this bill than has ever before been compiled, in behalf of public education. The complete reports of these hearings can be secured from the Government Print¬ ing Office in Washington at 25 cents each. These hearings have established beyond all doubt that without the sup¬ port of the federal government there is not the remotest possibility of the establishment and maintenance of a reasonable and equitable minimum standard of equality of educational opportunity thruout our nation. This conclusion is based upon the following facts: There are the most appalling differences in educational opportunity both among the states and within the states largely because of economic conditions beyond either state or local con¬ trol. Among these conditions are first, the great variations in actual wealth, income, and purchasing power with resultant differences in available reve¬ nues from taxation; and second, the difference in ratio between children and productive adults. By reason of the ownership and control by corporations of the natural resources and industries, and because the stockholders of these corporations reside in states other than those in which the resources and industries are located, many of the states find themselves impoverished and to all practical purposes powerless to retain thru taxation a sufficient amount of current in¬ come produced within their borders to support adequate schools and other public services. The depression has been more disastrous to the schools than to any other governmental service, and has widened the inequalities that pre¬ vailed before its arrival. The poor communities and states have become poorer. The federal government has an inescapable responsibility in the mainte¬ nance of public education, and it must bear with the states the financial burden of supporting school facilities thruout the nation. Citizens of the General Sessions 43 state are none the less citizens of the nation, and, as has been pronounced by every American statesman, schools and the means of public education are indispensable to a democratic government. The mobility of our population and the higher birth-rates among the poor states compel the interest of each of the states, and hence of the nation, in the character of educational oppor¬ tunity afforded everywhere in the nation. Education reduces crime, raises the standard of culture, produces better health, and increases the wealth and income of the nation. In the struggle for federal aid for education more progress has been made and the bill for federal aid is nearer the final stage of enactment this year than during any year in the long history of this important movement. With your efficient help and loyal cooperation we shall go steadily forward with this campaign, confident that we are nearing one of the greatest achievements in the history of American education. Your Association is making every effort to create better public under¬ standing of the work of the schools. Plans are well under way for the seven¬ teenth annual observance of American Education Week, November 7 to 13, 1937, the general theme being “Education and Our National Life.” Educational publicity as carried on by our Association may be divided into two main classes: (1) convention publicity which falls into three major phases, advance publicity, radio programs from the convention city, and the operation of the press office during convention; and (2) other publicity thruout the year. The latter covers a multitude of projects, regular and spe¬ cial such as promoting the campaign for the Plarrison-Black-Fletcher Bill, articles for national and state professional magazines, articles for lay news¬ papers and magazines, special service to state education associations includ¬ ing photographs and releases, and promotion of the practise of educational publicity thru an exchange service in cooperation with the School Public Relations Association. Under the title “Our American Schools” 72 fifteen-minute national radio programs have been broadcast during this school year. These national radio programs are broadcast twice weekly thru the courtesy of the National Broadcasting Company. They will be broadcast thruout your territory if enough people urgently request them from your radio stations. At our meeting last year in Portland a membership goal was set of at least a 10 percent increase in membership in each state and territory. Nationwide, that goal was almost reached this year. We have had an increase of approxi¬ mately 9j/2 percent in membership. Twenty states and Alaska increased their membership 10 percent or more. Louisiana, with J. N. Poche as state director, had an increase in membership of 417 percent. Kentucky, with W. S. Taylor as state director, had an increase of 1 12 percent, and Michigan, our host state, with Grover Stout as state director, had an increase of 99 percent. The National Education Association, with a membership of 205,000, still has only one-fifth of the teachers of America organized for cooperative action. Membership in any local and state organization should so far as possible be made co-inclusive with membership in the national or¬ ganization so that membership in one would carry membership in the others. 44 National Education Association If our local, state, and national associations can be unified in purpose, pro¬ gram, and activity, we can go forward, meeting and solving our problems. Wise and enthusiastic leadership and effective teamwork are imperative if education is to keep pace with our rapidly changing social order and if teachers are to receive the economic, social, and professional recognition to which the importance of their work entitles them. We ask the cooperation of all teachers everywhere in helping us to build a stronger program of teacher welfare. Every teacher in the United States can be paid an adequate salary, can have his security safeguarded by tenure, and can have his last years protected by retirement. We are told that genius is caught, not taught. It is caught, but only from those who inspire us to develop our capabilities to the limit. Teaching is a task for persons with rich cultural backgrounds and with visions of things to come. A successful teacher can never be paid all that he is worth either to the individual child or to society, yet no right thinking citizen will deny that every teaching position should pay enough to attract young persons of the highest personal and professional qualifications ; to hold in teaching those who, beginning with first-class qualifications, continue to improve themselves thru experience, travel, and further study; to permit those who remain in teaching to live with the material and the cultural surroundings com¬ mensurate with their responsibilities to youth and to the nation. Are these expectations too high for American democracy? There is only one answer. Democracy can afford nothing less than this for the education of all her youth. In 1929 the total annual income of the United States was ninety billion dollars. It was cut in half during the depression but now has risen until it has reached sixty billion. The United States has been and is today a wealthy nation. The accumulated wealth of the nation at the depth of the depression was two hundred and forty-seven billion dollars. Goldsmith’s warning should be pondered by all American citizens: Ill fares the land to hastening ills a prey, Where wealth accumulates and men decay. Adequate salaries for teachers are a wise investment in the future of America. The National Education Association believes that America cannot afford to place in a single classroom any teacher who is not competent and well paid. Mental and social security are essential if a teacher is to do high-class work. Every teacher in the United States should be protected by tenure. A good tenure law protects children against incompetent teachers and promotes efficiency among competent teachers by safeguarding them in their efforts to serve loyally and courageously all the children of the nation. Tenure pro¬ motes efficiency by encouraging competent public-spirited teachers to remain in the profession. It safeguards their rights and gives them the security of position to which professional workers engaged in public service are entitled. A modern tenure law provides that teachers of proved ability, who are serv¬ ing satisfactorily, may be dismissed only for unprofessional conduct, incom¬ petence, immorality, insubordination, or neglect of duty. General Sessions 45 A good tenure law protects the children against incompetent teachers by prescribing a legal and professional procedure for the elimination of unfit teachers. It provides that any teacher recommended for dismissal shall re¬ ceive a written statement of the reasons for the recommendation and be assured of a fair hearing. Tenure promotes efficiency by relieving teachers from the nervousness and anxiety which are inevitable where the practise of annual election prevails. Uncertainty of reappointment acts as a drain on the nervous energy of teachers and renders them incapable of doing their best work with children. If we are to have teachers for our children who are superior men and women, we must guarantee them a reasonable degree of security in their positions. For more than a quarter of a century the National Education Association has encouraged the various states to secure tenure laws. If our schools are to continue to help maintain our free and democratic government, we must have reasonable tenure laws for teachers. We do not ask for tenure laws which will afford special privileges to any member of our profession who is incompetent or guilty of improper conduct, but we must have tenure legis¬ lation which will safeguard all efficient teachers in their efforts to serve their nation loyally and courageously. The interests of the child and of the profession require teachers who are protected by retirement in case of disability or old age. A teacher retirement system is a businesslike plan enacted into state law to improve schools by helping aged or disabled teachers to retire from active service with a modest but assured income for life. A sound teacher retirement system protects school children from teachers made incompetent by disability or old age; attracts capable, far-sighted young people into the teaching profession ; keeps good teachers in the service ; increases health and efficiency of teachers by remov¬ ing worry and fear of a destitute old age ; improves morale in the teaching force by opening the paths of promotion and encouraging professional growth ; treats teachers fairly by giving them protection. A good retirement law states clearly the mutual rights and obligations of the teachers and the public. The controlling board represents the interests of both public and teachers. Since both teachers and public benefit from a teacher retirement system, the teachers and the public jointly pay for it. The teacher makes a regular contribution from his salary. The public makes a regular appropriation from public funds. Each teacher’s contributions are placed to his credit and are paid back with interest in case of his death or resignation before retirement. Approximately twenty-five states have retire¬ ment laws. These retirement systems have an enviable record over a long period, even during the depression years, for integrity and sturdy financial reliability. The National Education Association urges for each and every teacher adequate salaries, reasonable tenure, and a sound retirement system. Teachers are potentially the strongest professional group in the United States. In number they lead all professional groups. They have had more than average educational advantages. They have an altruistic philosophy of life. They have immediate personal contact with the young people' of the 46 National Education Association nation. They have an influence as individual leaders. They have an oppor¬ tunity to work as an organized profession thru local, state, and national organizations. There are approximately 1,000,000 teachers in this country. There are 71,000 dentists, 154,000 physicians, 160,000 lawyers, and 260,000 nurses. Teachers are potentially a strong social force because they are numerically the largest professional group in this country. The teachers of this country are comparatively well educated. They are better educated than the majority of the citizens in the communities in which they work. A few years ago comparatively few people chose teaching deliber¬ ately as a life work. Certification requirements were low and the public gen¬ erally believed that anybody could teach. The prevailing schools for the education of teachers 'were normal schools with one- or two-year courses, and frequently teachers were hired who had no professional training at all. Those days are disappearing. The normal schools have become teachers col¬ leges, and many of the most progressive states have raised their certification requirements so that no new teacher can enter the profession who has not at least a bachelor’s degree. Teachers are potentially a strong social force be¬ cause they are educated citizens. Teachers are for the most part altruistic in their philosophy of life. This adds to their strength as a social power. Few people who are fundamentally selfish choose teaching as their vocation. Teaching is too hard and its finan¬ cial rewards are too small to make an appeal to those who seek their own personal welfare first. Teaching appeals to those who are eager to serve others, and those who serve others have greater strength than those who sene themselves. Teachers are potentially a strong social force because they are in immedi¬ ate contact with 30,000,000 boys and girls every school day during the year. They also have possible immediate personal contact not only with the parents of all these children but with all the adults in their community. The com¬ mercial world knows that the teachers in this country are a powerful force. The public generally knows that teachers have a strong influence. The public realizes that the teachers of this country are potentially a tremendous social force. Teachers wield a strong social influence thru participation in civic activi¬ ties. During the past few years newspaper editors and professional politicians have discussed with some concern the “brain trust.’’ Political parties have learned that it is worthwhile to make use of brains. Many communities are learning this same lesson. They are looking for leadership, and they welcome the leadership which teachers can give. Teachers have an opportunity to make themselves felt as a strong social force thru their professional organization. Almost every teacher is a member of his local association, 750,000 are members of their state associations, and 205,000 are members of the national association. The possibilities of these professional organizations as potent factors in modern life have not yet been fully sensed. As individuals, teachers have often been timid souls. As pro¬ fessional groups they have frequently failed to express themselves frankly and General Sessions 47 vigorously. Sometimes it has been because they have been divided within their own group. Again they have feared the attitude of the public or they have dreaded the reprisals from influential politicians. But the time has nowT come when, if teachers are to live up to the possibilities of their profession, they must act more courageously and more aggressively as members of their pro¬ fessional groups. Teachers are potentially the strongest professional group in America be¬ cause there are more of them, they are educated, they have immediate con¬ tact with 30,000,000 young people, they are or they may be leaders in their community, they have the opportunity to work in cooperation with their associates as a strong professional group organized effectively in aggressive local, state, and national associations. Teachers are potentially the strongest professional group in America. As a profession we have not yet begun to achieve the possibilities within our reach. In our ranks we have allowed ourselves to be divided over insignificant and petty details, frequently to the advantage of our enemies. Our profes¬ sional organizations have not wielded the social power which they have at their disposal. Education is not today receiving the attention and financial support which it merits, and the responsibility is largely our own. In this connection we may well remember Cassius’ classic reply to Brutus, “The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars but in ourselves that we are underlings.” We can, if we will, become a stronger social force than any other profes¬ sional group in America. Our Association was founded eighty years ago in Philadelphia by forty- three teachers. Today thousands of us are gathered in Detroit to consider our problems. The question that faces us is, What of the future? The next decade can be one of slow motion, holding the gains we have already made with only one-fifth of our teachers helping to carry the load, or it can be a period of dynamic, rapid progress achieved by the cooperation of all teachers working together on all of our problems all of the time. But whether we approach our common problems with the weakness of individual effort or with the strength of modern-day organization, the decade ahead can only reflect the experience of the eight decades thru which the National Educa¬ tion Association has passed. The one important fact remains the same — the advancement of our profession depends upon the teachers themselves. SECOND GENERAL SESSION HOW CAN OUR SCHOOLS CONTRIBUTE TO A BETTER SOCIAL ORDER? EDMUND E. DAY, PRESIDENT, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. We are all familiar with questions so stated as to embarrass those com¬ pelled to reply. “Have you quit beating your wife?” is a well-known example. Either a “yes” or a “no” carries unwelcome implications, and furthermore may not fit the facts. Frankly, I am made a bit uneasy by the 48 National Education Association form of the question put by George Counts to American schoolmen: “Dare the school build a new social order?” I do not like to see the question so put as to raise the issue of courage. To my way of thinking, the possible contributions of the American school to social betterment are not at the moment so much a matter of courage as of intelligent and far-visioned edu¬ cational planning. I propose, therefore, to shift a bit from the issue Dr. Counts has put and to address my remarks to this question, “How can our schools contribute to a better social order?” If we are to deal intelligently with the question so stated, we must first recognize and accept certain fundamental truths. The first of these is that formally organized education is always regarded by the society which provides it as a means of transmitting and perpetuating the existing culture. From the crude initiation and ceremonial rites of the primitive tribe to the most elaborate educational undertakings of contemporary industrial society, the core purpose is the same: Incoming youths are to be given those skills, habits, interests, attitudes, and ideals which will assure later effective par¬ ticipation in adult life with no serious disturbance of the existing social organization and with a substantial measure of satisfaction to the individuals so trained. In short, general education is designed to be a basic guarantee of cultural continuity. The primary role of the education of youth in all societies is fundamentally conservative. No one can expect any society purposely to provide the means of its own disruption. No one would look to the schools in a communistic state inten¬ tionally to produce youthful fascists, nor the schools of a fascist state wittingly to turn out little communists. It is no more reasonable to ask the leaders in a democratic country to tolerate educational movements which they regard as revolutionary in character. The school can go militant only under a militant regime and even then only in the direction of militancy which the militant regime approves. The school can never be expected to be openly a prime mover in social change ; explicit social initiative lies in the realm of politics, not of education. It follows inevitably that any social changes which the schools may seek to induce must be brought under the currently recognized and approved purposes of the society within which the schools exist. This does not, of course, preclude radical experimentation here and there, say among private schools drawing their support from individual donors, or in public schools under circumstances which lead the community to expect no serious conse¬ quences to ensue. But just as soon as any society comes to the conclusion that innovations introduced into the schools by the professional educators are disturbing to the social order, it is the professional educators who are most likely to go, not the social order. This does not mean that the schools are doomed to failure in any attempt to deal constructively with the social system in which they are set. It does mean that the schools’ undertakings must not appear to be revolutionary; they must concede the prevailing fundamental social philosophy and try for improvements within this frame of reference. General Sessions 49 The second fundamental truth which must be recognized and accepted if we are to deal intelligently with the relationship of the American schools to social reform is this : The American people still believe in democracy and are not yet ready to take any substitute. What democracy means to the American people is not entirely clear. At times little more than a slogan or a catchword seems to be involved. Certainly a wide variety of institutional forms and practises bear the label “democratic.” Is democracy merely a form of government? The answer certainly is “no.” Does it comprehend economic as well as political arrangements and procedures? Most people would say “yes” but with ideas of proceeding slowly in extensions of the democratic principle on the economic side. Lincoln’s “government of the people, by the people, and for the people” is probably the best concise statement we yet have of American democratic ideals, but even this leaves us with compli¬ cated and exceedingly difficult questions of ways and means in the necessary improvement of contemporary society. At the risk of being quite inadequate I venture to identify two elements of American democracy which seem to be both traditional and essential. The first of these is a broad and expanding humanitarianism. In principle, if not always in practise, we recognize the dignity and worth of the indi¬ vidual. We think of the state as a means of improving the lot of the indi¬ vidual ; not of the individual as a means of improving the position of the state. We believe that that government succeeds best which provides most generally for its citizens those opportunities necessary for satisfying and worthwhile living. Individual distress, suffering, frustration, unhappiness — these in our view must be regarded as matters of social concern. A state subordinating the experiences of its citizens to its own lust for power is betraying the democratic tradition. A second essential ingredient of American democracy is to be found in accepted ideas regarding appropriate ways of adjusting social differences. If controversial issues arise, we believe in measures of discussion, debate, persuasion, compromise, balloting to ascertain majority views, acceptance of decisions so reached, always with the privilege of appraisal and review. Certain hard-won civil liberties safeguard these traditional ways of settling social questions and building social programs. A resort to force is the negation of the entire process. In our tradition of democracy we hold to the ways of peace ; in fact, democracy is much more a matter of getting along peaceably together than a form of government. The question inevitably arises: Does present American democracy dis¬ play satisfactorily the two ingredients just described — a broad and expand¬ ing humanitarianism and a consistent use of peaceful ways of resolving social conflicts. The answer is all too obviously, “no.” Democracy has not yet been achieved. A long hard road lies ahead for those who would still hold fast to their democratic aspirations. Happily, the faith of the American people remains relatively undisturbed. Democracy on this side of the water is still thought to be an ideal worth fighting for. We can now see, I trust, the setting in which our original question has to be considered : How can our schools improve the social order? The answer 50 National Education Association is to be found in undertakings accepting the American democratic ideal and designed to give that ideal more satisfactory fulfilment in American life. Here is no revolutionary program. Yet potentially it is a program of pro¬ found importance. The preservation and improvement of the democracy we have had and happily still possess is an undertaking that should at the same time enlist the finest enthusiasms of the schoolmen and the deepest impulses of the nation. One of the great unrealized opportunities of the American school lies in better training for truly democratic citizenship. What concretely does this involve? It should be understood in the first place that citizenship is not to be narrowly construed. It is something more than the exercise of the right of suffrage, even if it be stipulated that voting be intelligent. In a democracy, citizenship involves more general and funda¬ mental obligations — obligations looking toward essential social cohesion. We speak often in education of the integrated personality, but seldom of the integrated society. The two are equally indispensable to human success and happiness. We know what happens in the disorganized individual lacking unified purpose, developing internal conflict, exhibiting confusion, frustra¬ tion, and collapse. A complete parallel may be observed in societies. Both the individual and the society are organisms in the sense that a minimum coordination of vital functions is essential to their continuing existence. For democracies the maintenance of minimum coordination or unity of functions presents a fundamentally difficult problem. The authoritarian governments of both fascistic and communistic design, effect unity of social purpose by dictation, with its unavoidable accompaniment of suppression. H ow will democratic governments, committed as they are to ideals of sub¬ stantial individual liberty, attain the same necessary goal ? It is in this con¬ nection that training for citizenship as a responsibility of general education acquires great significance. How can the schools so educate our youth that minimum social solidarity under democracy will be assured ? The pressing question is not “Dare the schools build a new social order?” but “Can the schools contribute promptly and effectively to the preservation and improve¬ ment of American democracy?” This does not imply that our American ways of living have ever been completely democratic. On the economic side there has been and still is much that is essentially authoritarian. But this authoritarianism has been moderated in the past by widespread competition, by extraordinary oppor¬ tunities for fresh initiative, by high mobility in the population, by the marvelous resources of a relatively undeveloped continent. As a nation for generations we lived thru a period of very rapid physical expansion. Like an adolescent, our existence for a time was dominated by sheer body growth. Now the physical frame is largely set and we face the task of bringing the primary functions of healthy national life into effective unity. Basic adjust¬ ments are in order, but in bringing them to pass it is extremely important that the social organism be not destroyed. At the moment, the derisive forces operating in our national life are seriously threatening. Sooner or later an General Sessions 51 adequately unified nation genuinely democratic in form and humanitarian in purpose must be achieved. The attainment of this goal is impossible unless the American school can be made to function more efficiently in the training of citizens. What can the schools do to educate our youth for the more effective discharge of their duties as citizens in a democracy? At least seven distin¬ guishable objectives are to be recognized. All seven involve concrete dis¬ cernible educational outcomes. I shall in turn consider briefly each of the seven. The first objective is to sensitize the student to the existing social situation with its wide disparities of human circumstance. It is of great importance that young people become aware of the extraordinary range of conditions under which men live. Most of us see clearly only what lies in the field of immediate personal experience. We look at society with a lens of exceed¬ ingly short focus. What lies at a distance is recognized only dimly if at all. It is highly desirable that the area within which the individual “has a feel” for the experience of others be greatly expanded. What is it like to be a farm laborer? a textile factory operative? a rolling mill hand? What does it mean to rise from the bottom? What is involved in living for years at the bottom ? What is it like to have a home in a slum area ? to survive a flood ? to come thru a dust storm? Vivid records of these and a host of other human experiences can be brought to the attention of young people thru the schools. Excursions to situations within reach of the schools can be used to some extent, but new type film material will probably in time serve much better. Literature affords a great deal of excellent material if it is appro¬ priately assembled to this end. The task of sensitizing students to the wide disparities of human circumstance is a definite educational assignment upon which rapid progress can be made by the schools if they will but buckle down to the task. Of course, undue strain on youthful emotions is to be avoided, but properly safeguarded, the task can be carried thru without hazard. It is quite evident that it is a task of major import if youth is to be adequately trained for citizenship in a humane democracy. The second objective is to cultivate in the student impulses to do something constructive about those phases of the situation which appear to be unsatis¬ factory. If the result of sensitizing the student to the social situation is merely to add to his acuteness of observation or curiosity or interest, not enough has been accomplished. A broad and expanding humanitarianism should be the personal possession of all. This is not likely to be the case if the schools do nothing to build humanitarianism into the ideals of the young. Fortunately among adolescents sympathies run strong and the desire to do good is readily elicited. The schools should seek to give concrete exercise to these feelings and impulses on the level of the young people involved. Of course, sentimentality has to be avoided. It is one thing to wish to relieve human distress; it is something else to devise measures of relief that are essentially constructive. This brings us to the third objective, namely, to give to the student as far as possible an understanding of social structure and social process. The 52 National Education Association difficulties that encompass this part of the program are obvious. With the experts — the economists, political scientists, sociologists, and the like — disagreeing as much as they do in their interpretations of social phenomena, the path of the educator undertaking to deal with the social studies is a thorny one. Unfortunately, the social sciences are still in an early stage of development. This has to be frankly recognized in attempts to give under¬ standing in the social field. Making appropriate allowances, however, for inherent difficulties and limitations, something substantial can be done in giving young people a more adequate knowledge than they now have of the nature of the society in which they live. Differences between wishful and realistic thinking can be exposed, and the sheer stubbornness of certain social facts brought pointedly home. That propaganda is to be avoided, goes without saying. The fourth objective is intimately related to the third. It is to acquaint the student with the difficulties of arriving at truth in the social field. The reporting of social events is characteristically loose and inaccurate, when not purposely colored or dishonest. Let the students find out how well- nigh impossible it is to ascertain just what happens in the course of a labor dispute. Let them follow, thru a variety of journals of differing economic and political attitudes, the day-to-day record of the occurrences in a local strike. The typical conflict of testimony of eye-witnesses, say of an automo¬ bile accident, should be critically examined. The arts of propaganda and of modern advertising should be made known. The time has come to equip the individual citizen in the democratic state with reasonable defenses against the hidden, and often subtle, pressures of mass thinking and feeling exerted nowadays thru press, radio, and film. A healthy measure of skep¬ ticism about so-called social facts may well be induced in our youths as a part of their training for more effective participation in democratic ways of living. If this is accomplished, it should not be difficult to work toward the fifth objective, namely, to inculcate tolerance of honest differences of opinion regarding social situations and the measures which these situations suggest. Tolerance is, of course, one of the hallmarks of the truly democratic society, and lack of tolerance one of the sharply distinguishing traits of the authori¬ tarian state. Tolerance does not imply an absence of belief and conviction; in fact, were there no conflicting beliefs and convictions it would be impos¬ sible to exhibit tolerance. Certainly it is clear that no democratic society can afford to purchase tolerance at the cost of clear and confident thinking on the part of its citizens. Young people in the schools need to be taught to reach their own opinions and within reason to hold to them, at the same time accepting the fact that others are entitled to their differing opinions honestly reached and similarly defended. Toleration is a habit of mind re¬ quiring practise. Repeated exercises in tolerance should constitute an impor¬ tant part of the training of citizens in a democracy. Still another objective is to habituate the student to willing and effective cooperative group activity. Here, as in the development of tolerance, a recon- General Sessions 53 ciliation must be effected between two desirable and to some extent conflict¬ ing outcomes. It is important that young people gain confidence in their own individual powers. This calls for a measure of success in competition with others. A certain degree of self-reliance is highly important. It is not likely to come except thru demonstrated individual achievement. At the same time this desirable development of the self should not be allowed to run to excesses of self-assertiveness and domination. Democracy must have its leaders but they should be leaders who work in the spirit of cooperation. In the schools of democracy successful cooperation should be a part of the experience of all youths. Finally, as a seventh objective, it is of the utmost importance to develop in youth an unswerving loyalty to democratic ideals and to the American democratic tradition. As a people we have come to take our privileges all too lightly. We have no concrete vivid impressions of how we should be individually affected if our heritage of civil liberties were suddenly lost. Most of us have no notion of the century-long struggle thru which our present privileges were won. It is high time that the drama of this historic record be presented adequately in our schools. Here, in my opinion, is one of the most important openings for new educational film. Certainly, no stone should be left unturned in the effort to give youth a full realization of what democracy means, of the privileges which it affords, of the ways and means thru which, with work and patience, it is to be more successfully achieved. H ere is a task that challenges the best the schools have to offer. Let it not be thought that responsibility for the attainment of the objec¬ tives I have briefly described devolves largely upon the social studies. If you have comprehended the nature of the ends to be sought, you must have seen that the entire curriculum — using curriculum in the broadest sense — is involved. Formal studies of all sorts, school assemblies, student organiza¬ tions, off-campus activities, after-school play, all have their contributions to make. The entire life of the school should in fact be a youthful experience in democratic living. So are citizens for the democratic state successfully to be trained. In conclusion to repeat: How can our schools contribute to a better social order ? The answer to me is clear : By working more effectively in the cause of American democracy thru the development in our youth of those qualities of mind, and will, and character which will make for the sound progress of the adult society into which they move. The role of the school in social reform is indirect but none the less potentially of tremendous significance. The need at the moment is crying; the time, pressing; the outcome, of supreme importance. So far as the schools are concerned, what is urgently needed is a new program designed really to train citizens for democratic ways of social living. There need be nothing vague or visionary about this undertaking. Concrete experimentation and clear demonstration are in order. Let the schoolmen of the country bend to the task. It will take all the resources of intelligence, constructive imagination, technical competence, and idealism that they can bring to bear. Yet what adventure could more fittingly command the consecration of a great and noble profession ? 54 National Education Association EDUCATION AND THE GENERAL WELFARE HONORABLE HENRY A. WALLACE, SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, D. C. The objective of all our American educators should be to create in the hearts of our people a desire for a higher standard of living. At the same time, the minds and wills of our people must be trained in methods which will make it possible for the next generation to obtain from our soil, our resources, our factories, and our distribution systems, the abundance which is necessary to fulfil these desires. Most educators would define a higher standard of living as consisting not merely of a wider distribution of more automobiles, radios, and electric refrigerators, but also of the wider distribution of physical, mental, and emo¬ tional health. In a land so tremendously rich in natural resources, it is a re¬ flection on us all, educators included, that so many people, especially children, should give evidence of not having enough milk, orange juice, and sunshine. But just as important as vitamins in the diet is the presence in the emotional life of confidence and joyous faith in the future. The hereditary equipment of children varies greatly. Nevertheless, I believe that at least 95 percent of the children of the United States are sufficiently well equipped by heredity so that, if given adequate food, training, and jobs, they will lead happy and useful lives. It is a splendid thing that in the United States so many of our teachers are sincerely devoted to the ideal of democracy. They believe that every child, no matter how poor his parents, is entitled to twelve years of schooling. They believe also that when children finish school, it should be possible in a coun¬ try as rich as ours for them to find jobs that will enable them, in case they are trained to work with competence, to lead happy, decent lives, confident of the future. In many parts of the world the pressure of population, the slenderness of natural resources, the racial hatreds, the armament programs, and the aristo¬ cratic or autarchic organization of society are such that school teachers do not dare to work for the ideal in which American school teachers believe almost instinctively. Unfortunately, it must be recognized that here in the United States, in spite of our educational ideals, two-thirds of our people who are at the bottom of the economic pile, many of whom have had ten or twelve years of schooling, are not in a position to think as broadly and clearly as they should about the problems of the general welfare. Moreover, altho the 5 percent at the top of the economic pile who have been directing both the governmental and economic machinery in this country, have usually had sixteen years of schooling, in all too many cases they have had a complete misunderstanding of the way the less privileged people live, and have not recognized the fact that a higher standard of living for the less privileged would increase their own happiness and security in the long run. 1 would not have made that statement with the same conviction I just made it if 1 had not had the opportunity of living during the last four General Sessions 55 years in the East where it has seemed to me that the adults representing the top 5 percent of the population have come thru a system of schooling which separates them more widely from the people at the bottom of the eco¬ nomic pile than is the case in the part of the country where I was raised. The question I am raising here today is, How can education enable a democracy to serve the general welfare more continuously and efficiently? By democracy I mean a society where there is continuous tolerant debate as to the right course of action, and where the decisions arrived at are based on the will of the majority. These decisions when enacted into law and carried into action will, of course, be subject to continual questioning. Con¬ ditions continually change and what was wise action ten or even five years ago may not be wise action today. Most people become crystallized in out¬ worn ideas. A true democracy can never become crystallized because as events change the old problems are continually being reexamined and new courses of action are being devised. It is true, of course, that much of the discussion in a democracy is based on lack of information. It is possible for most of the sources of information to be completely biased, and as a result of the lopsided information unwise action may be determined upon. But the saving grace of a democracy is that the people themselves seem to have a sixth sense which comes to their rescue no matter how vicious and complete may be the propaganda of the demagog on behalf of the “plutogogue.” (Etymologically, the word “plutogogue” is probably not on a very firm foundation, but I think you grasp what I mean.) One of the great dangers of a democracy at all times is the tendency for corrupt wealthy people to join hands with the rabble-rousers in order to deceive the great mass of our people who are sincerely interested in the gen¬ eral welfare as contrasted with the special welfare. Both the critical intelli¬ gence and the constructive instincts of the people must be more widely devel¬ oped. The future of democratic government depends upon that most impor¬ tant function of education. Today the whole world is in the throes of a new deal. Probably there are at least 20 kinds of “new deal” in the world. In the United States the forces which have made a new deal inevitable are the rapid growth of technology on one hand and the rapid growth of corporations, labor unions, and farm organizations on the other. The people who have been in position to make new inventions and to utilize them have made extraordinary profits. In those lines of activity where the new tech¬ nology is most important, one hour of man labor will turn out two, three, or even four times as much goods as at the beginning of the century. In this way corporate income has been enormously increased and labor unions have been organized to divert a larger share of the products of industry to organ¬ ized labor. Perhaps a third or maybe a half of our population has greatly benefited by the new technology put to work by the great corporations. Per¬ haps a fifth or a fourth of our people are relatively wmrse off as a result of the new technology and the great corporations. Millions of laboring men have lost their jobs as a result of the new technology. Men working in the smaller, less efficient plants are likely to lose their jobs. Farmers living on 56 National Education Association the smaller farms and the poorer farms are finding that the competition from the farmers on the richer land is so great that they can scarcely sell their products at a price which will return them as much as 10 cents an hour for their labor. Yes, inventions and organizations, especially the large corporations, have quite unintentionally widened the gap between the people at the top of the heap and those at the bottom. It is because of this situation, I am convinced, that President Roosevelt in his second inaugural address challenged his coun¬ trymen, to join him in helping the one-third who are “ill-housed, ill-clad, and ill-nourished.” The essence of the American New Deal is to serve the general welfare by efficient democratic methods. The New Deal believes in action but it knows that the action will not have a lasting effect unless there is continual tolerant examination and discussion concerning the wisdom of the action. But the discussion must not he mere debating and it must not lead to inaction, which produces a chaotic anarchy instead of an efficient democracy. Technology and corporations are with us whether we like them or not. We must learn to live with them and to control them in the interest of the general welfare. I doubt if it is a wise thing to create prejudice about forces which to a large extent are impersonal. For my own part I am convinced we have received much good from technology and the great corporations, and that we can receive even more. The problem is to make both technology and the corporation even more fruitful in the future than they have been in the past and to see that the increased fruitfulness is more widely spread among all people. The rise of the new technology both on the farm and in the factory will always furnish one of the finest subjects for vital teaching. The rise of the corporation, the labor union, and the farm organization furnishes an equally fine subject. So why not let our children know in the most dramatic way possible the resources, the inventions, and the human organizations which dominate the town, the state, and the nation in which they live? Undoubt¬ edly every child passing thru our schools should know something about the significance of the frontier during the nineteenth century and the way in which its passing during the twentieth century increased the significance of the corporation, the labor union, and the farm organization. Each of the twelve years in our primary and secondary schools can contribute in some measure to enabling children when they finally graduate from high school to have a much better comprehension of the kind of world in which they will find themselves. The movement of the United States in the past one hundred and fifty years has been dramatic beyond all expression. Professors must be found at the normal schools to awaken the most vivid kind of imagination among the incipient teachers who pass thru their hands, so that they in turn can awaken the imagination of the children. It is important that the next generation be impressed without blame or praise with the awesome growth of the United States during the frontier period ; the exploiting, grabbing process, and the marvels of the inventions and the powers of the corporations. I know all of General Sessions 57 these things are being taught at the present time, but I have a feeling that they are taught as things apart from the lives of the learners, as dead things and not as living facts with the greatest significance in terms of a happy and understanding life after the school days are left behind. How very, very real these things and powers are ! The best teachers in my observation are those who contribute by a subtle process of contagion a joyous attitude toward life. They do not merely teach the regular curriculum but they are so aware of the changing outside world that they can continually use current facts in their teaching. To such a teacher who feels himself or herself a part of a continually unrolling pres¬ ent, a glance at every morning paper is a vivid experience, furnishing facts with which to embroider the underlying principles. To serve the general welfare it is essential that the schools of the United States give a more definite instruction about the soil, population, and income. Not one city person in a thousand appreciates the terrible way in which the soils of the United States have been mistreated during the past one hundred and fifty years. Western Europe has learned to take care of its soils and has maintained a dense population on the same land year after year for two thousand years. In the United States if we continue to use the methods we used up to 1930, the time will come within two hundred years when we shall not be able to support one-half of our present population. We have overplowed our crop land and overgrazed our pasture land and overcut our timber land in a way which can be tolerated only in a youthful nation. The pioneers were wasteful people because they had to use rapid exploiting processes to raise quickly the money to pay the people from whom they had borrowed back East. In Western Europe there is about the same area of crop land as we have in the United States but we have two and one-half times as much land in row crops like corn and cotton which expose sloping land to destruction by the dashing rains which come in May, June, and July. Western Europe has a much higher percent of pasture land and winter wheat, and the rains there are not as dashing. Western Europeans, therefore, as well as people in Eastern United States cannot understand why the Department of Agricul¬ ture is so tremendously excited about soil erosion and dust storms. Fortunately, we are in good position now to tackle this problem because we no longer have to overplow and overgraze in order to raise farm products to send to Europe as interest on a debt. Europe owes us money now and we can at last set ourselves to work paying the debt which we owe to our own farmers and our own soil. It is time to get our house in order. We have begun to tackle this job in a truly resolute way during the past three years. There are 35,000,000 acres of land growing corn, wheat, and cotton which are so sloping that they should be in grass or trees. In the year 1936 the triple A carried on a vast soil conservation program on 68 percent of all the crop land in the ETited States. New seedings of legumes were made on 30,000,000 acres. Thirty million acres were diverted out of soil-depleting uses into soil-conserving uses. 58 National Education Association The program cost the federal government more than $400,000,000. Many people criticized it because they said the well-to-do farmers received checks as well as the poorer farmers. They said the more well-to-do farmers would have carried on the soil conserving practises anyway. This is the same kind of criticism which was aimed at one time against the public school system because wealthy people who had money to hire tutors for their children utilized the public school system. Four out of five farmers unfortunately have been so oppressed by the interest, taxes, or rent which they must pay that they have not felt in posi¬ tion to buy the necessary clover seed and lime. On the contrary they have felt it necessary to plow every possible acre as well as to overgraze the pasture land in an earnest effort to make the last possible dollar. In helping these people on the road to good soil practises we have also helped some of those who did not need the money so badly. We could not discriminate against the more well-to-do farmers. The important thing was to get the job done. Now, it may be in future legislation, and I really believe it is a function of Congress in future legislation, to decide the extent to which money should be available to those farmers with the larger acreage. There is a real question for debate there as to what distinction can be made con¬ stitutionally7 on behalf of the general welfare and on behalf of the welfare of the soil in the future. There are many things that can be said pro and con on that question. Thus far I have felt, however, that the important thing was to get the job done and not to raise that controversial issue prematurely. I question whether school teachers would care to have placed on them the obligation of keeping certain children out of public school because their parents were well-to-do. Ordinarily7, it is the American policy to make a public service available to rich and poor alike. The rapid destruction of soil in the United States and the gradual re¬ building of it is one of the most dramatic stories I know. From the soil comes not only7 the food of today but the people of tomorrow. Since farmers ordinarily7 send about half of their children to towns and cities, one hundred years hence two-thirds of the town and city dwellers will be descendants of those who now live on farms. Therefore, city welfare depends upon the maintenance of soil fertility7, improved standards of rural living, and the proper education of farm children. In the South, while they7 tax themselves much more heavily7 in proportion to their wealth than they do in the North, nevertheless especially in rural areas, they spend only7 about one-fourth as much in educating the average child as they do in similar northern com¬ munities. The average school teacher is paid only about one-third as much, and the equipment is much more primitive. There is considerable weight to the argument that the larger cities in the rural states should contribute to the support of rural schools. Perhaps there is some argument for the federal government eventually7 contributing to education in the poorer parts of the country7. I hope that those of you who are here from the South will not feel in the statement which I have just made that I am in any way reflecting on the character of the people in the South or the desire of the people of the South General Sessions 59 to bring about better standards of education. There are historic reasons and there are economic reasons. There are reasons which have to do with the ratio between the people in the South and the tillable acreage in the South which have to do with the situation. But, inasmuch as the farm people — the white farm people, if you please (the situation is not so great between the white and colored people) — of the South have a larger number of people per thousand of population than elsewhere in the country, it is a matter of the most extraordinary interest to all the people of the United States and especially the city people of the United States that this problem be faced as a national problem. In Denmark, where education for the general welfare is probably more effectively approached than in any other country, great emphasis has been laid on farmers owning their own land and handling their own business thru their own cooperative buying and selling organizations. In this country nearly half of our farmers are tenants and nearly half of those who own their farms are so much in debt that they are very little better off than tenants. Most tenant farmers, outside of those who are related to the land¬ lord, move every two or three years. Outside of the eastern states most of the land-owners do not stay in the same community for more than ten years. It is obvious that until we have security of tenure, and farm families stay in the same communities for more than ten years, we cannot build satisfactory schools, churches, and cooperative organizations. Over large parts of this country there can never be satisfactory salaries for school teachers until there is security of tenure for farmers. I am hoping the federal government can this year start, on a small scale, an attack on the tenancy problem which later can be enlarged as fast as it is demonstrated that we are learning the right method. The Resettlement Administration, using emergency funds, has made during the past two years more than $100,000,000 in loans to tenant families, and probably has more first-hand information as to the real nature of the tenancy problem in the poorest parts of the United States than any other agency. It will probably be several years before we can stop the increase of tenancy in the United States, and it will be a great many years before we bring about that security of tenure which is necessary for a stable civilization. We do not begin to realize in the United States how far removed we are, as a result of our neglected tenancy problem, from laying the foundation of a stable civilization as that foundation has been recognized in all of Western Europe. But we can take this much credit to ourselves: For the first time we have stopped defending tenancy as a necessary evil, and have started doing something about it. As fast as the federal government gains experience and the tenants and the tenants’ chil¬ dren receive the education necessary to make them good farmers worthy to own their own land, it is to be hoped that we can start on the road to mak¬ ing this a nation of farmers who stay on the same land year after year. One of the great causes of tenancy is insecure income. Hundreds of thou¬ sands of farmers have lost their farms during the past fifteen years. The chief reason they lost their farms was because farm products were lower in price when they started to pay for the farms than when they agreed to buy 60 National Education Association them. There is great need of stability of farm income from year to year, of farm supplies from year to year, and of farm prices from year to year. Since 1932 we have had examples both of tremendous surpluses and short crops. In 1932 wheat and cotton were so plentiful that prices went to levels which ruined many farmers. They in turn could not buy the products of industry, and bread lines formed in the cities. In 1934 we had the shortest wheat crop in thirty-eight years because of unprecedented drought. To do away with such superabundance and such scarcity, I suggested the ever normal granary idea. This plan would lay up supplies in times of abundance for use in times of drought. It would make it possible for the government to protect con¬ sumers against shortage of food and excessive prices even in years of unusual drought. It would insure reasonable prices to farmers even tho crops were abundant in years of good weather. The idea was tried in the fall of 1933 when the government loaned money on 250,000,000 bushels of corn, which enabled farmers to hold corn on their farms until the disastrous drought year of 1934. If we can use federal power to level off the peaks of oversupply so they will fill up the valleys of undersupply, the result will be more uni¬ form prices and more uniform farm income from year to year. Consumers and those business men who process and distribute farm prod¬ ucts will be benefited by the ever normal granary. The farm leaders of the United States are at the present time battling in Congress for an ever normal granary bill and I hope they win even tho the bill turns out to be faulty in certain respects. Those who are fighting the ever normal granary bill most desperately are chiefly those who either knowingly or unknowingly are spokesmen for the speculative grain trade. Stability of farm income from year to year means much to rural-school teachers. They know what happened to their salaries in years like 1931, 1932, and 1933, when thousands of country schools were closed and the teachers were fired simply because the farmers sitting on the schoolboards knew there was no money. City school teachers are consumers with fixed incomes and they do not like to see food prices too high. They should wel¬ come the consumer protective features of the ever normal granary. Rural- school teachers are also consumers with a rather fixed income, but they do not like to see farm products go too low because they know that 20-cent corn and 30-cent wheat may cost them their jobs. Country school teachers there¬ fore welcome that phase of the ever normal granary which protects farmers. From the standpoint of both country and city school teachers, the truly important point is stability. All of us want stability of farm income, farm supplies, and farm prices. We want an ever normal granary which can be handled in such a way that the extraordinarily variable weather in the Middlewest and the Great Plains can be off-set by adequate forethought and storage. All of this can be done if we will work together in a thought¬ ful and democratic way. Incidentally, I may say that the agricultural teach¬ ers in the Smith-Hughes vocational schools and classes have been exceedingly helpful in our triple-A and soil conservation programs and I am sure they will be even more helpful if we have an ever normal granary program. The splendid thing about the phrase “ever normal granary” is that it General Sessions 61 turns the attention of people toward the concept of abundance and economic security. We need ever normal jobs in the cities as well as ever normal granaries on the farms. That is why unemployment and old age insurance are so important. We must discover those key points, the control of which will enable us to eliminate depression so far as possible. The next depression could easily throw us far to the right or far to the left, depending on which party happens to be in power at the time it comes. I am sure that teachers do not want to see either the extreme right or the extreme left triumph in this country because the result in the educational held would be the substitution of “indoctrination'’ and propaganda for edu¬ cation. The democratic method is free discussion based on the real facts of the case. The dictatorial method is to assemble the facts in such a way as to prove that the course taken by the dictator is sound. From the short time point of view, the methods of vigorous indoctrination as pursued by dictator¬ ships may seem more efficient than the free discussion method pursued by educators in a democracy. To some people the dictatorial methods seem more exciting. Thus a challenge is furnished to democracy. We must make de¬ mocracy exciting, tolerant, and efficient.* Under the New Deal I think we have done that altho undoubtedly we still have a long way to go and we need the sympathetic help of teachers fully familiar with the educational process at its best. The material evidence of success in a democracy like the United States is a steadily increasing balanced output of the goods which the people need and want. Measured by this material criterion, democracy failed rather miserably in the United States from 1930 to 1933, but from 1933 to date has staged a remarkable recovery. In order to enhance their own selfish interests, it is to be expected that certain regions and classes will endeavor from time to time to profiteer at the expense of the general welfare by creating undue shortages of one kind or another. It is one thing to create a shortage, and it is another thing to bring about balance, and the two are to be carefully distinguished. From the standpoint of the general welfare, it is important to develop the thesis that the rules of the game should be such as to favor an ever increasing balanced abundance and to avoid the disaster which comes from underconsumption and overproduction of those types of goods for which the market has changed. It is so difficult to bring about adjustment, when the markets have changed, because of the fact that certain people have vested interests in the former situation. Modern methods of transportation and invention have forced us all to think much more consciously about the nature of markets than in the old days. This is especially true of farm products which have been affected by the loss of the European markets. The federal government with its power to tax and to spend, with its tariffs which affect foreign purchasing power for our exportable surplus, with its control over the monetary system, and with its subsidies of one sort or another, has always had a profound effect on the economic system of the United States. The powers which I have mentioned have not always been used by the United States government to 62 National Education Association promote stability. Sometimes they have been so used as to bring about an ultimate explosion — it would be a little fairer to say to “contribute to” an ultimate explosion. The difficulty of using these powers intelligently has been especially great since the World War. When the War ended we found ourselves under the necessity of making the most profound internal readjust¬ ment. Because of our habits we did not care to make many of these readjust¬ ments and some of them have not been made yet. One of my friends rather facetiously said, “The essence of education is to learn to cooperate with the inevitable.” In my impatience I have thought sometimes that that defi¬ nition might possibly be correct but, speaking somewhat slangily, I would like to suggest that “education consists in discovering the inevitable and beating it to the punch.” By either of these definitions, the people of the United States have not been very well educated since the World War came to an end. But the inevitable is still after them and the educators have a great opportunity. Many of the agricultural problems to which I have referred are inter¬ related with other questions of national and international policy. All these questions should receive consideration by the nation’s teachers and should be discussed in the classrooms of every high school and college. More than that, if our people are to become experienced in the democratic process of government by discussion and in the methods of intelligent choice making, our schools should become centers for adult as well as adolescent learning. Social illiteracy cannot be eliminated by providing vitalized learning oppor¬ tunities for youth alone. So rapid is the speed and so great the unpredicta¬ bility of social change that constant reexamination of traditional beliefs and accepted patterns of behavior must take place. Our system of public education must permit citizens of all ages to get accurate information and opportunity for honest debate as to the solution of our common problems. In this connection may I direct your attention to the work of the Department of Agriculture in stimulating group discus¬ sion of agricultural problems, including production, adjustment, and control. On other occasions I have paid tribute to the high caliber of the conference work done by the farmers committees which participated in the crop control plan. This led them into discussions of economics both in this country and abroad. It was the kind of discussion that makes for the most admirable type of classroom work. May I also mention the far-reaching importance of the experimental efforts which have been made during the past two years by the Department of the Interior, thru the Office of Education, in the development of public forum demonstration centers in several states of the nation. And, inasmuch as John Studebaker is not here today and inasmuch as I had first-hand information on the forums which he started in Des Moines back in 1932, I want to pay a little personal tribute to John Studebaker by saying I think the work he did there with the help of the Carnegie Institu¬ tion money is some of the most significant work I know of anywhere and I trust that that work, followed up as it has been by the work in the Depart¬ ment of the Interior, will lead toward a revitalization of public discussion General Sessions 63 and truly democratic methods such as we have not had in these United States for many, many years. It seems to me it is working back toward some¬ thing of the nature of the old New England town hall meeting. The outstanding point I would like to make is that we have the resources, the technology, the economic organization, and the belief in democracy to enable us to attain a stable and increasing abundance in the United States such as the world has never seen. We have been wandering in the wilder¬ ness. The promised land lies spread before us. We can take possession of it as soon as we have determined with our wills that we can whip the giants which are in the way. I was very much interested in what Dr. Day had to say about the divisive forces. I thought for a minute I would have a little difference of opinion with him. I was very much interested when he referred to the divisive forces that he felt were in operation today, and the part which educators have to play in seeing that those divisive forces ultimately were recognized by the educative process and democratic process in terms of a smoothly functioning democratic unity. I would like to make this modification of Dr. Day’s analysis. I would like to say that it is my belief, my faith, that these divisive forces to which he referred are much more apparent than real. It is my belief that hidden in the innermost psychology of the rank and file of the citizens of the United States, the decisions have already been made which of necessity will ulti¬ mately result in various parties to the controversy each giving way to some extent. I feel that in the minds of people the decisions have already taken place. I have come to that conclusion as I have sounded out sentiment here and there — and, mind you, I spent three days at Jefferson Island recently! It will take time to do the job completely and the educators can use that time to train our people in the belief that our farms and factories can be used for greater productivity and greater economic security; that our farmers and city workers can be given security of tenure and stability of income ; that an ever normal granary can be made workable in the interest of pro¬ ducers and consumers; that there can be an increasing balanced abundance of the good things of life, that we can look to the future with confidence and joy, by understanding the past and holding firm to the democratic process of achieving the general welfare. Not all of the things which educators teach have to do with knowledge. There is such a thing as imparting an emotional attitude. I hope in the years immediately ahead, our efforts in this country will be so successful that the educators will feel warranted in imparting to their pupils an attitude of the utmost joyous confidence in the future. If all the schools of the United States are realistically imbued with such an attitude our children and our grandchildren will inherit both material and spiritual possessions of enduring value. 64 National Education Association THIRD GENERAL SESSION SECTION A A CHALLENGE TO EDUCATIONAL STATESMANSHIP — A bstract NEWTON EDWARDS, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. Perhaps the most devastating criticism that can be directed against the American educational system is its widespread failure to provide equality of educational opportunity. The inequalities which characterize American education result primarily from the unequal distribution of the educational load, from the unequal distribution of the national income, and from the long established tradition that the schools should be supported from local and state revenues. Regional differences in reproduction rates cause the child population of school age to be distributed very unequally with respect to the supporting adult population. In certain areas the economically productive age group carries a burden of child nurture and education fully twice as great as the same group in other areas. The productive workers of the South carry a burden of young dependents out of all proportion to that carried in other parts of the country. Effective fertility of farm women is more than twice as great as that of women in the large cities. The result is that the educational load, as measured by the number of children of school age per thousand adults, increases sharply as the size of the community decreases. In every part of the United States the educational load rests relatively light on the urban dweller. In general, those areas having the highest birth-rates and the greatest educational task are characterized by an excessive population pressure on the resource structure, by exceedingly low income per farm, by high rates of farm tenancy, by low levels of living, and by the large percent of the population unable to carry their own economic weight during periods of economic stress. For millions of children the opportunity for anything more than a modicum of meager, formal education is largely conditioned by place of birth. In communities where fertility is too low for family replacement, where the burden of child care and education is light, where economic resources are most abundant, and where the cultural-intellectual status of parents is high, we support education liberally. In communities where the birth-rate is high and the supporting adult group is carrying a dispropor¬ tionately heavy child population, where income per child is far below the national norm, where the level of living is low, where the cultural heritage is the poorest, where the home has least to contribute to cultural and intellec¬ tual growth, we support education niggardly. Education can be made a force to equalize the condition of men ; it is no less true that it can be made a force to create class, race, and sectional distinctions. The evidence indicates General Sessions 65 clearly that if we pursue our present policies there is grave danger that our schools, which we have hitherto regarded as the bulwark of democracy, may, in fact, become an instrument for creating those very inequalities they were designed to prevent. If, for a long period of years, we draw each suc¬ ceeding generation in disproportionately large numbers from those areas in which economic conditions are poorest and the cultural-intellectual level the lowest, if the population reserves of the nation are to be recruited from a definitely underprivileged class, and if we fail to make good the deficit by conscious educative endeavor, the effect on our culture and on our representative political institutions may be appalling. THE TEACHER’S PLACE IN SOCIAL LIFE OF TODAY — Abstract WILLIAM H. KILPATRICK, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. In this country just what part the teacher ought to take in social life and change is much in dispute — more obviously because we are engaged in re¬ making our social-economic-political outlook and have as yet reached no unanimity of position, less obviously because we are just now shifting our thinking in the matter of change frorn a position of no-change in funda¬ mentals to a position which makes for change and is becoming an essential factor in all human affairs. We accordingly find the American mind much puzzled. Shall we or shall we not provide for conscious change? Shall we or shall we not expect the school to play a significant part in helping the country make up its mind on our disputed social-economic development? Many and varied are the answers. The fundamental position herein taken is that of conscious and intelligent democracy based on the certainty of change and development, but con¬ sciousness of the future outcome. Changes will come as they come ; it is our business to steer them intelligently. Democracy demands that the people decide, not the present people — still less the past — for the future, but the future people for themselves. It is the duty then of the present generation not to tell the rising generation the answers to their social problems — we could not, if we would — but to make the rising generation as intelligent as we can in social-political matters and have them free to solve their own problems. Along with this principal dispute as to what kind of classroom teaching we should have, there goes the further question of the teacher’s place both as a citizen of the community and as a member of all of the important learned professions having public duties outside the classroom. The teacher is a citizen and as such has all the rights of other citizens. It follows, however, that the teacher’s rights as a citizen and as a man in the community are limited by his duties as a teacher. The good teacher will be sensitive to the influence his outside advocacy and conduct is having on his pupils that this influence may be the best possible. What the teacher says outside and how he speaks and acts should 66 National Education Association all be done with due regard not only to the social issue at stake but also to the educative effect of his acts on those under his care. This does not mean that the teacher is not to stir up his pupils to think. That may be exactly the best thing he can do for them even if many parents and citizens prefer to have no questions raised regarding the status quo. What the teacher must do is to help his pupils to fair-minded study. If this be safeguarded, the stirring is likely to be all to the good. But the teacher has wider educative effects on others than his pupils. He or she is a member of the community. Within reason the teacher should accept responsibility to share with others in helping the community study its varied social problems. Each profession, simply because it is such, owes public duties beyond the immediate practise of the profession. This wider duty of the teaching pro¬ fession includes responsibility for helping the public see and understand any educative effects from our public life that significantly concern the public welfare. As we consider the teaching profession, its right and duty to organize comes forward as an urgent problem. I am frank to say I am doubtful whether teachers should permanently ally themselves with any non-educa- tional body or movement. Any individual educator or body of educators has that right ; I claim it for them — but I doubt the wisdom of educators committing themselves to permanent alliance with any but an educational body devoted to educational ends and using only educational methods. Educators have clearly the right to seek conditions favorable to proper educative effects, a decent wage, participation of members of the teaching profession in determining educational policies, proper tenure laws, adequate freedom in teaching. The final of our questions is probably the one that interests us most. What, if any, proper part has the school in the conscious effort to effect social change? The work of the school to this end is, I think, clearly de¬ fined, namely, to build before adulthood: (a) useful social ideals, (b) habits of democratic study, and (c) actual social intelligence. To accomplish these ends the school will work along two main lines: first, that of socially useful activities, preferably cooperative community activities ; and second, the study of live social issues, many of which will be controversial in character. In respect to difficult but necessary controversial issues the profession and the public should be clear. We cannot afford not to make our young people intelligent regarding them, as critically intelligent as we can. Anything else is a suicidal public policy. And we must not wait till the young people are grown. We must educate before the mind is grown and finished, built for all time and fixed by the cares of this world and the deceitfulness of riches as we see today in too many of the economic royalists among us. And the profession must organize to protect the individual teacher in the just discharge of his duty here. Reasonable discussion of all pertinent con¬ troversial issues is absolutely necessary to intelligent citizenship. In this matter democracy depends on the school. We must not fail. The free play of intelligence is society’s only permanent hope. General Sessions 67 SECTION B CURRENT ISSUES IN TEACHER EDUCATION —Abstract PAYSON SMITH, GRADUATE SCHOOL, HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. For a century now teacher-education institutions have been increasing in their power and influence for the improvement of the schools. To be sure, they seem for the moment to be somewhat bewildered and confused. In this respect they are not alone. In one respect, however, the American people have a greater interest in this department of education than in any other, and that is in the respect that to it they must look for future leadership for all the schools. Among other tasks of importance that must be undertaken for the better service of teacher education is that of the more immediate and more effec¬ tive utilization of the enthusiasms and creative power of those who annually go into the schools as new teachers. Our methods of induction of young teachers into service are seriously in need of improvement. Too much of the impetus for progress that should come to the schools from the product of teacher education is lost because of the tendency of school systems to seek conformity to institutional programs. It may be granted that theory some¬ times fails to work in the face of real situations. Yet, it is a negation of all that teacher education represents not to give freer play than is now allowed to the processes which have presumably been stimulated during the period of education. Here again, there is an issue presented by the increasing need of and demand for specialized teaching. It is evident that we are to have a development in the preparation of teachers similar to that which has already taken place in the preparation of those who serve in other professions. This development will be in the direc¬ tion of specialization. We have already seen more than a beginning of it in art, music, home economics, and certain other special fields. These develop¬ ments, however, represent only a few of those that will in the future be demanded. If this specialized preparation is to be provided on the most highly efficient basis it would appear that there must be less of a diffusion of courses of this kind among several institutions and a readiness to develop them under conditions that will guarantee their greater efficiency. In most instances normal schools and teachers colleges will dissipate their resources if an attempt is made to develop these special offerings in small units. Institutional interest or aggrandizement must give way to the requirements of the several special projects involved. Other issues of no less importance than those already named relate to the better re-equipment of faculties of teacher-education institutions and to better methods of selecting students who are to be educated for service as teachers. There is no more important place in education and there is no more opportune time than the present for a thorolv sympathetic and constructive examination of the condition and needs of those programs which in the past century have been most responsible for educational progress and to which 68 National Education Association in the coming century we can look with greatest confidence for a continuance of that progress. TRADITION AND ADVENTURE — Abstract ALICE R. MORI SON, FORMER HEAD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, SUFFOLK, ENGLAND The terms “tradition” and “adventure” are not, of course, opposed but are complementary one to the other. There can be no adventure starting from nothing; even if it takes the form of breaking away from all tradition, there must have been the tradition from which to break away. Adventure surely means finding a new use or a new field for what already lies at hand — as discovery means the revelation or unveiling of powers, forces which are already in existence. The adventure of one age becomes the tradition of the next. I have seen, since I came to this country, notices that certain customs are to be a future tradition but it must be a voluntary handing on, not forced or pushed on by order. I have not the time to trace from these ancient foundations the development of English modern education which owes much to the piety, generosity, and adventure of those founders. All education is due possibly to King Alfred and certainly to adventurers who cared for the education of certain poor scholars in the thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and six¬ teenth centuries. The tradition of all our old schools was religion and the classics, and I wonder whether the present overloaded curriculum produces better results either in character or in intellectual training. However, the adventure had to be made and the foundations of the old schools were found able to bear the superstructure of a modern side and a wider curriculum, as the old cathedrals bore the newer styles of architecture. But by culture is meant the pursuit of real knowledge — and knowledge is power. To attain to knowledge two things are necessary which seem to me to be lacking in the education of today — thoroness and concentration. Those were taught by the classics. They can also be taught in mathematics and science and indeed by any subject well taught. But the pupils in schools which specialized in these were often ignorant of their own language and were illiterate and unread. Whatever the future careers for our boys and girls we must ever re¬ member that character and personality must come first — and we teachers must realize more than ever before our splendid and grave responsibility of living the highest life possible — for, as has been said of religion, character must be caught, not taught. “For the boy and girl the way to the higher life is in nearly all cases opened by personal inspiration. . . . He will follow and almost blindly believe the man who lives his faith and has singleness of heart.” What do you and I remember of our own school days? What a wealth of all that we were so conscientiously taught have we forgotten — but our teachers, never. General Sessions 69 It does not matter what are our subjects so much as what manner of men and women we are. The longer I live, the more I believe that it is what we are and what we think that affects the children in our classes. If from this great convention you splendid body of teachers in your devotion and your strength, were to renew your vision and go out afresh with the spirit of vocation in your hearts, with a clear sense of the true values, with the true ideals of character and service that you wish to kindle in the hearts of the children it would indeed be a great adventure. IMPROVING EDUCATION THRU DISCUSSION GROUPS — Abstract FRANCIS L. BACON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, EVANSTON, ILL. The real challenge to our professional growth, the active opportunity for educational progress lies in a general participation in the creation and con¬ trol of our educational program. A few significant problems need selection for a cooperative attack. The background of these problems calls for analysis, for study, that basic understanding may be established. Then follows necessary interpretations, varied, contradictory, and exhaustive. Analysis, understanding, interpretation, rest upon adequate discussion, not by a few, but by many relatively small, actively participating groups. Discussion will not bring conclusive interpretations, satisfactory under¬ standings, or desirable actions, unless it is persistent, controlled, planned, continuously held to a specific problem until cooperative agreements have been reached. This is no easily followed or quickly arrived at formula of procedure. Quite the contrary, which accounts so often for its failure or its inadequacy in the past. Discussion groups are really miniature ventures in cooperative education. They bring people together who can pool their thinking, as occasions arise, to study their own situations. Organized discussion, in fact, is a new method for winnowing wisdom out of experience. One does not learn from ex¬ perience merely by having experiences, or attain a practical knowledge about an activity simply by reading about it. Unshared experiences may prove conventional, biased, or morbid. It is necessary to see experiences from different points of view, in order to show situations in which various interests are at stake — interests that appeal differently to various individuals. This is one of the significant contributions of group discussion. Each mem¬ ber of the group has his or her special sensitiveness to considerations which the others would slight or overlook. Together they form a little cross- section of the current thought on the situation. The necessary give and take about the situation sharpens it as a picture of human purposes and circum¬ stances from which each participant gains clarity and appreciation. Small discussion groups have been particularly effective in localities where they have been tried in helping individuals thresh out the different aspects of important issues and in enabling members of the groups to help one an¬ other to think their way thru to a sound philosophy. One striking fact about the development of study and discussion groups in America is that the majority of them have originated during the past 70 National Education Association few years. They have proved equally helpful in rural and urban sections and under varying conditions. The informal, democratic procedure of a discussion group is its most outstanding characteristic and the one which makes it adaptable to dealing with the problems of education under varying conditions. In fact, democracy is often described as “government by dis¬ cussion.” The project of promoting a coordinated program for discussion groups which will extend thruout the country, extend the work of professional organizations, and make possible a greater participation in the solution of problems, is no utopian dream. The success with which the venture has already met has confirmed the belief that it is a perfectly practical and feasible project. Those who have been connected with the project believe that it will continue to grow and will come to serve an important purpose for education in general and not merely secondary education and adult education. When that happens, I think we shall find a new vitality coming into education. SECTION C THE PROGRAM OF THE AFFILIATED TEACHER ORGANI¬ ZATIONS OF LOS ANGELES —Abstract MRS. JOSEPHINE P. SMITH, CHAIRMAN, AFFILIATED TEACHER ORGANIZA¬ TIONS OF LOS ANGELES, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. Public education is no stronger than an informed public wishes to make it. Only thru the activity and service rendered by teachers holding member¬ ship in community organizations, and by the parents and citizens friendly to public education, can the public remain informed. Therefore, organiza¬ tions such as the parent-teacher association and service clubs are cordially invited to send representatives to meet with teacher committees for the purpose of studying problems of education and finding solutions to them. Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the fact that teacher organi¬ zations and the public schools can be no stronger or more effective than an intelligent and informed public opinion permits them to be. As a result of this constructive program and exchange of ideas between the Affiliated Teacher Organizations of Los Angeles and the community, an adequate program of education in California has been maintained, and the attacks of those in the community antagonistic to education have been suc¬ cessfully repulsed. The resources of the public relations office of the Affiliated Teacher Organizations of Los Angeles have been directed toward the support and sponsorship of community welfare programs. Thus the A.T.O.L.A. con¬ siders itself to be an integral part of all programs and activities whose purpose it is to improve educational, community, and public welfare. To the extent that teachers take an active part, as citizens and as mem¬ bers of the community, can the profession enjoy the understanding sympathy of the public it seeks to serve. To this end the A.T.O.L.A. was organized; and since its foundation seven years ago, it has been enjoying a high degree of success. General Sessions 71 DISCUSSION ON A COUNTY TYPE OF A CLASSROOM TEACHERS ASSOCIATION — Abstract P. W. SEAGREN, PRESIDENT, CLASSROOM TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, MIAMI, FLA. Just what has this type of county unit organization accomplished? First, picture if you will, a good portion of the counties in the state of Florida, up until four years ago, paying their teachers three, four, and five hundred dollars a year. There was only one thing to do. The Classroom Teachers Association, being of a professional nature and open only to teachers, neces¬ sitated setting up a new organization of a political nature, open to anyone interested in schools and who could vote. This was accomplished in every county in the state. It did not take long for the legislators to recognize our voting strength, for we had business men and women as wTell as teachers in “The Florida League for Better Schools.'’ The results ! They changed the school plank from last on their list to first. Their becoming school-minded made this year’s appropriation from the state well over ten million dollars for the schools as compared with five million not many years ago. Every teacher received at least a living wage and every school remained open for the full term. Our organization, in brief, has six standing committees : Professional Problems, Welfare, Civic, Program, Social, and Publicity. It is the pur¬ pose of the Professional Problems Committee, along with other duties, to sponsor “Fellowship Day.” It amounts to a county conference, made pos¬ sible by our schoolboard, in that we are allowed the entire day for the pro¬ gram. We start in the morning with group meetings, with teachers in charge and only teachers present. In this way we feel free to express ourselves while the principals and school officials conduct their own forum, at the same time, the important factor being that the teacher has charge of the program rather than school officials. In the general meeting, we have nationally known persons as our guest speakers. Another item of interest to me on our program comes under welfare work. The necessity for this division arose when one of our fellow teachers was taken ill with tuberculosis. Funds were first raised by entertainment. Now, we have an annual welfare drive, with a classroom representative in charge at each school. We plan to build up this fund for future needs. Another phase of our work is the establishing of a Dade County Teachers Federal Credit Union, which is about two years old at the present time. These figures might be of some interest: approximately 70 percent of the teachers in the county are members; $157,000 has been placed on deposit; over $75,000 has been loaned, ranging from $50 up as high as $1000 per person. Over 50 percent of our loans have been for the purpose of paying up old loans with high interest, thereby saving 2 percent a month in in¬ terest. Other loans have been down payments on homes, and we plan next to finance new cars, etc. It has become quite a business, to say the least. 72 National Education Association BUILDING, IMPROVING, AND UNIFYING LOCAL, STATE, AND NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS — Abstract LESTER K. ADE, SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, HARRISBURG, PA. Nearly 81 percent of the opinions- of the 4000 educational workers who reported shades of opinion to the Educational Policies Commission agreed that membership in national professional organizations should be voluntary but that supervisory officers may properly encourage membership as one form of in-service preparation, and may consider membership or lack of membership in a professional organization as one indication of a teacher’s professional interest and competence. Leaders are, therefore, justified in urging teachers to participate in such organizations just as they are justified in advocating other opportunities for professional improvement. Membership in local and state organizations should be made co-inclusive with membership in the national organization so that membership in one will carry with it membership in the others. Such a fusion must be brought about gradually, using a form of voluntary co-inclusive membership as a beginning. Ultimately a single fee should admit to local, state, and national associations. For several years in Pennsylvania, under the able leadership of J. Herbert Kelley, executive secretary of the Pennsylvania State Education Association, and his assistant, Harvey E. Gayman, we have used a four-coupon mem¬ bership card by which a teacher enrols himself in local, state, and national associations and fills out his own receipt. The secretary signs or initials the receipt, keeps card No. 1 for his own file, forwards card No. 2 with dues to state headquarters, and card No. 3 with dues to the National Education Association headquarters. Thru a unified professional organization, the teachers of Pennsylvania by cooperating with the Department of Public Instruction and other agencies, secured the enactment of an imposing list of constructive educational legis¬ lation, 35 of the 38 desirable proposals having been enacted into law. Head¬ ing the list is a statewide teacher tenure law which greatly extends the latitude of professional service and elevates the general morale of the 63,000 members of Pennsylvania’s teaching force. Salaries of elementary teachers in some 23,000 rural districts were raised from the $800 minimum to a $1000 minimum with increments provided for. Other notable achievements include a law providing for the merging of the smallest districts in the interest of better programs of instruction, full appropriation to cover the state’s liability to the retirement system, a constitutional amendment legaliz¬ ing a state income tax, and the full restoration of teachers’ salaries. It is evident that state teachers organizations today are receiving wider recognition and more serious consideration than ever before. The complexity of professional services in our contemporary life demands an efficient or¬ ganization of personnel. Yet it appears that a small minority of the mem¬ bers of our great profession have attained a nationwide point of view with respect to affiliations with the National Education Association. Our prob- General Sessions 73 lem, then, is to stimulate and encourage this broader view on the part of teachers. When America’s 1,000,000 public school teachers join together in a bond of unity of purpose, great indeed will be the constructive benefits, not only to the profession as such but to the 30,000,000 children and youth who depend on our teachers for instruction, guidance, and inspiration. THE ORGANIZATION AND PROGRAM OF THE 'LOUISIANA TEACHERS ASSOCIATION — Abstract ■ / SPENCER PHILLIPS, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, LOUISIANA TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, BATON ROUGE, LA. The Louisiana Teachers Association is made up of 10,500 white teachers of the state who have united themselves into parish organizations, which are units of the state organization. The Association is governed by an Executive Council, four members of which, including the President, are elected each year. An annual convention is held in some city of the state on the Thursday, Friday, and Saturday of the week preceding Thanks¬ giving. No district meetings are held but each parish organization holds at least one meeting a year, at which time representatives are chosen to the Legislative Assembly, which meets at the same time and place as the annual convention. Each member pays annual dues of $2, which includes a sub¬ scription to Louisia?ia Schools , the publication of the Louisiana Teachers Association, issued nine times a year. In Louisiana we recognize three major functions of the Teachers Asso¬ ciation : 1. To foster the professional development of the teachers of the state 2. To secure for the teachers and for the schools the financial support to which we believe they are entitled 3. To assume that responsibility which falls upon a professional group acting in concert with other groups for the general upbuilding of the state. We attempt to fulfil our obligations towards the professional advance¬ ment of the teachers by publishing a journal which presents to them pro¬ gressive and modern methods of teaching, and by bringing in speakers from different parts of the LTited States who are authorities in certain fields of education and making these speakers available at the annual meeting of the Association. It is the belief of the Louisiana Teachers Association that teachers are performing a worthwhile governmental function and that they are entitled to receive salaries commensurate with the importance of that function. We confidently look forward to the day when a good education will be con¬ sidered the birthright of every child in Louisiana. A logical extension of this belief is that a child born anywhere in the United States is entitled to a good education, regardless of the poverty or wealth of the particular state in which he happens to reside. With this in mind the Louisiana Teachers Association is actively supporting the Harrison-Black-Fletcher Bill. 74 National Education Association For the further protection of teachers we have constantly advocated the adoption of a tenure law, a teacher retirement system, and a liberal sick leave regulation. We recognize that most of the benefits we desire for teachers can be re¬ ceived only thru the action of the state Legislature. Within the past two years we have been remarkably successful in securing from the Legislature and the state administration in general certain benefits for which we have worked long and faithfully. It is our policy to act in harmony with all groups and individuals who have for their aim the upbuilding in any way of our state. Our governor has recently been instrumental in inducing a number of large manufactur¬ ing establishments to locate in Louisiana. With all this the Louisiana Teachers Association has been in sympathy, with this reservation — that we hope to see these industries thrive and prosper without finding it necessary to create a system of industrial peonage, which will' deny to American citizens and to American children those rights to a decent living and to a proper education which we consider fundamental to American progress. THE WASHINGTON EDUCATION ASSOCIATION— Abstract ARTHUR L. MARSH, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, WASHINGTON EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, SEATTLE, WASH. The Washington Education Association, which enrols 92 percent of the teachers of the state, was organized forty-nine years ago as a convention organization and reorganized sixteen years ago with a diversified year-round program, with an employed staff and permanent headquarters. The Association is really a federation of 84 local associations — city, county, and institutional. The local associations enrol the membership, state and national as well as local ; send delegates to the state assembly ; furnish committee personnel ; participate in legislation ; share convention manage¬ ment ; and conduct local activities. The Association has a representative assembly, a board of directors, and an executive committee. Association activities are in charge of an em¬ ployed staff — an executive secretary, who is also editor and manager of the magazine organ; a field representative; a headquarters secretary; and two clerks. Regular activities consist chiefly of ( 1 ) a two-day convention held in each of the ten regional centers; (2) publication of the monthly journal; (3) legislative promotion; (4) information service to membership and public; (5) field service — the fostering of local units; (6) sundry teacher welfare activities; (7) public relations service; (8) service to N. E. A.; and (9) professionalization. Dues are on a staggered scale, from $1.50 to $4.00 a year, based on salary received. State dues average about $2.25. Back of the externals of mechanism and activities are certain guiding principles, or policies, which are well established by carefully considered usage. Chief among these policies are the following: General Sessions /b 1. Public interest should have precedence over group interest. 2. All groups in school service should be united in common interests and purposes. 3. Unit}.' in action should be achieved thru persuasion rather than coercion. 4. The state Association should exercise influence rather than authority over the affiliated local units. 5. Assistance of an affiliate should be given to national and world associations but the Association should be independent of any outside control. 6. Main dependence should be on the unpaid service of the membership, with only such employed service as will enable members to participate and cooperate effectively. 7. The Association should zzork rather than f.gkt; it should cooperate in the common school cause with educational officers and officials, parent-teacher associa¬ tions, chambers of commerce, labor unions, and other civic organizations. 8. The Association should not be a secret organization but should open its member¬ ship and meetings and records to all. 9. Candidacies for public office, even educational, should not be supported or opposed, but the Association should deal with educational issues decided at the polls. Only a part of the Association's ‘‘dividends'’ can be measured in dollars, but certain results can be so reckoned. In three legislative campaigns during the period of modernized operation the Washington Education Association was chiefly instrumental in obtaining a total of 5140.000.000. enough to offset total Association dues for over 6000 years. In the 1937 session of the Legislature new appropriations of 53.600.000 added a century and a half to the Association's credit. A NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION — Abstract J. W. STUDEBAKER. UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION WASHINGTON. D. C. During the past year the Educational Policies Commission of the National Education Association has faced squarely the problem of a national pro¬ fessional organization for education. The Commission is made up of twenty national leaders and their report has been published in a bulletin entitled A National Organization for Education. This report recommends: 1. That the primary purpose of a national professional organization in the field of education should be the maintenance and improvement of educational services. 2. That membership in the organization should be wholly voluntary. 3. That the association should call public attention to the educational aspects and implications of existing socio-economic conditions and of proposed social, economic, or governmental changes. 4. That the association should protect members of the profession by defining and publicizing the civic and professional rights and objectives of teachers. 5. That it should provide a department for each important branch of educational service. 6. That membership in local, state, and national organizations should be co- inclusive. 7. That the association should cooperate with lay groups on educational matters but that it should not enter into organic affiliation \\ ith any lay organization which has as its primary purpose the promotion of interests outside the field of education. I commend these recommendations to you for earnest study and con¬ sideration. It is scarcely necessary to point out again the great need for 76 National Education Association cooperative group effort as the basis for social action. It matters little whether or not we believe the increase of pressure groups is a wholesome development ; our personal inclinations do not affect the reality of the existing situation. The potential dangers of class and group conflicts arising out of competing economic interests suggest the vital importance of a demonstration by at least one professional group that cooperative effort can be motivated by and directed toward consideration for the general wel¬ fare. Without improved organization educators cannot become a strong professional or social group ; with it educational service can be extended and improved. Even more basic in the making of a case for improved professional or¬ ganization is the threat to the very nature of the educative process which reversion to barbarism under dictatorial rule demands. All educators in the United States should take the time to think thru, carefully, the educational implications of recent political developments abroad. Too few of us per¬ ceive or understand that the front line of defense against attacks upon edu¬ cational ideals, whether from the right or the left, must be a closely knit and inclusive professional organization, constantly ready to restate educa¬ tional values, alert to the responsibility of clarifying educational issues, sensitive to the modifications in classroom procedure and administrative organization which a constantly changing democratic society requires. I would further maintain that educational services cannot be maintained or improved unless teachers are in a position to resist the subtle and overt pressures which would turn the school into a sounding-board for vested interests. I see no chance of resisting these pressures if our own ranks are split by the conflicting interests, jealousies, and contradictory demands of rival groups. In the course of the past year and a half I have seen realistically demon¬ strated, both by omission and commission, the value of a compact, well- organized professional group in nineteen scattered communities across the country. The public forum program which the Office of Education has sponsored in these communities, I believe, is a step forward in the provision of necessary civic educational opportunities for self-governing adults. No patterns of organization were dictated by the federal government. Experi¬ mentation and variety were encouraged; local initiative was relied upon. A better opportunity has rarely been provided to the professional group of classroom teachers, supervisors, principals, superintendents, and college faculties in these communities constructively to influence an educational ex¬ periment of national significance. I can say to you that in these centers the value and extent of professional support for the forum program has been in direct ratio to the cohesiveness and harmony with which the various edu¬ cational groups cooperated. This specific illustration is worthy of note here because, I think, it demonstrates the supreme importance of professional organization in the extension and improvement of educational opportunities. There are other factors in the present social situation which make im¬ perative the strengthening of our professional organization, but enough General Sessions 77 have been suggested to introduce the problem to which I shall now turn — that of finding ways and means of strengthening our organizational ties. The latest issue of the Educational Directory of the United States Office of Education lists 542 state and national educational associations. Of these. 121 are statewide while 421 are national or regional in scope. This imposing list of educational organizations suggests the vastness of our field, its com¬ plex nature, and the seriousness of purpose which actuates the members of our profession, for most of these organizations are conducted by volunteer workers whose sole purpose is the advancement of some particular phase or aspect of the general cause of education. During the past two decades teachers organizations have multiplied rapidly, but during recent months there has developed, on the part of many leaders, a tendency to question the advisability of increasing the number of professional groups and to suggest that it might be a wiser policy for our profession to develop fewer but larger and better professional organizations. I myself hold to this opinion because of the need for greater professional unit}' in the defense of educational ideals against a common foe. As I see the situation, our professional organizations do not need a new set of objectives. We have plenty of these, and they are lofty enough to war¬ rant our wholehearted and enthusiastic support. We do not need a com¬ pletely new professional organization. We have plenty of these already. What we do need, however, is a better integration and a closer unity among the professional organizations which now exist. This is one of our out¬ standing problems and it challenges the best minds within the profession. We need to develop a national association which has its roots out in the local communities and which has as its branches strong, vigorous state associations ; a national association which is democratic from top to bottom, in which all members of the profession may find opportunities for effective service no matter whether they are classroom teachers, college professors, superintend¬ ents, principals, or presidents of universities; an organization which is strong in its unity but diverse in its interests and in its activities; an organization which can speak with a single voice for the profession, but an organiza¬ tion which serves even* teacher in the nation and which gives each member an opportunity to work personally upon the specific problems of greatest interest to him. We must develop an organization which can function effectively on a representative basis. Whether the representation should be from the locals direct to the national or from the locals thru the state associations to the national is a moot question and there are strong arguments supporting both plans. I believe that we shall be able to develop a stronger and more effec¬ tive organization of the profession if we recognize the logic of the situation and arrange to have the individual represented in the national councils thru his affiliation with his local and state associations. The association must not be dominated by any particular group or level of the profession. Each group should have the opportunity* to play its part in solving our common problems and each should have the opportunity to work within our national professional organization on our common problems as 78 National Education Association well as on those particular problems which are peculiar to its own special field. A year ago I placed myself definitely on record as favoring a co-inclusive membership by which a teacher, when he joins his local association, becomes automatically a member of his state and national groups. Every teacher profits by the work of his professional organizations — local, state, and na¬ tional — and every teacher should pay his share of the cost of the services which these organizations render. An ideal national professional organization cannot exist alone, separate and apart, from other organizations. As I have already suggested, it must have its roots firmly established in thriving local associations. It must co¬ operate closely and directly with strong vigorous state associations, and it must also have intimate official relationship to the professional educational organizations of other nations. The World Federation of Education Asso¬ ciations, organized in 1923 during the sixty-first annual convention of the N.E.A. at San Francisco, offers excellent opportunity for realizing this arrangement. The principal functions of this organization are to cultivate fraternal relationships between members of the teaching profession in all countries, and to promote the cause of world peace thru conferences and personal contacts among the educators of all nations. At the present time our international professional organization needs to keep its organization more or less informal and flexible in order that it may be easily adapted to the rapidly changing world conditions. However, it must be definite enough and strong enough to harbor a thriving spirit of international goodwill and carry forward an effective program. The time has probably not yet arrived for us to include individual mem¬ bership in the international association along with our co-inclusive ideal. However, the plan of the World Federation of Education Associations is so worthwhile that this movement warrants a substantial financial subsidy from our national associations. If every national professional organization of teachers would make a proportionate appropriation for the World Federa¬ tion, this worthy organization would be able to develop a program which would go far toward developing international goodwill and toward ad¬ vancing educational standards and improving educational service. Granted a need for improved organization within the educational pro¬ fession and some consensus as to the desirability of the steps which I have just suggested, what excuse can possibly be offered for our failure to ad¬ vance more rapidly? The devil we seek is not far from home. So varied have our professional interests become, so specialized our teaching and ad¬ ministrative jobs, that it is almost a case of “the Lodges speak only to Cabots” and “the Cabots speak only to God.” We have forgotten that while the immediate tasks of the college instructor in geology and the kindergarten teacher may differ widely, both are or should be united in the common effort to nurture and inspire growth in human personality thru a process which we call education. Unless we can come to understand that we are, first, educators joined by a common purpose, pledged to a common goal, and second, elementary teachers, supervisors, principals, or college instruc- General Sessions 79 tors, we shall not achieve the strength of national professional unity which is so much needed today. Equally serious in the minds of those who find cause for concern in the disunity of our various professional groups is the inertia, if not indifference, with wffiich pleas for improved organization are regarded. This condition represents to my mind the worst influence which the individualistic, laissez faire tradition has had upon American education. Pursuing our separate ways, bickering over petty details of school organization or classroom pro¬ cedures, sometimes divided into opposing camps and rival associations, plug¬ ging our pet theories and schemes with self-satisfied contempt for the views of those on the other side of the fence, the educational profession at times represents to the layman a confusing and rather disheartening spectacle. Thus bewildered at not knowing what the profession stands for or wants, the layman is likely to be of little help in time of need. That time of crucial need is at hand. Before our very eyes is demon¬ strated daily the tragic effectiveness with which educational agencies can be prostituted to serve the selfish purposes of an autocratic minority — scientific principles rewritten to suit the whim of a superegoist, independence and originality smothered, everything in human character that spells free criti¬ cism and progress ground out. These things have happened, are happening, not in the group life of a primitive tribe, not in the backward, undeveloped areas of the globe, but in nations where people have for centuries advanced man’s conquest over the forces which enchained him. Neither can we face the domestic situation with equanimity. Educa¬ tionally, the most significant and at the same time the most perilous fact in our political-economic situation is that too many people are losing faith in education as democracy’s greatest defense against the breakdown of our system of self-government. In the face of widespread desertion of educational ideals from without and discontent over the insufficiencies of our own edu¬ cational system from within, I say to you that the time has come to shelve bur internal differences, our conflicting interests, and by consolidating our forces proceed to the great task before us. As I have tried to point out, the immediate step before us is the consolida¬ tion of our forces into one all-inclusive, national professional organization, with the overlapping and duplication of function, which today is all too prevalent in educational administrative organization, eliminated and at least some unity of purpose assured. This does not mean that individuality and variety must be sacrificed. It does mean that major differences are to be composed within the common pursuit of a common truth and in an order of preference which bears some relationship to the social relevancy of the issue under debate. Increasing professional strength thru unity of purpose can come only as more and more of us in education perceive and understand the unique func¬ tion of our profession in a democracy. We have no justification for our existence unless we can constantly demonstrate continuing progress toward the goal of increasing control thru self-government over all the conditions of life. As social illiteracy is reduced the evils and maladjustments from 80 National Education Association which we suffer will gradually disappear and the ideal of democracy as a richer and fuller life for all will be in part achieved. As our predecessors fought and, for all practical purposes, won the battle for universal educa¬ tion, so we in these days must unite for the duration of the war against social and civic illiteracy. In union is our strength; in an improved national organization is our power. FOURTH GENERAL SESSION SOCIETY’S INTEREST IN HUMAN RESOURCES MRS. MARY R. BEARD, AUTHOR, NEW MILFORD, CONN. When a guild, especially a national guild on a continent so vast as the North American, assembles thousands strong for discussion and resolution, the citizen-at-large listening, observing, and pondering upon this phenom¬ enon may be affected in two ways : by the phenomenon of the guild thrust¬ ing up in society and by the purposes which it sets for itself. Readers of writ¬ ten history have been taught to be affected in both ways. They know that the phenomenon of the guild is one of the major human expressions of his¬ tory, and they know that by its unity and purposes history has been largely shaped. Out of its physical and mental resources, out of its raw materials and its spiritual impulses, humanity has produced thru the ages the military guild, the priestly guild, the political guild, the social-work guild, legal, medical, and other professional guilds including the professional patriots guilds, the labor guilds, and teachers guilds among many more. Every guild has sus¬ tained its unity by means of an official hierarchy, honorifics, symbols, slogans, ceremonies, fictions, legends, charts, spoken and written words. Every guild has developed its peculiar heroes, provided them with haloes, and offered them as inspiration to its members and to persons outside its fold. The guild thrives by its esprit de corps and its loyalties to its traditions once they are formulated. U nder leaders, guilds reach out for power as if obeying a law of vitality and growth. But in this quest for expansion and power, internal conflicts arise in contests for leadership, in ambitions, and in ideals for the organization ; internal struggles and divergences of opinion as well as loyal¬ ties usually mark the course of guilds. With strength, guilds thus develop weaknesses. And yet what is strength and what is weakness in any guild or in every guild may not be patent to a guild itself at any moment in its career — least of all at the moment of largest membership and most aggressive zest — or patent to observers-at-large. Guild history according to this interpretation is perfectly illustrated by the prime guild of history — the military guild. If the unity of its member¬ ship at this hour seems dubious judging by current events in the Red Army, nevertheless by and large the military guild in history has tenaciously upheld its special concept of heroism and heroes, its ideal of glory created in the dawn of human history out of the human genius for human destruction ; and the military guild still exercises a powerful control over human thought, General Sessions 81 ruling from the tomb of the original Men of Mars. As a high Prussian offi¬ cial recently remarked, all the educated world is familiar with Alexander the Great, Caesar, and Napoleon and can talk about them with verve and conviction, while only a rare person knows anything about Pericles and few there are who can talk about him. For this situation the military guild is richly indebted to writers and to teachers guilds. Having fixed patterns of behavior, the military guild has succeeded in all times and places in getting its members dressed up in striking garb, honored, decorated, and remembered in the style approved by the war band. Now and then, notably in the case of Alexander, it has won deification for its chieftain and regularly it has been disposed to worship gods made in its own image. Thus when the Greek military guild faced the dilemma of a state goddess, Athena, beloved of the people as patron of peaceful agriculture and industry, it solved the dilemma by dressing her in armor and putting a warrior’s shield in her hand in place of the original distaff. In its perduring career the military guild has had the amazing good luck to escape an intelligence test which would require of it an accounting either of its knowledge of the adequate defense which it presumed to give any society or of its competent aggression. Neither accounting has been com¬ petently exacted of it by non-members of the military guild. Times without number, therefore, it has been allowed to play on human fear of the unknown and on human greed ; to foment war scares and wage wars ; to lose wars it set out to wage ; to wage excessive wars which sapped the vitality of the society it claimed to serve ; to provoke the organization of a rival war band seeking power in the interest of counter-revolution. Indeed from the cave¬ man stage of human society, thru the barracks age of militarism and on to our contemporary age of machine-gun nests and open frightfulness, the military guild has been permitted to pursue its passionate, irrational course with astoundingly little hindrance. But the military guild has not been thru the ages the only guild founded on the unity of irrationality. If it has persisted thru the glamor of its hero and glory myth elaborated by music, uniforms, symbols, and story-telling, so have other guilds one of which is almost as old and certainly as perduring as the military guild. This is the theological guild. At times the theological guild has maintained close public relations with the military guild and has blessed its arms, sanctified its heroes, and participated in its designs. Thus a statue has just been erected in New York City to a chaplain of the World War. At other times the theological guild has tried to transcend the irra¬ tionality of war, to subdue the fighting inclination, the fear of the stranger and of other things unknown, even by exalting the unknown. For limited periods it has succeeded in some measure in subjecting the heroism of battle- suicide to its own heroism of spiritual discipline and social peace. When the military guild has fought to excess, conquered more land than it could govern efficiently, hung itself by its own extended rope, as in the case of imperial Rome, the theological guild has fallen heir to its estate and has then substituted its own code of honor and its own objectives for the code of honor and the objectives of the military guild. In Roman periods of social 82 National Education Association crisis, the people were wont to go ecstatic and turn to one emotional cult after another in their search for romantic release from pain and sorrow. In our contemporary age we see military and theological guilds fiercely con¬ tending for the right to manipulate human resources according to their con¬ cepts of value, now working together against the political guild, now against each other. Like the enduring force of the military guild, the enduring force of the theological guild is due in no small measure to the backing of ideo¬ logues and teachers. Yet other views of social organization and the utilization of human re¬ sources have been formulated and have made their way into thought and action thru the ages. Thus a half rational, half irrational guild took form in the Middle Ages — the social-work guild — and, if Paul Lacroix may be accepted as authority, the social-work guild was women’s device in origin and only became an effective and prized arm of the Church after its utility had been fully demonstrated by the women. In time the military guild as well as the theological guild recognized its significance and made social work a strong adjunct of warfare. However, noblesse oblige has been dis¬ posed to become wholly rational by experimenting with the case system and serving the state when the state will accept its service. Another half rational and half irrational guild of history is the political guild, bearing all the marks associated with other leading guilds — namely heroes, heroics, legends, honorifics, titles, decorations, and a tight esprit de corps. The political guild is also a very old guild and in its public relations it has been accustomed to close affiliation with the military and theological guilds. Sometimes the political guild has indeed been a creature of those guilds; sometimes it has made them its adjuncts. The three have often been indistinguishable for all practical purposes. And since many military men have been elected presidents of our own United States — a state without a state Church — there has been a strong tendency on the part of writers and the teachers guilds to conceive all American history in terms of war and politics, as sheer campaign and combat. * In such circumstances it is natural, of course, for women to drop out of the thought and teaching of history. It is so natural, in fact, that even in this year 1937 it is possible for a young man or a young woman to graduate from our seats of the highest learning, and graduate cum laude, without having encountered a single woman in history other than a military-political type of woman such as Catherine the Great of Russia; a military-political- theological woman such as Isabella of Spain, the first absolute monarch of the modern age in W estern civilization ; or Cleopatra, the beloved of military-political men — the woman who perhaps loved in her turn for political ends. Despite the age and the endurance of the irrational guilds, human re¬ sources have achieved distinctly rational guilds, notably the merchants and workers guilds of the Middle Ages; and to their sway one historian at¬ tributes the comparative English social stability. Anyway, it was the aim of the handicraft guilds to produce goods of fine quality and market them for a just price. Occasionally in their public relations they could find a General Sessions S3 member of some other guild, such as Thomas Aquinas or Saint Teresa, of the theological guild, who would appreciate and defend their objectives. The military guild was less friendly as a rule and readily lent itself to profiteering in the output of the handicraft skills, particularly in armaments. To all the historic guilds the American continent with its fabulous natural resources and the American democracy with its libertarian prin¬ ciples has been hospitable. In fact our society may be said to be famous for its guilded age in which so many organizations shouldered up in democracy. And if the “father of this society,” George Washington, like Mercy Warren, the pen-mother of the Revolution which eventuated in this Repub¬ lic, would have preferred to have the military guild among others held down and suppressed in the interests of a high-minded culture, so hospitable has this Republic been to the military guild among others that it now bestows upon it the greatest sum in American history for its purposes unchecked and even unknown. Before the rise of the great military guild in the United States, the humanists in America supposed that to the teachers guild could be entrusted the rational task of instructing a self-governing people in the ways and means of defending the Republic and carrying on peaceful pursuits without subjection to other historic guilds. Unhappily they did not reckon on the professional patriots guilds which found this Republic receptive to their organization — patriots guilds which devised their peculiar code of values and honors in collaboration with the military guild, for their double strengthening. But whether irrational or rational in origin and intention, it is in the nature of a guild to ingrow. Indeed its very effort to extend its power may be but a phase of its ingrowing. If its energy is merely prehensile, it may so sap the strength of the society which sustains it that its own vitality is lowered. A guild may develop parasitically as long as there is substance for its nutriment; but no longer. Even Mussolini admitted that truth with respect to the military guild in the special interview recently accorded a representative of the Scripps-Howard newspaper syndicate. The only thing then which can check that tendency to a purely prehensile parasitism is the existence of a multiplicity of guilds none of which can possess the right to suck all the blood of society for its own overspecialized ends and some of which put back into society what they take from it or more. Society may thrive if it has many work guilds, for instance, producing goods and increasing wealth, not destroying wealth. It cannot long endure even one guild if that guild is purely mercenary; if it merely consumes. Society cannot even endure without guilds if its people think of life only in terms of consuming. Owing to the fact that every guild represents and takes advantage of human resources, it is important to analyze their respective claims for social maintenance and in that analysis perhaps a mere member of society can be of some service. Thus if we survey the military guild, we discover among the human resources which it organizes and utilizes : the bones and flesh of soldier boys such as Caesarism and Napoleonism heaped on countless 84 National Education Association battlefields ; fierce instincts for commanding human beings, geared to the ideology of unnatural death as supreme beauty; the capacity of mankind for fear coupled with its capacity for ignorance and poverty; and the inventive and business genius capable of creating supplies for the great game of killing. In summing up the human resources, or values, for theological potentials, we may list the ignorance which sees in magic the way out of dilemmas, the poverty which sees its salvation in wonder-working providence, the delight in giant masquerades and special spectacles pleasing to the eyes and ears, the yearning for mercy or superhuman revenge, the sensitiveness of the esthete to rhythm and pageantry, the consciousness of mystery reaching the flair for the occult. As for the teachers guild, if we run it back like other guilds to its source in the ancient of days, we encounter a unique organization for unique ends in the sixth century, B. C., known as the Pythagoreans. The Pythagoreans were a men’s and women’s association of enormous influence in Greece and Asia Minor at large. Aspiring to accomplish perfect social harmony amid immense chaos, it set up its own society and on rhythmical, that is mathe¬ matical, principles it regulated all life and labor — food, clothing, health, gesture, dancing, music, artistic expression of other sorts, customs, social relations, and philosophy. Pythagoras, from whom this association acquired its name, was called in his time both ‘‘universally informed'’ and a ‘‘feminine philosopher” for the reason that, like any universal philosopher such as Buddha or Christ, he was amenable to thought about both halves of the human race. On the thought of this teachers guild all later Greek thought rested to a considerable extent and, in its search for order amid chaos and ego-centric greed, it was never devoid of appreciation for feminine as well as masculine values and resources. Especially in the teachers guild of history have the interests of society- at-large found welcome. But even a society as conceived by teachers may be of many sorts, of course. Technically, a society is any organization of human beings containing the order of sovereignty. Thus in the modern age on this continent we have a politically democratic society, whereas in this modern age on a continent across the seas there are in many places military societies totalitarian in discipline and economy, if not esthetically totali¬ tarian according to the ideal of the old teachers guild. Prior to the setting up of our republican society, two main conceptions of desirable societies had taken form and root. One of these was the idea that the human resources of men and women must all be made to serve the state — that is, the political-military guild with or without the religious guild ; the other was the medieval Christian idea that men and women must give allegiance first of all to a superhuman being or trinity of superhuman beings whose desires for men and women are interpreted by the vicegerents on earth of the superhuman being or beings, while the subjects labor quietly in God’s vineyard and display goodwill toward one another with Heaven as their reward. General Sessions 85 Into that stream of social consciousness Aristotle’s meditation early entered. As he watched Alexander and his military colleagues ride roughshod over every resistance and receive the sanction of the religious guild, he asked himself searching questions while he explored the history of mankind. He subjected himself to an intelligence test — the highest kind of testing — and tried to discover in his own spirit as in the spirit of others what human resources were available for stable and constructive human ends. But he could never overcome his doubt about mankind’s ability to break the historic rhythm of irrational greed and violence — that rhythm which he found in history of power, oppression, revolt, and power ad infinitum — in short, the class war. While he struggled valiantly for an answer to that riddle of the universe, it was his tragedy never to find the answer. Aristotle did not live into the age of the enlightenment which confidently offered its answer to that riddle of the universe, the answer taken to heart by the fathers and mothers who launched the American Republic. According to the conception of society formulated in the age of the enlightenment, self-governing and reasoning individuals, permitted free criticism all along the line and equipped with the revolutionary modern technology for wresting abundance from the soil and other natural resources, were to pursue life rather than the rewards of death, enjoy liberty, and revel in happiness after the long revelling in sorrow. It was Aristotle’s misfortune not to be a man of the enlightenment enthusiastic about its new idea of progress. But it would have been his second misfortune if he had been a man of the enlight¬ enment living on into the dark age of Darwinism which elevated the doc¬ trine of naked tooth and claw to the position of a scientific law covering all life and labor, and esteemed abundance for the few with poverty for the many as the happy working out of the scientific law. On the supposition that, if knights and saints did not emerge thru the process of tooth and claw, as Malthus had expected, out of laissez faire plutocrats could at least emerge and in their rise demonstrate Nature’s wisdom or the perfection of philosophic liberty, America went strongly Darwinian. And in this catholicity of taste, it got Hollywood as supreme demonstration of tooth and claw. Aristotle’s tragedy became the great American tragedy as the enlighten¬ ment, with its cult of reason and goodwill among men and women, suffered almost a total eclipse in the American gilded age. In college after college the cult of tooth and claw — all life and labor red with human blood — entrenched itself. It even made its way into the newly-founded women’s colleges as men trained in biological Darwinism and its associated economic laissez faire were given chairs there for the instruction of the tender sex in order that it might become the equal of the rugged, “vital” sex. In this movement the political economy of John Stuart Mill achieved the status of a gospel. However the Mill that was extensively taught in our colleges was not the original Mill but an expurgated Mill devised by a professor who entered the teaching profession from the realm of big business. In his version, taken as authoritative, Mill was mutilated. His entire chapter on labor was cut out. All the sensitivity which he had 86 National Education Association displayed for social values was eliminated and only those parts of his treatise which apparently justified sheer greed were retained. Mill had clearly stated that Saint Simon and the woman he married, Mrs. Taylor, had helped him to appreciate the importance of goodwill and the social nexus qualifying tooth and claw liberty. But in the version of Mill devised for college study and instruction, the vital individual was freed from the social nexus, emancipated from social responsibility, made forgetful of woman whom Mill had endowed with all the rights of men, and left to work his licensed way as a creature of unqualified nature. But the enlightenment which seemed to have sunk behind the college hills had really suffered but a temporary oblivion on college campuses. Neither could it remain hidden forever from the view of college graduates as they entered public life. Confidence in the value of the ability to reason was widely restored, especially as readers recovered the knowledge of mutual aid as a factor in history and as the memory of mutual aid in their own experiences revived. Moreover always outside the world of collegiate ideologues, men and women had been upholding the rationality and human¬ ism of the enlightenment. Such a defender was Mrs. Elizabeth Cady Stan¬ ton, a self-educated woman of fine old American stock, who for twelve years during eight months of every year addressed large audiences in this country as a Lyceum lecturer. The words “ignorance and poverty” were always on her lips as she called for social considerations and appealed to her countrymen to make a decent civilization for themselves and their posterity in this rich land. She always pointed out the maldistribution of wealth which was making ignorance and poverty a national disgrace. Other men and women without number dedicated their lives in our dark age of Darwinian laissez faire to lightening the American physical tragedy and undermining its idealogy. Nor in fact were all the higher pedagogs silent or indifferent to the claims of society as against the individual. As reason returns, memory revives, and humanism unfolds, the American guilds one by one reveal their better intentions. Among these guilds, none has been historically more closely-knit, active, and powerful than the legal profession. None has been on the whole more vigorous and firm in asserting the rights of private property against society’s interest in mutual aid. The annual resolutions of the American Bar Association provide an anthology of cases defended by astute and ingenious minds devoted to a Darwinian view of law. Nevertheless even in this active and firm legal aid there is now a developing sensitivity to life as well as law. If one faction clings to laissez faire as if to a straw in a cyclone, the other lays positive and fearless emphasis on the obligations of the legal profession to society as a whole, including the unpropertied. What is more, in the march of judicial decisions may be observed a grow¬ ing realization of the social values. To avoid controversial issues, we may pass over the recent decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States upholding the Wagner Labor Act and the principle of social security. It may be alleged that these are the outcome of special circumstances. But there can be no occasion for controversy if we follow the chronology of the General Sessions 87 New York courts in connection with efforts of that state to get rid of the slums and their inhuman influence. In 1895 the New York High Court of Appeals reviewed a protest of Trinity Church against an order of the New York City Health Department, issued under a statute requiring it to clean its slum tenements and put water facilities on every floor. The Church contended that this order and statute were unconstitutional and contrary to due process of law. The Court sustained the statute however and the City of New York. In 1904 the Court of Appeals sustained the drastic Tenement House Law passed three years before. More than twenty years later a lower New York court upheld the State Housing Act of 1926 creating limited dividend corporations for the purpose of attacking the slum problem. In 1936 the Court of Appeals sustained the Municipal Housing Authorities Act empowering cities to condemn land and build houses themselves directly or thru public agencies. In his opinion in this case, Judge Crouch declared that despite old laws: “The slums still stand. The menace still exists.” Then he announced that “the cure is to be wrought, not thru the regulated ownership of the individual, but thru the ownership and operation by or under the control of the public itself.” Here in these cases is demonstrated a clear line of legal reasoning comprehending and sustaining step by step the efforts of public authorities in New York to attack and eradicate, at last by drastic measures, the menace and curse of the slum. If the whole legal guild had been all along as enlightened as its greatest members and judges, there would have been no 57 or 58 Liberty League Lawyers defending an anachronistic cause, and no pillorying of lawyers and courts at that greater bar — the bar of public opinion. In the career of the political guild in America there has been a steady, if uneven, trend toward social responsibility marked by the party splits, party eliminations, party reformations, revisions of sentiments and programs which still at this very hour are typified in every speech, public hearing, Con¬ gressional action, and committee session. Concern with the conservation of human resources now rings from every platform occupied by the political guild in power. Lip service at least is rendered to the philosophy that man must be kinder to man. In place of the Napoleonic dictum, lovingly recalled in the age of Darwinism by a professor of historical lore at a seat of the higher learning, that shooting a thousand men on strike was the best way to avoid shooting thousands, the political guild in power now assumes that shooting is no way to avoid shooting; that reason must come into labor- capital relations as into all the other relations of life. Also the medical guild, long devoted to the advancement of the healing art viewed as an art for private profit, now falls into line with the thought of society as a whole and endorses the idea of socializing medicine and pro¬ tecting human resources through birth control. What then of the contemporary teachers guild represented by this National Education Association? Like every guild it has its professional interests — its concern with matters of salary, grades, tenure, and promotion. Like every guild, it may turn inward upon its material interests and its purely pro¬ fessional advantages and schemes. Like other guilds, it may neglect or mini- 88 National Education Association mize its social responsibilities, the larger ends which the profession was created to serve, and dedicate its spirit to the letter of self-protection and advancement. Signs of such an ingrowing egotism are not wholly lacking even in the world of education any more than in the world of warring, business, medicine, law, or politics. But against these signs can be observed in the teachers guild a swiftly developing recognition of professional respon¬ sibilities to the society which sustains educators — a widening and deepening sensitivity to the changing requirements of decent social living. This recog¬ nition, this sensitivity, is evidenced in quiet ways. Thus amid a polyglot population composed of as many as forty different nationalities in a coal¬ mining region of Pennsylvania, women teachers ©f young children have been preparing them for interracial amity so fundamental to the continuance of our American republican democratic society. This is a dramatic historic achievement, history having been strewn with the wreckage of interracial strife. And in weighing every day’s news of the terrorism brought to bear in other parts of the world by race against race, utilizing the most primitive scapegoat technics and disrupting society to its very core, the brilliant achievement of these women teachers must be evaluated in the highest cultural terms. Instead of being an antisocial force, the patience of women with children is a human resource of incalculable importance. Thrown on the intellectual screen as a picture of human effort beside the picture of men’s impatience and passion which leads to the hurling of the young to murder and ruin, this femininity should unquestionably evoke a praise of effeminacy so conceived. If more women of a humanistic bent were permitted to exert their wit and intelligence in all the ranges of American education, America might be more secure in her social idealism, and even in her material security. However, sensitivity to social responsibility in the teachers guild is revealed in other ways as well. It is disclosed in innumerable essays, articles, and books written by individual educators; in the successive yearbooks issued under the auspices of the Department of Superintendence; in the discussions of classroom teachers on the floor of annual conventions ; in the work of the Educational Policies Commission now engaged in reconsidering and restating the fundamental policies for education in our turbulent times and on a national scale. The enlightenment within the teachers guild of America surely reflects its incorporation of those human resources which are the endowment of women no less than of men. It is not too much to claim that in every period of human society when thought has flowered on new levels of humanistic intelligence, that unfolding has been conditioned by the interchallenge of women and men. In Athens women and men together, in the philosophic academies, thru mutual discussion, built up the systematic thought of Greece to which the whole Western world still pays reverence. In Italy at the Renaissance and as the Renaissance spread to Spain, to France, and then to England under Queen Elizabeth, the same principle operated — the principle of mental stimulation by the mutual challenging of men and women in friendly association with each other. Hence the mutuality of General Sessions 89 interest and ideas in the N. E. A. is in the best cultural and intellectual and humanistic tradition. If such prosperity as we now enjoy synchronizes with the resurgence to power of a military guild and its affiliated armaments and shipbuilding indus¬ tries, such recognition of human resources for peaceful living as we now enjoy synchronizes with the enfranchisement of women and their entry into the po¬ litical guild. The last war in which the United States engaged cost all told at least 30,000,000 men’s and boys’ lives; for what end? It also cost $400,- 000,000,000 all told. And it has been estimated that: “With that money we could have built a $2500 house, furnished it with $1000 worth of furni¬ ture, placed it on five acres of land worth $100 an acre, and given this home to each and every family in the United States, Canada, Australia, England, Wales, Ireland, Scotland, Belgium, France, Germany, and Russia. (We might even have divided up to give Spain something.) We could have given to each city of 20,000 inhabitants and over, in each community named, a $5,- 000,000 library and a $10,000,000 university. Out of what was left we could have set aside a sum at 5 percent that would have provided a $1000 salary for a force of 125,000 teachers and a like salary for a force of 125,000 nurses.’’ Nicholas Murray Butler sponsors this estimate. And the plea of countless American men and women, within the guilds and beyond their ranks, is for the humanistic democratic peaceful way of life — for the renaissance and revision of the enlightenment, for reason and knowledge directed to creative enterprise viewed as an enterprise in civiliza¬ tion-making with cultural distinction. This plea rejects the apocalyptic- apoplectic w~ay of revolution by violence because its outcome cannot be rationally conceived, since it offers no solution for the historic rhythm of power, oppression, revolt, power, oppression, revolt, ad infinitum. Happiness thru violence is a romantic dream. If likewise hopeful, the liberal plea calls for the full exercise of intelligence, non-violent and rational, as the means for triumphing over the “adversities of nature and the perversities of culture," as trouble has been finely described. It would surely save much time and agony if the liberal enlightened way could be followed — time and agony saved for all. But what assurance have the pleaders for the rational way that their plea will be heard and that the decision of history as it is being shaped now in America will be on their side? The assurance lies in the high tribunal that hears our cause and in the law that this tribunal possesses for appli¬ cation to all pleas. The tribunal consists of all the public-spirited, socially- minded men and women thruout the land, the great and the humble, all in their places and functions responding to the necessities and possibilities of our common social life. The law which they have for application is the American heritage of noble traditions surviving and gaining strength thru the trials of independence-winning, constitution-making, criticism¬ functioning, democracy-establishing, union-preserving, slavery-eradicating, organized-labor accepting, civilization-enriching, knowledge-acquiring, and fulfilment-striving to the latest hour in which this huge convention assembles for the consideration of society’s interest in human values. Thru this heritage 90 National Education Association speak the voices of humanistic and rational men and women from all the centuries of history — the voices of hundreds distinguished in government, industry, labor, education, the arts, sciences, and letters. Thru this heritage also speak the voices of millions of men and women unnoted in the pages of written history and yet ever building and sustaining actual history as culture. Those voices are the voices of indomitable men and women. Here then is our tribunal, as majestic as the noblest and best men and women in the nation functioning in even* sphere of life. Here then is our law, our heritage, to be applied now and in the years to come. Here we rest our plea and our case, with confidence in its justice, with faith alike in its rationality and in its warm-hearted sensitivity which must accompany rationality if it comes down from its ivory tower, with a belief that courage exists among our people for the rendering of a verdict in our favor. Thus we face today and tomorrow without fear of death or life. THE CHALLENGE OF OUR CHANGING TIMES HONORABLE BROOKS FLETCHER. UNITED STATES CONGRESSMAN FROM OHIO If this great audience of teachers and education leaders assembled from all parts of the nation only knew of the boyhood difficulties your speaker had in adjusting himself to the idiosyncrasies of just one teacher at a time you would sympathetically understand why facing thousands of you teachers here in Detroit tonight is not as easy as it looks. May I say to you in confidence that your speaker’s early maladjustment to the teaching profession was distressingly painful. In those country school days, nearly all teachers were spanking specialists who, on a moment’s notice, could be induced to operate on the youthful seat of learning with a pedagog¬ ical enthusiasm that left the teacher breathless and the victim of her wrath wrong side up. We may have been a pain in the neck to the teachers but they certainly were a pain in other anatomical centers equally as sensitive to us. It always seemed to me then and it seems to me now that those teachers, so far as I personally was concerned, all too often had the wrong end in view. It was not unusual for teachers to be employed on the basis of how much they weighed rather than on the basis of how much they knew. Teachers with poundage as well as knowledge, with a wallop as well as a diploma, received special consideration. Sticking chewing gum in the towsley hair of the girl in the seat ahead, throwing paperwads when teacher was not looking, bringing a live mouse to school and turning it loose under the seats were some of the milder forms of country school deviltry which has gradually changed with our changing times. L nbelievable as it may seem to you younger teachers of the present day, nevertheless it is a fact that in the earlier period of the little one-room country schoolhouse, back among the hills, incorrigible boys, in an effort to annoy cross teachers they did not like, sometimes would place a carpet tack on teacher’s chair. Can you imagine such a thing today? A carpet tack on teacher's chair ! Only the very cross and unpopular teachers were given the carpet-tack treatment. It was seldom that any of them failed to get the point •General Sessions 91 and it usually elevated them to heights they otherwise might never have attained at all ! Gone forever are the obsolete teaching methods of our childhood days. All about us today we see striking evidence of miraculous change and advance¬ ment in everything pertaining to education. But even so, it still is somewhat disconcerting to realize that, in spite of our universal advancement in educa¬ tion, there appear to be just as many fools running at large today as ever be¬ fore. In fact, one of the lectures I am most frequently asked to give is on the subject, “The Five Biggest Fools.’’ The last time I addressed a Detroit audience the subject selected was, “The Five Biggest Fools in Detroit. You were not there. But you may be interested in knowing that one eccentric lady sent a letter to me afterwards in which she wrote: “I heard your speech last night on ‘The Five Biggest Fools in Detroit' and I didn’t like it. My husband didn't like it either. It is my opinion that you are all five of 'The Five Biggest Fools' you talked about !’’ Which goes to show you cannot fool a woman. They are on to us. Often I have wondered why it is that women lecture committees nearly always select as the first choice the subject this Detroit woman did not like. When invited to select a list of subjects for a series of lectures in a com¬ munity, I usually include in addition to “The Five Biggest Fools" other sub¬ jects which, thru the years, I have found appeal most to audiences such as. “Tragedies of the Unprepared,’’ “Which Way America, ’ “Why so Many College People Fail in Life," “Making the Most of Your Personality," “Education for a Changing World,’’ etc., and nine times out of ten the women on the committee will select as their preference, “The Five B ingest Fools.” Whether women do this in the hope of hearing the men get the worst of it or because they want to get even with someone they have it in for, I do not know. But it is not necessary to tell this audience that no amount of education can stop a fool from being what he wants to be. Recently scientists have gone so far as to say it is quite possible to get along without brains. This will be good news to many who are not here tonight. There was a time when we thought brains and education were absolutely necessary for success. But as evidence of our changing times, the American Medical Association announces that, after a surgeon had removed a large portion of a man's prefrontal brain area, the man lost all capacity to worry about anything and all his troubles vanished. He became a successful salesman in a line of goods about which he knew nothing. He sold two hundred and fifty thousand dollars worth of goods within a few weeks and is today amass¬ ing a fortune, the medical report states. Altho this man with part of his brain removed no longer complains or worries about anything, yet he is unable to stop his wife from worrying. His wife constantly worries about the fact that her husband does not worry any more now about the things he used to worry about ! One challenge of our changing times is the challenge to our belief that by using our presentday education methods to educate all, we can improve their intelligence or make them think. At last, we are beginning to realize 92 National Education Association that it is foolish to waste priceless education on worthless minds that do not want to be educated. The colleges and universities of America are over¬ crowded today with so-called students who have no business to be there. There is tragedy in the skimping, self-denial of those parents who waste their hard-earned money trying to educate a no-account, worthless son or a harem-scarem, spendthrift daughter who is uninterested in education, lacks capacity for education, and is unconcerned about making any use of the education that is thrust upon him or her. There is a point of diminishing return in that type of education which is acquired thru coercion or thru any other incentive except an intense passion for knowledge and how to use it. One of these overeducated failures, after leaving college and becoming tired of loafing around his father’s farm, ran away to the city. The family very seldom heard from him. One night, about fourteen years later, his father and mother were sitting in front of the fire thinking about the money they had wasted on his education when they were surprised to receive a telegram from their son — collect. Hurriedly they tore it open. The message read, “Dear Pa and Ma. I am coming home at last. Meet me at the covered bridge, down by the woods, at midnight tonight. Bring a shirt, a coat, and a pair of pants. I’ve got a hat.” Most of us are ready to admit that education cannot perform miracles in personality transformation for everybody. We admit that education has its limitations and shortcomings but when we frankly make these admissions the fact still remains that for the majority of people in this swiftly changing world, it is either educate or perish. In spite of all our modern inventions, in spite of all the miracle-like achievements of science, in spite of our teeming billions of wealth in this, the richest nation on the face of the earth, is it not true that the biggest problem confronting you and me and every man and woman in America today is precisely the same old problem that confronted our primitive an¬ cestors in the earliest beginnings of the human race? What is that problem? Is it not the problem of knowing how to adjust ourselves to a constantly changing environment in order that we may succeed, in order that we may advance, in order that we may survive? Was it not the unexpected, the unforeseen changes which they did not know were coming and their lack of knowledge of how to adjust themselves quickly to those changes in their environment when they did come, that destroyed millions of every generation down thru the centuries since the beginning? The forces that threatened the existence of primitive, dumb people of the past, before civilization really began, were the forces of nature about which they were ignorant and which they did not know how to control. Storms, floods, epidemics of disease, the murderous enemies of the jungle, lack of the means by which to acquire food, clothing, shelter, security ; these were the problems that challenged our remote ancestors, and with one third of our population ill-clad, ill-housed, and undernourished the same problems still challenge us today. General Sessions 93 When our so-called civilization got under way, men, thru education, learned how to protect themselves from floods, storms, epidemics of disease, and other destructive forces in their changing environment. Then what hap¬ pened? Men then began to think up, out of their own minds, new ways by which to destroy themselves. They began with their own minds, to create these new forces of self-destruction now more threatening to the existence of the human race than all of the relentless forces of nature combined since man first lived in caves and crawled the jungles in search of food. By our increased knowledge, constructive education, and constructive thinking we have conquered the natural enemies of our forefathers and made the wild, uncontrolled forces of nature our obedient slaves. Then what do we do? What a strange paradox! We turn right around and with the same knowledge, the same education, and the same minds proceed by destruc¬ tive thinking to create new enemies that threaten our very existence. We create new labor-saving machines and new changes in our environment more rapidly than we increase our capacity to adjust ourselves to these changes. We graduate thousands of young people from our schools to com¬ pete with millions who have no jobs. We educate youth for opportunity, then slam the door shut in their faces. In our changing times, is there a greater or more needless tragedy? What a challenge to our thinking! The Harrison-Black-Fletcher Bill Our chief hope of solving this age-old problem of survival, of adjustment to an ever changing environment, is thru the application of new knowledge. Let me repeat: Our hope of solving our old problems is thru the applicatio?i of new knowledge. Today we must face the challenge of financing the researches that will make this new knowledge available and of financing the distribution of the new knowledge to the masses, thru education. It was in the hope of meeting this challenge, in some degree, that I intro¬ duced in the House of Representatives, a bill providing federal aid to educa¬ tion, known as the Harrison-Black-Fletcher Bill, companion bill to the one introduced in the United States Senate by the distinguished Senators Harri¬ son and Black — and may I say to the everlasting credit of the Senate Com¬ mittee that the bill was approved unanimously. The bill was temporarily blocked in the House Committee by the un¬ democratic device known as the “secret ballot” ; a method of blocking legislation which, in my opinion, is unfair, un-American, and should be dis¬ approved by every thinking, patriotic citizen of the nation who believes that legislation should be considered aboveboard, in the open, on its merits, so that the people who elect us to Congress may know exactly what we are doing and why we are doing it. There is no place for legislative secrecy in a democracy on legislation in behalf of the children of today whose education and thinking will help to determine America’s destiny tomorrow. Federal aid not a new policy — Ever since the land grants for the support of public schools, totaling more than 241,000 square miles — nearly six times the area of my native state, Ohio — granted in 1802, the federal government has increased its support to schools and at no time has there been cause for 94 National Education Association criticism of the federal government’s policy, for never, at any time, has the federal government attempted to dictate or control in any way the teaching methods or the subjects taught. The New Deal is responsible for more generous financial federal aid to education in its various phases thru this emergency than has ever been sponsored by any previous Administration and it has rendered this great service to education without ever once interfering with local self-govern¬ ment in education. There must never be any federal interference with local self-government in education. The great need for federal aid to education is proved by the fact that only as recently as twenty-four months ago there were 42,000 schools without sufficient funds to operate a normal school term, resulting in tragedy for 3,500,000 school children and 102,000 teachers. Researches show that at least one eighth of the school children are facing the closed doors of opportunity. When the richest nation on earth permits 7,000,000, or nearly one third, of its school children to be taught by 250,000 teachers who receive less than $750 per year, and 30,000 poverty-stricken teachers who receive less than $450 per year, then there is need for an awakening of civic pride in the discharge of obligations to children. Educa¬ tion is the debt of each generation to the next. No nation can long survive that refuses to pay it. With 2,740,000 children of school age for whom there are absolutely no schools at all, and who therefore are denied opportunity to get any educa¬ tion, and another 2,745,000 who are forced to attend school in temporary structures, then any thinking person must admit that there is need for na¬ tional attention to the problem of building more schools and of enlarging and improving those we have. The first question the average young person is asked when he applies for a job is, “Are you a high-school graduate?” Thousands of employers refuse to hire anyone today unless he or she has at least a high-school education. Yet we deny millions of them the opportunity to secure a high-school educa¬ tion and this, too, in face of the fact that we have passed legislation, child labor legislation, denying young people under eighteen years of age a chance to work. Is it any wonder, in view of these facts, that our penitentiaries are filling up? The federal Department of Justice reports that crime costs more than twelve billion dollars annually and most of the criminals belong to the ignorant, illiterate, uneducated class. Why not spend some of the money for education that we spend to finance crime? Why are we compelled to have federal aid to education? The answer to that question is because by reason of the ownership and control by corpora¬ tions of the natural resources and industries and because the stockholders of these corporations reside in states other than those in which the resources and industries are located, therefore many of the states find themselves im¬ poverished and powerless to retain thru taxation a sufficient amount of current income produced within their borders to support adequate schools and other public services. The superior tax-paying ability of many of the so-called rich states who are able to finance their schools is partly due to General Sessions 95 the exploitation of the productivity of the poorer states. Much of the federal taxes collected within certain states are neither paid nor borne by the in¬ habitants of those states. Research studies indicate the various results if each of the states should undertake to support a program of education equal to the average for the nation. The state of Mississippi, for example, would be compelled to spend for schools alone more than 100 percent of all the revenue that could be produced by the most modern, model, tax system, thus leaving nothing what¬ ever for any other state or local government service. On the other hand, the state of Nevada would require not more than 16 percent of its tax resources for schools and, according to one study made, Delaware would require less than 4 percent, and New York and Massachusetts would require about 20 percent each. How Harrison-Black-Fletcher Bill will help — One purpose of the Harri- son-Black-Fletcher Bill is, thru the services of the federal government, to transfer some of the tax money from those sections where the money has been concentrated in greatest abundance to help give educational oppor¬ tunity in those sections where children are most numerous. Consider these facts for a moment. It is well known to everyone who has given any study to this subject that those sections of the nation least able to support public schools are devoted to agriculture. Yet these are the sections producing prac¬ tically all the nation’s future increase in population and a considerable per¬ cent of the future population of our cities as well. These conditions occur because of the difference in birth-rate on the farms as compared to the city. In our seven largest cities, the population of which consists chiefly of American stock, the birth-rate is 40 percent short of the rate required or necessary to maintain a stable population. In all cities having over a hundred thousand in population the deficiency in birth¬ rate averages over 20 percent and even in the smaller cities the deficiency in births is about 8 percent. On the other hand, farm families are producing about 50 percent more children than are required to replace the farm population and the rural non-farm families rear children at the rate of 30 percent greater than the number required to replace themselves. After personally visiting schools in every state in the Union, and after devoting years to this subject? in all of its phases, I do not, today, know a single argument based upon actual fact that offers convincing reasons why the federal government should not, as a matter of self-preservation, approve federal aid to schools. In my opinion President Roosevelt is rendering the schools of the nation a great service in appointing a committee to make available all the facts on this subject. I repeat: It is either educate or perish. No democracy can long survive illiteracy. What would Horace Mann, the immortal founder of the public school system in this nation, think, if he were alive today to see us using our educa¬ tion, our knowledge, and our thinking for purposes of self-destruction, in needless strife, in useless war? Greed-thinking, hate-thinking, war-thinking 96 National Education Association impels us to use the knowledge acquired thru education for the purpose of destroying ourselves and the civilization it has required centuries to build. And what are we doing about it? Unbelievable, but it seems we have learned nothing from the last war, for we are getting ready to do it all over again ! Listen to the radio, read the newspapers, in the theater see the armies of the nations marching in endless procession across the picture screen night after night. And what does it all mean ? It means that for the defenseless millions of the world a new and ghastlier holocaust of misery' and want is coming tomorrow. Across the seas and everywhere, munition factories are busy, working overtime. Battleships and airships are being constructed. Everybody is getting ready for another try at it ; getting ready for the annihilation of mankind ; using the knowledge acquired thru education not to build but to destroy. Then in the face of this appalling stupidity we have the audacity to call our¬ selves civilized. Take the profits out of it. That will stop it. Let the people vote on it in a national referendum before war is declared. That will stop it. Conscript the banks, farms, factories, railroads, and property of all kinds when you conscript men to die, and do not let anybody make a red cent out of it. That will stop it. Make the flag-waving, tax-dodging profiteers, the politicians and the legislators who, when a crisis comes, are always the first to shout their heads oft for war — make them go out and get shot first. That will stop it. Every time the combined nations spend a billion for battleships, make them spend at least half that much for the education of the youth of those nations, and that will help to stop it. What a challenge to the educators of all nations ! What a challenge to the leaders of religion! What a challenge to the leaders in business, industry, finance, commerce, and to the statesmen leaders of the parliaments of the world! If we have any sense at all, we will turn to the educators of our country and the educators of all nations and ask them to help rescue us from the disasters we bring upon ourselves by greed-thinking, hate-thinking, war¬ thinking, wrong-thinking. Most of the things we do not want in life are the things we create thru the misuse of our own minds. Only by educating these evil things out of our minds can we save ourselves, advance ourselves, and make the dreams for a better day come true. From the millions of youth now in school will come those who are to occupy places of leadership and power. Whatever fate awaits these millions of coming citizens will be determined by their thinking — and their thinking will be determined by the quantity and the quality of their knowledge, ac¬ quired thru education. Increasing the quantity, improving the quality of knowledge, and showing youth how to turn that knowledge into constructive thinking is the job that challenges the educators in these changing times. What the young people are educated to think, America will become under their leadership after those of us here today are gone. Never before in history have educators had greater responsibility or a greater opportunity than they have at this hour. If we expect our educators to meet the challenge of our changing times and thru education save our General Sessions 97 democracy and preserve our liberty, then we must see to it that educators are free to teach the truth. Those responsible for the education of tomorrow’s citizens must not be threatened and intimidated by the enemies of educa¬ tion. Enlightened public opinion must protect educators from being black¬ mailed into silence by bigoted reactionaries. Self-appointed, professional enemies of free speech, who mistake flag- waving for patriotism and who would Hitlerize our public schools by such infamous “Red Rider” legislation as was attempted not long ago in the United States Congress — these misguided ones must themselves be re¬ educated as to what democracy and liberty mean. Eternal vigilance is still the price of freedom. When attempts are made to ram down the throats of the people such undemocratic, un-American legislation as that which would throttle free speech, free press, and freedom to teach the facts, then it is time for every lover of liberty and democracy to come to the rescue. When you destroy the freedom to speak, to write, or to teach the truth in this land, you destroy liberty itself; and when you have destroyed liberty, you have destroyed America. As many of you know, I have, for more than twenty years, devoted part of each year to conducting free education forums in communities of every state, because I believe that legislators for the people should also be edu¬ cators of the people. The fact that in city after city, from coast to coast, men and women of all walks of life pack the largest auditoriums to standing room, is sufficient proof of the rapidly growing interest in education for adults as well as education for youth. In some of the hundreds of schools in which I have conducted daytime forums, they have dismissed classes for two or three periods in succession and sometimes for an entire half day. Of all the thousands of questions students have asked your speaker in these forums I have never known any student to ask a foolish question. Students want the facts, they want the truth and if we do less than give it to them, we are committing treason against their future. In these changing times, the young people as well as the adults are deeply concerned about economic changes they see going on about them. They are concerned about the dangerous years coming. They are asking if it is true that “civilization is a race between education and catastrophe” ! Believing with Horace Mann, who served in the Congress of the United States where I am privileged now to serve, that "education is our political safety”; that “a patriot should be known by the interest he takes in educa¬ tion of the young”; that "the common school is the greatest discovery ever made by man” ; believing that no legislator “is worthy of the honored name of statesman who does not include education of the people in all his plans of public service,” and treasuring in my heart the parting words of Horace Mann who said, “Be ashamed to die until you have wort some victory for humanity,” I, therefore, pledge myself anew to do all within my humble power to serve with you the cause of education thru the remaining years ahead. I too, “would be ashamed to die” without helping you thru the edu¬ cation of our nation’s youth, to “win some victory for humanity.” 98 National Education Association FIFTH GENERAL SESSION SECTION A BIRMINGHAM’S PLAN OF CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT — A bstract CHARLES B. GLENN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BIRMINGHAM, ALA. ; AND PRESIDENT, AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS In the plan of character development we have felt among other things that children as a rule would continue to receive advice and counsel from the home and the church, but that an opportunity presented itself to the school to consciously set up opportunities for the practise of the virtues taught by the church and home. Or better still, that the school should en¬ deavor to create an atmosphere in which character normally and naturally develops. When all is said, we can, in our opinion, do little more. Is it possible by wise planning to create a wholesome atmosphere in a school? We think so; at least the atmosphere may be improved. The plan calls for the adoption of a slogan each year, around which the curriculum and work of the year centers. Every effort is made to enlist the interest and cooperation of the whole city. The local papers generously place their columns at the disposal of the Board of Education; the clubs and civic organ¬ izations request speakers on the subject; ministers refer to it from their pul¬ pits. The interest is citywide; everybody plays the game with the children. What have been the results of this plan? No brief account can adequately convey an impression of the changes brought about in the community thru the general interest in these character development slogans set up by the Board of Education. It is not too much to hope that this is a healthier com¬ munity, the children are better sportsmen, manual labor has been dignified, the children have a higher appreciation of the beautiful, the savings bank accounts have increased more than a hundredfold, the students have at least given more thought to courtesy, and the widespread interest in the study of nature has resulted in a deeper appreciation of the world about them, and a desire to aid in the conservation of nature’s resources. The slogans endeavored to create a thirst for the worthwhile things of life and to provide opportuni¬ ties for satisfying that thirst. The children apparently have become more self-reliant. In the use of these slogans — Development of Character thru: Health, Sportsmanship, Work, the Love of the Beautiful, Thrift, Courtesy, the Study of Nature, the Worthy Use of Leisure, Wonder, Service, Coopera¬ tion, and Self-Reliance — the Board of Education did not look for any sudden conversion or overnight reformation, but is convinced of the wisdom and worthwhileness of this rather slow, painstaking, definite, well-thought-out method of procedure in character development. As a means of lending cooperation to the home in its effort to rear children of good character, this plan met with cordial support of patrons and gives promise of proving of lasting benefit to home, school, and community. General Sessions 99 THE PROBLEM OF LIFE GUIDANCE IN THE SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES — Abstract HERBERT R. STOLZ, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OAKLAND, CALIF. Formal education in public and private schools in the United States has, from the beginning, shared with the church and the home the responsibility of preparing the young for living. The use of the phrase “life guidance” is justified to emphasize certain fundamental aspects of the educative process. It is the major premise of this discussion that the failure of our culture institutions to meet the emotional needs of the on-coming generation is suffi¬ ciently evident to call for immediate careful consideration of the funda¬ mental demands of wholesome development and for such fulfilment as edu¬ cators can arrange in connection with the school curriculum. The education which prepares boys and girls for making a living often neglects their deeply rooted needs for personal significance in relation to their fellows and in relation to the plan of the universe. For the great majority, happiness and security will depend upon successful participation in family and small group activities rather than upon successful competition in the economic field, or upon academic or professional eminence. A recently completed study made by Daniel A. Prescott of Rutgers Uni¬ versity indicates that the emotional needs of growing children include meta¬ bolic balance, activities appropriate to structure, personal affection, belonging to a group, being like their peers, rich experience with reality, symbolization of this experience thru language, progressive independence, and a stimulating balance between failures and successes. In order to give life guidance to the pupils, each teacher should try to understand each pupil in terms of his peculiar emotional needs and, with the cooperation of the parents, direct the youth’s experience to fulfil these needs. LTnder this orientation, subjectmatter mastery becomes but one of many ways of guiding the pupil towards satisfying living. The personal example of the teacher, his sympathy, and his skill in the systematic, inci¬ dental organization of social experience are much more important than his knowledge of subjectmatter or his ability to prepare pupils for passing tests. SECTION B THE AUTOMOTIVE SAFETY FOUNDATION: ITS AIMS AND PURPOSES — Abstract PAUL G. HOFFMAN, PRESIDENT, THE STUDEBAKER CORPORATION, SOUTH BEND, IND. It seems to me that there is a very definite responsibility on the part of educators in both the primary and secondary schools to train children and young people how to think and act in a motorized civilization. To what extent actual driving instructions should be given in high schools, I do not know. It is a stupendous job, but the extraordinary records made by those 100 National Education Association drivers trained by professional teachers is such that I am hoping funds will be provided so that the schools can accept this responsibility. Of course, it is in the field of adult training in driving that we meet our greatest problem. Governmental authorities, the schools, and civic organizations will all have to apply themselves to this task if much is to be accomplished. Having disclaimed practically all responsibility, you may well inquire as to why there is an Automotive Safety Foundation, and what we expect to do. In the first place, I should explain that our principal job is raising money for allocation to certain national organizations which, in our opinion, are in a position to be of much help to the authorities in their safety programs. These organizations roughly divide into those which are doing work of a professional nature and those which are assisting in the field of adult educa¬ tion and the development of public support for highway safety programs. Organization for safety is a professional job. The proper state officials have to be sold on organizing an official statewide safety committee. That committee has to be assisted in the development of its program. The Founda¬ tion is giving a substantial grant to the National Safety Council which is eminently qualified for an undertaking of this character due to its many years of experience in the industrial safety field. In the field of enforcement we are giving grants to both the International Association of Police Chiefs and Northwestern University. Northwestern University is giving specialized training in sound selective enforcement, and supervising similar courses in universities such as Harvard, Alabama, Rut¬ gers, Pennsylvania State, and Tennessee. Last year more than 500 police officers took these courses. The International Association of Police Chiefs is specializing in the installation of Accident Investigation Bureaus. Some twenty cities have already had Bureaus installed, and the applications for installation are in such volume that no more can be taken on until 1938. In the traffic engineering field, funds have been granted to Harvard Uni¬ versity so that an advanced course in traffic engineering could be offered and 16 fellowships provided. In addition to the 16 fellows who have taken the courses this year, 14 men have paid their tuition. These 30 men will soon graduate and in almost every case there is an important job waiting for them so that there will be an immediate application of the knowledge that they have acquired. In the field of research, several important activities are being carried on at this time. The first has to do with the relationship of speed to accidents. Despite the fact that there has been much talk about speed, little actual data is available. Another project includes research into driver testing. This is being carried out under the joint sponsorship of the Motor Vehicle Adminis¬ trators and the Harvard Bureau. In the field of education we are working thru the American Automobile Association, American Legion, the National Grange, Highway Education Board, National Congress of Parents and Teachers, and the General Fed¬ eration of Women’s Clubs. Safety education is being brought directly home to millions of Americans thru these splendid organizations. In addition to the safety education being carried on by these organizations thru speeches, General Sessions 101 newspaper publicity, slide films, movies and talkies, they have done a yeo¬ man’s service in building public support for the official state, county, and city programs. The officials and public authorities in Rhode Island, Massachu¬ setts, Iowa, and Minnesota testify that without the support of these organi¬ zations they could not have secured either the legislation or the funds neces¬ sary to carry forward their state programs. To this distinguished group of educators, the Automotive Safety Founda¬ tion offers neither criticism nor advice. It is for you, not for us, to determine to what extent safety education should be taught in our schools. We do promise you the unqualified support of our own organization and those affili¬ ated with us for whatever program is officially adopted. SAFETY EDUCATION IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS — A bstract MARIAN LA VERNE TELFORD, CONSULTANT ON CHILD SAFETY, EDUCATION DIVISION, NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL, NEW YORK, N. Y. Safety education in the elementary school has always contained two basic elements : ( 1 ) integrated classroom instruction adapted to the needs of par¬ ticular groups of children, and (2) faculty supervised extracurriculum activities. Integrated instructional programs have been developed by groups of teachers provided with information on the causes of accidents to children and suggestive materials with which to work, and who have been encouraged to keep life situations in mind in arranging their work. Faculty supervised extracurriculum activities have consisted largely of safety clubs or councils and school safety patrols. The latter are extraordi¬ narily popular. About 250,000 boys and girls now serve as members of safety patrols in the schools of 1200 cities and towns. Their function is to aid in the training of child pedestrians. They represent an extension of safety in¬ struction beyond the classroom, but are not junior police. There is a tremendous number of people desiring to recommend changes in or additions to the program of the schools. I am one of them. I should like to make some recommendations on the development of a safety program. I believe: 1. That school administrators should assume responsibility for safety education; direct and control the school safety program, and utilize the resources of public and private agencies in its development. 2. That classroom teachers should be given an opportunity to secure any retrain¬ ing found useful in the development of safety programs. 3. That suggestive teaching material should be provided for classroom use. 4. That specific information on the causes of accidents resulting in absence from school should be secured thru the adaption of the Standard Student Accident Report¬ ing System. 5. That school buildings should be inspected periodically by authorized technicians or thru the use of a non-technical, self-inspection blank. 6. That tests should be made to determine the results of safety instruction and activities. 7. That patrons should be kept informed on the safety program of the school. 8. That teachers should recognize their personal responsibility for the solution of the accident problem. 102 National Education Association SAFETY EDUCATION — Abstract WILLIAM H. JOHNSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL. At the beginning of our campaign for safety more than two years ago, the high-school principals were asked to give this most important subject their earnest consideration. In the fall of 1935 a poster and slogan contest was conducted in all the high schools on traffic safety. This competition was held in connection with the Chicago Automobile Trade Association’s Automobile Show of Novem¬ ber 1935. Each poster and slogan submitted was placed on display in the booth of the Keep Chicago Safe Committee at the Automobile Show and each winner — 35 in all — received a bronze plaque for his school. This type of contest and the spirit aroused helped to start the school popu¬ lation of Chicago in its organization of safety councils. Many of the high schools almost immediately organized these councils in the following manner — as an extracurriculum activity: High-School Safety Commissions or Councils with suggested activities A. Automobile Driving Department 1. Charts illustrating good driving practise 2. Proper parking of cars during and after school hours 3. Auto licenses, insurance, inspection 4. Proper maintenance and repair B. Fire Department 1. Fire drills, boxes (operation, location on the street and in the school) 2. Fire prevention 3. Fire hazards — inspection C. Police Department 1. Guards, for crowded halls and stairs, sidewalks, street cars, and automobiles 2. Traffic violations of the school, the city, the state 3. Protection of lawns and walks, refuse, snow, ice, water, obstructions D. Publicity Departments 1. School papers, bulletins, the community papers, metropolitan papers, and magazines 2. Assemblies, movies, prominent speakers, plays, debates, campaigns E. Rules and Regulations Department F. Student Court G. Library Committee H. Home Accident Committee. Everything in this type of council work stresses safety in some form or other. This activity is continuing and increasing in all the high schools. Movies on safety have been shown to the students by some of the large auto¬ mobile companies, namely, General Motors, Chrysler, and Ford ; by several insurance companies ; and by the Keep Chicago Safe Committee. The students contributed safety material to the booths of the Automobile Show in 1935 and 1936, and to the American Vocational Association con¬ vention in Chicago in 1935. This year a contest was conducted, with the idea of stressing safety, in the House and Garden Exposition. General Sessions 103 Various organizations such as the National Safety Council, the Chicago Safety Council, and the Society of Automotive Engineers have been of great assistance in this field of education and have contributed materially to our safety plans. As many serious accidents have resulted daily from carelessness before the opening and following the dismissal of the schools, we appealed to the Chi¬ cago Motor Coach Company and the Chicago Surface Lines for help in load¬ ing, unloading, and rerouting cars and buses and in handling the transporta¬ tion of students to and from the schools as well as on educational field trips. The response of both companies has been very satisfactory and will, I am sure, help to reduce that accident hazard. The WPA men, with their white safety belts, have assisted materially in helping to control traffic at school crossings and bolster up the schoolboy patrol. The city traffic engineer has had marks painted for pedestrian cross¬ ings and has also placed many signs warning motorists to be careful of the school children. The police department has interested itself and is cooperat¬ ing with the principals of local schools. Police help in the guiding of students at busy intersections, cautioning against hitch-hiking, and offering sugges¬ tions as to the proper use of bicycles and roller skates. Members of the force, stationed in the vicinity of the schools, have proved to be splendid guardians in the school areas. There are many excellent pamphlets on all aspects of safety distributed by insurance companies, various motor clubs, and automobile manufacturers. These have been supplied in quantities, free of cost, where requested, and have been distributed to the students to study and to take home. Topics on safety promotion work are assigned to the English and civics classes and are made a part of the course of study in the shops and laboratory subjects. In the physical education classes the students are instructed in proper health habits and in first aid. For two years the interest in this safety work has grown, and while it moved very slowly at first, it is now gathering sufficient momentum to carry thru to all lines of high-school work. The students are beginning to feel that every phase of their school life must have in it some consideration of safety, and thus they are unconsciously learning consideration for others, caution, alertness, and other character-building fundamentals. SECTION C SOME DETERMINING FACTORS IN THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION —Abstract JOHN GUY FOWLKES, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WIS. It seems to me that the major factors in a social and economic background of teachers are teacher qualifications, teacher compensation, teacher tenure, and teacher retirement. This discussion will be limited largely to the matter of qualification of teachers. 104 National Education Association In developing the best possible program of training for teachers it seems essential to consider and take cognizance of the following factors: 1. The selection of prospective teachers 2. The training of prospective teachers versus the training of experienced teachers 3. The length of the term of college education 4. The general education of teachers 5. The special education of teachers 6. The need for a teacher internship. It seems clear to me that the social and economic position of teachers can approach that which the profession should demand only by a marked im¬ provement in the qualifications of our group. To be effective, the imposition of higher standards, both personal and professional, must come from our¬ selves. Adequate salaries and protected or indefinite tenure are essential in the improvement of the social and economic status of the teaching profes¬ sion. However, qualifications of teachers and compulsory retirement ages are so inextricably intertwined with salaries and protected tenure that the ques¬ tion might well be raised as to whether it is not desirable for teachers to exert equal effort toward the enactment of legislation pertaining to all four of these factors. Certainly, it seems clear that up to date there has been less effort exerted by professional educators toward the enactment of legislation which would guarantee more careful selection and better training of teachers than has been exerted toward the enactment of tenure and salary laws. It is realized that the suggested program would bring certain hardships. First, it would prove quite disconcerting to that large number of young women who look upon their preparation for teaching as insurance until an acceptable matrimonial contract appears. Second, it would be unwelcome to the men who look upon teaching as an avenue of quick money until they can study medicine, law, or some other chosen field. Moreover, the full year of practise teaching would prove troublesome to some of the smaller teacher¬ training institutions. In sharp contrast to these factors, what would be the effect on boys and girls? The answer to such a question is far too signifi¬ cant for me to venture upon here. Ruskin once defined a laborer as one who works with his hands, an artisan as one who works with his head and hands, but an artist as one who works with his head, hands, and heart combined. A teacher should be at the same time an artist and a consulting engineer in the realm of human behavior. A teacher should reflect the spirit of unerring ac¬ curacy of the scientist on the one hand and the pulsating imagination of the artist on the other. RETIREMENT — Abstract T. T. ALLEN, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, EAST STROUDSBURG, PA.; AND CHAIRMAN, NATIONAL COUNCIL ON TEACHER RETIREMENT OF THE N.E.A. The very nature of the work of the teacher is such that freedom, as far as possible, from financial worry is essential to a high standard of efficiency in the schoolroom. If the teacher alone were affected by worry and anxiety General Sessions 105 it would be unfortunate, but a teacher who faces retirement from service with no income will find it increasingly more difficult to inspire his pupils with the ideals of character and service they should receive in our schools. The arguments which may be advanced for the establishment of sound teacher retirement systems and the improvement of those already established have been summarized by the National Education Association in a bulletin entitled “Teacher Retirement Systems.” We quote from that bulletin: “A sound teacher retirement system ( 1 ) protects school children from teachers made incompetent by disability or old age; (2) attracts capable, far-sighted young people into the teaching profession; (3) keeps good teachers in the service; (4) increases health and efficiency of teachers by removing worry and fear of a destitute old age; (5) improves morale in the teaching force by opening the paths of promotion and encouraging professional growth ; (6) treats teachers fairly by giving them protection similar to that given other citizens who come under the Social Security Act.” The existence of the Social Security Act means that we no longer have to fight alone in trying to bring about that better understanding on the part of the public which will make possible the establishment of new retire¬ ment systems and the improvement of existing retirement systems. The National Council on Teacher Retirement stands ready to assist in every possible way toward the further solution of all problems of teacher retirement. TEACHERS’ SALARIES — A bstract EUGENE B. ELLIOTT, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, LANSING, MICH. America can afford to pay reasonable salaries to its teachers. We should bow our heads in shame when we realize that in 1933-34 one teacher out of every three received less than $7 50 for the year’s service. Regardless of our opinions as to the advisability of laws regulating sal¬ aries, regardless of what we might think is the right thing to do in behalf of the teaching profession, we must concede that a successful teacher can never be paid all that he is worth either to the individual child or to society. We should pay our teachers enough to attract young men and women of the highest personal and professional qualifications and at the same time hold on to those who continue to improve themselves thru experience, travel, and further study. We should permit those who remain in teaching to live with the material and cultural surroundings commensurate with their re¬ sponsibilities to youth and society, and at the same time provide whereby those who are incapacitated by age or disability may retire in decency, mak¬ ing way for a new generation of teachers. These expectations are not too high for American democracy. Many states and communities have courageously and intelligently at¬ tacked this problem of teachers’ salaries. Many districts have placed the salary problem on a sound business basis where it rightfully belongs. We should advocate where salary deductions persist that immediate restorations 106 National Education Association to pre-depression levels be made, and where inadequate salaries are tradi¬ tional a survey should be made to determine the causes with a forward- looking program put into operation to remedy the situation. Salary schedules should be installed and administered so as to provide adequately for the experience, training, responsibilities, and abilities of teachers. Adequate salaries for teachers are an investment in the future of America. This great nation can well afford to place in every classroom a competent and well-paid teacher. SIXTH GENERAL SESSION THE CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES STUART CHASE, AUTHOR AND LECTURER, GEORGETOWN, CONN. It is a great pleasure to me to be here and I do not know of any audience in America or in the world which I would rather address on this particular subject. The story runs that an old Nebraska farmer was sitting on his porch during a dust storm not so long ago. When asked what he was watching so intently, he replied, “Well, I’m counting the Kansas farms as they go by.” Kansas farms are good farms and the North American continent is a good continent. Its beauty, its wealth of natural resources, its great north-and- south wedge laid across the temperate zone — that zone where men have fought harder and worked harder — make it the best continent on earth. It is a pity that we, like the Nebraska farmer, should sit on our front porches watching this great, good continent go out from under us. It is our home¬ land. It is where our children must stay. When it is gone, in the sense of a hospitable environment, where shall we live? Many Kansas farms have gone. The whole Dust Bowl is going. Other areas involving millions of people have lost their resource base in land, water, mineral deposits, and fisheries. We have been called the richest nation on earth and probably we are now, but how rich is the most lavish of prodigal sons after the last of the old man’s barns are sold and the proceeds spent? We have had three ominous warnings in the last few months: the great floods in the East in the spring of 1936, the superflood on the Ohio of this January, and the great drought of last year. We are Americans, dependent on the hospitality of North America. We concern ourselves primarily with personality, jobs, politics, the turn of human affairs, which is all very natural, but how many of us really know the continent upon which we live? We ask: “Who is going to win the election?” “How is business getting along?” How often do we ask, “How is North America getting along?” Now, that is my subject this evening. If my story has a hero, it is the con¬ tinent of North America, especially the broad temperate zone we call the United States. First I shall try to describe briefly the primeval environment. Then I shall try to tell how it looks after three hundred years of ruthless exploitation. And finally I shall ask, “What are we going to do about it?” General Sessions 107 Suppose we charter an airplane and cruise leisurely across North America. Suppose we equip it with one of H. G. Wells’ time machines which allows us to go back and forward in time. Suppose we equip it with a series of geophysic diviners which enable us to look below the crust of the earth and see the minerals. Now we crank our time machine and go back three hundred years. How did America look, say, in the year 1630 when there was only one small settle¬ ment on the Massachusetts Coast and a few Mexicans and Spaniards in the Southwest? Covering the land far beyond the Mississippi was forest, broken here and there with meadows. But, a squirrel might have left the East and traveled west for a thousand miles without seeing a flicker of his shadow in the overshadowing forest. It was a lordly forest in the East. White pine ran straight and true two hundred feet in the air, on some of them presently to be marked the broad arrow of the king’s men — that spire was to be a mast in the king’s navy. In the West, Douglas fir, some three feet in diameter, towered three hundred. In California the Sequoia, some thirty feet in width, with four thousand annual growth rings, the oldest of living things on the planet and perhaps the most majestic! Where the empire of the forest ended, the empire of the grasslands began. The waving grasses of the prairie covered one-sixth of all America, tall, luxuriant, and deep rooted. Farther west we reach mid-continent, the twenty-inch rainfall line, where the grasses begin to shorten — waist high, knee high, ankle high. Still farther west, in the arid regions of the Great Basin, as well as to the south, where the mountains blocked off moisture, other types were found, adapted thru the centuries to live with a minimum of water — sage brush and mesquite and many others. They spread a mat over the dry plateaus, held the sands in place, and at certain seasons were radiant with flowers. In the meanwhile, the surface layer of humus soil, manufactured by thou¬ sands of generations of plants which have died and decayed, was the most precious of all North America’s resources. I wonder if you realize what a thin skin overlaying the continent forms the foundation of our subsistence ! Just that little layer of humus soil supports all plant life, all human life, and all animal life, and it is here that nature prepares for active growth. It takes from 500 to 1000 years to build one inch of humus soil. New soil is like a bank account. Under natural conditions, plants and animals die and return the minerals to the soil with a margin to spare — the bank account grows. Deposits exceed withdrawals. Under small farm conditions, the bank account just about balances with the bank deposits. But, under tenantry, the minerals go out of the soil never to return and the bank account shrinks. This condition has well been called “soil mining.” Artificial fertilizer helps some but to date the return in America has been pitiably inadequate. In 1630 we see that the soil was building and the bank account was growing. The rivers ran clear and fresh and sparkling to the sea. The average rainfall is probably unchanged to what it was then but nature then, by every possible device, kept the water on the land. The last ice age had scooped out great glacial pockets and these had be¬ come sparkling ponds and lakes. Meanwhile, underground were great 108 National Education Association artesian reservoirs. Now, these artesian basins, lakes, marshes, and the humus itself formed a system of great natural reservoirs which held the rains and melting snows and cloudbursts, stored them slowly underground and as a result the flood crests were reduced. The waters did not run off so fast. It was a great balanced device for keeping the inflow and outflow in equilibrium. Now, too often men say the thing to do is dredge the river channels and straighten them, build levees and hustle the water off the land, but Nature, like a good football coach, says, “Hold ’em.” Men were few in primeval environment but wild life was prolific. In Kentucky where the buffalo came over the mountains to the salt licks, the early settlers drove their wagons three abreast. The elk in the Alleghenies, the antelope, and the bear were plentiful. The beaver built dams from the Atlantic to the Pacific. On the Rocky Mountains, sheep and goats clung with airy grace to eternity. Geese, turkey, ducks, cranes, and wild geese drove their wedges over the flvways, north in the spring and south in the winter. The flights of pigeons in abundance obliterated the sun. Salmon leaped up the Columbia; shad, up the Penobscot and Delaware. There were trout in every mountain stream. North of the Rio Grande were less than a million human beings — Indians and Eskimos. The Indians, contrary to what my teachers told me, were mostly farmers. They had imported from Mexico what is called the corn-bean-squash complex, and tended their farms, with some hunting on the side. They grew sweet potatoes, wild rice, tobacco ; they gathered fruits and nuts; they made maple syrup. The Indians respected nature. They kept the bank account solvent. In 1933 when the government launched its con¬ servation program, the most willing hands to be found the nation over were the Indians’. This was their ancient way of life. This was what they knew best how to do — work with nature. Adjusting our instruments and looking underground, we find vast coal mines, huge reservoirs of oil, great deposits of lead, copper, phosphates, natural gas, and many other minerals — the richest deposits of any equivalent territory! The North American continent before the coming of the white man was rich and beautiful, wild and tempestuous in storms and climatic changes, and perhaps the most bountifully endowed by nature of all the continents. Forests, grasses, and wild life had achieved a maximum vitality. Pests and diseases were at a minimum. Now, this was a long, slow process, taking thousands and thousands of years to develop the hardiest crops. It is called climax. The forests in their exuberance invaded the grasslands; the grasslands invaded the arid lands and the deserts shrank. The whole water system was in equilibrium. This was then the stage upon which the drama was to be enacted. Out on Cape Cod the white tailed deer looked out to sea. Over the horizon came a ship with billowing sail. Now we crank our time machine and look forward to today. Again we cruise slowly back and forth. We find the basic map changed slightly across the isthmus ; the coast line changed by erosion a bit ; and some river chan- General Sessions 109 nels straightened. But coming closer, we notice enormous changes. The old forest empire and the vast grasslands have completely disappeared ; the deserts expanding, the Dust Bowl expanding. We see a quarter of America in plowed farms where once were forests and grasses. We see a network of irrigation, especially in California, with many miles of pipe lines. The old virgin forests covered 820,000,000 acres; now only 80,000,000 acres or less than one-tenth of it remain. Of that acreage 200,000,000 acres have been cut over but are growing again to inferior crops, while 100,- 000,000 acres have been burned over and now are dead and dying lands with¬ out plants. An unprecedented situation! In the meanwhile we are cutting our timber five times as fast as we should. Wheat crops ripen every year but it takes a lumber crop a century to mature. There is some virgin timber left but scientists search up and down the Mississippi for varieties of native grasses. The primeval sod was over- grazed and burned off and overplowed. Grazing lands are now seriously depleted. First came the cattle boom in the eighties and presently four were grazing where there was one before. Then came the sheep — too many sheep — and Winchesters barked in the war between sheep men and cattle men! Then in 1914 and 1915 came the great demand for wheat due to the War, and farming became for a time a profitable enterprise. The old short grass plains were ripped up where the plow should never have gone. The old grass empire covered 725,000,000 acres. The forest service now reports only 40,000,000 acres in really first-class condition. Once capable of supporting 22,000,000 head of cattle, it now supports not to exceed 10,- 000,000. Meanwhile the soil, the greatest resource of our country, is visibly and rapidly declining. The thin humus is going, and when it goes, life goes. Two agents are responsible — erosion by wind and water, and mining the soil for crops without adequate return of mineral matter. During the last year, preparing for my book, I traveled back and forth some 6000 miles looking at the ravages of water erosion and looking at the many attempts being made to bring the soil back. First comes sheet erosion. You cannot see it. The farmer only knows it when he finds his yield begins to decline. Then comes finger erosion, as tho one dragged his hand down over the slope. And then come the gullies cutting deep. In Stewart County, Georgia, I have looked into gullies 200 feet deep, covering 40,000 acres. A third of the county is now gone, all starting from a little trickle of water running off a farmer’s barn. Altogether, we are reliably informed, 3,000,000,000 tons of solid con¬ tinent are washed out of America into the oceans every year by soil erosion, largely man-made. It would take a train of freight cars 475,000 miles long to carry this continental slice away — and that train would girdle the equator nineteen times. Plant food may be restored by fertilizers but when water takes the soil, only Nature can rebuild it, and her rate is only one inch in not less than 500 years. Those gullies in Stewart County, and many others, cannot be restored short of a geological epoch. Altogether 100,000,000 acres of former cultivated farm land have been essentially ruined by water erosion. That is an area as large as the states of Illinois, Ohio, North Carolina, Maryland, and 110 National Education Association Wisconsin — an area as large as 1,250,000 farms placed side by side. An¬ other 125,000,000 acres has lost the greater part of its top soil while a third section of 100,000,000 acres finds the process well under way. Mean¬ while 9,000,000 acres of good grassland have been reduced to desert by wind erosion, and serious damage is reported on 80,000,000 acres more. It is hard to grasp. On a single day 300,000,000 tons of rich top soil were lifted by the wind from the great plains and deposited where they would create the most damage and discomfort. Sand dunes began to form and people died of dust pneumonia. Children were lost on the way to school as in a blizzard. On a bad day you could not drive at mid-day without head¬ lights. Altogether we are reliably informed that one-half of the original fertility of our country has disappeared due to these various agencies. Soil erosion is the direct result of stripping the grass from the slopes and ripping the natural cover from the great plains. Here is a sloping cellar door. Take a watering can and sprinkle a quart of water at its top. We have a little measuring trough to catch it as it comes down. Measure the amount which slides off. Except for a little evaporation, the whole quart will be at the bottom almost instantly. Now, tack a piece of thick carpet on the door. Again take your watering can and pour your quart of water. It will be quite a while before a little trickle will come into the measuring trough but that trickle will run for a long, long time. That is the story of water erosion in its simplest form. The cellar door is any land with a slope. The can full of water is rain¬ fall. The bare boards are bare plowed fields, unterraced, without contour plowing. The carpet is the natural cover, either grass or forest. In the first place, the water rushes over, taking the top soil with it and in the second place, the cover absorbs the water, puts much in underground storage, and no soil comes down. Broadly speaking, American agriculture today has been a bare cellar door without any carpet upon it. From the crop lands, from the bare burned slopes of the devastated forest, from the broken sods of the grassland, rain and melted snows rush to the rivers in a fraction of the time it used to take and run red with mud and silt where once they were sparkling and clear. And, of course, as the water runs off, the underground artesian basins lower and the water table drops and drops and drops. Those of you who came thru the Dakotas, those who came from Iowa and eastern Kansas, know what is happening to our water table. In some places it has fallen thirty feet in the last few years. This dropping is rendered the more severe by pumping for irrigation as in California, a very critical case indeed. Many of the old marshes and swamps have been drained by speculators and when laid bare, the suckers came out from the city lured by their claims for it, and the whole thing worked out a dead loss. Those in Wisconsin and Minnesota will know what I am talking about here. The old natural reservoirs have been seriously depleted and so floods speed up and droughts are more severe. Meanwhile, on the lower parts of the rivers, attempts have been made to control them by building levees as on the Mississippi. See what happens. You huild your levee. That is all right for a while. All the time from every General Sessions 111 little brook and headwater comes this deposit of soil. It is deposited in the river along the channel and the whole river begins to rise. Then up goes Oh Man River and up go the levees. We have reached the breaking point of the levees. We have had to build four great spillways already. I have watched the spillway back of New Orleans. You remember the dramatic fight for Cairo, Illinois, in January when the spillway had to be opened there, flooding hundreds of farms. Pollution becomes ominous, particularly at low-water periods. Take almost any town. People drink the water. The local tannery uses it and the sewer outlet near the town runs into the river, with many additions. The oxygen goes bravely to work but the outcome may or may not be happy. The next town goes thru the same process and presently we are in a position to form a law. You might call it the law of dumping down. Town A delivers to Town B. It purifies the water and drinks it, converts it to sewage and delivers it to Town C, and so on down. Rivers all over the country, and I regret to say my own river in Connect¬ icut, illustrate that law admirably. The regular urban wastes are added to it from the textile mills, the chemical plants, the slaughter houses, the oil refineries, and the rubber plants — truly a magnificent cocktail. In the coal-producing states, mine drainage is added to the load. Go thru the anthracite country of Pennsylvania and all the little brooks are ink. The Penobscot, the Mohawk, the Delaware, the Lehigh, and the Susquehanna are polluted. Great areas of oyster beds are destroyed. Yet to condemn pollution would take six states working together, which is rather difficult under present legal customs. Remember President Roosevelt said, “The Ohio River is not conversant with interstate commerce laws,” and so the good old American custom has been to dump it in and let them worry about it downstream. In uncounted streams, fish lie killed by the wastes of cities and the black refuse of mine and factory. Pollution has destroyed more fish than all the fishermen, and silt has killed more than pollution. When the sun cannot get thru because of the mud, the tiny water plants die and fish lose their basic food supply. Meanwhile, when they come to the surface they are often suf¬ focated by oil waste. Indeed many of our streams have turned into watery deserts. To replace with thousands of fingerlings is as futile as to run herds into Death Valley. The shellfish catch has been seriously depleted. I have come here from the Isle of Nantucket off the Massachusetts Coast and there a thriving fish¬ ing community was so depleted, the oyster beds and lobster destroyed, that 1000 people on that little island are now on relief — and that out of a total population of 3000. One thousand on relief ! The last passenger pigeon died in the Cincinnati Zoo in the year 1914, the sole survivor of the most beautiful and abundant game birds. In a single season alone, 5,000,000 in the state of — I hate to say this but it is true — Michigan were destroyed. The beaver was wiped out. What for? The ugly stovepipe hat ! Meanwhile, adjusting our instruments and looking below the earth’s surface, we learn that we have used up 52 percent of our copper, two-thirds 112 National Education Association of our lead, 58 percent of our zinc, 85 percent of our gold (tho that is no great loss), a quarter of our iron, a quarter of our anthracite (and what is left is hard to get at and costly to get out). In fact, we have used up more minerals since 1900 than in all our previous history. If our airplane has eyes for the continent of North America, the picture is a tragic one. In place of clear water and abundant crops and scenic beauty, man has brought about stinking rivers, charred forests, swirling dust clouds, filthy cities, poisoned animals and birds. Endothia parasitica killed almost every chestnut tree from the Atlantic to the Pacific but the chestnut blight was an amateur and should take his lessons from the white-faced blight. If our plane has eyes, it finds probably ten million Americans stripped of their resource base. It sees farms abandoned on the great plains and in the Dust Bowl area and the cotton belt because of water erosion. The forest workers are idle where the forest barons have swept on, leaving charred remains. The mines are abandoned. If this devastation continues at the same rate which has obtained, in twenty years we are going to have deserts ominous and terrible, and in fifty years there will only be 150,000,000 acres of fertile land level enough to resist erosion. That may seem to you like an irresponsible and wild statement. It was made by Morris L. Cooke, chairman of the National Resources Board, in charge of the most thoro-going, conservative, and competent study of re¬ sources ever attempted in this country. A lovely, vital continent has been outraged and betrayed ! But, this rape of Nature is not a simple crime. Counsel for defense must have his say: "A hundred and thirty million peo¬ ple simply could not exist while scrupulously respecting primeval condi¬ tions. How should they eat and be clothed? The forests had to be used. The ground had to be plowed. The wild creatures had to give way to domes¬ tic animals. Irrigation ditches had to be dug. The earth had to be laid open. On no other terms could we support our present population.” That is a fair question but an irrelevant one. While I love great trees, I am more concerned with human livelihood than the tallest tree. One is not called to quarrel about exploitation but one wants to be sure that that exploitation throws no boomerang. We have been served after a fashion by ravishing nature for three centuries. We have achieved a higher standard of living in some sections than any group on earth. But at last Nature’s patience is exhausted and the boomerangs are returning thick and fast. Remember those floods, those droughts, and those dust storms. Now, the question before us, and I know of no more important question, is whether we can keep an advanced technology based on exploitation and yet come to terms with Nature. You have heard a lot of talk and many of us have worried about balancing the paper budget. It is important. As a certified public accountant, I know it is important. But it just shrinks into insignificance beside the more fundamental question of balancing our physi¬ cal account with Mother Nature. I believe that we can and I know we must either abandon our machines or abandon the continent. It may be conjectured at this point that invention and machines still have a chance to win out. Why bother about soils? We are told that we could run General Sessions 113 our crops on a fifth or a quarter of our present land. Why worry about petroleum when we are told that by changing the engine we can run them on alcohol ? Why worry about forests when houses can be built of steel, aluminum, and glass — somewhat cock-eyed, to be sure, but houses. Now, these are fair questions, not to be answered by pointing tearfully to the scarred beauties of Nature. Has science really beaten Nature alto¬ gether? Weep for our tall trees and wild flowers, we must, in planning for a forthright scientific world but each of these questions must be examined severely on its merits. Let us look at them carefully, for they are typical of the questions raised. Suppose we could intensively cultivate all food on 80,000,000 acres in¬ stead of the present 400,000,000 as W. O. Willcox suggests. I believe that is theoretical. I had a long argument with Secretary Wallace and he doubts that it is possible, but let us assume that it is. You know out in California they are growing giant tomatoes by using water treated with chemicals. But, how do Dr. Willcox and the agro-biologists propose to give us this tremendous increase in yield per acre ? They propose to give it to us by tremendous increase in water at the strategic growing period — supplemen¬ tary irrigation, an enormous amount of water on top of rainfall. Where are they going to get the extra water? They can get it only thru dependable watersheds, by keeping underground artesian basins, by keeping forests and grass covering on the steep slopes so the water does not scoot off to the Gulf or the Atlantic or the Pacific. Nature must take care of that; science cannot save us. Now, about alcohol for automobiles. It is perfectly true you can go from Boston to New York in a car serviced by alcohol; but where does alcohol come from? Not alone from the bootleggers. It comes from grain and pota¬ toes and plants, especially corn. But what nourishes plants? Soil and water! If we are going to run automobiles with alcohol, we will need twice the present corn crop, according to the calculations, and will need more crop lands rather than less. Now, about lumber for houses. We can build good houses, as I said, of steel, aluminum, and glass, altho I believe there is a parable about glass houses! However, the most important use of trees is not necessarily lumber but soil protection and flood relief to control erosion so as to keep our reservoirs full so that there may be a dependable stream of power over the dam in order that the great flow of electrical energy may be shot to the factory where the aluminum for making houses is refined. In comes nature again. Trees are more useful alive than dead. And so we might go down the line. Wherever the question is raised, science will find a way; we do not need to worry! In every single case I have found that at some point natural environment comes in and cannot be neglected. Take such a matter as songbirds. They are pretty and we like to have them sing. Mrs. Chase and I have timed a pair of wrens which have nested right outside of our dining room. After the little ones are born, mother and father wren, from dawn to dusk, bring insects every one and a half minutes thruout the day. Now, if you multiply that by all the wrens and all the song- 114 National Education Association birds, you see it is only they that keep the insect menace down from having us eaten alive by bugs of all kinds. And finally, of course, that still more important and deeper reason — this is our country! This is our homeland. This is where we live. Who wants to live, however comfortably, in a shambles of desolation ? Man is a land animal. He cannot see his environment torn to pieces this way even tho thru some miracle of science he can live in a cave, artificially lighted and fairly comfortable. I think we should all commit suicide if that happened over a long period. Why has this destruction taken place? The great necessity to feed and clothe and provide necessities for the population ! But even more it has been the result of needless, wanton, stupid waste. Some blame it on the capitalists. Sweden, Germany, and Czechoslovakia have all suffered under capitalism but have not allowed waste. I think the major reason — nothing has any one reason ; it is always complex — lies in what I call a concept of infinity, the spirit of the pioneer. No other nation ever had such a slice of continent to play with except Russia and China, and none had such re¬ sources. Looking from the Atlantic to the fabulous Pacific, our forefathers could see no end. What if a forest were leveled? Move on, brother, move on! The great open spaces beckoned. It is this concept of infinity which still inspires our chambers of commerce, our boosters and service clubs, and our Wall Streets. There is always a corner to be turned. You cannot sell America short! Onward and upward, world without end! The Saturday Evening Post had an editorial the other day saying that there has been a lot of talk and weeping about the Dust Bowl but that if we only have a few rainy years, we will not have to worry about it. Permanent negligence, I call it, but it is in line with the whole American tradition. Other nations, either because they were smaller or limited in resources or, if you please, just be¬ cause they have plain common sense, dreamed no dreams of land that stretched west to infinity. Sweden started to protect her forests in the year 1600. A very distinguished professor in one of our southern universities gave the formula the other day in respect to much of the trouble in the South. He said it could be summed up as follows: “The bankers rob the planters; the planters rob the tenants; and the tenants rob the soil — so the poor old continent pays the bill in the end !” The primeval balance of 1630 is gone forever. Where shall we seek a new balance? Well, first we have got to find nature’s minimum demands and meet them at whatever cost. Fortunately, scientists have already pro¬ vided us with the outline. You will find them fully documented in the re¬ ports of the National Resources Board. They tell us that the lands, cover crops, water, soil, artesian basins, and wild life are all linked together in one organic whole. Now, we have got to see that that wheel revolves. We have got to see that soil rebuilds as fast as it is exhausted, by controlling erosion, and by adequate return of fertilizer. We have got to see that lumber is on a self- General Sessions 115 supporting basis so that we cut no more than nature provides growth. We have got to get natural grass on the plains, restrict grazing, hold the flood waters, and control pollution. We have to save our aquatic life, keep our artesian basins full, and one of the ways is to build reservoirs. We have to restrict the Gatling-gun hunters. We have to keep land and water wild life at par. We have to cease living on our capital. When it comes to minerals underground, we have to cut down the waste. You know that for every barrel of petroleum sold, four are wasted. Too many wells are driven in a given field and precious gases are blown off, and by reason of the gases blown, the oil underground cannot get back to the surface. We can ust economical methods of getting the aluminum under the earth’s crust — that is, if we can pry Andy Mellon off the aluminum supply. That is the theory of these underground metals. There are various ways to go at it. We can make them last so long — but there is no reason for immediate worry. That is the theory. Let us look at a practical example. Let us look at the TVA as an ex¬ periment in power. It is an experiment in land use. I have spent a good deal of time studying this and I think I know what I am talking about. It is an attempt to keep the watershed and to build the resources base. Down there King Cotton is falling from the throne and the whole economic system is in disrepair. One-crop farming in Tennessee is failing fast. Ero¬ sion is very bad thruout that area. One of the TVA agents was up in the hills trying to explain to one of the local farmers about erosion. “Stranger, you can’t tell me nothing about farming! I run thru three farms and pretty well used up this one!’’ Floods have been very bad in Tennessee. The average loss in Chattanooga is about a million dollars. The whole watershed covers a space four-fifths the size of England and runs thru seven states with a population of two and a half million. The wants of the people, outside of the towns and cities, are simple. You might be interested if I catalog them. This information is the result of surveys. They would like to have twenty acres of land, one horse, one cow, some chickens, plenty of children, some old-fashioned religion, a radio, an automobile, one washing machine, and a little neighborly litigation ! Modest enough. Yet, on the average, those families are receiving about a hundred dollars in cash a year. Now, President Roosevelt and Senator Norris wanted to set up a yardstick for power, bring down the outrageous power charges and extend the privileges of rural electrification. They wanted to dispel floods, effect erosion control, bring back the forests, and particularly they wanted to work out a diversified agriculture to take the place of cotton. I want to bring in a plea showing how nature goes above courts in the wishes and dreams of men. We are permitted to have a permanent nine-foot channel from Paducah, where the Tennessee empties into the Ohio, to Knoxville, a distance of about 600 miles. When you put a permanent nine- foot channel, what does she stipulate? She makes it very clear that what goes up, must come down. She makes it clear if you are going to have a dependable navigation channel, you must have flood control, and flood 116 National Education Association control calls for big dams and reservoirs, and big reservoirs not filled with silt! They had one dam down there built by a private power company which in twenty-three years became choked one-third with silt. If you are going to prevent that, you have to have erosion control above it, forests on the steep slopes and grass on the flat lands, terracing, and rotated crops. And, if you are going to bring crops into the picture, you have to have a cheap fertilizer, especially a cheap phosphate. If you have a cheap phosphate, you will need cheap electric power to refine those phosphates in the electric furnaces. So, you see, the cycle comes back on itself. Now, the TVA is an example of wise planning with nature. It is an example also of planning with the consent of the governed. Nearly all the farmers, the laboring people, the professional people, the teachers, and everybody on Main Street — they are all for it with a very few exceptions. Its only enemies, the only people against it, live up in New ^ ork. I must tell you one more remark of another farmer when they were put¬ ting in erosion control, working on the slopes above Norris. “Yes, sir, it used to run off and now it walks off.” A great laboratory for working with nature while retaining the benefits of the machine ! Of course, that is not the only land guard. Out in Nantucket and along the coast you see the magnificent work of the coast guard. But, we have almost a million men on the land guard — the Soil Conservation Service, the Forest Service, the TVA, the Biological Survey, the CCC boys, the Resettlement Administration, the new AAA, the many PWA pollution projects, the Reclamation Service — the greatest of dam builders in the world, an army fighting for the continent, with many state corps and private enterprises such as the American Forestry Association and the Audubon Society, all linked together in the same campaign. Now, political administrations may come and go but whoever demolishes the land guard does so at his peril. The National Resources Board estimates we could well spend $100,000,000 in the next generation bringing America back to par. Where is the money coming from ? The continent ought to be saved but we cannot afford to do so. That is like saying we cannot afford a fire department in a town! What shall the physical plan be? Well, maybe at this point as an econ¬ omist, I am supposed to bring a rabbit out of my hat. Well, I have a hat but no rabbit. The plan will have to be worked out in the fire of experience but I can point out one very significant fact. We are faced with technological unemployment — steady displacement of men and women by machines in good times and bad. I think we have determined as a people that no American is going to starve ! And, if work is not to be found by those people, they are going to be supported. How much better to save two birds with one stone and put them to work saving the continent — if we are going to have to sup¬ port them anyway! We are so much more fortunate in the matter of natural resources than we are in the matter of money and credit. Nobody knows how money and credit work. Nobody knows! I can say that with authority! But we do know how Nature works in a broad way. We have worked out the knowl- General Sessions 117 edge of how to come to terms with her and prevent those boomerangs from coming back. We are going to have the labor supply available and all we need is confidence and determination, and the job can be done — and the most important people in this country in that respect are you teachers ! St. Paul preached in the city of Antioch, thundering against its sins. At that time Antioch was a great metropolis of 400,000 people. The pleasure gardens of Daphne were among the wonders of the world, in that ancient day. Today it is a miserable Syrian town of 30,000. Archeologists recon¬ structed its ancient grandeur after digging thru eighteen feet of packed gravel. Antioch perished not for its sins but by erosion on the Tauris and Lebanon Rivers. The restraining terraces were neglected, and floods and silt came down. There is no philosophical difference between the fate of Antioch in Syria and the fate of Garden City in Kansas. There is, however, a considerable mechanical difference. The simple Syrian plowed four roods in a day; the simple Kansan atop1 his tractor plows 117. The machine en¬ ables us to telescope the old pattern, and for our sins we can perish thirty times as fast! The great wheel turns. The continent is far more than a bread factory. People do not make continents; continents make people. The age-old strength of Russia is due to her latitude, climate, resources, and sweep. The strength of England is due to her position on the sea. The strength of our nation is due to the continent of North America. It has molded us, nourished us, fed its abundant vitality into our veins. We are its children, lost and homeless without its strong arms about us. Shall we destroy it ? SEVENTH GENERAL SESSION SECTION A THE PLACE OF RADIO IN EDUCATION— Abstract FRANKLIN DUNHAM, EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR, NATIONAL BROADCASTING COMPANY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The place of radio in education begins undoubtedly with the study of the limitations of the medium itself. Sound broadcasting can only make its ap¬ peal thru the imagination and emotions. It is not of the earth. Your only approach being the ear-gate, you naturally must be interested in what is actually being heard by your listeners. The next great study is of the mate¬ rial to fit the audience. What are you trying to accomplish, and what — and even more important — is your motive? Our material must be second in con¬ sideration to our purpose. Once we stand shoulder to shoulder on our pur¬ pose, our material is easy to find, but we still have our audience to consider. For purposes of radio the scope of education may be divided into three simple divisions : (1) the school child — and later the student ; (2) the work¬ ing mother in the home — or those who have leisure to be at home in the day time; and (3) the worker of field and factory and counting house — in¬ cluding the wellknown tired business man — who is not at leisure until the later hours of the day. National Education Association 1 18 We h ave studied the habits of these groups in education. It is true we have not divided them in this manner. We have thought more often in the terms of the sensory period of a child’s life, his adolescence, and his maturity. We are now beginning to think more definitely less of him perhaps and more of his interests. We are trying to find the approach to those interests. This is also the job of radio in education — not one whit less than that of the educator in the classroom. The last great job is to master those successful methods of presentation which have been worked out by professional broadcast stations. The “World Is Yours” program on Sundays, reenacting the stream of life which has oc¬ curred and is proceeding from those apparently inanimate objects brought together within the walls of the Smithsonian, is a good illustration of the uses of radio showmanship applied to education. We now know what not to do. We cannot put on programs that fit one audience at a time another is listening; we cannot put on people simply be¬ cause their position in affairs would seem to demand it; we cannot write slovenly or dull programs and expect people to listen; we cannot duplicate classroom teaching and justify the use of the air; we cannot put on the air what we like, expecting great masses of our people to continue to listen. W e must study our audience — its likes and tastes — and proceed from there. When the great organ of Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris is being played from the Chapel Console below, before the doors have yet opened for the first mass in the morning, no music is being created. For there is no sound until someone has entered — and listened ! EDUCATIONAL POSSIBILITIES OF MOTION PICTURES— A bstract MARK A. MAY, DIRECTOR, INSTITUTE OF HUMAN RELATIONS, YALE UNIVER¬ SITY, NEW HAVEN, CONN. M any reasons have been advanced to explain the tremendous gap between the development of the motion picture for the theater and the extent of its use in education. While it is true that in the past five years educational developments have been more rapid and we now stand on the threshold of even more significant advances, it is nevertheless perfectly plain that the schools are far behind the theater in the use of motion pictures. One of the most obvious reasons for this situation is the fact that theaters are run for profit while the schools are not. A second reason is that schools are conservative. They are slow to buy expensive equipment which they feel is not indispensable to their work. Third is the lack of teachers who are trained to use films effectively; and fourth is the lack of educationally evaluated and properly coordinated reservoirs of films. The schools of today, in respect to the uses of motion pictures, seem to be circumscribed by a vicious circle. The school authorities feel that they are not justified in equipping their schools with modern projection machines, or in training their teachers in the use of films, until such a time as there is available an adequate supply of educationally useful films. The large General Sessions 119 producers of films, on the other hand, who are financially and otherwise equipped to supply the schools with a constant stream of films that combine the best educational brains with technical competence are not willing to enter wholesale production until more schools are equipped to use such products. Some way to overcome this circle and convert it into an ascending spiral must be found. The work of the Committee on Social Values in Motion Pictures in developing the Secrets of Success Series has been entirely exploratory ; and the work of the Commission on Human Relations of the Progressive Edu¬ cation Association is entirely experimental. Both are pioneering pieces of work leading to even more significant developments in the use of motion pictures in education. They represent the first attempt to construct film mate¬ rials for educational purposes out of feature pictures that were made for entertainment. Another pioneering development which is distinct from but allied with the two that are mentioned above, and which until now has not been pub¬ licly announced, is that the member companies of the Motion Picture Pro¬ ducers and Distributors of America have opened their vaults of short sub¬ jects to an advisory committee of educators who are invited to come and see what is there of educational value. In order that the work of making an adequate educational appraisal of these short subjects may be carried on systematically by groups of educators who are competent to judge their educational merits, this advisory commit¬ tee on motion pictures in education has been organized. The work of review¬ ing started on May 26, 1937, and thus far 538 short subjects have been reviewed. Of this number the reviewing panels have voted to recommend 324 as acceptable for certain specific school uses with the understanding that some of them have certain limitations. The evaluation of each picture is made on three main counts: (1) the subjectmatter with which the film deals; (2) the effectiveness of presentation of this subjectmatter in the film; and (3) expected educational effects of the film. I want to point out the most important reason why, in my opinion, the use of motion pictures in the schools has lagged so far behind the develop¬ ments in the entertainment field. It is, briefly, that educators have fallen into the habit of thinking of the film as a “visual aid” and have, therefore, not foreseen its full educational possibilities. I predict that before many years have passed the motion picture will rise from its present subordinated posi¬ tion as a “visual aid” to at least a coordinated position with the leading subjectmatter of the curriculum; and that it will become an integral part of the course of study and be generally regarded as one of the indispensable elements in the curriculum. I believe this, first, because there is an increasing tendency on the part of educators to “vitalize” the curriculum; and, second, the fact that the read¬ ing matter of the curriculum is not wholly adequate for reaching the cardinal objectives of education. Everyone knows how exceedingly difficult it is to build character, citizenship, health, and esthetic appreciation thru lesson assignments and reading materials alone. More powerful educational tools 120 National Education Association must be found. Our experience leads me to believe that the motion picture may be an important part of the answer. A new day is dawning in education. I know that every member of the National Education Association will be alert and ready to take advantage of the opportunity that these new facilities for teaching will offer to all of you. Remember that in the motion picture is combined the two great chan¬ nels of learning — sight and sound — which, enriched by color, music, and dramatic effects, present the lessons of school and life with a power and a vitality that is unequaled by any other medium of education. SECTION B CORRECTION OF READING DIFFICULTIES BASED ON PRE¬ VENTIVE PROCEDURES —Abstract EMMETT A. BETTS, DIRECTOR OF TEACHER EDUCATION, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, OSWEGO, N. Y. The days are rapidly passing when one can witness a situation where forty children are told to take from their desks their basal primers and without preliminary preparation open the book to “page 198" and take turns read¬ ing orally, ending with the teacher’s instruction, “Get your arithmetic books ready.’’ Likewise, fewer children are being kept busy by the teacher’s caustic remark, “If you’ve read your lesson only once, read it again!” Many things have been done in the name of education. A study of the readiness for reading of beginners involves first, an inven¬ tory of vocabulary background of experience, ability to perceive relationships, memory span, ability to make discriminations between word forms, and other specific orientations contributing to mental maturity; second, an ap¬ praisal of the attitudes, desires, drives, and feeling of success which con¬ tribute to the emotional well-being of the learner; and third, an evaluation of vision, hearing, and other items which contribute to the physical well¬ being of the learner. Other things being equal, the weight given to any one of these factors will depend upon the nature of the beginning reading pro¬ gram which varies with the professional preparation and perspective of the teacher, the adequacy of available reading materials, and administrative policies. In terms of all these items, policies and procedures for the identifi¬ cation of prospective retarded readers can be made. Trends in reading instruction are in the direction of better prepared teachers, more nearly adequate instructional materials, and a better under¬ standing of the needs, interests, and capacities of the learner. In education there is less evidence of a tendency “to turn the crank,’’ and many signs are pointing to the desire of administrators, teachers, and parents to under¬ stand the child as an integrated personality to be dealt with in terms of his own capacities for achievement rather than of adult standards. As a result, reading is viewed as experiencing — to experience requires under¬ standing, which, in turn, implies that the learner should be physically, men¬ tally, and emotionally sound. General Sessions 121 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN READING— Abstract MARGARET L. WHITE, SUPERVISOR OF ELEMENTARY ENGLISH, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND, OHIO Perhaps there is no single factor that should be a more effective guide in determining methods and organization in the reading program than that of individual differences in children. There is more to the consideration of differences in children than that of Intelligence Quotient, important as it is. We know, of course, that children differ in physical, mental, and social ability, and that each of these abilities has a direct relationship to the ease with which a child learns to read. One of the first problems that confronts the teacher, it seems to me, is that of educating the parent to the point of seeing that it may take a longer time for her child to learn to read than it does for some neighbor’s child, or, in fact, another one of her own children. Not only must she realize that it may take this one child longer to learn, but also that he may need to learn by entirely different methods. Reading readiness — To some people reading readiness means only that the child is interested in or has a desire to read. Interest, however, is just one of the several important factors to be considered in determining reading readiness. Other factors are: (1) mental age; (2) vocabulary, size and meaning; (3) rich background of experiences; (4) some concept and under¬ standing of sequence of events; (5) ability to relate simple experiences and incidents; (6) ability to discriminate between slight differences of form and sound; (7) physical fitness; and (8) genuine interest in reading. Reading levels — If one is to plan a reading program whereby individual differences can be taken into account all the way thru the elementary grades, it would seem advisable that some type of organization other than a semester or yearly grade promotion be planned. For a number of years in Cleveland, we have organized reading on levels rather than by grade assignments. These levels are divided into what we call the primary division and the upper elementary division. We have the primary levels organized in such a way that no child goes into the upper elementary reading levels until he has at least mastered the mechanics of reading and has a reading vocabulary of fairly good size. In addition, every effort is made to foster and develop an interest in reading good literature. The standards, skills, and materials for the completion of the primary levels are specifically and definitely stated, so that pupil, parent, and teacher are cognizant of this requirement. In the upper elementary levels we should continue giving the child an opportunity to read material which he can really read with a degree of ease, and at the same time thoroly enjoy. On these levels we begin the use of complete books, which is a new experience for some children. The emphasis in reading is shifted from oral reading to silent reading. Specifically con¬ centrated in these upper levels are the problems in regard to specific types of reading, that is, reading to answer questions, reading to form opinions, reading to make outlines, characterization, dramatization, reading to get beauty of style and expression, etc. 122 National Education Association Then, too, there should be periods of reading “just for fun.” In our eager¬ ness to expose the child to all phases of reading and a variety of literature, we may fail to give him an opportunity to follow some particular interest and hobby of his own. It seems that the one justification for any method or device used in the teaching of reading is one which furthers the following three objectives: teaching a child how to read , developing a genuine interest in reading, and guiding him in what to read. SECTION C CONSUMER COOPERATION AND DEMOCRATIC IDEALS HORACE M. KALLEN, THE NEW SCHOOL FOR SOCIAL RESEARCH, NEW YORK, N. Y. This, the seventy-fifth annual convention of the National Education Asso¬ ciation, is being held at a time of warfare between employer and employee as intense, as general, and as pregnant with consequences for democracy as any that has marked the strifeful history of American business. The great¬ est association of the nation’s teachers has been meeting upon one of the principal fields of this industrial war, to discuss the state of American educa¬ tion, to review its past, to plan its future, to redefine, in the light of events, its goals and methods. It cannot accomplish its task or justify its vocation without taking full cognizance of the conditions of the national life under which it meets. Its leaders have always claimed for teachers and their employers have always affirmed the claim — how truly or how falsely you yourselves know in your hearts! — that they, the teachers, are the guardians of the American future, that theirs is the duty of keeping brightly alight the torch of American democracy and passing it on undimmed to the next generation. Can you then fail to search out how the nationwide struggle between employers and em¬ ployees is affecting the democratic ideal ? The embattled employees affirm that theirs is the side of democracy; that they are struggling for freedom of association, for the right to bargain collectively, and, thus equally, for the right to work; that they are defending their rights as men and as citizens from the powers and privileges of property, that their battle is for human rights against property rights, in economic enterprise as in political organi¬ zation ! The embattled employers also declare that theirs is the side of democracy. They, not the employees, are struggling to preserve the integrity of the American Constitution and to protect the rights it guarantees both initially and by amendment. How, under the conditions, can we save ourselves from this predicament ? How can we weave into a pattern as single and harmonious as may be, the ideals and methods of democracy with the forms and technics of the indus¬ trial economy? General Sessions 123 The first step, it seems to me, is to oppose the industrial splitting up of human personality into producer and consumer. The second step is to recognize that the rights of the natural man are, first and last, consummatory rights; that man’s inalienable rights are rights of consumption. All men know that without consuming, they must die, for all of us are consumers by inborn nature, while we become producers by outer necessity. With these observations we pass to the third step from the servilities of producer domination and producer mentality toward a harmonizing of the ideals of democracy with the economy of industry. Knowing that the demo¬ cratic conception of life is a consummatory conception, that the primacy of the consumer lies implicit in democratic association, the next step is to make this primacy explicit, to build this consumer primacy into the structure of society, and thus to extend the principles and practises of democracy from the political to the economic relations of men. The record of the consumer cooperative organizations in different parts of. the world shows them to accomplish what free competition was supposed to accomplish but did not. Consumer cooperative organization brings price as close as possible to cost and tends to reduce cost. It insures to the users the quality of the goods and services they use. It multiplies varieties and increases quantities without exposing the consumer to the risks of caveat emptor which face him even with the protective policing of a benevolent government. In closing, may I venture to remind you that an ideal is not a condition and a principle is not an event. Life is a process of change, not a state of things. Ideals define the directions in which we want the change to go. They are gradients we lay down for the remaking of life. They are not achievements; they are only programs. They have to be labored and fought for just as the mere biological substance of life is labored and fought for. No achievement is a solution; it is only the beginning of a new effort. The meal you eat today cannot save you from tomorrow’s hunger and the necessity of eating a meal tomorrow. Only sentimentalists and Utopians can imagine a time when the struggle is over and life nevertheless goes on a beatitude. The cooperative movement has nothing in common with those imaginings. It is not a vague utopia like that classless society of Marx’s which is the foreordained peaceful opposite of the class-war that is described as inevitably leading to it. It is not the happy heaven of angelic hierarchies, which religions describe as the redemptive goal of the sorrows and sins of earthly life. It is like political democracy, a method of keeping open and mul¬ tiplying the ways to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Like the political democracy of which it is the economic ordination, the consumer movement is beset with the same dangers, impeded by the same deficiencies, and calls for the same wisdom concerning dangers that Plato defines as courage, and the same faith without illusion, in its promise as our American way of life. 124 National Education Association ADULT EDUCATION, A PUBLIC RESPONSIBILITY — Abstract LYMAN BRYSON, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Public school systems in the LTnited States, in the course of their natural development, have come to assume responsibility for the cultural and intel¬ lectual life of their communities. They do not control or dictate but they play a major part in determining goals and providing resources. This is less true in large cities, where there is greater specialization ; it is more true in the villages and rural areas. The new^er school plants are designed as com¬ munity centers. “Adult education” is the broad term wre now use to cover many of the things men and 'women do voluntarily to better themselves and society. Most of the activities in a community center are adult education whether called that or something else. The use of the school plant for the benefit of all the people at all ages is not extravagance. It is economy. In the past we have lost millions of dollars in the deterioration of buildings and equipment while they stood idle. As time goes on, the loss will be greater because the propor¬ tion of our total population of elementary-school age is smaller year by year. Our average age is going up. We are becoming an adult nation. W e are discovering also that many of the purposes of childhood educa¬ tion are defeated unless the ideas presented to children are presented also to their parents. The real educational problems are always problems of society as a wdiole. Modern conditions require constant readjustment and learning at all ages. The education of all our children at public expense has not been merely the result of our rising standard of living; it has also been one of the causes of that rise. In the same way, public money spent on the improvement of the lives of men and women will increase both their demands and their pro¬ ductiveness. It will also provide for them the satisfactions that go beyond physical comforts and material goods. Consequently, public institutions will take the lead in providing oppor¬ tunities for everyone to go on learning. This may be partly at the expense of those who use the public facilities. Private agencies will take care of minority interests and they should be free to experiment or diverge from the pattern. But leadership and systematic support will be a public respon¬ sibility. EIGHTH GENERAL SESSION DRAMA— “TESTAMENT OF FAITH” “Testament of Faith,” a three-act play portraying the life of Horace Mann, was written by the faculty of Antioch College, where Mann was the first president. It was first produced at the Horace Mann Centennial cele¬ bration at Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio, October 15-16, 1936. The play covers the years from 1837 to 1859, and deals with the three major periods of Mann’s adult life. Act I shows Mann as secretary of the General Sessions 125 Massachusetts Board of Education, and his struggles against religious and educational bigotry; Act II covers his years as legislator and vigorous op¬ ponent of slavery in Washington; and Act III shows Mann again the edu¬ cator, but at the college level, struggling again with bigotry and financial need. The spirit of the play is not that of blind adulation or conventional homage to a shadowy and almost mythical figure. Instead, the authors have tried to penetrate into some of the spiritual and psychological conflicts which made Mann what he was and conditioned many of his actions. He emerges not so much a hero as a human being. The title, “Testament of Faith,” is an endeavor to symbolize the abiding faith in the good in man and in human destiny that was perhaps the primary affirmation in Horace Mann’s creed. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON HORACE MANN PLAY ALGO D. HENDERSON, PRESIDENT, ANTIOCH COLLEGE, YELLOW SPRINGS, OHIO Occasionally, in the great sweep of history, the emergence of a crucial social issue and the birth of a natural leader for a reform movement coincide. Such an issue, early in the nineteenth century, was education ; such a leader was Horace Mann. The reform movement initiated by Horace Mann a hundred years ago was of such consequence to our nation that we pause in the midst of our busy life of today to pay tribute to its leader. To see Mann’s work in its proper perspective we need to understand its setting. In 1837 our national government, under the Constitution, had been functioning for just fifty years. A second war with England had made the young Republic more self-assured in foreign affairs. Domestically, the frontier had been extended from the Appalachians to the Mississippi River. Commerce was beginning to flow with regularity down the Ohio River, thru the Erie Canal, and over the three Ohio canals from the Great Lakes to the Ohio River. The iron horse had just been invented and glimpses of the forthcoming industrial era could already be seen. If we teachers of today could sense possibilities for the next hundred years equal in significance to those of a century ago, we could indeed inspire the young with enthusiasm and purpose for their future work. But there were elements in the scene whose promise was not so clear. The leaders of the Revolution — Washington, Jefferson, Madison — who had guided the young Republic thus far on its course with firmness and convic¬ tion, were now gone. With Andrew Jackson and the spoils system the com¬ mon man invaded the White House. Heretofore, America’s goal had been a republic, in which the President should be chosen by electors and voters should be qualified by holding property. Now all of this was changing. A wave of enthusiasm for political democracy was sweeping the country, just as a century later we are witnessing a popular demand for industrial democ¬ racy. The franchise once extended to all white males, the demand was beginning to arise that the Negro also be liberated from his bondage and given the right to vote. 126 National Education Association These signs and portents had a profound impact on the New England- bred Horace Mann. He had caught the vision of democracy and believed in it firmly. Tho an aristocrat by temperament and education, he was a demo¬ crat in his ideals; and with Mann ideals were of supreme importance. He was shocked and alarmed by the then prevailing illiteracy among the newly enfranchised voters ; he would not deny them the vote, but he would elevate them to be worthy of it. The motivation which he possessed for his work can readily be seen from his speeches and writings. I shall quote briefly from just one of them. The illustrious and noble band who framed the Constitution of the Union — who adjusted all the principles which it contains, by the line and the plummet, and weighed the words which describe them in scales so nice as to tremble beneath the dust of the balance, expended the energies of their mighty minds to perfect an instrument, which, before half a century should pass away, was doomed to be administered, controlled, expounded, by men unable to read and write. The power of Congress over all the great social and economical interests of this vast country; the orbits in which the States are to move around the central body in the system; the functions of the Executive who holds in his hands the army and the navy, manages all diplomatic relations with foreign powers, and can involve the country, at any time, in the horrors of war; and the grand poising power, the Supreme Judiciary, appointed to be the presiding intelligence over the system, to harmonize its motions and to hold its attracting and divergent tendencies in equilibrium — all this splendid structure, the vastest and the nicest devised by mortals — is under the control of men who are incapable of reading one word of contemporaneous exposition, of antecedent history or of subsequent developments, and therefore ready to make it include anything, or exclude anything, as their blind passions may dictate. Phaethon was less of a fool when he mounted the chariot to drive the horses of the sun, than ourselves if we expect to reach the zenith of prosperity and happiness under such guidance. With this passion in his soul, Horace Mann entered, on July 1, 1837, upon his duties as secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education. He was already a mature man, forty-one years old. He had had experience in the state legislature where his maiden speech was in favor of religious liberty; he was active in humanitarian movements to aid the blind and the insane, and to check the use of alcoholic beverages and gambling; and he had been one of the leaders who secured the enactment of the new legislation for education. He brought to his new work the trained mind and the elo¬ quence of the lawyer, having practised law for fifteen years. He was honest to a fault, and possessed determination and mental energy far beyond his physical strength. Frail in body, and cursed thruout his life with illness and insomnia, he worked with indomitable courage and will until his last dregs of energy were consumed. In attempting to reform education he waged incessant battle against its enemies — against ignorant and indifferent parents and teachers, against schoolmasters who clung tenaciously to the rod lest the child be spoiled, against the Church which was still indoctrinating with brimstone and hellfire, against the individualists who believed in private rather than public education, against the tax-payers who resented the costs to the public treasury, and against the interests and the politicians who wanted to dictate the appointment of teachers, determine the subjectmatter and the textbooks, and indulge in a little private graft on the side. General Sessions 127 Thus we had coming together, as if by predestination, the cause and the leader. I need not relate to an audience of teachers Mann’s work during the next ten years. His detailed annual reports stand as classics in the field ; the vitality of his writings is still evident in our frequent quotations from them. His ideas penetrated the schools thruout the whole of the Western hemi¬ sphere, and influenced the systems of several European countries. Nor do I need to review the progress made in education during the past century. Tho education has not fulfilled all of Mann’s ideals; tho the voters of the nation, now almost universally literate, do not yet vote with the intelligence and discrimination which Mann hoped literacy would bring; tho we are still a long way from the goal of democracy of which he dreamed — yet, even so, the achievements in education as surveyed after the passage of a century seem to have justified fully both Mann’s faith and the tremendous effort which he made for the cause. Were he present today, undoubtedly he would urge us to cut short the tributes to the past, and bend our energies toward solving the still unsolved problems of education and democracy. Horace Mann’s achievements for the common school and for the normal school alone would assure him his place in history, but he did not stop there. When the seat of John Quincy Adams in Congress fell vacant, Mann saw the possibility of influencing education in a wider held, and of aiding in the great fight to free the slaves and educate the Negro. Freedom must come first; and when Webster deserted the cause with a proposal for compromise, Mann came out in spirited and bitter opposition to a man whom he felt had betrayed a great ideal. But Congress was disillusioning to Mann. He remained for only two terms. Altho in 1852 he was nominated for the governorship of Massa¬ chusetts by the Free-Soil Party, he was relieved to be offered, in the same year, the presidency of Antioch College. Antioch was then only an idea. A group in the Christian church had determined to organize a college, and imposing buildings were being erected in the little town of Yellow Springs, Ohio. The school possessed neither students nor faculty, however, and was entirely without the necessary funds. Since to the Bostonian the Ohio of 1852 was even more of a wilderness than it is today, the prospect was any¬ thing but enticing. What a shock it was to his friends, then, when Mann unhesitatingly accepted Antioch’s invitation! Mann’s reasons for his choice soon became apparent — he wanted to ex¬ periment with the patterns of higher education. He announced that the new college would admit students without discrimination of race or sex. Women were to enjoy privileges fully equal with men. To friends, Mann confided his ambition to demonstrate that a layman could qualify as college president as well as a minister of the Gospel. Into the curriculum he introduced the subject of health and physical education, and made important extensions in the field of the natural sciences. He permitted electives in the course of study; and Antioch was probably the first college not a normal school to introduce into the curriculum courses in teaching methods. He wished to substitute interest for competition as an incentive to learning. Together with M rs. Mann, he tackled with missionary zeal the task of reforming the 128 National Education Association manners and characters of the raw Middlewest recruits. He stated as his controlling purpose the development of all of the latent qualities — physical, intellectual, and spiritual — of the individual. At the still relatively young age of fifty-seven, Mann set out to undertake reforms in higher education second in significance only to those which he had already achieved for the common school. Mann spent the remaining six years of his life at Antioch. Again he worked prodigiously. Again he fought against ignorance, jealousy, and re¬ ligious bigotry. He struggled to raise the necessary finances. Repeatedly he sacrificed his own salary, and dipped into his own savings, just as he had done in Massachusetts. Part of the attraction of Yellow Springs had been its reputation as a health resort, but bodily suffering continued to handicap his physical efforts. Shortly after he and his friends had retrieved the college from a sale at bankruptcy, and launched it anew in the spring of 1859, his fragile body failed and only his spirit remained to the institution. The play, “Testament of Faith,” -which depicts the three important divi¬ sions of Horace Mann’s career, closes with his final commencement address at Antioch. His last moments, a few7 wreeks later, w7ere typical of his life. With what must have been superhuman effort, he called the students of the College, one by one, to his bedside, and spoke some w7ord of advice, admoni¬ tion, or encouragement, to each of them. It is this spirit which the play attempts to portray. NINTH GENERAL SESSION THE PRESENT SITUATION FACING THE UNITED STATES IN REGARD TO THE POSSIBILITY OF WAR RAYMOND LESLIE BUELL, PRESIDENT, FOREIGN POLICY ASSOCIATION, NEW YORK, N. Y. We read in the papers morning and night of w*ar and rumor of war. We read of the assassination of public officials, the exchange of insults between high statesmen ; w*e know7 that a great armament race is in progress thru every country. And, at the very time when people desire peace more than they have ever in the past, the w*orld seems upon the point of being thrown into a new* and overwhelming convulsion, and as w*e remember the efforts to build the League of Nations and a World Court, it is not difficult to believe that the entire w*orld has gone mad. While I do not minimize the seriousness of the w*orld situation at the present time, I do believe that behind these headlines significant things are taking place which have meaning. It is my belief that the w7orld today is going thru one of its great transitional periods, a period w7hich comes once every thousand years or so, a period of great danger and of great change. But, if we can get thru it wfithout catastrophe, I believe the result will be progress, both in the social and international sphere. Two main facts dominate the w*orld today. The first fact is of social trans¬ formation. The old economic and social system has broken down. We do General Sessions 129 not know quite how to repair it. The governments in every country where I have been recently are experimenting with this problem. Sometimes the traditional institutions collapse and the result is eruption of these powerful and brutal and overwhelming dictatorships of Soviet Russia and Italy and Germany, but dictatorships which have, nevertheless, a social conscience. Or at other times this request for social change breaks down completely and the result is the terrible civil war in Spain. But, the most encouraging thing about the world today, and you will see it if you go to Scandinavia and Britain and if you travel thruout this whole beloved land of ours, is that the democratic countries are gradually effecting these social changes without going thru the convulsions of dictatorships, without undermining the fundamental principles of liberty or democracy. The point I wish to make, for the time being, is this: The social changes have produced international tensions. Hitler and Mussolini and Stalin have to keep their people in a fever, exaggerating foreign fears in order to main¬ tain internal discipline. I do not know whether they are going to succeed or not but the first great fact of our time is that we are endeavoring to find new solutions of our social problem and for the time being it has produced these international strains and stresses. The second great fact which marks this age of ours, and a fact wThich comes at the same time, is a factor of social change. It is that we are in the midst of liquidating an unjust peace settlement, an unequal peace settlement at the end of the World War. Now, all of you know about the Treaty of Versailles. I do not share all of its criticism but it was possessed of one fundamental vice. The Treaty of Versailles was guilty of the vice of insincerity. It held out the hope of a better world, a world of equality, cooperation, and justice, but in fact the Treaty of Versailles left three great powers supreme — England, France, and America. How did we use our supremacy? We had many opportunities to reorganize this world so that the poor countries could have a better chance to live, but instead of utilizing that opportunity we forgot all about them. When the depression came, we erected new tariffs, devalued our moneys, measures which may have been necessary by immediate reasons but measures which inevitably injured the international trade of three great overpopulated peo¬ ples — the peoples of Japan, Italy, and Germany — and as a result of this economic nationalism, the inevitable explosion came. It came first in the East when Japan in defiance of the League of Nations and the United States seized Manchuria. It came secondly when Italy in de¬ fiance of the economic boycott of fifty nations seized Ethiopia. It came in the third place in Germany when Italy was occupying the attention of the world with her conquest of Ethiopia, when Germany tore up the Treaty of Ver¬ sailles and occupied the Rhineland. And, the fourth of these great dictator¬ ships has come in Spain where today Italy and Germany are intervening on behalf of the government of Franco in order to overturn the Valencia gov¬ ernment and establish what I fear will be a fascist dictatorship. Step after step these dictators have marched forward and we great demo¬ cratic powers that felt we were strong and secure have retreated. The only 130 National Education Association effective thing we are doing is to build lip our armies and navies and air forces preparing for what we seem to think is inevitable war. It may be the tide has begun to turn. Two weeks ago 1 would have said that the Spanish civil war was turning out to be a blessing in disguise. Spain has demonstrated that a weak country has a great power of defense. Military men did say that with the development of aviation and new methods of war¬ fare, a swift and overwhelming blow on the part of a country such as Ger¬ many could overwhelm a country such as France, but Spain has proved, on the contrary, that aviation cannot destroy or demoralize or cripple people and we know now that a country such as Czechoslovakia can hold out much longer than people believed. But, while the tide may have seemed to turn against Germany and Italy until recently, we now have a new factor, Russia. The international position of Russia has weakened greatly during the last few weeks. We have become accustomed to the execution of people in Russia but every great power was shocked when on June 12 they were told that eight of the leading generals in the army had been shot because they were accused of plotting with Hitler. Nobody believes that charge. What we do believe is that the Russian army is not so strong as we have been led to believe. What has happened, if you read today’s paper, is that Japan has taken advantage of this shift to go into Manchuria and it may be that Germany, thinking that Russia is also weak, may attempt to strike. 1 do not believe, however, that war is coming very soon — possibly not for several years. There are many factors against it. Germany is not yet ready to fight a first-class power. Germany, despite her flirtings with Italy, has not found a secure ally. What is most important from the immediate standpoint, Britain is feverishly rearming, and if you travel thru Central Europe in the Balkans, you will find that the states that said, “We are going to give up to Germany,” are now saying, “We believe there is hope. The British are re¬ arming.” Nobody knows what the British are going to do with their arms but in view of the crippling of Russia and the finances of France, the British Empire is the one strength against the onward march of these dictatorships. Why is it that we have seen these successive advances of Japan and Italy and Germany? Does that mean they are going ahead and take the rest of Europe and the world ? I think there are two reasons which explain the col¬ lapse of the peace machinery and the success of the violations of the treaties. You may not like to hear this, but it is true. The first reason these powers have torn up treaties and seized territory which does not belong to them is because of the pacifism of our democracies. We hate war; we prefer peace. We write plays against war and how terrible it is — that it is not worth fighting for. On the other side of the world there is a new ideology which says: “These democracies hate war, but why? Simply to protect what they have! Are they willing to divide their resources with us? Not at all!” And these dic¬ tatorships are preaching to young people heroism, sacrifice — that war is the inevitable end of state. One must learn to serve one’s state by the supreme sacrifice. Two ideologies — pacifism and militarism. And the stronger the General Sessions pacifism becomes, the easier it becomes for the dictatorships to take what they want without having to fight. And, the second, perhaps greater, cause of the advance of these dictator¬ ships is, we democracies have a guilty conscience. If we are honest with our¬ selves we will remember that in our distant past we seized each other’s terri¬ tory just as Japan and Italy are doing. We got them to sign the antiwar pact. We knew that if we were to have real peace, we would have to re¬ organize things so as to get trade going but when we came to discover how to do it, we found it was very difficult, it would cost a great deal, it would injure our vested interests, and so we said, “After all, maybe it is easier to let Japan take Manchuria and Italy take Ethiopia.” It has been for those two reasons that the dictatorships have gone on. Whether they are going farther and provoke a world war, I do not know. When I am optimistic, I think something like this may happen : When Britain finishes her rearmament program, she and France will go to Germany: “See here! We are rearmed. We are not afraid of you. We are tired of all these treaty violations. We are tired of all this threat and braggadocio of war. We are going to resist any further acts of aggression. But we realize that we have made mistakes in the past. We realize you have a good many people. We realize you need raw materials in international trade. We are going to help you get it. We are going to redistribute our resources and give you a new chance in international settlement but in return you must sign with us a dis¬ armament agreement. You must come back with us to the League of Nations and you must agree not to fight.” And, I am optimistic. I think that settlement may come during the next year or two. Whether it does will depend upon whether Hitler thinks the democracies, as he has thought, are weak and quarreling and divided among themselves. If he changes his mind and be¬ lieves that the democracies remain strong, if he believes that the democracies are sincere in offering genuine economic concessions to Germany, then I feel we have a real chance to bring about a readjustment which will prevent and avert the outbreak of another terrible world war. That brings me to the United States. Many of you here who have worked hard for international cooperation have grown tired and discouraged — you think it is hopeless. No doubt many of you here have adopted the point of view that there is nothing the United States can do to assist in averting war, that the only thing we can do now is to attempt to keep out of it when it comes. Well, I am inclined to think we can keep out of the next war if we really want to pay the price — we can keep out at least for a time. But I doubt very much whether many Americans have considered what the price will be. The price in economic terms will mean the sacrifice of important exports and im¬ ports of war time if carried to logical conclusion — reorganization of our base of self-sufficiency so we will not be affected by events abroad ! I think you know we have made very little progress in peace time in reorganization of our industry and I see no reason to believe we can succeed in effecting the far greater reorganization which self-sufficiency would involve. On the con¬ trary, Secretary Hull is promoting foreign trade programs and increasing our imports and exports. I am in favor of such a program because I believe 132 National Education Association only along such lines can the economic needs of Germany as well as our¬ selves be met. I think, however, that we should realize if we do succeed in increasing world trade and improving economic ties between the United States and other nations, the difficulty of keeping out of a war in which the rest of the world is engaged will thereby be increased. If we wish to keep out of the next war, we must also learn to be neutral in spirit. To me there is some irony in the fact that last month at the very time Congress was discussing neutrality legislation, Americans were coming to the defense of Trotzky; other Americans were holding meetings to raise money for the defense of the Spanish democracy; while still others were holding mass meetings, with some twentv thousand in attendance, in New York, attacking Hitler, with M ayor La Guardia leading the procession! I am glad we Americans have such strong views concerning the rest of the world. 1 am glad we have such a humanitarian sense of justice and in¬ justice. But, when we utilize those impulses of ours for the purpose of denouncing foreigners, sitting on the sidelines, or backing one side or another, I am afraid that it is not going to take us very long to get into the next war. Today people in this country hate Hitler far more than they hated the German Kaiser. The next war is going to involve the conflict of ideologies far more than the conflict between democracy and fascism, and will be far more intense than the conflict in the World War. And, if we are going to keep out, as I hope we shall, the American statesmen and leaders of opinion must exercise restraint and discipline far greater than we have ever demonstrated in the past. Some people tell us if we go to war we will sacrifice democracy. I am inclined to believe that to keep out of the next war we will have to reorganize our industrial structure. “But,” you ask, “how about our neutrality legisla¬ tion? Won't that keep us out?" I am very dubious whether you can solve problems like this by a simple law. All this law does is prohibit exports of munitions but I regret to say that the first time this law was applied, it re¬ vealed the danger of this so-called neutrality policy. I refer, of course, to the application of our law to the present civil war in Spain. Last January, as you know, Congress imposed an arms embargo against Spain but since then there has been repeated evidence that Germany and Italy have both committed acts of war against Spain and certainly it was the intention of the authors of our neutrality act that when such conditions come into ex¬ istence, the State Department should automatically impose the arms embargo not only on Spain but also on Germany and Italy who are now fighting in Spain. ^ ou remember in October 1935 the President imposed such an embargo on Italy and Ethiopia, altho Italy did not declare war. Today the State Department is unwilling to impose this embargo on either Germany or Italy altho we keep it on Spain. That means that today the Spanish government, fighting for its life, cannot buy any arms in this country but the fascist powers who were really guilty of invading Spain can buy arms here. As far as we are concerned, it is perfectly possible for these fascist dictatorships to General Sessions 133 come here and buy arms and turn them over to General Franco altho Madrid is denied access to the American market. This, I am sure you will agree, is an obvious injustice which is working to the advantage of the fascist dictator¬ ships and the Spanish rebels. Nevertheless, I think the President is right in refusing to impose an em¬ bargo upon the fascist powers because if we did so, it would pronounce a moral judgment on Germany and Italy which would place us in an exposed position and even involve us in the danger of war. Thus a policy of so-called neutrality, designed to keep us at peace, threatens to involve us with the outside world. Meanwhile, we continue to be a party to a manifest injustice to the Madrid government which is inconsistent with the traditions of America or the present belief of the great majority of the American people. H ere is another example where America is merely trailing behind Britain and France, underwriting decisions, in the making of which we do not par¬ ticipate. The reason we put an embargo on Spain last January was not because there was any danger of getting into war but because Britain and France wished us to do so to help out the policy of non-intervention. One solution for this dilemma would be for Congress to repeal, or the State Department to raise, the embargo against Spain and adopt the policy of Mexico which allows the shipment of arms to the Madrid government. At this time, however, such action would threaten to disrupt the European non-intervention agreement and might even precipitate war. Moreover, the unrestricted export of munitions would be a bad precedent for the future. The remaining solution is for the United States to participate in the de¬ cisions of Britain and France, which we now merely underwrite. Had this country of ours joined the non-intervention committee last September, the balance would have been turned in favor of the real isolation of the Spanish war, and by this time it probably would have been over. Those American liberals who sign protests at the bombing of Guernica and other fascist atro¬ cities, and yet support a policy of complete aloofness, are guilty of inconsis¬ tent thinking. The only way to reconcile the security of the United States with the American sense of justice is thru a policy of positive action with like-minded powers. We in America, in my opinion, draw too great a distinction between war and peace. We seem to think if we can tie ouf hands in peace time and close our eyes, by some sleight of hand we can keep out of the next war when it comes. Well, I hope we can. But, as I remember that it took the Mayflower about six months to cross the ocean and that today it takes the Queen Mary only four days ; as I recall that the Soviet fliers only last month flew a non¬ stop flight of 6000 miles from Moscow to San Francisco via the North Pole; as I know you can take a plane now from San Francisco and fly to Manila and next year you will be able to take a plane and fly in twenty hours from New York to London; and as I remember we can sit down in our rooms at night and with the use of short wave listen to the broadcasts of Hitler and Mussolini, it is quite evident to me that the world is shriveling up and those liberal optimists who prophesied the closer we got together the easier it would be to cooperate and get along together in peace, are all wrong. 134 National Education Association The closer we come together without really attacking these world malad¬ justments, the greater becomes our sense of insecurity, and I am afraid that if we do get a world war a psychological suction is going to be created, a suction which will draw or tend to draw every country toward the center. But, meanwhile, while we are fearing the onrush of this catastrophe, the world today is engaged in a great contest in armaments, spending this year $11,000,000,000 on arms. How are we financing it? You all know — by deficit, by financing, by borrowing. Obviously, this cannot go on very long. The result already has been to produce inflation of world prices. But, sooner or later the time is going to come when governments are going into bank¬ ruptcy, when they will be confronted with the necessity of turning men out of armament plants into the streets and then, confronted by social revolution, may prefer what they think is the easier alternative. The greater danger before the world today is a danger greater than war, it is a danger of a great international inflation and bankruptcy as a result of this present arms race and if it comes, it is going to build with it a new world depression and collapse which is bound to produce social convulsion in every country. The point I wish to make is that today we are living in a war system. We have the results of war economy without war itself, and no neutrality policy which does nothing, to remove these causes is going to have any effect in averting this great catastrophe. So I say the situation in the world is one of delicate balance — the forces of peace and the forces of war. I do not know which is going to win out but over here on this side of the world is the greatest and strongest power, having vast economic and financial resources. If we use our powers in the proper way, if we join them with the other forces in the world working for peace, if we work out a program and say to the dictatorships: “We realize the fundamental maladjustment. We will help you solve your problems. Let us do something about tariffs and debts. ^ ou can disarm and do no further acts of aggression." If we would show courage and take that responsibility, then I feel this world war is going to be averted and that we will get thru this transitional period. We will enter a new state of stability marked by a greater degree of security for our children, a greater degree of social justice, a greater degree of peace. I do not know whether we are going to swing the balance toward catastrophe or fhe other way toward peace and social justice. But I am inclined to think America holds a key and that the future of civili¬ zation lies in our hands. THE ELIMINATION OF WAR HONORABLE JOSH LEE, UNITED STATES SENATOR FROM OKLAHOMA It was two o’clock in the morning. The rain was running off my steel helmet in sheets. I was on guard around a German stockade. The Armistice had been signed about a week before that but we still were required to keep our prisoners. I had my rifle under my armpit to keep it dry. I was cold, I was lonesome, I was homesick, and I was hungry. I saw a light burning over in the German stockade in the barracks. I knew that Frank, the German I General Sessions 135 Polack cook, was preparing the meal for the next day. I threw a gravel over against the barracks. Presently the door opened, there was a flood of light, and Frank poked a square German head out. I spoke to him in the best German I could command which was not very good, yet he understood. I said, “Frank, gib mir das brot und das kaffee.” He said, “Yah,” and pretty soon he brought me a cupful of steaming coffee. It had sugar and cream in it, two delicacies we did not often have. And he had a piece of colfeecake with raisins in it. The lightning flashed as he poked the coffee and coffeecake thru the woven wire fence and I saw his face and there was no cynical grin of hatred there, but a smile of friendliness. And, if he saw my face, he saw not hatred there but friendliness. I did not hate Frank. I loved him. And, he did not hate me. He loved me. And yet if I had met Frank that hour of the night one week before, on the battlefield, I would have killed him — or he would have killed me! That is war! Bringing men together to kill each other, who otherwise would love each other. War never proves which side is wrong; it only proves which side is strong. I hate war with every atom and fiber of my being. And yet, that does not mean that I would not serve again — and I speak for every ex-service man, I believe. If our country needs us again, our services are ready, but we know the futility of war; we know the uselessness of killing each other. We know that war has its causes and if those causes can be removed, then the results will disappear. I am not so visionary as to believe that war can absolutely be annihilated from earth but I do believe we can reduce those causes to the minimum. I do believe we can extend the periods of peace, and to that end I devote my energies. I wish first to eliminate some of the means we have depended on in the past to bring peace — world peace. The first is by conferences. Conferences are all right as far as they go but they do not go far enough and the results do not last long enough. To quote Will Rogers, “America never lost a war nor won a conference.” War will never be abolished by proclamation. I do not mean you to in¬ terpret that, that you should discourage conferences. The more conferences we have, the better we will understand each other. I encourage them but do not put much faith in them. Second, we cannot depend upon education for peace. Certainly I believe in education and certainly it must be continued from the platform, pulpit, screen, and press, but it is not enough; it is too slow. It takes generations to change the philosophy of man ! It is too slow — and in the meantime another world war might annihilate civilization. Therefore, we must look for a more direct route. Then again, we cannot depend upon disarmament. Disarmament would help if all the nations would simultaneously and universally disarm, but they will not. Then why deceive ourselves? That nation that gets too far out in front on a disarmament program will only by its weakness invite attack and thus promote war instead of peace. When the Boston police struck, were the thugs of that city so honorable that they refused to plunder because the people were disarmed? No, they plundered all the more! Manchuria was defenseless. Japan marched in. 136 National Education Association Ethiopia was helpless. Alussolini blazed his way across Africa. Shall we take a lesson? And I do not mean by that that I believe we should join the little game across the waters of keeping up with the Joneses, so far as the armament race is concerned, but I certainly do believe we should have enough defense to defend our own shores! I wish to say there are many who are called pacifists and they have as high ideals as I have and their purposes are as sincere as mine, and they are sincerely working for peace but 1 am persuaded sometimes that very good intentions go wrong, and I must illustrate it by a little story. In France we received socks that they knit at the Red Cross meetings. Sometimes we could use them for socks. One time we got a shipment just before we were to take a long hike. One of the boys needed a pair of socks so he jerked off his wrapped leggings and his hobnails and put on a new pair of socks. Then he put on his wrapped leggings and hobnails again and we started. He had hardly started when some little hard object in the heel began to bore into his foot. Every step was more painful than the last. He could not stop. The pain was excruciating. Finally, after enduring the tor¬ ture and limping, we had the order to fall out and rest. He sat down and jerked off his wrapped leggings and took off his hobnails; he took off the sock and there was a little piece of paper rolled up in a hard ball. He un¬ raveled it and found it had some writing on it. He read it. ‘‘God bless your poor tired feet.” I think of those good souls who are just as sincere as anyone and some¬ times take real punishment because of their views. I believe that they are just an example of a good intention gone wrong. Now I wish to offer four steps that I believe will promote peace. If it is a matter of medicine, we ask the doctor. If it is a matter of law, we ask the lawyer. If it is a matter of war, then why not ask the warrior! Three million ex-service men, almost without exception, have been telling the United States for eighteen years what we believe will end war or at least minimize it. I am going to outline the steps. We have already taken two of them. The first is a non-intervention policy by which we will refuse to protect private investment in foreign countries by military force. As the speaker who preceded me pointed out, the L nited States has not been guilt¬ less in what has been called a sort of dollar diplomacy or economic imperial¬ ism. And so we have had some little bit of that — and I mean no criticism to the past. It seemed to be the thing to do in the past. But, I wonder how many school teachers could tell me tonight why the marines were sent to Nicaragua. Now, I submit to you when a man invests his money in an enter¬ prise in a foreign country that is a commercial venture, he does so with but one motive in view and that is to make a profit. We were first told that the marines were sent to Nicaragua to protect American lives and then it was discovered not one American life was in danger. We were then told it was to protect government property and then we discovered, except for the canal zone right which never was challenged, there was no government property involved. Then we were told it was to hold a just election, and somebody said, “Why don’t you send them to certain cities in the United States!” General Sessions 137 We laughed that off and then finally the truth came out. I will give you the facts and let you draw your own conclusion. The United States capital¬ ists had investments in Nicaragua to the amount of $18,500,000. It cost our government $6,500,000 to protect the private investments in oil titles, gold mines, and loans to the Nicaraguan government. It cost our government $6,500,000 to protect $18,500,000 of private investment and cost us the lives of 100 American boys, 450 Nicaraguans, and the goodwill of certain Latin-American countries. At the very time President Coolidge was talking at a world conference, the newsboys on the streets were yelling, “Forty Nicaraguans killed in American air raid.” My friends, if a coconut grower down in South America was troubled by the monkeys carrying off his coco¬ nuts, why not send the marines down to protect his coconuts? It would be the same proposition and would not lead to war. When President Roosevelt called the last marine out of Nicaragua, it was the first time that we have not had an armed force in that country since 1912. Then, revolution broke out in Cuba. For years the sugar industry has thrived there and the sugar barons have made millions of dollars. That is all right and in my judgment it might even be commendable for them to make that profit. I do not care to share the profit. When trouble broke out there, there was a great hue and cry to send battleships to Cuba, to send the marines to Cuba, but once again President Roosevelt, taking sides with peace, an¬ nounced thru the State Department that there would be no intervention and Cuba settled her own affairs without the blood of our boys. That was the second step. And the third step was taken in behalf of peace when the Ethiopian situa¬ tion began to get dangerous. It was discovered that the Standard Oil Com¬ pany had a contract with the Ethiopian government. The President again, thru the State Department, insisted that the Standard Oil Company cancel that contract, fearing it might be the means of leading us into trouble. The Standard Oil Company was reluctant, feeling it was a private right and had a right to the profit, but the State Department said, “You cancel out,” and they said in effect that the peace of 124,000,000 is paramount to the profits from that contract, and thus we severed the last entangling alliance that might have drawn us into that war. So far, that policy has only been supported by presidential proclamation. It remains to be seen whether public opinion will make it a permanent policy of this country. I speak in behalf of crystallized public opinion that will make it a permanent policy of our nation. And public opinion, as Lincoln said, is everything! Without it no law can succeed and with it no law can fail. The second step is to control the preparations for war. I am convinced that we are on the right track with our neutrality law. Three years ago we passed the first neutrality law. A year ago we passed it again, making it stronger, and this year we passed it the third time, making it still stronger. Perhaps next year we may find we can improve it. We had to improve it this year, because we found loopholes in it, and altho I do not wish to be in disagreement with my friend who spoke just now I want to submit this on the neutrality law: There are two sides in the Spanish trouble, one side the 138 National Education Association Loyalists and the other side the Revolutionists, and so far those are the only two in the conflict. It was not my intention in supporting the neutrality law that it should include embargoes on sympathizers and, therefore, I submit the law is working to keep us out of trouble. It is not by accident that this nation so far has been able to keep out of entanglements. Tonight the world is literally trembling. Europe is a powder keg. A match struck in the wrong place would blow the lid oft the world. How do I mean to control the preparations for war? I mean simply that when war broke out in South America between Paraguay and Bolivia, the President of the United States took a long stride in statecraft and an¬ nounced by proclamation an embargo on shipment of arms to those two warring nations, and, led by that example, eighteen other nations placed similar embargoes. We found certain manufacturers of munitions circum¬ vented that law. They sold munitions to certain countries and they relayed them to the warring countries in South America. Therefore, we included in this neutrality legislation that munitions of war could not be shipped from the shores of the United States without license from the government and the government will not give license when the munitions are to be sold to the warring nations, to the belligerent nations. A loophole was found. Robert Cuse, unheard of up to that time, sold some munitions, got them past the border before we could rush thru the legisla¬ tion to stop the loophole, but his munitions were sunk before they reached their destination. I might say that I compliment the manufacturers of munitions, I mean the big fellows, for showing a patriotic spirit. They did not try to evade the law. They acted in good faith. Robert Cuse was not heard of before and will probably not be heard of again. The neutrality legislation carries with it certain provisions. When we sell you certain goods, including food and clothing and other commodities, we separate our responsibility. We end our responsibility when those goods leave our shores. Now, why do that? Some say that is a policy of scuttle and run. In the western part of the United States — and I grew up in the West — two gun¬ men would come into town, and they would get into a fight, a private fight. The streets would be cleared, not because the other men were afraid but because it was not their fight and they wanted to get out of the line of fire. That is what our neutrality legislation does — gets us out of the line of fire. What was the last straw that broke the camel’s back and plunged America into the last war? It was the sinking of the “Lusitania,” was it not? Mrs. William Jennings Bryan, wife of the Secretary of State, wrote in her diary that she and Mr. Bryan were dining out on the evening that the news came of the sinking of the “Lusitania,” and that Mr. Bryan was very much dis¬ turbed at the news. He said on the way home, speaking of the “Lusitania,” “I wonder if she had munitions on board because if she did, that puts a different phase on the whole matter. I will have Lansing investigate that.” Under-Secretary Lansing did investigate and reported the next day that the clearing papers showed the “Lusitania” did have munitions on board and thus broke the last hope of keeping America out of war. What would be the General Sessions 139 answer if we had our backs to the wall and had the opportunity of preventing a ship loaded with munitions, contraband of war, from reaching our enemies? I submit, therefore, that we must exert every means of keeping America out of war, even at the price of profits, and I believe that peace is well bought when we can buv it by giving up some profits. N ow, what about the manufacturers of munitions? They are in a busi¬ ness that profits most when blood flows most. When death rakes his scythe over the battlefield, the profits of the manufacturers of death roll in. They claimed in the Senate Investigation to be patriots. The Senate Investigating Committee flung open the closet door of that “Bluebeard of War” and ex¬ posed the skeleton of war. They claimed in that investigation that they were patriots. Are they patriots? Let us see. Tonight while I am speaking to you, they are manu¬ facturing munitions. Scientists in the laboratories are poring over new death¬ dealing devices. What are they for? Are they for the sole use of the United States alone? Certainly not. Do not deceive yourself. The paint will not be dry on them until they will be peddled to every nation on the face of the earth, with the highest powered salesmanship, wherever they are allowed to sell. At present our neutrality legislation keeps them from selling to belliger¬ ent nations but they still can sell to other nations. They sell us steel plates. What for? To protect our battleships from torpedoes they have already sold to one of our neighbors. They sell us gas masks. What for? To protect us from gas bombs they have already sold to our potential enemies. They sell us anti-aircraft guns. What for? To bring down the war planes they have already sold to other nations. By a control of the preparations of war thru a licensing system, the United States can control the preparations of war and thus prolong the periods of peace. It takes the patriotism out of a soldier to go to war for his country and then be shot by a gun made in his native land. In the last war, some of the English boys were trying to capture a certain objective out there, and there was one gun of superior make. It mowed them down like grass. Finally, the remaining Tommies captured that gun and they thought it would be a fitting tribute to take it to England and mount it in one of the public parks as a memorial to the boys who fell while capturing it. This they did and there it stands today in Bedford, England, on one side of its deadly barrel engraved deep in the steel you can read the names of the boys who fell while capturing it and on the other side of the barrel engraved in the steel you can read the name of the manufacturer who made it — an English company! The complete, combined allied fleet tried to capture the Dardanelles. They were held at bay by a handful of Moslems because of the superior artillery the Moslems were using. That artillery was manufactured in Lon¬ don and financed thru France! Are they patriots? They are profiteers! They have but one god and it is gold ! They have but one purpose and it is profit ! Their activities must be controlled by a strict licensing system whereby the government can control their policies and their activities! And third, we should pass now in this session of Congress a law that in case of war would draft money as well as men! I was a delegate to the first 140 National Education Association American Legion Convention which met at Minneapolis and from the first convention to the last, we have passed resolutions, supported by the ex-service men unanimously, asking for a law that in case of war would draft money as well as men. If three million doctors should tell this government that a certain law would prevent a dreadful disease that was taking its toll every year, the law would be passed over night. But here for seventeen years three million ex-service men, who know more about war than anybody else in the country, have been begging for a law that would draft money as well as men, and so far we have not reached first base. When I walked out of the classroom three years ago and ran for Con¬ gress, I told my school teachers, the men in the American Legion, and others, “If you send me to Congress, I promise you I’ll be the noisiest freshman in Congress until we pass a law to take the profits out of war and conscript money as well as men.” I kept that promise on two scores. For the first time in the history of Congress, the lower house, of which I was a member, passed a bill to take the profits out of war. I kept my promise. I am afraid I was the noisiest freshman in Congress. I made six speeches and put in four amend¬ ments. The bill came in like a Mother Hubbard — it covered everything but it did not have a tooth in it ! I decided one amendment should be put in there to make it more effective and in the section on conscription of men, I added, “and financial resources.” Immediately that same old question was raised by the representatives of big business: “Why, you cannot do that. It is impractical. What are the mechanics of it? How would you do it? How could you conscript the wealth when there is only $6,000,000,000 worth of currency in the LTnited States? It is impractical! It is unconstitutional!” You know, when they cannot think of anything else, it is unconstitutional! I said, “I do not believe it,” and I know that you teachers do not believe it. ^ ou mean to tell me that the Constitution of the United States says that one man’s property is more sacred than another man’s life? Do you mean to tell me that the framers of the Constitution intended that the government could take one man’s life but could not take enough property to pay for the food he ate before he gave up his life for his country? When Abraham Lincoln was trying to keep the stars in the flag, he went to New York City to get more money to finance the war. His men were without shoes and equipment and food. The bankers were holding out for more profit. Finally, when he could stand it no longer, he said, with fire flashing from his grave eyes, “I can conscript a widow’s only son, her only means of support. I can take him from between the plow-handles and put him in the battle’s front where his life will not be good for six minutes, but I cannot lay hands on enough money to pay for the food he eats.” Teachers, it was true then, it was true in the World War, and unless we do something about it, it will be true in the next war. Do you mean to say that was the intention of our forefathers who framed the Constitution? It is an insult to the Stars and Stripes that one man’s gold is more sacred than another man’s blood ! General Sessions 141 They said, “By what mechanics will you do it?” 1 have accepted the chal¬ lenge. I have been working from then until now on a bill that will draft money as well as men. I expect to introduce it at this session. I have the lawyers in Washington working on it now. It provides, at the same time the government has all the boys between certain ages register, that every manufacturer and every person owning any property must register and sub¬ mit a sworn statement as to his financial condition and by the same selective draft system whereby the government selects those boys that can best be spared, the government in the same way will decide how much money each person can lend to the government with the least burden, and classify them, beginning at the top with those most wealthy. They say it is unconstitutional if you take money, that it is confiscation, without due process of the law. I say: “You take men’s lives and it is constitutional.” They reply, “We just take their services and pay them for it.” All right, we will do the same. The government shall prepare enough government bonds to raise the amount of money the government needs to finance the war. Those bonds shall bear not to exceed one-fourth of 1 percent interest, shall extend fifty years and shall not be tax exempt. And in the same manner that men are conscripted, each man will be required to buy those government bonds. The Government will pay them something for the use of the money. The reason for extending them fifty years is that if they did not extend fifty years, a soldier might go to war and come back, the bonds would be refinanced at 3 $4 or 4 percent, and that same boy would have to pay for them, as we are doing now. In the last war, in round numbers — I got this statement from the Assistant Secretary of the Treasury and it is the best estimate I can get ; it is difficult to get the exact amount — we paid those who financed the war $12,000,000,- 000 in interest and we are still paying and will continue to pay, and so will our great grandchildren! I was teaching school when we entered the war. I was getting about ten dollars a day. I quit teaching school. I went to follow the flag for a dollar a day and a chance to die. I got a dollar a day but I paid back $6.60 a month on insurance. All right. I took an economic loss of about $9.25 a day — yes, a day — in order to be patriotic. You say that you cannot buy patriotism, you cannot pay for it. But, there is no need to penalize it at that rate ! And that is not all. I came back after fourteen months’ service and now every time I write a check — and some people think a man on the federal payroll is exempt from paying taxes — I am helping pay part of that $12,000,000,000 interest. Normally, money brings about 2^4 or 3 percent interest, but during the War we paid as high as 4 and 5 percent on some of the Victory Bonds. They were also tax exempt. Now, we can tax the manufacturers but wre cannot reach this $12,000,000,000 of tax exempt interest on the bonds that financed the war. There is too great an economic incentive to let it continue to exist that a man who ordinarily draws 2^4 percent gets 4% percent if war is declared. Therefore, I am asking for your support of that bill when it comes up, and I am going to devote my time and energy to arouse public sentiment to pass that bill in order to remove the last incentive of war. 142 National Education Association The final step is tax legislation that will comb the last vestige of profits resulting from war, comb it out of the hands of those who make profits out of war. We can do that with tax legislation. I want to review a few of the profits that are made during the war. I was at Puniers, France, after the Armistice was signed. I saw long lines of auto¬ mobiles that were junked. I said, “Captain, I’d like to buy one of those because I sold mine when I came into the service.’’ He said, “Son, you can have one but you cannot ship it home.” And he quoted general order number something, I do not know what. He said, “You cannot ship any of this stuff home.” It was junked, salvaged. Ask any of the boys if I do not speak the truth. And those manufacturers made tremendous profits because they were not out one dollar for salesmanship or one dollar for advertising since the government took all they could make as fast as they could make it double shift. Then they fixed it so it could not be shipped home. Also at Puniers, France, I saw a pile of airplanes smashed to pieces. Now, what was our record in the air? We started out to win the war in the air. Our program called for 25,000 planes, American made, and 20,000 were to be on the front by January 1, 1918. General Pershing attested to the record that not one single American-made plane reached the front ! The result was we had to beg, borrow, and buy from the Allies such planes as they could spare. Of course, they used the best ones themselves and the ones we got were more out of date and less efficient. The result was that our casualties were three times as great in proportion as those among the Allies, not be¬ cause our boys were not good pilots but because, as Colonel Mitchell said, “Those planes were flaming coffins.” When one of our boys took off in one of those ships, Death rode in the cockpit ! What about the bill for those planes that never did arrive? Oh, yes, it was on time — $1,051,511,988 strong! And it was immediately paid, as it should have been. One company received for 3660 airplane motors a profit, not including cost, but naked profit, of $3,934,500. Another company re¬ ceived for 6500 motors a cold profit of $15,000,000. Two companies, the Standard Aircraft Corporation and the Standard Aero Company, were over¬ paid, the government audit showed, to the sum of $6,500,000 and when that was discovered, they went into liquidation so the government could not collect. The truth of the matter was that those two companies were owned by Mitsui and Company, and Mitsui and Company were paymasters to the Mikado of Japan and for the great international spy system of the German government. Oh, for the eloquence of a top sergeant to express my feelings! I am told that the casket corporations made as high as 700 percent profit on the boxes they buried the boys in ! And what about the raincoats they sold as good India rubber! I trained at Camp Cody, in New Mexico, out where it is sandy and high and dry. We were called the Sandstorm Division. We stopped at Camp Dix, New Jersey, for final training, and it was the rainy season there. It rained every day. A soldier cannot select his weather. We drilled rain or shine. We had a hard-boiled colonel. In fact, I did not find any soft¬ hearted ones! He said, “Drill them, blankety-blank, drill them.” That was General Sessions 143 when the flu hit us and the situation was made worse by those flimsy rain¬ coats. Many a night I came in soaked to the skin across the shoulders because of those flimsy raincoats. The boys died like flies. We could not take care of them. We stacked them in the morgue like cordwood. I was on the firing squad. Every morning we marched down to the station and fired a salute over the flag-draped body of one of our comrades, loaded him on the train, and shipped him back to some station where some little woman in black was waiting to receive him. I had a buddy, tall and swarthy, a lad from Colorado. I drilled by his side. One night he came in from the drill field soaked to the skin across his shoulders. That night I heard the telltale rattle in his throat. Next morning I reported him on the sick list and they took him to the hospital. A few days later they took him to the morgue. And, when I stood with the firing squad to fire a salute over his flag-wrapped body, I took a vow in my heart. “So long, buddy. I’ll make my next war on the war profiteers when my chance comes ! Teachers, 1 am making that war now. I am taking it back to you, my own group, the teacher group, for 1 know your power in the United States. For seventeen, eighteen years we have begged for this law. We know it is just. We know it is right to take the profits out of war and the financing of war. We are taking it back to you. Those profiteers put money in the balance against blood because they never saw the war, never saw the men as they brought them back from the front in pieces, never had the blood of their com¬ rades splashed in their faces, and never heard a man strangle in his own blood as he was shot thru the throat ! I am begging America for a just law that will take away the profit motive and pull the dragon’s teeth ! I am speaking tonight for silent lips that are sealed with the seal of death. I am speaking for thousands of little orphans who never saw their daddies. I am talking for them. I am speaking tonight for the soft-cheeked children that you teach. They will be the next cannon fodder ! I am talking for them. I am talking for the shell-shocked boys whose bodies came back but their minds did not. I am talking for the T. B. boys you have visited in the hospitals. Tonight when the sun went down, fifteen more of our buddies went West. That is the death rate out of our hospitals. They have been dying a slow and tortuous death for seventeen or eighteen years. In the morning I will read the newspaper. Who will read it for those boys for whom the light of day has been forever shut off? I walk and enjoy life. What about those boys in wheel chairs? What about those with dangling limbs, supported by iron frames? I am talking for them tonight. I am talking for the boys left in France. I am talking for the Gold Star Mothers for whom the war will never be over. Three thousand of them went back to France to visit America’s greatest cemeteries. Do you see the little Gold Star Mother as she stands by the grave where they tell her her son sleeps? Do you see her standing by the six feet of earth and wooden cross? Rather poor compensation for years of hopes and dreams and love! Stands? What 144 National Education Association mother would stand ? She gets down on the ground as close to him as she can. 1 am speaking for her. And, I am speaking for my buddy who sleeps there ! A million wooden crosses are calling out to you, We died that war may be no more, what are you going to do? A thousand sightless heroes have caught a vision new — A vision of a world at peace. What are you going to do ? A thousand little laddies who never saw their dad Will be the cannon fodder when next the world goes mad. Our wooden crosses — they are dumb ; but a message you can bring: Tell the world — the careless world — war is a cursed thing! £ ife ne who observes the survival of men in highly competitive fields, such as business or politics, will note the large part played by sheer physical health and exuberance. Horace Mann constantly emphasized this fact. He said: Life Membership Dinner 149 I am almost tempted to call upon the student to leave his learning, and the philosopher his science, and the clergyman his theologies, and first teach men how to obey the laws of God in their physical frames; . . . This insistence by Horace Mann upon physical health was not the emphasis of a one-track mind, but rather the appraisal of one who saw the elements of effective living in true perspective. He was no less insistent upon the necessity for intellectual discipline. He said : If we would find new constellations in the heavens, or discover new features in stars already known, we demand a telescope of greater space-penetrating power. No longings, no night-watchings, no aspirations, will ever enable us to see one inch beyond the capacity of our glass. Give me a “larger eye,” says the astronomer, and I will reveal to you another rank of worlds marshalled behind those wrhose shining hosts you now behold. Rear stronger minds, says the lover of light and truth, and they will lift up the race to sublimer heights of dignity and power. In this way, we shall obtain thought-producing, instead of thought-repeating men. i To Horace Mann it seemed possible that thru intellectual discipline and the mastery of knowledge, men might become possessed to an almost un¬ limited extent with capacity for what today we call “trigger action,” that is, the ability to use the minute energies of their own bodies to control and direct the vast energies of the physical universe. H orace Mann was keenly aware that the acquisition of intellectual power depends very much on the effectiveness of educational methods. He said: It is a saying attributed to Euclid, that there is no royal road to learning. This adage, I must deny. Knowdedge is communicated and acquired indefinitely better and faster in one way than in another. . . . Horace Mann implied that the intellectual power of a man is the product of his intelligence multiplied by the intellectual tools of which he is the master; for instance, mathematics furnishes powerful intellectual tools without which effective thinking is impossible in many fields, including the social sciences. The popular disregard for mathematics in higher education is disregard for some of the most effective and necessary tools of intellectual mastery. In the appraisal of the essential elements of higher education, Horace M ann saw clearly that education of human motives was no less important than education of the intellect. He said : We are bound to judge men by the integrity of their lives, rather than by the accuracy of their logic, and an unintentional error of the intellect is never to be compared with a conscious dereliction of the heart. . . . Horace Mann had a clear concept of the relation of intellectual to moral education. He said : To render the cultivation of the intellectual nature beneficial or even safe; nay, to save it from being baneful, it must be accompanied by moral education. As warp and woof when woven together, make a texture a hundred fold stronger than either taken by itself, so must moral education be inwrought with intellectual to give strength to the character of youth. ... In a man devoid of morals, the intellect often acts as a mighty pander to all the evil passions. In a man devoid of intellect to foresee consequences and weigh probabilities, a blind devotion to one . . . object makes havoc of whatever other . . . objects may stand in its path. 150 National Education Association There is a curious assumption common among educated men that while intelligence needs discipline and training, yet motives are somehow in¬ digenous wild endowments that must be left to themselves, with every well- meaning man the judge of his own motives. There is an assumption that in the field of motives there is not the same difference between the ignorant and the educated, between the disciplined and the undisciplined, that there is in the field of intellectual mastery. Horace Mann saw more clearly. He said : I know there are cases, where men, who see the fatal consequences of wrong, still do wrong; but the cases are many to one where men do wrong because they have never seen its adamantine connection with fatal consequences ... if children are not as faithfully and as anxiously indoctrinated into this law (of right) — I do not mean into the words that define it, but into the thoughts and sentiments that constitute, and the needs that perform it, — as they are into the Rule of Three, . . . then the moral nature does not enjoy an equality of privilege with the intellectual nature; and, until it does enjoy such equality, there are no principles known to us, either in human actions, or in the divine government, from which we can expect the highest moral results. Not only did Horace Mann realize the need of a sense of proportion in the development of human personality; he realized that in our modern world, organized education has become the dominant social instrument for the transmission, the refinement, and the discipline of human culture. What it leaves undone may not be done by any other agency. Since this instru¬ mentality has become dominant, calling upon large gifts and taxation for its support, it must accept the responsibility which goes with dominance. It must see the whole of its function; it must see itself as concerned with the development of every phase of the human personality. This does not imply dictatorship, rather the contrary. Only thru the spirit of free inquiry can the way be kept open. I do not plead for any increase of regimentation in the administration of teaching, but rather for a sense of responsibility and an inclusiveness of interest which sees every phase of human development as a concern of education from first to last, from lowest to highest. PRESENTATION OF LIFE MEMBERSHIP AWARD TO PRESIDENT ORVILLE C. PRATT J. W. CRABTREE, SECRETARY EMERITUS, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Dr. Pratt, we note that a week ago DePauw University honored you with the LL.D. degree — the highest recognition the University can give to graduates. The whole N. E. A. congratulates you and likewise comes for¬ ward to confer upon you another high honor — the highest it can confer upon any member of the organized teaching profession. I have known personally of you and your work for many years, but from your friends I have learned that your career has been even more honorable and more startling than I knew. You have had many hard knocks about which you forgot to tell us. Life Membership Dinner 151 Do you not recall attending that little high school over on the other side of the Divide — only six miles from your home? Your neighbors of the early eighties — or what is left of them — remember it very well. They remember that you went to that high school every Monday morning and that you re¬ turned Friday evening; that you paid your board and tuition by serving as janitor; and that you returned at the week-end to help with the work at home. In going to school you passed by more than twenty farm houses. None of them could forget you. They say that you passed by their places in wind, rain, or snow just as in pleasant weather, every Monday morning before daylight — all this “just because that skinny Pratt boy was crazy for an education.” Yes, ladies and gentlemen, everything goes to show that our genial Dr. Pratt was “crazy” for an education not only when a boy but later on. He not only worked his way thru high school but thru college and the university as well. Then he sacrificed his summer rest for special courses in Columbia, Chicago, Indiana, and DePauw Universities. He did two men’s work when in high school and college — earning grades that kept him near the head of his classes and doing manual labor enough to meet all his own expenses and to help out at home. He still does two men’s work. He does the duties of his office as city superintendent and as president of this Association, and at the same time continues his search for knowledge and his drive for self-improvement. He reads all articles and books he can find on the questions that face him, besides reading two up-to- date books on education every month. He has read two books a month for more than twenty-five years. In other words his thirst for knowledge con¬ tinues unabated. I have never known of a finer relationship than that existing at Spokane between superintendent and teachers ; between superintendent and com¬ munity; and between the entire teaching staff and community. For twenty years this relationship has existed. You ask to what his popularity is due. H is teachers answer as follows: To his fine attitude towards teachers, pupils, and parents; to his recognition of the larger principles of teacher participa¬ tion ; to his genuine interest in community life and to the help he and his teachers give in all important community enterprises ; to his seeing that every teacher and every pupil get a square deal in every way; and to the knowl¬ edge on the part of all the teachers that he is more deeply interested in their welfare than in his own. Dr. Pratt, many of your friends sent special greetings and requested me to hand them to you at this time. I have put them together in a folder which can be used also for other letters coming to you at this convention and after¬ wards. You will at your leisure take pleasure in reading these letters from the twenty-one living past-presidents and from more than one hundred other friends. And now, Dr. Pratt, we come to the award. In view of your attainment, your services as teacher, principal, professor, and superintendent, in view of the high esteem in which you are held in Indiana, Washington, and in other places where you have studied or served, and in view of your outstand- 152 National Education Association ing work as president of this Association, I hereby, in the name of the N. E. A., present you with this Life Membership Award, the greatest honor that the organized profession can confer upon any one. Let me add as I present it to you, that of all the honors you have ever received, only one is greater than this one — and that is the confidence , love, loyalty, and devotion given you by the teachers and pupils in your schools and by the people of your home community ! (A TIO NA L Co UNCIL O F £D VC A TI 0 N HISTORICAL NOTE The national council of education was organised in 1880 , growing out of a paper read by Thomas W. Bicknell before the Department of Superintendence . The active membership of the Council consists of 60 members chosen by the Council; 60 chosen by the Board of Directors of the Association ; and three chosen by each of the Departments of the Asso¬ ciation. For constitution and bylaws, see proceedings, 1906: 608-11. The officers of the Council for the year 1937-38 are : president, L. A. Pechstein, Dean, Teachers College, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio; vicepresident, E. G. Doudna, Secretary, Board of Normal Regents, Madison, Wis.; secretary, Margaret Kiely, Principal, Bridge¬ port City Normal School, Bridgeport, Conn.; executive committee; A. L. Threlkeld, Superintendent of Schools, Montclair, N. J. (term ex¬ pires 1938); Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Principal, Washington-Gatezvood Schools, Norfolk, Va. ( term expires 1939) ; E. V. Holloway, State Super¬ intendent of Public Instruction, Dover, Del. ( term expires 1940) . The Council meets twice each year, once in February and once in June. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1880 : 90- 94 1893 -.925 1904 -.333-377 1915 -.527-627 1926 -.281-327 1882 : 77- 87 1894 -.593-678 1905 -.271-340 1916 -.195-287 1927 -.247-292 1884 :Pt.1 1 1:1-67 1895 -.430-509 190 6:607-623 1917:129-219 1928 -.221-262 1885 -.405-551 1896 -.393-470 1907 :329-454 1918 -.135-149 1929 -.229-274 1886 ■250-331 1897 -.317-583 1908 -.313-500 1919 -.675-739 1930 -.199-245 1887 -.255-328 189 S -.489-588 1909 -.331-435 1920 -.107-190 1931 -.275-311 1888 -.251-321 1899 -.380-529 1910 -.307-375 1921 -.269-368 1932 -.221-257 1889 -.345-440 1900 -.297-364 1911 -.331-476 1922 -.349-574 1933 -.225-266 1890 -.287-364 1901 -.349-499 1912 -.499-605 1923 -.425-551 1934 -.229-262 1891 -.275-378 1902 -.306-408 1913 -.355-424 1924 -.350-428 1935 -.225-248 1892 -.745-806 1903 -.301-376 1914 -.293-404 1925 -.266-336 1936 -.137-154 f 154 1 EDUCATION IN PENAL INSTITUTIONS N. L. ENGELHARDT, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Interest IN the problems of education in penal institutions is con¬ stantly increasing. In 1933 Governor Herbert H. Lehman of New York assembled a group of laymen, penologists, and educators for the purpose of studying these problems and promoting a comprehensive and vital program of education in correctional institutions. On the completion of three years of study, research, and experimentation this Commission for the Study of the Educational Problems of Penal Institutions for Youth has presented a report to Governor Lehman covering its findings. In the development of the program the Commission has had uppermost in mind the protection of the public interest. Education in correctional institutions aims, first, to see that as large a percent of inmates as possible do not repeat criminal acts and, second, to enable the individual inmate to live efficiently, and with sufficient interest so that he will adjust and contribute to the welfare of society. The basic ultimate aim of the institution for correctional education may be stated as the social and economic rehabilitation of inmates. In order to accomplish the desired socialization of the inmate, the edu¬ cational program must have the following objective: to develop a well- rounded, integrated program of activities which will enlist the sincere inter¬ est and effort of inmates, modify their attitudes and behavior patterns, and provide them with the technics, knowledges, and understandings necessary for the maintenance of a desirable standard of self-sustaining economic and social living upon release. The attainment of this socialization and rehabilita¬ tion objective involves the following types of activities: (1) vocational edu¬ cation activities which will enable the inmate to become a self-maintaining member of society; (2) activities leading to clearer understandings of modem social and economic problems in order to bring about revision of undesirable attitudes toward social institutions; (3) activities to develop acceptable proficiency in essential academic skills; (4) activities leading to the stimulation and development of interest and skill in worthwhile leisure¬ time pursuits; and (5) activities leading to the ability to get along with people and live cooperatively as members of approved social groups. No educational program can be promoted successfully in the penal insti¬ tutions except as the educational personnel has a sound basic training and can be selected on the basis of the qualifications known to be desirable for this service. The importance of educational service in correctional institu¬ tions should be pointed out to those who are entering the teaching profes¬ sion. There is probably no area of human service in which greater good can be accomplished. Education must be an integral part of the organization for administration in every institution. Each member of the employed personnel, from the warden down to workers in all of the areas of the institution, must have fre- [ 155 ] 15b National Edltcation Association quent opportunity for interpreting the functions of education and for learn¬ ing definitely what is being attempted thru the educational program. Continuous experimentation and research must be carried on to the end that the best methods of readjustment in all phases of prison life may be ascertained. EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS IN PENAL INSTITUTIONS IN NEW YORK STATE WALTER M. WALLACK, DIRECTOR OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK STATE DEPARTMENT OF CORRECTION, ALBANY, N. Y. * We recognize in our state that the most promising area for crime pre¬ vention lies in the free community. But we also know that society fails in a large measure to meet this responsibility now, and will continue to do so for a long time to come. It is this failure which fills our prisons and reforma¬ tories. Nevertheless, we refuse to take the attitude that community failure means that another failure should occur in our institutions. We are deter¬ mined to do what we can for the 14,000 failures under our care, even tho crime prevention here is accomplished under the greatest possible difficulty. To us education is therapy. It aims to treat social maladjustment — to change attitudes. Our ultimate aim is social and economic rehabilitation. We want a comprehensive program of educational activities which will enlist the sincere effort and interest of inmates for the purpose of modifying their attitudes and behavior patterns, while providing them with the tech¬ nical knowledge and understanding necessary for the maintenance of a de¬ sirable standard of self-sustaining economic and social living upon release. Toward this end we are developing educational programs in our institutions. The institutional field presents to the educational profession one of its greatest opportunities for practical social work. There has been too little tendency on the part of educators to enter institutions, where there is a fertile field for study from which they may learn much which is bound to give them the kind of insight needed to make public education of greater social value. You public school people need to get closer to points of criminal infection. You could do much more than you are doing in your schools and in your communities in delinquency prevention if you would get more first¬ hand information upon which to base your action. You will have to soil yourselves a little bit to get such information, but it will be worthwhile for you to do it. Those of us in the institutional field realize that professionally we are sometimes regarded as “low-caste." But we can take it. We are will¬ ing to go down into social dirt because we see there the roots of some of the actual life problems which you people frequently discuss. So it is with humility that we ask you to come down into the smelly regions where we toil, not only to help us, but also perhaps to learn. We are glad that you have given us an opportunity to mention our work. Perhaps that is evidence of progress. National Council of Education 157 THE PROGRAM OF SOCIAL EDUCATION IN PENAL INSTITUTIONS AND ITS IMPLICATIONS J. CAYCE MORRISON, ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER FOR ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, ALBANY, N. Y. In social education we are dealing not with an aspect of the prison school but with a fundamental reform in prison management. Lnlike vocational education or academic education, social education has no shop or classroom or laboratory or office of its own. Social education is an overtone of all that goes on under the prison management and in the prison environment. Social education aims to help the individual live, as nearly as possible, a normal, happy, satisfactory existence -with his fellow inmates; to obtain a clearer, more hopeful picture of society outside the prison walls; to gain certain knowledge as the foundation of attitudes and ideals ; and to gradually advise his concepts of life in such form and manner as to shape his conduct when free of the restraining hand of the prison authority. Social education proceeds thru: (a) the study of the social sciences in the prison school; (b) the organization and functioning of the prison school; (c) the guidance of the individual; and (d) the organization and adminis¬ tration of the prison. We propose, for the older punitive ideal of prison management, to sub¬ stitute the newer spirit and technic of social management that has been per¬ fected in the better schools of America. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN PENAL INSTITUTIONS WILLIAM E. GRADY, ASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N. Y. The generally accepted conditions essential to the success of any voca¬ tional program are: 1. The instruction must be individualized in terms of the native ability, interest, and future plans of the inmate. 2. The practical work of the shop and the theoretical instruction must be closely correlated. For example, each job in the machine shop, the masonry shop, the auto shop, the dairy, the farm, the orchard must be reduced to job card analysis outlining the objectives, the material, the methods, the processes, and certain related facts so that the student can proceed intelligently under his own power, work with definite controls, and also decide upon the value, the quality, and the validity of his results. 3. The correlated work in science, drawing, mathematics, and social relations should be taught by competent civilian teachers with the aid of working demon¬ strations, models, charts, strip films, and motion pictures. 4. The work should be practical both as to conditions of work and processes with constant emphasis on not only the “how” but also the “why” and the value of the result. 5. The instruction and training should include vocational information as to hours, wages, license requirements, union requirements, health hazards, promotional opportunities, regional concentration of workers, and prospective changes in industry. 158 National Education Association 6. The program should have sufficient variety and elasticity to meet the various interests, skills, and levels of ability of the inmate group, which presents a wide range of intellectual ability and emotional stability. 7. The terminal courses should bear a definite relationship to the inmate’s length of term, environment to which he is to return, including his family, and business associates, and the possible protective placement thru the Parole Board, relatives, or friends. The conditions favorable to the future success of the present program of vocational education in the prisons of New York state may be briefly sum¬ marized : 1. The Chief Executive of the State, the Honorable Herbert H. Lehman, is committed to the program as is also the Commissioner of Correction, the Honorable Edward P. Mulrooney. 2. The prisons of the state have been freed from political control from the warden thru the prison guard. 3. The Correction Law provides for a director of education in the office of the Commissioner of Correction and the said director has full authority to visit, inspect, observe, study, organize, and develop the educational activities of such institutions in harmony with the general educational program of the department. 4. There is a fairly scientific classification of inmates according to age, sex, health, mentality, emotional stability, criminal history, and type of commitment.. 5. There are adequately equipped prisons for the incarceration of the various types ranging from the juvenile delinquent as at Elmira and Coxsackie, the mental and moral delinquent as at Napanoch and Bedford, and the case hardened recidivist and lifer as at Dannemora. 6. There is a fairly competent civilian teaching staff, altho an adequate graded salary schedule has yet to be provided. 7. There is general acceptance of the objectives of the program by the wardens and superintendents of the institutes. 8. Above all, there is a growing cooperation on the part of the public which in¬ sures continued financial support of the program. 9. There is a sympathetic and cooperative Parole Commission. Truly, time marches on and transforms the dull and hopeless routine of the average prison. We should be heartened by the progress made from the older conception of the prison that aimed to punish thru the drudgery of the treadmill, to the newer ideal of rehabilitation thru carefully planned vocational training. There could be no more expensive program than the former and no cheaper social insurance than the latter. A strengthened body, a chastened spirit, and vocational skills should be assured to the brother in gray who is about to leave the prison walls and attempt to reestablish him¬ self in a community that seeks not revenge but justice. Let us program the life of the prisoners so that at least the most promis¬ ing of the inmates, especially the younger members who have paid their debt to society, will step forth not as sinister, warped personalities whose hands lack skill and diligence and whose brains are filled with prison chatter and the furtive cunning of the underworld, but as men erect and vigorous in body, clean in mind and heart, and competent to meet the challenge of the new and better life. National Council of Education 159 MIRAGES IN EDUCATION RALEIGH SCHORLING, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. Thesis I The words “ progressive ” and “reactionary" have lost their usefulness as terms in education. Some extremely conservative proposals have been sold to teachers and even to university administrators in the name of progressive education. In all probability one could today go to Denver, Oakland, Houston, Flint, and other cities with genuinely progressive schools and find numerous activities that will be used to illustrate the educational slogans ten years hence. The general public and most teachers will probably not know about these “edu¬ cational reforms” until they are discovered by someone who has the desire and the ability to publicize them. Then, too, it is very easy for someone in education to launch a program or formula in typical skyrocket fashion, which leads the public to think that the problem is actually solved, when, as a matter of fact, years and years of painstaking work needs to be done, both in ex¬ perimentation and in the more difficult problems of practical application, before any substantial change should be made in our schools. Thesis II The student of education should not expect one and only one correct formula for a problem. In an advertisement of a large automobile manufacturing corporation, we find a statement that exemplifies this conclusion perfectly: In engineering, there is seldom just one way and only one way to accomplish a given result — nor is there just one best way. Generally speaking, I would say that there are about a dozen ways of designing any mechanical device. A dozen of them may be worth developing on the drawing board. A half dozen may be worth build¬ ing experimentally — four or five may work out satisfactorily in practical usage. And of this four or five there are likely to be two or three designs where it is a tossup as to which is the best. Problems in education are far more elusive and usually involve more factors than problems in engineering. It is unreasonable, therefore, to expect a specific formula for each situation. There are many acceptable ways of combining a given list of foods into a good meal, and there may be many ways of handling a specific educational situation. To select one of the several correct ways of doing a school task and to reject all of the indefensible ways is the persistent and perplexing problem of the teacher. Thesis III The hard-headed and intelligent layman seems to have difficulty folloiving the trend of educational progress thru a verbal thicket of shifting educa¬ tional slogans. 160 National Education Association In 1900 1 the faith of school people lay in the Herbartian steps ; in 1905, in the cycle plan; in 1910, in the problem method; in 1915 teachers were excited about supervised study; in 1920 the project method promised to solve all our difficulties; in 1925 we had individualized instruction with as many different models as a well-known make of car; in 1930 we had become enthusiastic about the child-centered school; and in 1935 we had great faith in the social studies as the core of the curriculum. Wh at possible interpretations does the observant citizen have for these emphases of the moment in which vigorous propagandists collect large num¬ bers of disciples? We can understand his bewilderment as he sees on the one hand great zeal and enthusiasm for a new educational formula and, on the other hand, the great mass of teachers going about their way doing things pretty much as before and only mildly interested in knowing which way the educational wind is blowing. Perhaps the citizen looks upon us school teach¬ ers as an unstable group which swings in extreme fashion from one enthusi¬ asm to another. Perhaps the public has the impression that we follow a Pied Piper who plays a new tune every five years, or it may look upon us as hope¬ less idealists bent upon remaking the world in a single generation. The citi¬ zen may even have sympathy for us as he sees the inevitable series of steps which bring us to a new educational formula. For a short time we fight with evangelistic zeal for our slogan. But soon the clouds gather and we come to the sharp realization that our hopes of reform are once more futile. But these interpretations are unkind to teachers. The discerning critic of public education will see in this shifting terminology a persistent stream of thought making for educational reform which threatens every five years to break thru the stubborn obstacles. Thesis IV The common goal of educational reforms is a greater amount of reflective thinking. There is good reason for believing that the exponents of the problem method, the project method, supervised study, and all the rest, aimed at one and the same goal, namely a greater amount of reflective thinking, that these seemingly unrelated reforms represent a groping to design an education for adjustment, and specifically, an unconscious striving for a greater amount of transfer. To be sure, this fact may not have been recognized by the ex¬ ponents of the various educational reforms. To this day many school people not familiar with recent investigations of transfer by Lashley, Orata, Over¬ man, and others, are still saying that the idea of transfer has been exploded, tho they may perhaps make use of intelligence tests which assume transfer by their use of random sampling of mental life. This desire for a greater amount of reflective thinking is clearly discernible in the current emphasis on the social studies. In recent times we have looked over the social precipice and noted that the margin of safety with regard to making social changes in systematic and orderlv fashion was none too great. Hence a frantic emphasis 9 1 This series of dates probably represents an oversimplification, but the cycle of educational move¬ ments seems accurate enough for our purpose. National Council of Education 161 on the social studies resulted, with the hope that our citizens may as an out¬ come vote intelligently on public issues. Thesis V In the end we will make mare substantial progress if we subject our popu¬ lar panaceas for what ails the modern school to searching criticism, and examine the two rather distinct methods by which changes are made. The first method consists of inventing new terminology. The advantages of this method are that its promoters can achieve leadership and wide pub¬ licity in easy and rapid fashion. Its disadvantages are that it confuses the public and allows pseudo-reformers without broad scholarship or deep in¬ sight to masquerade as progressive while, in fact, they may be projecting the obsolete in curriculum and in method. It is very common to find school people using progressive terminology when in fact their own school systems are a full generation behind the practises of good schools. The present widespread activity of curriculum revision is an excellent illustration, for the reform is as yet largely one on paper. To date, the engi¬ neers of curriculum construction have confined their efforts largely to placing the activity program, as an engine appropriated from the Boy Scouts, on a chassis designed by the social studies ; to giving an attractive veneer with the methodology of Kilpatrick, to a body contributed by Hearst and the radio; and to simonizing this fantastic assembly with the philosophy of John Dewey. Much of the current educational reform consists of changing the labels on old bottles. The other method of educational reform is to modify practise without ostentation and thus give new meaning to old terms. The disadvantage of this procedure is that it classifies the promoters as conservatives and thereby causes their contributions to spread slowly. The advantages lie in the fact that the public is able to understand the reasons that underlie proposed modi¬ fications, thus avoiding delays due to endless discussion and opposition. The Society for Curriculum Study which includes some of our ablest workers and which already has valuable achievements to its credit could, in the writer’s judgment, with great profit lay aside its abstruse and technical terminology and state what it advocates in simple, direct English. The chief objection to the highly technical terminology is that it invariably suggests that little in the way of progress can be achieved under the existing organ¬ ization of schools and that some wholly new, undefined pattern of schooling is necessary. Thesis VI Most and probably all of the substantial reforms that have been suggested to date could easily be incorporated in the existing organization of schools if these were staffed by broadly trained teachers, supervised by executives of vision, and provided with the necessary funds. For example, we are today dreaming of a secondary school with a greatly expanded curriculum, of a school that will develop an adequate record that travels with the pupil, of a school that will give many times as much atten- 162 National Education Association tion to a broad guidance program, of a school that will help the individual validate his life plans, of a school that will provide a new and sensible curric¬ ulum for the summer for all children that will correlate experiences of the farm, the camp, the shop, and commerce, that will utilize the best of the experiences in the CCC camps and the 4-H Clubs, and one that will provide adequate instruction in citizenship, music, and art. There seems to he no valid reason why such worthwhile reforms should be delayed. Let us con¬ sider a second illustration. At the moment many teachers are creating new units in consumer education, safety education, health, mental hygiene, sex education, human adjustment, family life, and the like. The writer has not seen a single desirable unit that could not readily he included in science, mathematics, social studies, or some other existing subject. The progressive schoolman need not wait until the day when his school will be included in a group of experimental schools to make substantial changes. The sensible route to reform is to bring teachers up to date with regard to worthwhile innovations in order that they may quickly cast aside obsolete materials and include the newer units that are appearing. Thesis VII It is possible that the chaotic conditions in the curriculum are not as per¬ plexing to remedy as they appear. One cause undoubtedly is our sudden shift of values. Our shift from an emphasis on subjectmatter to the goal of social and personal development may cause us unnecessarily to reject large blocks of the older subjectmatter and many of the traditional procedures, merely because we do not have a clear insight into the newer scale of values. SOME OF THE LESS WELL-KNOWN EPISODES IN THE LIFE OF HORACE MANN E. I. F. WILLIAMS, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, HEIDELBERG COLLEGE, TIFFIN, OHIO Horace Mann was an educational statesman imbued with the gospel of reform. A century ago a “new wine of idealism” was filling the minds of men. He opposed war, slavery, and intemperance as enemies of the human race. Mann had a passion for democracy. As its devotee, he saw mankind passing thru a transition state in which there would he more equitable dis¬ tribution of property. He enunciated the principle that the property of the commonwealth is pledged for the education of youth up to the point where they will be saved from poverty and vice and prepare them for “the adequate performance of social and civic duties.” Mann had many friends, among them William Ellery Channing, George Combe, Charles Sumner, Samuel Gridley Howe, Julia Ward Howe, Edw\ard Everett, Elizabeth Peabody, and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. The Panic of 1837 occurred during his term as secretary, bringing prob¬ lems but also bringing the opportunity to emphasize anew the importance of National Council of Education 163 universal education. Out of the depression grew a great forward surge of the common school. Mr. Mann saw such agencies as the press, the church, the political party as devisive, asserting that the school is the only institution ministering to universal improvement, all the others seeking to abolish specific ills. Educa¬ tion was conceived by him as a process of enlightenment with the consent of those educated. Tho personally religious and tho advocating religious teaching, Mr. M ann opposed sectarianism in the schools. Likewise he opposed indoctrina¬ tion of children in partisan political doctrines. His great passion was for the truth, untrammeled and unbiased, which he believed a solvent for society’s problems. He saw schools as agencies of the whole people, by the whole people, for the whole people. THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION: ITS PAST AND ITS POSSIBLE FUTURE HENRY LESTER SMITH, DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, INDIANA UNIVERSITY, BLOOMINGTON, IND. Past History of the National Council The first record that I have been able to find of the suggestion of a National Council of Education in the United States is found in the edi¬ torial column of the National Journal of Education , July 24, 1879. In this article Thomas W. Bicknell, the founder and editor of this Journal, sug¬ gested such an organization and gave his reasons for such a body. Mr. Bick¬ nell felt that the large mass organization of teachers should be supple¬ mented by a representative group of the ablest thinkers in the profession who would study the trend of education, thought, and effort, and advise with respect to the wisest means and methods of future growth. Following Mr. Bicknell’s suggestion several state teachers associations adopted resolutions in favor of a congress of educators to consider educa¬ tional questions. The movement had developed to such a point that Mr. Bicknell was invited to read a paper before the superintendents’ section of the National Education Association, Washington, D. C., February 1880, on “The Proposed National Council of Education.” Out of this discussion grew the appointment of a competent committee which prepared a report for the Board of Directors of the National Education Association for the following summer meeting at Chautauqua, New York. This report was approved by the Board of Directors and recommended to the General Asso¬ ciation which adopted the report unanimously. Soon the membership of the Council was organized into standing com¬ mittees whose duty it was to prepare reports for the future consideration of the Council as a whole. Some of the outstanding committee reports were those on State School Systems; City School Systems; Higher Education; Secondary Education; Elementary Education; Normal Education; Indus- 164 National Education Association trial Education ; Pedagogics ; Moral Education ; School Sanitation, Hygiene, Physical Training, Health; and Psychological Inquiry. During the following years, several efforts were made to reorganize the membership of the Council in a way that would more definitely insure the realization of the original and changing purposes. From 1880 to 1900 the Council was constituted as one of the main research bodies of the country. So great had been its influence that in 1898 it became the agent of the National Education Association for determining and directing investigations. For a number of years after this no research work was initiated by the Na¬ tional Education Association itself. In the meantime the standing committee plan of work of the Council was abandoned ; and the work of the Council became that of considering and discussing individual papers. During the first decade of this discussion period the weight of personal opinion and the au¬ thority obtained by position and experience held sway. Later the more scien¬ tific approach to pedagogical problems gained the ascendancy. It is clear from the facts that have been reviewed that the National Council of Education arose out of a real need, a need that was somewhat slowly pressed in upon the minds of the leading educators of our country which focused rather spontaneously in connection with the great educa¬ tional exhibit in Philadelphia in 1876 and which became so insistent in the years immediately following that it culminated in a definite organization in 1880. In the early days two rather definite functions were conceived for this organization. One of these was that of collecting facts, of extending the boundaries of knowledge, of adding to the sum total of human informa¬ tion thru analytical research. The second function was that of evaluating educational ideas, theories, and practises, and of exchanging thoughts one with another concerning the meaning of the information being unearthed thru analytical research. On the one hand, therefore, there was the call for analysis and additional information thru scientific procedure. On the other hand, there was the demand that these new facts be related to each other and integrated into the whole of human history and activity. During the earlier years much emphasis was placed upon this latter func¬ tion, but from the beginning, also, great emphasis was placed upon the first of these functions. The Council had prestige in both of these matters because of two facts: (1) the membership was made up of leaders in educa¬ tion; (2) the National Education Association had approved the National Council as its advisory committee, so to speak. The National Education Association went to the Council with problems on which it wanted deep and careful meditation and with the problems that it wanted to have investi¬ gated. For many years the National Education Association looked to the National Council of Education for guidance in the determination and promulgation of national educational policies and procedures. For many years, also, as we have seen, the National Education Association refused to undertake any serious analytical bit of research without first referring it to the National Council of Education for advice. On the recommendation of the Council, then, these problems would either be dropped altogether, approved for further investigation by the National National Council of Education 165 Education Association or some appropriate department thereof, or approved for further investigation by the National Council of Education itself. During these years, then, under the stimulus of the National Council of Education and under the stimulus of the need for research as it was coming to be felt thruout the United States as a whole, bureaus of research sprang up in connection with many of the city school systems, state departments of public instruction, and schools of education in colleges and universities. Under this growing pressure, as we have seen, the National Education As¬ sociation itself enlarged its facilities by adding a Research Division. This Division has grown from year to year and consequently there has been the development of an unconscious and unintentional conflict of authority and fields of work between it and the National Council of Education. About twelve years ago this possible overlapping and threatening inter¬ ference of the one with the other lead to a reconsideration of the future place of the Council. Even before that time this trend of thought was evidently at work in directing the reorganization of the Council in an effort to make it more completely representative of all phases and levels of education. The type of reorganization adopted would lend color to the argument that even then the Council, or the force back of it, was unconsciously working toward a new program that would place emphasis in the future more upon synthesis than upon analysis. For some years now the programs of the Council have been consciously built around the one major thought of interpretation, evaluation, and inte¬ gration in an effort to bring together information revealed thru analytical research, to see some unity running thruout all of this information, and to integrate this unified thought into all phases of social thought and activity. The response to this effort has been very encouraging, and so sincerely has the problem gripped many of our real leaders in education in this country at the present time that we are now at the end of nearly sixty years of a significant past, refacing problems that have been current at various times during the development of this organization. Points To Be Considered Regarding the Advisability of Continuing the National Council L Every organization must present adequate practical reasons for its continuance. II. Past achievement, past glories, long history, a roster of great men with a halo of memories are insufficient reasons for existence of an organ¬ ization today. Past history shows what has been done and illustrates what can be done by the National Council of Education. If the same, similar, or an entirely new type of work needs doing, let the organization live and work. If the work of today is being done by other organizations and this one has no particular function, let it drop. III. Present activity of an organization is not necessarily an adequate or definite criterion of its usefulness. The present work might be extended or new fields opened. 166 National Education Association Certain scholars of a few centuries ago were thought to be able to com¬ pass all knowledge. Consequently, integration of this knowledge could be compassed by single individuals and individual philosophies of life arose. Today accumulated knowledge has been pyramided in mountain-like pro¬ portions. Specialization has had luxuriant and extensive growth. It seems no longer possible for a single mind to withdraw far enough from this mass of material to get any comprehensive and meaningful view of the whole. If this assumption is correct the question arises, “Can we hope any longer for integration and evaluation?’’ I doubt whether we can have such hopes on the individual basis. It may be possible on the group basis. Our needs are great. In my judgment, we still need the Council of Edu¬ cation to help us meet these needs. I suggest, therefore, further considera¬ tion of the advisability of a revision of the purposes of the Council, a re¬ vitalizing of the membership of the Council, and a reorganization of the machinery thru which the Council works. One project that I wish to sug¬ gest for consideration is the evolution of machinery for group thinking in the interpretation of presentday proposed knowledge and activities. To this end we might first try to locate funds that would support a group of educa¬ tional leaders from all over the world who might live under the conditions of freedom that have been previously suggested, working leisurely and semi- unconsciouslv toward a comprehensive philosophy of education and a pro¬ gram of educational activities in line with such a philosophy. Secondly, out of this group should be selected representatives who, together with repre¬ sentatives from similar groups representing the various human interests and activities, would live together free from the coercion of a task definitely conceived to be accepted at a given time. The idea is that such persons would naturally exchange points of view and consequently would have their own points of view modified and in turn would modify the points of view of others. There would be the hope that out of this mass of reaction there would evolve a comprehensive and a reasonably accurate evaluation of human interests and activities. Such a project is, I know, visionary in the extreme. I am suggesting it only in the hope that it may stimulate refine¬ ments of conception and statement by other members of this group and lead ultimately to a clearer conception as to whether there is this further need for the Council. If there is such need the next question concerns how the Council could be organized to give some promise of meeting the future needs. In conclusion I should say that, in my judgment, there is still a real need for the continuance of the National Council of Education, particularly along the following lines: 1. There might well be some demand on such an organization to do research work in the future or to sponsor such work supplementing other research agencies. 2. There might well be need for work by such an organization as the National Council in developing and formulating educational policies sup¬ plementing the work of the Educational Policies Commission and possibly National Council of Education 167 continuing its work in case that organization should go out of existence at the end of the five-year period for which it w^as originally created. 3. There is a definite need for an organization like the National Council of Education to evaluate research ; to evaluate it on two bases: first, theoreti¬ cally ; and secondly, bv arranging with schools thruout the country in which the theories and scientific findings may be tested. The National Council, being made up of representatives from all phases of education and from all parts of the country, would be especially fitted to render this type of service. 4. Such an organization could make a contribution in the field of integra¬ tion of knowledge: (a) by discussion of the Council at its regular meetings; (b) in seminars made up of members in the teaching profession; (c) in seminars for all sections of society; (d) by mapping out new plans of needed investigation; and (e) by encouraging and carrying on research in connec¬ tion with organizations that members of the Council belong to. This activity would supplement actual research and the direction thereof. SECRETARY’S MINUTES New Orleans, Louisiana Saturday, February 20, 1937 The National Council of Education of the National Education Association met at the Roosevelt Hotel, February 20, 1937. Lida Lee Tall, president, State Teachers College, Towson, Maryland, presided at both morning and afternoon sessions, at the request of Dr. Bagley who was ill and could not be present. (Abstracts of papers presented at both sessions appear in the preceding pages.) At the afternoon session, the following resolution was presented by L. A. Pechstein, chairman of the Committee on Resolutions, and was unanimously adopted: The Committee on Resolutions of the National Council of Education of the National Education Association of the United States resolves as follows: In view of the facts that (1) the National Council has become an outmoded division of the National Education Association, with its original functions sub¬ stantially served by the Educational Policies Commission and its consultants; (2) the Committee on Reorganization of the National Education Association has so far not assigned to the Council a new and distinct function; (3) the National Council has no internal bond sufficiently independent of other educational organ¬ izations to justify its holding independent meetings; and (4) the membership has voted overwhelmingly to disband the Council unless the Committee on Reorganization sees some real need for its continuance; Be It Resolved: 1. That the National Council communicate at once with the Committee on Reorganization and express its willingness upon request of the Committee to study the fundamental service the Council might perform and to report such at the Detroit meeting; 2. That the National Council declare itself dissolved at the close of the forth¬ coming Detroit meeting, except as a new program may be devised and accepted by the Council ; 3. That it suggest to its President that a program reviewing the long and honorable work of the Council be presented at Detroit. 4. That the affectionate regards and respect of the Council be communicated to the president, William C. Bagley, together with our wishes for a speedy and complete recovery. 168 National Education Association 5. That action be taken on these resolutions at the Detroit meeting and that copies be sent to the members of the Council with a request that they be prepared to act at the Detroit meeting. Signed: L. A. Pechstein, Chairman Edgar G. Doudna Albert S. Cook Margaret Kie'ly Henry Lester Smith Dr. Pechstein was appointed by the acting chairman of the Council to work with the Committee on Reorganization of the National Education Association upon request. Detroit, Michigan Saturday, June 26, 1937 The meeting of the National Council of Education was called to order by the president, William C. Bagiev, at 9:30 a. m. in the Chapter Room of the Masonic Temple. Raleigh Schorling, professor of education, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, presented the thesis, “Mirages in Education,” and discussed the topic at length. About forty-five members were in attendance and other participants in the discussion were H. B. Allman, superintendent of schools, Muncie, Indiana ; Guy H. Hill, Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science, East Lansing, Michigan; and Harry L. Kriner, State Teachers College, California, Pennsylvania. E. I. F. Williams, Heidelberg College, Tiffin, Ohio, presented a paper on the subject, “Some of the Less Well-Known Episodes in the Career of Horace Mann.” (Abstracts of the thesis and of Dr. Williams’ paper appear in the preceding pages.) Dr. Bagiev called the afternoon session to order at 2:30 o’clock, and Henry Lester Smith, dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, presented the subject, “The National Council of Education: Its Past and Its Possible Future.” (An abstract of Dr. Smith’s paper appears in the preceding pages.) Participants in the discussion were Francis L. Bailey, state commissioner of education, Montpelier, Vermont; Thomas W. Gosling, national director, American Junior Red Cross, Washington, D. C.; Joseph H. Saunders, superintendent of schools, Newport News, Virginia; Willis A. Sutton, superintendent of schools, Atlanta, Georgia; Kate V. Wofford, State Teachers College, Buffalo, New York; and others. As chairman of the Resolutions Committee, L. A. Pechstein presented the Resolu¬ tions which were presented at the meeting of the Council in New Orleans in February 1937. (These Resolutions appear in the preceding minutes of the New Orleans meet¬ ing of the Council.) Dr. Pechstein moved the adoption of the second resolution: “That the National Council declare itself dissolved at the close of the forthcoming Detroit meeting, except as a new program may be devised and accepted by the Council.” The motion was seconded and, after discussion led by Cornelia S. Adair, was unanimously defeated. Dr. Sutton moved that a committee be appointed to formulate policies and to work out a program of activity for the National Council. The motion was seconded and after discussion was unanimously carried. Chari Williams asked that, since she is a member of the headquarters staff of the National Education Association, she not be considered for reelection as secretary of the National Council. In granting this request, Dr. Bagley moved a rising vote of thanks to Miss Williams for her services to the Council. The motion was unanimously accepted and was followed by applause. Joseph H. Saunders, chairman of the Nominating Committee, presented the Com¬ mittee’s report. Dr. Sutton moved the adoption of the report and that the secretary be directed to cast a ballot for the officers nominated. The motion was seconded and carried, and the following officers were thereby elected: President — L. A. Pechstein, for a term of 3 years. Vicepresident — E. G. Doudna, for a term of 1 year. Secretary — Margaret Kiely, for a term of 2 years. National Council of Education 169 Members of Executive Committee E. V. Holloway, for a term of 3 years. Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, for a term of 2 years. A. L. Threlkeld, for a term of 1 year. Members of Committee on Membership W. C. Bagley, for a term of 3 years. Joseph H. Saunders, for a term of 3 years. Mrs. Inez Johnson Lewis, for a term of 2 years. Kate V. Wofford, for a term of 2 years. Dr. Saunders then presented the list of new members of the Council. It was moved and seconded that the list be accepted, and the following persons were thereby elected into membership: Renewals For a Term of 6 Years Collicott, J. G., Superintendent of Schools, Columbus, Ohio. Cook, Albert S., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Baltimore, Md. Judd, Charles H., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Norton, John K., 464 Riverside Drive, New York, N. Y. Norton, Mrs. John K., 464 Riverside Drive, New York, N. Y. Phelps, Shelton J., Winthrop College, Rock Hill, S. C. Stoops, R. O., Superintendent of Schools, Jacksonville, Ill. For a Term of 5 Years Adair, Cornelia S., 3208 Hawthorne Avenue, Richmond, Va. Butterfield, E. W., State Commissioner of Education, Hartford, Conn. Carr, John W., State Teachers College, Murray, Ky. Freeman, Frank N., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Gray, Wil Lou, State Department of Public Instruction, Columbia, S. C. Holloway, H. V., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Dover, Del. Meredith, A. B., New York University, New York, N. Y. Samuelson, Agnes, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa. Sutton, Willis A., Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta, Ga. Tidwell, R. E., University of Alabama, University, Ala. New Members For a Term of 6 Years McAndrew, Mary B., Superintendent of Schools, Carbondale, Pa. Morgan, Dewitt, Principal, Tech High School, Indianapolis, Ind. Nuttall, L. John, Jr., Superintendent of Schools, Salt Lake City, LTah. Schorling, Raleigh, Professor of Education, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. For a Term of 5 Years Allman, H. B., Superintendent of Schools, Muncie, Ind. Bass, W. A., Commissioner of Education, Nashville, Tenn. For Unexpired Terms of Deceased Members Brooks, W. G., Superintendent of Schools, Burlington, Iowa, for Charles Carroll. Fritz, F. Herman, Superintendent of Schools, Chester, Pa., for David A. Ward. Shaw, Albert, Junior High School Teacher, Los Angeles, Calif.., for William Burdick. Dr. Pechstein moved that a rising vote of appreciation for Dr. Bagiev’s six years of service to the Council be taken. The motion was duly seconded and unanimously carried with great applause. The National Council adjourned to meet again in February 1938, at the time of the winter meeting of the American Association of School Administrators. - Departments of the t Association INTRODUCTION The growth of departments in the Association began in 1870 when the American Xonnal School Association became the Department of Normal Schools (nozo Department of Teachers Colleges), and the Na¬ tional Association of School Superintendents became the Department of Superintendence. Another great forward step was taken in 1921 when departments were given larger independence and responsibility. This led to the establish¬ ment of fees by the stronger departments, to the selection of an executive secretary by the Department of Superintendence, and later to the selection of full-time secretaries by several other departments. There are no-zo twenty-four departments. Information regarding their organization may be found in the historical note at the beginning of the section devoted to the department m question. The list of departments with the years of organization is as follozos: ADMINISTRATIVE WOMEN IN EDUCATION . 1932 ADULT EDUCATION . . 1921 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION. . 1894 (See DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL education) AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS . 1870 (See DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE) ART EDUCATION . 1933 BUSINESS EDUCATION . 1892 CLASSROOM TEACHERS . 1914 DEANS OF WOMEN . 1918 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH . 1930 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS . : . 1921 KINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY EDUCATION . 1884 LIP READING . 1926 MUSIC EDUCATION . 1884 RURAL EDUCATION . 1907 SCIENCE INSTRUCTION . 1894 SECONDARY EDUCATION . 1886 SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS . 1928 SOCIAL STUDIES . 1925 SPECIAL EDUCATION . 1930 SUPERVISORS AND DIRECTORS OF INSTRUCTION . 1928 SUPERVISORS AND TEACHERS OF HOME ECONOMICS . 1930 TEACHERS COLLEGES . 1925 VISUAL INSTRUCTION . 1923 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION . 1875 [172] DEPARTMENT OF ^Administrative Women in Education HISTORICAL NOTE The national council of administrative women in education zvas organized in Oakland, Calif., in 1915 by a group of women in attendance at the annual meeting of the National Education Association. One of its purposes set forth in its constitution at that time zvas to strengthen the friendly and professional relatio)is of administrative zvomcn in educa¬ tional work and to maintain high professional standards among them. It has branches in eighteen states. Since its organization the Council has held two meetings a year, one during the convention of the Department of Superintendence in February, and another during the annual meeting of the Association in the summer. At the Atlantic City meeting application was made to the Board of Direc¬ tors for the admission of the Council as a Department and favorable action on the application zvas taken by the Representative Assembly on Friday morning, July 1, 1932. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-38 are: president, Mrs. Inez Johnson Fczvis, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo.; vicepresident, Mrs. Edith B. Joyncs, Principal, Wash- ington-Gatezvood Schools, Norfolk, Va.; secretary, Mrs. Margaret Mendenhall Smith, Principal, Ebert School, Denver, Colo.; treasurer, Margaret C. Mackintosh, Principal, Public School 140, Brooklyn, N. ¥.; auditor, Ruth West, Head, History Department, Lewis and Clark High School, Spokane, Wash.; directors, Elizabeth Wells Robertson , Di¬ rector, Art Education, Public Schools, Chicago, III.; Sue M. Powers, Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Torn.; Agnes Sam- uelson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Dcs Moines, Iowa ; Mary Elizabeth O'Connor, 158 Highland Street, Taunton, Mass.; Caro¬ line Woodruff, President, State Normal School, Castleton, Vt. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follozvs: 1932 \261-262 1934:265-271 19 36:157-160 1933 :269-274 1935 :251-254 [174] EDUCATION OF THE WHOLE PERSONALITY O. R. YODER, ASSISTANT MEDICAL SUPERINTENDENT, YPSILANTI STATE HOSPITAL, YPSILANTI, MICH. WE, as parents, see our children go out into the world and we wonder whether they will find teachers who are interested in keep¬ ing feet in line and cramming heads with facts or whether they will find teachers who will see personalities and challenges, each one different from the other, teachers who will lead them to a richer and a fuller life. It might interest you to know that one million of our school children are destined for state hospitals and many more will go to prisons. More of our school children will go to state hospitals suffering from a mental disease than will graduate from colleges and universities. The cost to the taxpayer to educate each one of the twenty-six million children in the United States is approximately $85 annually per capita. It costs the taxpayers of the state of Michigan $278 per capita each year to care for the insane. I believe that one-half of the cases of mental disease can be prevented and that a definite educational program in each school and each home will aid in the prevention of crime and mental difficulty and will therefore be an enormous saving to the taxpayers. I call your attention to the fact that in order to have happy, well-adjusted children, they should, first of all, be healthy. Second, we must give them economic, social, and emotional security; and, third, I believe in hobbies and many extracurriculum activities. I believe in the free expression of love and a sympathetic understanding of each child. Spanking and whipping are admissions of failure. Each personality can be studied in four fields: first, the heredity; second, the psychological ; third, the physical ; and fourth, the mental. The goal of each individual is to reach happiness and security. In order to reach this goal the child must adjust socially. The individual must also adjust to law and order, and he must adjust to his own ability. Those in¬ dividuals who are not socialized give to us in state hospitals our many cases of dementia praecox, the economic loss of which is a million and a half dollars each day. During the past year we have carried on an experiment with a socialization program showing that extracurriculum activities definitely aid in the improvement and recovery and treatment of cases of dementia praecox. Mental health is nothing more than a state of mind which enables an individual to meet the difficulties of life and properly solve them. I believe that there should be more cooperation between parents and teachers and the establishment of a program which will contribute much to the preven¬ tion of insanity and crime. The goal of all training, as I see it, is to have children who are mature, self-reliant human beings; who, instead of getting things from life for them¬ selves, will give themselves to life and the world. [ 175 j 176 National Education Association ♦ SECRETARY’S MINUTES Detroit, Michigan Luncheon Meeting, Wednesday, June 30, 1937 The meeting was called to order by the president, Mrs. Inez Johnson Lewis, in the Ballroom of the Book-Cadillac Hotel. There wrere about two hundred members and guests present. Seated at the head table were the officers of the association, guest speakers, past presidents, candidates for the presidency of the N. E. A., and repre¬ sentatives of Detroit organizations interested in and responsible for the program of the day. Anna Laura Force, Denver, Colorado, responded to the greeting extended by Esther Cousins of Detroit, after which Mrs. Laura F. Osborne, member of the Detroit Board of Education for twenty years, added a word of welcome. The Cooley High School Trio furnished delightful music before and during the luncheon. Dr. O. R. Yoder, medical superintendent of the Ypsilanti State Hospital, addressed the group on “The Development of the Whole Personality.” Dr. Yoder paid tribute to William McAndrew, whose passing was noted by the press during the N. E. A. convention. Mrs. Lewis presented the guests, calling for a word from those not on the pro¬ gram. The closing address, delivered by Mrs. Mary R. Beard, writer and lecturer, challenged the administrative women to think about “statesmanship” in adminis¬ tration; to be sure that they have a "whole view of the road” by which women have arrived, in order to develop a philosophy which will carry them on. The president announced a ten-minute recess and a brief business meeting follow¬ ing the interval. The meeting adjourned at 3 p. m. DEPARTMENT OF -Adult Education HISTORICAL NOTE The department of adult education was established by vote of the Representative Assembly, July 8, 1921, as the Department of Immigrant Education. The first meeting was held in 1922 in Boston. In 1924 the name of the Department was changed to the Department of Adult Edu¬ cation. See proceedings, 1924:566. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-28 are: president, Maude E. Alton, Administrative Principal, Webster School, 10th and H Streets, N. W ., Washington, D. C.; vicepresident, George C. Mann, Chief, Division of Adult and Continuation Education, State Department of Public Instruction, Los Angeles, Calif.; secretary, Frances K. Wet- more, Director, Adult Education, Board of Education, Chicago, III.; editor, Bulletin, Caroline A. Whipple, State Department of Public In¬ struction, Albany, N. Y .; executive committee: L. R. Alderman, Chief, Service Division, United States Office of Education, Washington, D. C. (term expires 1938); Marguerite H. Burnett, State Director of Adult Education, 11th and Washington Streets, Wilmington, Del. (term expires 1938). This Department meets once a year in July. The annual dues — Active, $2 ; Associate, $1 — are payable to the Department of Adult Education, National Education Association. The Department publishes a Bulletin. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1921 :460 1922 -.905-968 1923 -.669-703 1924 -.565-582 1925 -.337-353 1926 -.329-371 1927 -.293-334 1928 -.263-304 1929 -.277-316 1930 :249-274 1931 -.315-341 1932:263-281 1933 :275-308 1934:273-296 1935 -.255-270 1936:161-176 [178] PROBLEMS OF NATURALIZATION— Abstract* MRS. AD EX A RICH, DIRECTOR, IMMIGRANTS* PROTECTIVE LEAGUE OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO. ILL. There is a special pleasure in speaking to those who carry on the work of the N. E. A. Department of Adult Education. Thru your hands is coming a fresh new electorate, which has the power to mold the cities into the clean and light and happy communities we have always wished them to be. The foreign born in your adult classes came to America because of that dream. With the aid of those who guide them toward citizenship, they can make it come true! There is no teacher of adult classes who does not hnd it necessary, at some time, to answer the question, “Why should I become a citizen of the Lmited States?” Teachers and social workers are not exponents of com¬ pulsory naturalization, nor is anyone who thinks carefully. But there are many reasons growing out of life in the L nited States which make it to the advantage of the immigrant to take on the citizenship of the country in which he chooses to make his home. The general public is entirely unaware of the difficulties encountered in naturalization. As every teacher of adult classes for the foreign born knows, it is a false major premise to assume that every¬ one can be naturalized who wishes to be. Among the obstacles to naturaliza¬ tion are : 1. Lapsed declarations of intention 2. High naturalization fees 3. Broken residence 4. Difficulty of securing necessary witnesses when there has been change of resi¬ dence 5. Determination of present sovereignty of place of birth 6. Racial ineligibility 7. Verification of entry S. Naturalization of married women under the Cable Act 9. Determination as to whether client is or is not a citizen of the United States 10. Non-availability of adult classes in which foreign born may prepare for naturalization. A progressive legislative program would go far to lift these obstacles and open the doors to naturalization. (In the complete address Mrs. Rich gives ten recommendations for amendments to naturalization laws.) In working for the adjustment of life together in this new world, the teacher believes with Jane Addams, that "the things that make men alike, are finer and better than the things that keep them apart.” * For complete address write to National Council of Naturalization and Citizenship. 1133 Park Avenue, New York. X. V. [ 179 1 180 National Education Association EFFECTIVE CITIZENSHIP PROGRAMS FOR THE FOREIGN BORN— Abstract* THOMAS B. SHOEMAKER, DEPUTY COMMISSIONER, IMMIGRATION AND NATU¬ RALIZATION, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, WASHINGTON, D. C. Good citizenship is the basis of government and of all social relation, and proper understanding and organized effort must be had if worthwhile gov¬ ernment is to continue. There is an obligation upon those persons who are now citizens, whether they be native born or naturalized, to jealously guard our American citizenship. The naturalization laws were enacted primarily to serve the purposes of the government; the interests of the applicant are secondary. The clauses in the naturalization law providing for proof of residence in the United States on the part of the applicant and good moral character, and attachment to the principles of the Constitution were enacted more for what they promised in the future than for what they told of the alien’s past. The applicant for citizenship stands in the position of an applicant seeking admission into a lodge or society. He must show by complying with the statute that he is entitled to, and worthy of, admission. The educational program of the Immigration and Naturalization Service contemplates the teaching of principles of the Constitution as distinguished from the teaching of elementary civics. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF STUDENTS ORGANIZATIONS SOU REN HANESSIAN, VICEPRESIDENT, AMERICANIZATION SCHOOL ASSOCIA¬ TION, WASHINGTON, D. C. The Americanization School Association of the District of Columbia has sent me to this meeting as its official representative and has placed on me a great responsibility which I want to ask you as individuals to share with me. Some of you, I know well ; some very, very well ; and because of the interest you have shown in behalf of the newcomers to America I want to take this opportunity to thank you for all newcomers as well as for the members of my own Association. We have worked because it is our duty to work for our own welfare, but you work because you understand. ou understand our aims and our many problems. And, after all, you work because you are earnest in your duty to your country and to your people. I have a proposal to make which I feel will succeed, with the assurance of your help. It is not new. We have dreamed of it for many years, but it is now emerging in a more concrete form. The thought I wish to bring is that all our various organizations of new citizens with which many of you are allied, should form a national body. Deep in our hearts we know the contributions that our groups can make * For complete address write to National Council of Naturalization and Citizenship, 1133 Park Avenue, New York, N. Y. Department of Adult Education 181 to America. We know also the traditions of our various groups that may defeat assimilation. Briefly, then, our plan is: 1. To form a body that will assist in studying the deep-rooted problem of adjust¬ ment and assimilation 2. To establish a central service bureau which will advise on immigration and naturalization problems 3. To publish a bulletin for newcomers that will give true information relative to these problems, will give opportunity for expression, and will assist in the spread of suggestions that lead to understanding intelligent citizenship 4. To emphasize the ideals of American citizenship 5. To attempt to bring about closer relationship between the native born and newcomers thru both recreational and educational facilities 6. To create an agency which will, to a greater extent, interest Americans with high standards in these special adjustments of the newcomer 7. To study, with a view to improving the economic conditions of newcomers 8. To study legislation relative to immigration and naturalization and its effect on groups of new citizens. These are a few of the purposes which we now feel would stimulate real citizenship. We feel that we must be co-workers with you for the America which we have adopted and which has accorded to us the duties, rights, and privileges of the native-born citizens. We will be glad to send our detailed plans to organizations of new citizens thruout the country and we ask for aid and suggestions from each of them. Discussion A PHILOSOPHY FOR ADULT EDUCATION LYMAN BRYSON, PROFESSOR OF ADULT EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y., Leader Dr. Bryson : My chief task is to bring to you a report of a meeting that was held in Skytop, Pennsylvania, called by the American Association for Adult Education, where about one hundred and fifty people in session tried to get back to first principles. The program was scheduled to have three presentations of general points of view, followed by discussion meetings. The presentations were by Dr. Morse Cartwright, of the American Asso¬ ciation for Adult Education, Dr. Everett Martin, of Cooper Union, and Dr. Alvin Johnson, of the New School for Social Research. Certain prob¬ lems were presented which I am going to put to you as questions. 1. LIow much adult education should be done by zuhat we call “ pro¬ fessionals ”? We know perfectly well that adult education, in the past months, has been done by people who have never been trained for their jobs. We are now setting up, all over the country, schools to train people in the methods and practises of adult education. How far should that go? Is it reasonable to suppose that all situations in adult education can be met best by a person who is a professional? Should teaching in the adult field he completely pro¬ fessionalized, or should a large share of responsibility be left to the amateur who wants to do something about it and is willing to get a clear idea of the 182 National Education Association problem in his own amateur way before he undertakes to do something about it? At Skytop the answer to this question was that adult education can never be completely professional ; that if it does become so, it will lose some of the vitality and some of the spontaneity which make it a little different from compulsory and formal education. There will always be pressure on the teachers colleges to give some kind of mark of training received, and every administrator knows that when he chooses teachers, the balance will be in favor of those who have had pro¬ fessional training — unless he has very great confidence in his own judgment. 2. What are the responsibilities of leadership f (a) When you set up a program of adult education, do you decide what is good for people, or do you find out what they want? (b) What is the teacher’s responsibility for leadership ? Along with the question of professional training is the important question of how we are going to measure adult education. Are we going to measure it by quality or quantity? For the public school administrator who is dealing with children, the perfectly sound answer is: “We do not admit any such division; we take ail the children there are. We have 100 percent quantity and we give them the best quality of education we can.” But for the adminis¬ trator of adult work there must always be a certain amount of selection, and standards must be set up and adapted as to whether or not it seems best to get the most people in and keep them in, or to give a select few the best that can be given. A compromise? Perhaps, but not a complete compromise, because there is a certain amount of irreducible incompatibility in those two questions. I wish I could expect people to be intelligent enough not to let the problem arise ; but if it does arise, we have to choose either quantity or quality. At Skytop, Dr. Martin said that adult education must make a clear choice between the reason judgment and the mass movement; that all thru Western history two ideals have been at war — the classic ideal of free men, men who are free because they know what freedom means and are willing to take its risks and responsibilities as well as its privileges; and the ideal of emotion, of letting people do what they want, of finding out what the trend is, and of putting oneself as a leader at the head of the procession after one has found out which way the procession is going to go, instead of trying to direct it in a particular way. Adult education must choose between these two ideals. An adult educator cannot set himself up as somebody who decides what people need: neither can he always find out just what people want and give it to them. They are often inarticulate ; they cannot choose what they have never heard about ; and in the end, they are apt to want what people want them to want. They want one thing today and something else tomorrow. It has been discovered by experiment that the actual pattern of interest in personality shifts more day by day than one realizes. It is the educator’s business to help explore the universe and to give to people clear freedom to choose. If he does not help them to find out what the Department of Adult Education 183 universe contains, he is limiting their liberty much more than if he says to them, in a state of ignorance, ‘‘Go ahead, face an absolutely unknown world, and choose.” I would say the teacher’s responsibility is always to help the student find out what he wants. The only person I would quarrel with is the person who says, “I’ll give him what he needs,” because that is an assumption which I think the adult educator cannot make. It is also a good thing to put sympathy into the record. Sympathy is the basic quality of a teacher ; that is, if you mean by sympathy some feeling for the problems and difficulties that adults face in trying to learn specifically all over again. I believe that Dr. Thorndike, one of my dearest friends for whom I have the greatest admiration, did us a great damage when he talked so blithely about the way adults can learn. It was a good thing to make a frontal attack upon the problem and prove, once and for all, that adults can learn but much too optimistic interpretations of that have been made. We know now that adults cannot learn as fast as children, that at the age of forty-five they cannot learn as fast as at the age of twenty-three. The child adjusts himself much more easily and readily to learning than the adult because the child has no strong alternatives. There is nothing in the world for the child to do except to learn. I do not know how many generations it is going to take to make a constant learning attitude the mark of an adult. We have to realize that such an attitude does not yet exist. All Dr. Thorndike said was: “If he wants to bad enough, he can learn anything that he really wants to.” Moreover, I would say flatly and dogmatically, you cannot make adults learn by putting pressure on them. You can with children ; it is a bad teaching practise, but you can get away with it. You cannot get away with it with a mature person. What is the teacher’s responsibility for leadership? I believe a teacher can never abrogate or get away from the responsibility by saying to his student: “I have studied this question and these are my convictions. This is the form in which the question should be put. You can answer it to please yourself.” I do not believe that a person has a right to offer himself as a teacher under any circumstances unless he believes that he knows some¬ thing the student does not know. But, that does not mean that the teacher must tell the student what he is to believe. 3. Just what is the relation between adult education and politics? Is adult education a movement to make a better world, to create a better social order? Yes, I would think so. I wish we could settle the question of how much responsibility the teacher has for guiding the political thinking of the people with whom he comes in contact. I do not believe that we can go on any longer in a kind of benevolent fog in our attitude towards politics. There are three positions on this and I think everyone has a right to choose for himself, provided he will take the responsibility for his selection. One is the position of the person who says that the primary social function of educa¬ tion is the continuity of culture ; that civilization would go to pieces if education were not the chosen agency for teaching each generation what the 184 National Education Association past generations have known. These people should realize that the kind of society for which they are working will cease to be within a generation or two ; that they are fighting for the past and not for the future. Then there is the position at the other extreme — the position of the person who says, “I not only believe in change, but I know what the change ought to be." These people are enemies to society, but most of them have not the courage to admit it. The middle position is not quite as static as the first one, nor quite so colorful and dynamic as the revolutionary one. I think it is more essentially an educational position. It is the position of one who says, “As a human being, as an individual citizen, I have my opinions about what ought to happen and I reserve my right to state them whenever it is appropriate to do so, but as a teacher I have, in addition, certain other duties. It is my busi¬ ness to help people who do not agree with me, to clarify and better under¬ stand the position that they hold. If I refuse to do that, I am refusing to teach some of the people who want me to teach them." I think a teacher can choose for himself which of these three positions he takes. My own is the middle one. And then, this last word about the relation of adult education and politics. Whatever kind of future state we have because of the betterment of the world, it is not going to make adult education less necessary. A better social order would have better schools on all levels. If we know anything about adult education we know that the more education people have, the more they want. I think these are the chief problems in the present philosophic difficulties in adult education. The first : What do we mean by democracy in adult education? Is there responsibility for leadership, that is, on the part of the teacher? If so, what is that responsibility? How can the teacher exercise it with success? These are all the same problem. The other question is: What is the relation of adult education to the general social movement of the time? Adult educators must know what they are doing — I suppose the real value in discussing these things is not that we ever get them settled, but that we do get somewhat disturbed about them. I think that disturbance is good for us occasionally. ( Dr. Bryson then called upon the members of the panel to come to the plat¬ form. The question of what the adult program should emphasize provoked the discussion which follows.) Marguerite H. Burnett (Director, Adult Education, State Depart¬ ment of Education, Wilmington, Del.) : It seems to me that our big job in adult education is to have some concern about some of the big things we are after in terms of growth in people, and that growth may have to come in whatever area that person's major interests lie. He may grow in art ; he may grow in music ; he may grow in anything, but he ought to be a finer person because of that experience. Dr. Bryson : What is growth ? Acquiring a higher standard of produc¬ tion, or getting what we call “self-expression" no matter how bad the thing which is produced? Department of Adult Education 185 Miss Burnett: Both. Self-expression is an upward step in the process of growth. You have to begin with a person where he is. You have not been a real adult educator unless you have helped that person get the disciplines which are desirable, but you begin at a low level if necessary. Winifred Fisher (Secretary, Adult Education Council, New York, N. Y.) : If a person is given the opportunity for self-expression, say in art or music, the confidence and enjoyment he gets from it may be very definite growth ; but I do think he ought to be clear as to what he is trying to do and how well he is accomplishing it. J. T. Reid (Director, Extension Division, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, N. Mex. ) : \ou mean accomplishment from the standpoint of some ideal determined by somebody else other than the individual who is pursuing the performance himself? As far as I am concerned, education for the adult may mean any kind of progress from a point. Dr. Bryson: In any direction? Dr. Reid: Yes, any direction, relying upon, of course, the natural human tendency and trait to progress. L. R. Alderman (Director, Education Division, WPA, Washington, D. C.) : Do we want a lot of philosophical fencing? The questions of accom¬ plishment in art, music, and politics are ultimate questions ; not the immediate questions facing the leader. The kind of growth Miss Burnett means is the growth of an individual who has been started by a wise leader on some line of work in which he would succeed, and upon that success he could build others. (Dr. Alderman cited the Opportunity School in Denver under Emily Griffith.) Of course political questions may come up, but that is not the major thing. It is a very minor consideration in this type of school. We have twenty million people in this country who are not ready for the political question. They are all around us. (The discussion then turned to the question of giving a student what he thinks he wants, or what the leader thinks he needs.) C. S. Marsh (Associate Director, American Council on Education, Washington, D. C.) : Is it not possible for a teacher to decide wisely that a given student does need some things and to exercise pressure to see that the student satisfies those needs? This came up at the CCC camps where there was some compulsion. Miss Burnett: Did they learn under compulsion? Dr. Marsh : At the lowest ends, of course, we had illiteracy in consider¬ able numbers. I am not sure just where the stopping point in compulsion is, in compulsion in the interest of a better social order, but I am perfectly willing to exercise it as far as I can. I believe that you respect and direct a person’s wants, but I think at the lower levels you have to also respect his needs as you see them, and work on them as forcibly as you can. Dr. Bryson : Have you anything to say to that, Dr. Alderman ? Dr. Alderman : On the lower levels, you have no choice in the matter. Dr. Bryson : Then you would say, as people go higher and higher in the educational structure, they know more and more of what they ought to have. Is that right? 186 National Education Association Dr. Alderman : Yes. H. J. Arnold (Wittenburg College, Springfield, Ohio) : I firmly believe that if you want to get learning across, you must make it specific. I believe in emphasizing the specific and in putting on a little pressure where it is neces¬ sary. (A member of the audience said: “I would agree with, compulsion up to the sixth grade. I think the student is not able to say what he should study until he has, at least, learned to read and write well.”) Dr. Bryson : You are agreeing with me, then, that a student’s ignorance is a limitation on his freedom. Miss Fisher: I would like to know if a movement for compulsory legis¬ lation to compel all adults to attend school until they have completed the equivalent of the sixth-grade work has been started ? Dr. Arnold: Is it not essential to citizenship in a democracy? Dr. Bryson: I do not know. We have had a democracy, or what we call a democracy, for one hundred and fifty years. Caroline A. Whipple (Supervisor of Adult Education, State De¬ partment of Education, Albany, N. Y. ) : Compulsory adult education legis¬ lation has never worked. Dr. Bryson : Why not ? M iss Whipple: It just has not. People in this country will not he or¬ dered, when they are adults, to go to school. There was a law in Utah and in our own state but they could not be enforced. Dr. Alderman : I think the greatest teacher of adult education is the one who can challenge a person to do his best, and who sees that that chal¬ lenge is increased from time to time. Dr. Bryson: The responsibility, then, is on the teacher? Dr. Alderman: Yes. Dr. Bryson : I do not think any of us will quarrel with you on the im¬ portance of the teacher. I doubt if there are enough people in the world to do our job who have the certain something that a teacher needs. Since most people are not born teachers, you have to take the best substitute you can get. I think the problem of how we are going to professionalize our methods would be a good one for discussion at some meeting. I am not going to try to summarize this discussion. I think we have clari¬ fied and stated our own points of view. I think we have agreed that the important thing is to know what we are trying to do ; that the methods are fairly manageable if we have a clear conception of their purpose; and that that takes some very clear thinking. THE FUTURE OF ADULT EDUCATION — Abstract * WILLIAM H. KILPATRICK, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Prophecy is always hazardous; but all adventure is based on foretelling probabilities. We analyze, if we can, the situation confronting us into the * The complete address of Dr. Kilpatrick will appear in an early issue of the Bulletin of the De¬ partment of Adult Education; or write to the N. E. A. Department of Adult Education for extra copies. Department of Adult Education 187 more permanent factors, and base our forecast on these. I shall try to do that here. We have had, for many years, some form of adult education ; the church, democracy, political parties, newspapers, the radio — all are informal types of adult education. They no longer suffice. A new and perilous situation demands more widespread and pointed study. New factors of change, entering history about four hundred years ago, have made the world modern. We have found how to discover. Discoveries and inventions mean change — change in ways of living and of thinking. Ways of government and ways of education must fit these ways of living. Changes in the last generation have been so rapid as to put civilization out of balance. Under these factors of change, new problems come very fast; solutions lag behind the problems. Civilization is threatened if we do not increase our rate of solving prob¬ lems. Dictatorship has increased over democracy because new problems have proved too difficult for unskilled democracies. To survive, democracy must make for itself a new adult education. The elimination of illiteracy is very important, but, we hope, it will soon be done away with. Teaching English to foreigners is also important. Teaching those who, when young, were forced to drop out of school is an abiding need. It should decrease with laws keeping people in school longer. Train¬ ing for new trades, new vocations, is very important. It must belong to the new and permanent adult education, together with a study of wholesome ways of spending leisure time. But none of these meet the peril that social stability must fear from accumulating unsolved problems. As I see it, we must have, as the principal feature of the new adult education, the wide¬ spread continual study of current economic and political problems. We are living thru a far-reaching social, economic, and political revolu¬ tion, which is so far quite peaceful. To solve our problems democratically, the great consideration is widespread study. Our aim must he to make the whole body of citizens plastic to thought. We must build social intelligence that constructive thinking may continue. The ability to think new thoughts is the greatest possible asset in and for modern society. A stubborn inability to think new thoughts is our greatest social danger. If a man’s mind is fixed it cannot solve a new problem. Civilization needs a new adult education, then. We must educate for ( 1 ) new vocations, (2) new leisure, and (3) social intelligence. Society, that is to say, society in its organized sense, must foot the bill for this new permanent adult education. It will pay in money, life, and security for what it costs. For the third type of adult education, the main reliance must be small study groups supplemented by public forums. There should be no certifi¬ cates, no grades, no marks, no school notion tangled up with it, and its pur¬ pose is, that the people of this country may seriously study their problems to make democracy work better, to really serve the public welfare. 188 .National Education Association Discussion A CRITIQUE OF CURRENT PRACTISES IN ADULT EDUCATION G. L. MAXWELL, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR, EDUCATION DIVISION, WPA, WASH¬ INGTON, d. c., Leader Dr. Maxwell: This particular discussion has grown out of two sug¬ gestions made by a number of interested people thruout the country: first “adult educators have not stopped to take stock of themselves and to criti¬ cize their practises, and, thereby, to attempt self-improvement," and, second, “all adult education meetings are given over largely to people telling how good their various programs or activities are." It was suggested that we look at ourselves objectively and point out our various weaknesses. Therefore this meeting is to be “A Critique of Current Practises in Adult Education.’’ Tomorrow we are going to discuss the constructive side, showing how these weaknesses, or needs if you prefer the word, can be met. We hope that the members of the audience will be ready to take part tomorrow. (Dr. Maxwell called the members of the panel to come to the platform, explaining that he had assigned different phases of the subject to different groups for preparatory discussion.) Dr. Maxwell: Somewhat arbitrarily, we have divided the time into three sections: (1) criticism of methods and training; (2) materials and cur¬ riculum; and (3) administration and finance. Dr. Debatin, will you begin the discussion ? Frank M. Debatin (University College, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.) : Taking “methods and training" to mean “the methods of teaching adults, and the training of adults," the criticisms of the first might be that we make fetishes of words, and associate a certain type of method with a given field of work — the lecture method, the round table, the forum, the conference method, demonstration, panel, listeners groups, debate, and problem discussion. We have a tendency to make the word, the form, more important than the result ; and perhaps we overlook, somewhat, the matter of objectives. In addition to a well worked out objective, there should be at the end of it a certain kind of realistic finale. The need for increased order and for increased preparation of the teacher, forms the basis of another criticism. Another weakness may be found in the lack of imagination on the part of administrators and teachers who are prone to associate with a given type of work a definite type of procedure method. I want to emphasize the need of imagination. As to the training of teachers of adults, four things are suggested which I am going to mention but will not explain : ( 1 ) training is too formalized ; (2) there is a lack of emphasis on personality; (3) there is a lack of a cer¬ tain orientation in the history, psychology, and theories of education and in allied fields for the teacher who has not finished at a teacher-training institu¬ tion — and for some who have; (4) it seems that adult educators them¬ selves are the poorest examples in the L'nited States of the methods for train- Department of Adult Education 189 ing teachers for adults. We do not use the methods we want the teachers to use when they go into class. Caroline A. \\ hipple (Supervisor of Adult Education, State Depart¬ ment of Education, Albany, N. Y.) : One thing might be mentioned as a bridge from the question of method to the question of preparation of teach¬ ers — the need of the teacher to know something about what she is teaching. There is a great deal of shallowness in our teaching. Would we have to worry much about method if the teacher knew and was interested in her subject ? Winifred Fisher (Secretary, Adult Education Council, New York, N. Y.) : Adult students themselves say that many teachers do not seem to plan their work but take refuge in some large democratic declaration about letting the course of the class grow out of the need of the group. Perhaps a certain amount of that development is required for flexibility, but sometimes students suspect teachers of stalling. M iss Whipple: There is another fault which I think of often. We have a maddening way of talking down to a group of adults. I think that is dis¬ tinctly bad. H. J. Arnold (Wittenburg College, Springfield, Ohio) : I think that we should put the understanding of students and their problems ahead of mastery of knowledge of subjectmatter, altho the latter is extremely im¬ portant. We dare not underestimate the value of ability on the part of the teacher to size up the psychological factors wrapped up in that individual person in the audience or in the class. Dr. Maxwell : What are our chief needs in addition to those mentioned in the matter of teacher training? Miss Fisher: A teacher-training business, as I see it, is done with the idea of “pouring in,” which does not seem from our discussion to have been our ideal for adult education. Dr. Debatin : The training, so far, has been too meager and too narrow in its outlook. Miss Whipple: I think the fault with a great deal of our service train¬ ing is that we do not connect it with the teaching. Dr. Maxwell : Now we turn to the committee that has studied materials and curriculum. Dr. Reid is chairman. S. T. Reid (Director, Extension Division, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. N. Mex.) : Our committee felt that all our activity in develop¬ ing a curriculum, or any other phase of activity in adult education, should take into account the type of group with which we are working or for which we are preparing. We have failed to realize the importance of group level. Also, we have failed to train the teacher in the technics of curriculum¬ making, or in the procedures of assisting adults in working out a curriculum for themselves. Dr. Fisher will report on the matter of needs and the failure to prepare or produce means by which we can discover and develop the needs of adults and provide those needs by curriculum theory. C. A. Fisher (Director, Extension Service, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.) : I am not sure that we are ready for a curriculum, 190 National Education Association bevond the elementary field. If a man cannot read there are certain things we have to teach him. We know how to do that, but I do not believe we need a curriculum for adult education beyond that level. Nor do 1 think there is any noticeable lack of helpful materials on adult education. I would be almost willing to say that the greatest need in adult education today, as far as curriculum is concerned, is to just let it alone. We have people all over the country doing things in adult education, and doing them well. The government has given a great impetus to this movement in the WPA. If there are a million and a half people studying in WPA classes, I think the method and materials used will teach us a good deal. Suppose we let the people who are trying to do something with adult education make their mistakes for a few years, and then, perhaps, it will be time to work on a curriculum. Miss Whipple: Is it not dangerous to turn a lot of inexperienced people over to this lack of guided study? Dr. Fisher: I do not know. There is a certain waste motion in every movement, and I suppose we will have to have it in this. Let us not get too stereotyped and institutionalized before we find out. Dr. Arnold: Dr. Fisher and I have agreed to disagree on this point. The reason I am interested in giving directions to adult education, not in a dictatorial way but in an intelligent way, is because I am interested in per¬ petuating adult education. I do not believe in curtailing freedom of ex¬ pression or anything of that sort, but I do believe we have come to a point in adult education in the United States where we need to think seriously about the direction in which this is going. Dr. Maxwell: Many of the criticisms have brought us up to Dr. Bryson’s caution of yesterday when he said, “Do not get into the position of having good methods of doing something which you cannot define.’’ It seems to me that much of our confusion in methods, and much of our con¬ fusion in materials, grows out of the fact that we have not adequately defined what we are trying to do. There is another set of problems which deals with administration, or¬ ganization, and finance. Miss Burnett’s committee has been working on that. Marguerite H. Burnett (Director, Adult Education, State Depart¬ ment of Education, Wilmington, Del.) : Our committee, in considering the problems involved in administration, organization, and finance, felt that recognition should be given to the administrative and organizing ability of Dr. Maxwell in planning this program. He used good adult education tech¬ nic when he sent letters all over the country to find out from groups of adult educators what they thought ought to be discussed at this conference. We have tried to organize our discussion around the suggestions which they sent in. We narrowed the problem down to public school administration on the assumption that those here are concerned primarily with what the public school is doing with adult education. We felt that flexibility is a basic need. One of our greatest sins of omission or commission is that we are not able to change our procedure rapidly enough to meet changing situations. Department of Adult Education 191 I have one general question. Are we willing to let all the people that are affected by administration have a share in determining what it shall be? Miss Fisher: I am concerned with trying to look at different kinds of adult education done in many organizations, and there is a highly competi¬ tive spirit which does not always operate for the benefit of the student. We do not capitalize as much as we should on the experience, the trial-and-error effort, which other people are making. We do not analyze our experience in such a way that it will save us time and wasted effort. (Someone in the audience suggested that the methods of administrators of adult education are dominated somewhat by the universities and colleges.) Dr. Maxwell: I suppose we will have to plead guilty. On the panel, there are five college professors out of twelve. Miss Burnett: Every community has a half-dozen organizations that are coming together for one purpose or another. Should adult education always come in and say, “Let’s have another activity,” when the challenge is, perhaps, to make those activities in which the people are already engaged really educative? Miss Fisher: I am sure that a good deal of our success in getting adult education financed is going to depend on how far the administration takes the community into its confidence and gives it some voice in determining the general policy for the adult education of that community. Should we now say something about financing adult education ? Dr. Maxwell: These committees have criticized organization and ad¬ ministration on a number of points, including and closing with the whole problem of finance. However, we will have to leave this until the breakfast meeting. ADULT EDUCATION— WHAT IT IS AND WHERE IT IS GOING — A bstract* FLOYD W. REEVES, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. It is not possible to state what the term “adult education” may eventually mean. I recognize the dangers of an attempt to define any new movement, but even greater dangers may arise out of a new movement that simply “grows and grows” without such intelligent direction as may be given it by an analysis of its scope and function. Adult education offers those persons no longer in school an opportunity to broaden their cultural, social, and occupational backgrounds, and to find new ways of earning a living thru occupational retraining. In an age of shorter working days and weeks, adult education provides an opportunity for wise use of leisure. Adult education prepares for more effective participa¬ tion in community activities, for more intelligent citizenship, and for clearer understanding of state, national, and international affairs. It should result in a more tolerant outlook upon the world. * For complete address write to the N. E. A. Department of Adult Education. 192 National Education Association A common misconception frequently limits the scope of adult education to Americanization of immigrants and education of native-born illiterates'. These are important functions, but ability to read words from the printed page is not adequate as a basis for a democratic form of government. Among the so-called “literate/’ there exist social illiteracy, economic illiteracy, poli¬ tical illiteracy, artistic illiteracy, and religious illiteracy. These, also, must be eradicated. Adult education must include a program for all — the employer, the laborer, and the unemployed; the rural and the urban dweller; the rich and the poor; men and women, and youth who have left full-time school; those in positions of leadership and those who are members of groups being led. One of the social forces affecting adult education is the flow of population from rural to urban areas. Another is the development of new means of communication, the most important of which are the radio and sound and silent films. Educational agencies are only beginning to take advantage of these new media. Adult education includes the following specific aims: (a) to fill the gaps left by other units of education; (b) to maintain skills and knowledge developed during childhood and youth; (c) to keep the adult public in step with the latest developments in fields such as government, economics, science, and the arts; (d) to deal with problems that can be dealt with adequately only at the adult level; and (e) to give to the older and younger genera¬ tions a basis for mutual understanding. The program of adult education is broad in scope and diverse in character ; however, it lacks unity in organization, and is poorly integrated. Possibly the development of an integrated program is the greatest single need of adult education today. There are other major problems: 1. There should be greater equalization of educational opportunity for adults. 2. Library facilities should be extended. 3. Good reading materials at low cost should be developed. 4. Facilities for vocational retraining of adults have not kept pace with the needs resulting from technological change, altho such facilities appear essential to a solu¬ tion of the unemployment problem. 5. A new type of vocational guidance is needed, based on appraisal of the interests of adults, their aptitudes, and the occupational opportunities available. 6. Altho the need for research in education and in guidance is relatively much greater at the adult level than at any other educational level, presentday facilities for such research are now almost entirely lacking. 7. The need for improvement of teaching, administrative, and supervisory person¬ nel is so great that the attainment of this end should be a matter of major emphasis. To achieve these goals, increasing financial support for adult education will be necessary. The time has come when adult education should cease to be treated as a step-child of other interests in the field of education. Its rela¬ tive value should be recognized in educational budgets. The task to be accomplished demands the combined wisdom of the spe¬ cialist and the layman, plus the active cooperation of public officials and citizens. Given such support, substantial advances may be expected in adult education in the years immediately ahead. Department of Adult Education 193 Discussion NEXT STEPS IN ADULT EDUCATION JAMES A. MOYER, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF UNIVERSITY EXTENSION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS., Leader Dr. Moyer: We are going to discuss today how the needs in adult edu¬ cation are to be met and how our difficulties are to be overcome. We should give consideration, I believe, to what Dr. Kilpatrick had to say about grades and marks for adult education ; also to the question of quality or quantity, about which we have heard so much in the last two days; and, lastly, to the financing of adult education. Dr. Bryson is going to be our discussion leader. Lyman Bryson (Professor of Adult Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.) : Before we find out what the answers to the questions asked yesterday ought to be, it would help us all a great deal in understanding the discussion if we had a better idea of who you are, what your chief interests are, and in what field your work is. The problems of one group may not be identical with the problems of another. We cannot know what an opinion is worth unless we know the special back¬ ground upon which it is based. (A count showed that the group was composed of 34 teachers of illiterates ; 12 administrators; 11 workers in informal adult education; 1 librarian; 5 engaged in music and art ; 4 in public forums ; 5 in safety and health ; 3 in homemaking; and 1 in parent education.) (Dr. Bryson called the members of the panel to the platform and in¬ troduced them. He announced that he would first submit the questions to the whole group and later to the members of the panel.) Dr. Bryson : Is there a remedy for the fact that most teachers who are trying to teach adults do not know as much about the subject as they really ought to, or is that just an imaginary criticism? (Members of the general group seemed to agree that a teacher should know more than the persons to be instructed. They also agreed that there should be higher standards in selecting teachers; but that the application of the same standards to the agencies of the present WPA program or any such permanent program set up on permanent budgets presented a grave problem.) Dr. Bryson : Dr. Debatin, what is the committee going to do about this? Frank M. Debatin (University College, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.) : I think one of the greatest difficulties in our adult teaching is the lack of knowledge of the teachers and supervisors ; but can we work for higher standards without running the danger of rigid standardization? Dr. Bryson : Someone in the audience has said that it is useless to talk about standards in the WPA because there is considerable uncertainty and insecurity in that work. What about that ? Dr. Debatin : Insecurity of tenure is not confined to WPA. It applies to all positions in adult education. One of the remedies that we would have 194 National Education Association is to make jobs more definite and more secure. In addition, we would like to recommend better and more continuous in-service training, improved supervision, and better original training. Dr. Bryson : Someone has suggested that teachers groups should study more professional literature and give less thought to, "What I did in my class. ’’ I think that we have a certain amount of professional literature in the field ; much of it is scattered but if a teacher wants to find it, she can. . . . Another criticism is that teachers lack experience or practise in the subjects taught. Have you any recommendations on that? Dr. Debatin' : I personally think that no teacher should be given the opportunity to teach adults unless he or she has had definite, specific ex¬ perience. Dr. Bryson: The last point on the committee report is: The teacher is not always a student of other areas of learning. I feel rather strongly on this. I feel that one who is teaching adults should, at the same time, be studying something other than that which he is teaching. Someone suggests that the new study might have to do with the learning of backgrounds and the es¬ tablishing of sympathetic relations with students. I think that is a practi¬ cal suggestion. Dr. Arnold: We cannot hope to have the teacher fully and completely prepared in any subject; but it seems important to me that we know where to go for the information that we lack, that we do not hesitate to go there or to help our students to go there. Dr. Bryson : You are right; and even saying "I do not know’' sometimes, whether you know or not. has its psychological value. At this time I am going to call your attention to two addenda which have been added to our discussion. Dr. Alderman suggested that a great many people say the best teachers are those who have been salesmen, and that there might be teachers who know too much. I think salesmanship has its values and its dangers. There are real dangers from the teacher who knows too much. Our next criticism deals with the lack of flexibility in adult education programs. Are there any suggestions for dynamiting an inflexible adminis¬ trator? I am referring to intellectual dynamiting. Miss Burnett: We will now discuss persistence and the right kind of approach. Administrators say that very few people come to them with an idea, and offer to take the responsibility for working it out. We ought to have a plan ready and well thought out, and we ought to have built up some confidence in our judgment and ability before we ask an administrator to take a chance on us. Administrators are loath to experiment. They are bound by red tape and the problems of cost. The teaching group by persistence and the presentation of a convincing plan can sometimes break down in¬ flexibility. Dr. Bryson : I suggest that the system itself could be set up on a more organized and flexible basis. Department of Adult Education 195 Dr. Maxwell: I do not like to put the responsibility on the teacher for convincing the administrator. The teacher many times finds it difficult to make the proposal. Perhaps the persuasion should come from a certain articulate section of the public, a consumer council representing all sorts of agencies. Councils of this type already exist in 15 or 20 cities and are coming into existence at the rate of almost one a week. They have been an effective means of organizing and developing the consumer public opinion, and using that as a persuasive influence on the administrator. Dr. Bryson : This brings us to the second point on this committee report: the criticism of the administrator for not seeing his program in relation to the needs of his community. Adult education should be on a thoroly demo¬ cratic basis. If you do not consult the consumer, you will not have any consumer. Miss Fisher: How many schools represented here have the students organized in such a way that they can bring influence to bear? Dr. Bryson : That is a practical question. How many? There seem to be 15 who have student councils, and there are 29 where teachers are consulted and some attention paid to their suggestions on administrative questions. Someone adds that our promotion is insufficient ; not enough people know there is adult education going on. I am inclined to be afraid of this problem of promotion. Promoters are always promising people things they cannot do for them. Miss Fisher: Human nature is such, it seems to me, that if you tell them a little you are likely to get more help from administrators and budget- makers than if you suggest a great deal. Dr. Bryson : How many here have found, from experience, that the for¬ mation of a council helps in the matter of duplication and institutional rivalry? Practically everybody seems to have found it so. Dr. Alderman : I would like to get the opinion of some of the people in this audience as to what is the best way to bring about the integration agencies to prevent overlapping and competition. Can this be done by the formation of a council? William H. Bristow (General Secretary, National Congress of Parents and Teachers, Washington, D. C.) : Could not the council movement be¬ come solidified in a community which is ready to form a council ? In many cases we might suggest the conference basis before the council is formed. Dr. Bryson: Which agency is to start the council movement? Is it the business of public adult education to take the initiative in getting a common grouping? Miss Fisher: I feel quite strongly about the numerous councils that are being organized. It seems to me that first we have to develop a temper of cooperation. We should not say a great deal about coordination until we have done what we can to develop a cooperative temper and get a fairly clear picture of consumer needs. Dr. Bryson : These words of caution are very important. We have one question here which I would like to have answered. Adult education is in¬ adequately financed. How can we finance it better? 196 National Education Association M iss Whipple: There are two great schools of thought. One believes that it should be free; the other, that it should not. Dr. Kilpatrick said yes¬ terday that an adult should take anything he wants, free of cost. Dr. Bryson : Let us get a quick survey of experience. How many of you would say that fees tend to limit the attendance in classes? How many, that the contrary is the case? Citizenship classes and literacy classes are ruled out. We all agree that they should be offered free of cost. A majority voted “yes," but there seems to be a disagreement. Will someone give his opinion? Miss Fisher: Why not have more classes with low fees? Dr. Bryson : There are systems where unemployed people have their fees remitted. In such cases, the student s fee is returned if he attends the class. Miss Burnett: Can you say that in this community the people could afford to pay and those in another could not ? Everybody should have the right to participate. I do not believe that a fee is the controlling factor. I have made several studies of classes where fees were paid and classes where they were not. The whole situation was just about the same. Maude E. Aiton (President of the Department) : If it is public educa¬ tion and if there are fees, do you not immediately set up discrimination against some groups of citizens? I believe in public education without fees. There may be private enterprises where a fee is charged and the discrimina¬ tion of students enrolled is desirable. Dr. Bryson : Shall we continue with several other questions that have to do with curriculum and material : Is it necessary to have some study or cur¬ riculum material outlined, or is it dangerous? Miss Whipple: ^ ou need a fixed curriculum less and less as you go up the educational scale from illiteracy. It also depends upon the field. Dr. Bryson : Graduate work, for instance, or science in the higher reaches, would require some rigid direction. What about the necessity of a program of different subjects in their interrelations? Are our programs too helter-skelter? If so, what are we going to do about it? Now we come to the old argument of giving the student what he wants or giving him what he needs. The educational authorities will decide this question. Dr. Arnold: In the discussion of the committee, we felt that for certain groups who are lacking in fundamental knowledge there should be intelli¬ gent guidance into the so-called “tool" subjects. A teacher in an adult group should be not only a teacher but also a counselor. Dr. Marsh : It is my opinion that the advisory service is rather poorly performed for adults. I am sure that in deliberating on problems of adult education, the matter of guidance of the adults in the selection of the study material is a function that should receive more attention. Miss Fisher: May I add that organizations should pay more attention to explaining to consumers what they intend to offer. We are not giving our public a clear idea of what they may expect to get. Dr. Bryson : May I ask which is worse in that respect, the public or the private agency? Department of Adult Education 197 Miss Fisher: Most of the public agencies do not bother to say anything. The private agencies say more, hut give, for the most part, very poetic, windy, misleading information. Dr. Bryson: In conclusion I wish to say that I think Dr. Maxwell’s idea of starting with a college professor’s talk and ending with this specific assign¬ ment has worked out very well. I think all the contributions have been specific without being too much in detail, and I think we have had a lot of very good solid advice to work with. SECRETARY’S MINUTES New Orleans, Louisiana February 22-24, 1937 The Department of Adult Education held its midyear meeting in New Orleans, February 22-24, in connection with the Department of Superintendence. The first session was devoted to a consideration of “New Movements and Experi¬ ments in Adult Education,” with Maude Aiton, president of the Department, pre¬ siding. The subtopics discussed were “The Work of the Public Affairs Forums of the United States Office of Education,” by John W. Studebaker, U. S. Commis¬ sioner of Education; and “The Adult Education Program of the Tennessee Valley Authority,” “The Center for Continuation Study of the University of Minnesota,” “The Educational Program of the WPA,” and “Rural Discussion Group Program of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.” The latter topics were discussed by direc¬ tors of these programs. At the luncheon meeting which followed, Henry B. Hazard, Assistant to the Com¬ missioner of Immigration and Naturalization, presented a paper on the “Citizenship Program of the Immigration and Naturalization Service,” in which he discussed the preparation of applicants for naturalization for the duties and responsibilities of American citizenship thru a citizenship program. This program was formulated by the late Colonel Daniel W. MacCormack, former Commissioner of Immigration and Naturalization, in cooperation with outstanding educators, social service leaders, and others in providing adequate facilities for the education of the foreign born for functioning citizenship. At the meeting on Tuesday morning, February 23, state and federal legislation for public support of adult education was considered, followed in the afternoon by a discussion of the place of non-school agencies in adult education, including the church, university extension work, libraries, motion pictures, radio, public forums, the press, etc. At the dinner meeting B. M. Cherrington, of the University of Denver, spoke on the “Essential Functions of Adult Education in American Democracy” in which he pointed out the progress made in man’s control over his physical environ¬ ment but thru the surrender in increasing degree of our individual economic inde¬ pendence. The new problem, therefore, is man’s mastery over his social environment, which will be accomplished in one of two ways: thru the application of authoritative intelligence, which is dictatorship; or thru the application of collective intelligence, which is democracy. If democracy does meet the issue it will be by means of a pro¬ gram of adult education in proportions hitherto not contemplated in which the federal government, the states, and lesser units must take part. Detroit, Michigan June 27-July 1, 1937 The meeting of the Department of Adult Education of the National Education Association was held in Detroit, June 27-July 1, 1937. Maude Aiton, president of the Department, presided at the first session which was a joint meeting with the National Council on Naturalization and Citizenship. Problems of citizenship and naturaliza- 108 National Education Association tion were discussed by such authorities as Thomas B. Shoemaker, Deputy Commis¬ sioner of Immigration and Naturalization; S. H. Hanessian, Americanization School Association of the District of Columbia; and Mrs. Adena Rich, of the Immigrants’ Protective League of Chicago. l.yman Bryson of Teachers College, Columbia University, presided at the three following panel discussions: “A Philosophy for Adult Education,” “A Critique of Current Practises in Adult Education,” and “Next Steps in Adult Education.” At the Tuesday afternoon session of the Department, William H. Kilpatrick of Teachers College. Columbia University, spoke on ‘‘The Future of Adult Education.” (Abstracts of these papers appear in the preceding pages.) The dinner meeting of the Department, held Tuesday evening, was presided over by F. S. DeGalen. Dr. DeGalen introduced the members of his Committee on Arrangements and the members of the music ensemble from the Southwestern High School Music Department which furnished the music. This was followed by addresses of welcome by Frank Gorman, president of the Board of Education of Detroit, and Warren Bow. assistant superintendent in charge of vocational education, after which President Aiton thanked Dr. DeGalen and the members of his committee for the sphendid arrangements for the meeting. Alexander Gibbs from the Boys Club of Detroit contributed to the program with a piano solo. After welcoming the guests, Dr. DeGalen introduced Floyd W. Reeves, professor of education at the University of Chicago, who spoke on “Adult Education — What It Is and Where It Is Going.” At a general session of the National Education Association, Horace Kallen of the New School of Social Research, New York City, spoke on “Consumers’ Cooperatives,” and Lyman Bryson discussed “Adult Education, a Public Responsibility.” REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT MAUDE E. AITON, PRINCIPAL, WEBSTER SCHOOL, WASHINGTON, D. C. In submitting the customary report of the president concerning the work of the past year, I wish to emphasize certain points relative to the activities of our Depart¬ ment of Adult Education. During the first weeks of the fiscal year, several meetings, of the Executive Committee were held with a view to clarifying for this administra¬ tion the objectives of the Department and evolving a clear definition of its aims. It was concluded that the most important functions of the Department might be grouped as follows: 1. As a professional organization in a field where there has been a most limited permanent program, we should work for expansion of this program on a perma¬ nent basis. 2. We should study the permanent legislation of the various states where adult education has been a part of the state program. 3. We should in some way evaluate the kinds of work that are proving the most vital in the various communities, and urge state boards to adopt these in their permanent program. 4. We should study qualifications for teachers of these various types of work and plan special adult facilities for their training. 5. All in-service training should be on a professional basis in order that, as the work grows and permanent expansion is adopted in many places, teachers may be credited with the training they have received during the time they were serv¬ ing in a temporary capacity. In other words, we should ask ourselves the following questions and work earnestly to find answers for them: What has been of real value in adult education work? How may we secure a recognition of that which is valuable in such a way that it may become permanent? What is our responsibility for setting standards for train¬ ing teachers who will be ready to carry on the work as it expands and becomes a permanent part of the educational program? Membership — Recognizing the fact that the organization to be effective must grow jp size, our first care was to name a membership committee chairman for each state, Department of Adult Education 199 The president retained the general chairmanship of this committee in order to be in close touch with the needs and purposes of those who were working in the various parts of the field. Hundreds of personal letters have shown these needs, and the president’s office has attempted to respond personally to each one so that aid and information might be given when and wrhere it wras needed. The secretary’s office has also maintained this personal service, and the editor of the Bulletin has given generously of her time in the same way; for an educational piece of work that is in the formative stage there should be resources available to the thousands of teachers who are striving to work in an entirely new field. This service is one phase of the Department’s work that must grow if wre are to meet the needs not only of teachers in the field but of state directors of adult education who have appealed to us. Requests are coming also from evening school principals associations asking “what the evening school principals can do to render greater service to the Department of Adult Education,” and asking for “statements” of the things we have to offer “especially to the teachers in our evening schools.” Librarians have asked practically the same thing. In these two phases of adult education work there are fields that are yet untouched. Thru this service and the publicity that has so far been carried on, our member¬ ship has trebled wfithin the last year and now numbers approximately 2200. Three conference trips have been made to various cities on membership, work alone: one to New York; one to Columbus, Ohio; and one to Indianapolis. Membership in Indiana numbers over 200; in Ohio, approximately 400 at present; in New York, over 250. All this show's the value of personal contacts. Publicity — A chairman for publicity has been appointed for each state. The pub¬ licity chairmen have also been asked to send in to Caroline A. Whipple, editor, any information and reports that seem of value to them, so that we might establish an exchange in the Bulletin for North, South, East, and West. It has not been possible to use the great mass of material or to have culled out all that would be of value; but the editor has selected and published as much as is possible in the limited space. Another task assigned the publicity chairmen has been to supply the president’s office with publicity relative to adult education in each state. This was done for the purpose of furthering legislative wrork. Bulletin — The Bulletin has been edited by Miss Whipple, wffiose report will be given separately; but the organization should know of her untiring labor and of the long hours she has spent in careful evaluation and editing in order to give us only the best. (See report given by Miss Whipple.) A.A.A.E. — The Executive Committee was able to arrange for the distribution of the Journal of Adult Education, published by the American Association for Adult Education, and has had to ask for an increased number for active members because of the ever increasing membership. The committee has asked for the extension of this service at a higher rate of subscription for the coming year than we have had previously, because we have felt the great value of this magazine in our work. The arrangements are not yet made, but wre are hoping our request will be honored. A letter will be sent to each member in October announcing the decision. We are deeply indebted to Morse A. Cartwright, director of the American Asso¬ ciation for Adult Education, and to Ralph A. Beals, editor of the Journal, for their generous help and cooperation. Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life — The Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life has become an integral part of the Department in accordance with the general policy assumed by the Board of Directors of the National Education Asso¬ ciation, placing all small commissions and committees with the Department to which their work is pertinent. J. A. Moyer, president of this Commission, will make a further report. (See Mr. Moyer’s Report.) Legislative Committee — The work for this committee, which for various pertinent reasons, has centered its activities in Washington, began with a discussion with many officers of adult education, of ideas relative to permanent federal aid. The principles involved in legislative work were discussed at the New Orleans meeting where it was decided that a bill should be written which would set forth these prin- 200 National Education Association ciples, and provide for carrying them out: (1) that a federal subsidy should be asked for adult work in all states; (2) that the allocation of funds should be based on the number of illiterates in a state in relation to the number of illiterates in all the states combined; (3) that the first efforts in this type of work should be based on two phases of adult education concerned with the eradication of illiteracy and the estab¬ lishment of citizenship classes for the less educationally privileged groups of people. Interest was shown in this type of legislation by the U. S. Department of Labor, the Office of Education, and the National Education Association. A bill was drawn by the committee and submitted to various groups of people who criticized and aided in re-writing it. The general plans of promoting this type of legislation were discussed at length with Senator Thomas. He advised presenting them and discussing them with the various members of the Committee on Education of the House. This has been done, and practically every member has been interviewed. After detailed dis¬ cussion with the chairman of the Committee on Education it was deemed wise not to ask for the introduction of the bill at this session. Because of the attitude the Com¬ mittee has taken on the N.E.A. legislative bill, and also because of the President’s stand on economy which was made public about this time, we were assured that no education bill would be reported out this year. In addition to this, the President’s Commission on a Survey of Vocational Education was expanded to a general survey of all phases of education in the United States. Therefore, the following recommen¬ dations are brought to this meeting: A. That we have a legislative committee set up in each state with definite ob¬ jectives : 1. To study principles involved in state legislation for adult education 2. To study principles of administration of adult education 3. To make each community adult education conscious and clarify needs in each part of the state. B. That a central committee of approximately ten should study the principles involved in federal subsidy and brief the needs as shown by each state com¬ mittee. This committee should be ready to report its findings by December 1 of this year, so that a bill can be introduced at the coming session of Congress. T reusurer’s report — Great thanks are due to Jessie M. Robbins, assigned by the N.E.A. to carry on the treasurer’s work for the Department. Program committee — We wish to thank George L. Maxwell, chairman of the program committee both for the New Orleans and the Detroit meetings, for his un¬ tiring labor in planning the programs. Untold labor and time have been expended on this service and the programs speak for themselves of his efficiency and interest. For the first time we have one of the general meetings devoted to adult education, with L. R. Alderman presiding and Lyman Bryson as speaker. Cooperation of N.E.A. — Special thanks should be given to Willard E. Givens for the advice and cooperation that has been accorded us at the office of the N.E.A., and to H. A. Allan, business manager, for his instruction and advice. Pending activities — Written into this report is the budget for 1937-38; also argu¬ ments as to why we should continue arrangements for the A.A.A.E. Journal. Several offers are also being considered from organizations which feel that they can be of help. We are also ready to make arrangements with New York University for coopera¬ tive work with our Bulletin. This is held in abeyance until our plans are more definite. A resolution has been formulated relative to adult education and will be presented to the resolutions committee bv J. Orin Powers, secretary to that committee. We are now asking for further suggestions for definite work which our Depart¬ ment can do. Every person who is a member of this Department must realize that part of his responsibility to adult education is to make this Department serve to its maximum all phases of adult work in community, state, and country. Adult education as the way of life that will lead to better citizenship, to greater opportunities for children, to strengthened and broadened individual lives, to a Department of Adult Education 201 higher sense of responsibilities as citizens, is within our keeping. We cannot think of this as just a little organization to which we belong. We must think of it as an organization of great importance in building the culture of our country which we must serve. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL COMMISSION ON THE ENRICHMENT OF ADULT LIFE JAMES A. MOYER, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF UNIVERSITY EXTENSION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS., President At the New Orleans meeting a committee of the National Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life was appointed to prepare a report on the progress that is being made in the development and application of Basic English as an instruction means for non-English speaking groups. The Committee includes the following per¬ sons: Mary L. Guyton, State Supervisor of Adult Alien Education, Boston, Mass., Chairman ; C. K. Ogden, Fellow of Cambridge University, England, and Director of the Orthological Institute, London, England; Charlotte Tyler, Research Asso¬ ciate, Institute of Pacific Relations, New York, N. Y. ; Alfred D. Sheffield, Professor of English, Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass.; Anna L. Kelley, Supervisor, Adult Alien Education, Peabody, Mass., formerly Research Assistant in the Orthological Institute, London, England; Mrs. Helen H. Shears, Americanization School, Wash¬ ington, D. C. ; Carleton A. Wheeler, Professor of English, Tufts College, Medford, Mass.; and Lloyd James, Education Director, British Broadcasting Corporation, London, England. The members of the Committee have all accepted their respective duties and active work has already begun. It is hoped that the National Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life will be ready to give a definite report of progress of this Committee at the meeting of the American Association of School Administra¬ tors in February 1938. The activities of the Committee will be devoted largely to the study of Basic English with the following objectives: 1. To report briefly on the content of the limited vocabulary known as the system of Basic English 2. To bring out the historical background that led to the development of Basic English 3. To report worldwide progress in the use of Basic English in Europe, Siberia, India, China, Java, and Japan 4. To picture the probable progress of Basic English in America during 1938 and 1939 5. To report on other controlled vocabularies in comparison with Basic English 6. To report on the fundamental, logical principles underlying Basic English 7. To report on the psychological and sociological background of the study of the English language 8. To analyze the bibliography in connection with Basic English. The committee of the National Commission that was appointed to study the technics of adult education has practically finished its work, only two sections of the report remaining incomplete. These sections have been promised at an early date. A New York publisher has been consulted, with some success, in regard to the feasibility of publication on a commercial basis. Publication in book form is, however, a slow process and a year might intervene before the book could find its way into the hands of teachers. For this reason the editorial board of the Bulletin of the Department of Adult Education is planning to print in its next four issues digests of the several sections in the book so that the members of the Department may, in the near future, have the benefit of the studies reported by the Committee on Technics in Adult Education. Sales of the mimeographed publications of the National Commission have been very satisfactory during the last few months. The receipts from the sale of these 202 National Education Association publications have probably exceeded the expenses incurred by the Department for the activities of the Commission. The National Commission has been cooperating actively during the last year with the national and state planning boards of the American Library Association with the object of formulating plans for enlarged usefulness of public libraries in the field of adult education. In pursuance of this plan, John Chancellor, secretary of the American Library Association for Adult Education, has contributed a report on Adult Education in the Library (publication No. 33 of the Commission). REPORT OF EDITOR OF ADULT EDUCATION BULLETIN CAROLINE A. WHIPPLE, SUPERVISOR, ADULT EDUCATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, ALBANY, N. Y., Editor During the current year, October 1936 thru June 1937, there have been four issues of the Adult Education Bulletin’. October 1936, January, April, and June 1937. The Bulletin is a 40-page publication, its subjectmatter including general articles deal¬ ing with philosophy, current practises, descriptions, and backgrounds in the field of adult education; “news and notes” from various states; current happenings in national adult education organizations; editorials; book reviews; and notes on cur¬ rent pamphlets, bulletins, reports, etc., dealing with teaching problems, supervision, organization, and other pertinent topics. During the year there has been a steady increase in the number of contributions sent to the Bulletin and a consistent improve¬ ment in the quality of the articles. The printer, Marc Epstein, and his assistant, Mr. Marer, of the Marstin Press, New York, N. Y., have done excellent work. The printing and the general format of the Bulletin have been unusually good. Wilbur Dickinson of the New York Council on Adult Education has given able assistance in the preparation of the Bulletin. He has been responsible for having the material retyped to fit special spaces; for making arrangements with the printer for individual issues; for reading proof; and for giving the editor the benefit of his judgment on the content and style of the publication. The cost of four issues of the Bulletin, exclusive of mailing, has been approxi¬ mately $1700. A recommendation has been made that more specialized help be given teachers in such matters as the technical details of organization and management of classes, making lesson plans, outlining courses of study, preparing teaching material, using source material, and finding and using reference material. An additional section which would include such teaching aids will undoubtedly be included in one or more issues of the new year. DEPARTMENT OF zArt Education HISTORICAL NOTE The department of art education became a part of the National Edu¬ cation Association by vote of the Representative Assembly on July 6, 1933. The creation of such a department was suggested “ because art is an important subject, necessary to the development and culture of the childhood of America, and because this is a particularly important period in its life.” The Department developed from the Conference on Art Education. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-38 are: president, Grace M . Baker, Head, Division of the Arts, Colorado State College of Education, Greeley, Colo.; vicepresident, Muriel V. Sibell, Head, De¬ partment of Fine Arts, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo.; secre¬ tary, Mrs. Annabel J. Nathans, Director of Art Education, Public Schools, New Orleans, La.; treasurer, Mrs. Dora B. Hatfield, Art Department, David Hill School, Akron, Ohio. This Department meets once a year in July. The annual dues, $2, are payable to the treasurer of the Department. Facts relating to the estab¬ lishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1933 -.309-310 1934 -.297-299 1935 -.271-274 1936 -.177-184 [20+] WHERE ARE WE LEADING THE HIGH-SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ART STUDENT? MURIEL V. SIBELL, HEAD OF FINE ARTS DEPARTMENT, UNIVERSITY OF COLO¬ RADO, BOULDER, COLO.,' AND VICEPRESIDENT OF THE DEPART¬ MENT OF ART EDUCATION Never since the Renaissance has art touched the daily lives of people as it does today. As teachers of art it is our duty and our privilege to open the eyes and the minds of our students to the wealth of art which sur¬ rounds them. Art is for all, and an awareness of art in our daily lives is not dependent upon curriculum. It depends upon the vision of the teacher and his success in guiding the student’s curiosity and appreciative faculties. Before we as educators can lead our students anywhere we must be per¬ mitted to lead them. Therefore, our initial battle is in most cases with the schoolboard and other authorities. We must sell our subject to the adminis¬ tration and prove that art in the lives of the pupils can contribute as richly to citizenship as sociology, history, mathematics, and other subjects. Each school system must plan its own curriculum for its student body. The important thing is to teach the new with the old, to see art in all of its manifestations and to constantly interlard contemporary knowledge with related materials of other ages. There are two approaches to art enjoyment — the creative and the the¬ oretical. With high-school students the creative is probably the best but with older students often the theoretical is best at first. Creative work can be brought in whenever possible; but exposure to art is not enough. We must teach art principles and sane standards of art judgment so that the student leaving school at any level may carry away training which he can use and build on for his own esthetic development. Since many students are afraid that art is for artists only, a good approach to art appreciation is thru a study of industrial art and the minor arts. When the student sees the beautiful in everyday objects he is better prepared to see it in the more subtle arts of painting and sculpture. Contemporary art inter¬ ests the student and, therefore, he should be taught the contemporary first; and, from this knowledge, he should develop an appreciation for the un¬ known art experiences of former ages. In this way the old masters are ap¬ proached with original judgment and not with pre-conceived evaluations found in art histories. In the last analysis it is our vision and enthusiasm as teachers which de¬ termine the success of any art curriculum and which make art a live subject for our students. [ 205 ] 206 National Education Association PROGRESS IN TEACHING ART IN AMERICA CLARA MAC GOWAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ART, NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, EVANSTON, ILL. In public schools art education was first introduced by William B. Fowles in Boston in 1821. Despite opposition, pioneers like Fowles, Rembrandt, Peale, Horace Mann, Walter Smith, and others gave this movement great impetus, with the result that our larger cities introduced the teaching of art into their schools. Smith established in 1873 the Massachusetts Normal Art School for art teachers, the first of its kind in America. Most of the art training taught in these schools was limited to drawing — the copying of patterns or a certain amount of freehand work. It was Franz Cizek of Vienna who made the greatest single contribution of teaching art to children, for it was he who established the now famous free creative ex¬ pression method. He recognized that children have innate differences and that these differences vary in accordance to stimulation and circumstance. He permitted the child to work with the larger ideas of composition, and eliminated the fear of distortion, a practise that rigid methods at once dis¬ couraged. This new method necessitated a delicate relationship between the child and teacher, in which the child had complete freedom and a minimum amount of discipline, that of sympatlty and understanding. Cizek’s results with children were epochal. Progressive teachers in Europe and America examined and discussed his work; they carried his ideas into their own classrooms. It was a new day for art training for children the world over. The progress of art in colleges and universities has been gradual. The first course in art, one in archaeology, was offered at Princeton University in 1831. Other universities followed this initial move by introducing art history subjects. Creative courses in art, depending so much upon individual effort, were slow to be recognized as an essential part of a liberal education in these institutions. The result was a growth and dominance of art history subjects, a situation that has changed since 1900, indeed, only materially since 1920. There are many reasons why art should be offered in colleges and universities. 1. It is at these institutions that great numbers of the future art teachers are being trained. Since the primary requirement to be a successful teacher in creative art, be¬ sides a deep desire to teach, is a background of vital experience in creative work itself, progressive art departments have the responsibility to give the most expert and effective instruction to meet this need. Not only this, it is their responsibility to give these teachers thoro training in art history and esthetics, in a word, in all branches of art. The university setting provides these teachers a liberal education, in addition to their specialty. 2. Art instruction in colleges and universities should be available to the general student body. There is every reason why the university complex, rich as a storehouse of knowledge and equipment, should be the most effective training ground for those who desire to become professional artists, especially since many universities have appointed creative artists themselves to teach. Moreover, the university is ideal for the opportunity to correlate art activity with research in different fields as history, sociology, literature, philosophy, and science. Department of Art Education 207 These tremendous changes, together with the rise of great art collections, have finally set the stage for great possibilities in art in America. Artists can be expertly trained here, either to be artists or teachers of art, or both ; they can study hundreds of the greatest masterpieces of art in the world here at home. The day for mass training in Europe is now past. Moreover, in extend¬ ing art to children and young people in schools and colleges and to adults, as thru the WPA agency, we have and shall continue to have a new audience for a critical and wide appreciation of art. This large body is just as impor¬ tant for American art as the well-trained artists and teachers of art them¬ selves. THE INTEGRATION OF GEOMETRIC FORM AND ART IDEAS CHARLES C. WEIDEMANN, PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS, AND MRS. MARY ALBRIGHT GILES, ART INSTRUCTOR, DEPARTMENT OF UNIVERSITY SCHOOLS, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO For quite a while it has seemed to the authors that a major part of the learning process has its foundation in direct experience. We assumed with C. Spearman — in his book, The Nature of Experience and the Principles of Cognition — that directly apprehended experience is infallible, “that all knowing inevitably begins with sensory experience.’’ Such sensory experi¬ ence is “lived, undergone, enjoyed, and the like” in the sense “I actually go thru.” A. W. Whitehead — in his Symbolism : Its Meaning and Use — says, “What you have experienced, you have experienced.” The authors further assumed that ideas develop from such direct experience ; that meanings de¬ velop from ideas; and that systems of symbols are used by man to represent corresponding meanings of events in order to develop further both personally and socially appreciated values from the primary direct experience. The symbols are used as a social instrument or language purporting to represent the products of the reflective thinking process of man. It is in such a develop¬ ing pattern that associated interests and learning by doing appear as essential and important parts of the total process of becoming a personality. A boy expresses a desire thru felt need to paint a picture. With appropri¬ ate materials, the instructor as guide, the pupil as learner and actor, the automobile as a stimulus of action, the activity of painting the picture of the car begins. His entire nervous system participates. If the outcomes be¬ come satisfying the boy becomes within himself interested as a total favorable response of his nature to his desire to paint a more satisfying picture. Stronger desires and more activity for more experience producing stronger qualities of pleasantness, happiness, and joy happen, until the entire nature of the boy is focused on the activity of painting that car. The activity becomes purposeful. The boy’s idea became increasingly meaningful until actual expression and formulation with symbols and materials were his felt needs. He used points, lines of all kinds, areas, volumes, color, and so on in qualities of relatedness to each other. These concepts include those of mathematical form and may 208 National Education Association readily be used as means by which to express artistic ideas. The artistic ideas involve such dynamic principles as relationships of tensions and movement, balance, and space as a means to create plastic space. We risked the thought that the appreciation of such concepts by the child could be talked about, altho we knew that primarily their development was a matter of feeling within the nature of the child. It became gradually more apparent to the authors that mathematics and the arts used the same systems in somewhat the same way. We seemed agreed that intellect, feeling, and action function as an inseparable whole. RELATION OF CHILD ART TO PRIMITIVE ART LOUISE NABER, SUPERVISOR OF ART, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, EAST ORANGE, N. J. Sometimes I think that we, as teachers, are so concerned with the daily routine that we fail to catch the vision of the long ancestral line that has preceded each child of today. These ancestors who make up each child’s back¬ ground inhabited the earth some five hundred thousand years ago, when the earliest types, the Trinil, Heidelberg, Pithdown and Neanderthal, were making courageous steps toward civilization. These men, gradually emerg¬ ing from their state of savagery, were inventive in proportion to their men¬ tality. The only guideposts for such inventions were the simple needs of their environment, the response to which developed the cultural pattern of the primitive. Soft sand-stone caves, shining pebbles, shells, smooth bone and ivory, reeds and grasses, teeth and skins of wild animals, natural earth colors — these and many others were the offerings of Mother Earth to the early artist. With these he expressed himself, shaping something to satisfy his utilitarian needs and his esthetic soul. The primitive feeling for rhythm came as a response to the natural rhythms of life such as walking and running, the cadence of speech, etc., and found expression in the making of bodily adornments, in the beating of drums, in the war chant and the dance. Out of these rhythms came certain symbols or arrangements of circles and dots which appeared in Paleolithic times and which are used with variations by our children today. The primi¬ tive people attached meaning to these symbols which later became significant to the tribe. Our children gave them meanings also, but the meaning is accepted only by the child and has no group significance. A second characteristic of primitive art is the manner in which the early artist related his painting or bas-relief to the shape and the size of the rocks which were available, showing in this a sense of arrangement and compo¬ sition. If you watch a child you will very often find that he does not con¬ sider his picture finished until he, too, has related his painting to the areas of his paper, and has done something interesting with the spaces. It seems that these two great elements, rhythm and space relationship, have been present from the beginning of civilization and can very definitely be called our cultural inheritance in the arts. The child uses pictures for the portrayal of his great experiences. If the child has been emotionally stirred by a new experience in his life, he will find the paint and the brush a natural and easy means of expressing that Department of Art Education 209 experience. It is the role of the school and the parent to enrich the child’s life sufficiently that he may have something to say in his pictures. Add to this expression the never failing and all important appreciation of the parent or the teacher and you will have children growing up with art as natural a means of relating an idea as the verbal language. We can thus visualize a threefold cycle in the child’s growth, namely, enrichment , expression, and appreciation. Goethe said : “Tho the world as a whole progresses, youth must ever begin at the beginning and, as an individual, go thru the epochs of the world’s culture for itself.” If this be true, then it would seem that we as teachers could make no better contribution than to align ourselves with this very evident primitive quality in children’s work and permit them to grow along the line of their cultural inheritance. Art teaching that is thus focused on natural growth can no more be called a “frill” or a “fad” than the other cultural developments of home and family and religion which have grown with man from savagery to civilization. PUPPETRY IN THE SCHOOLS ELVA MC FIE, ART SUPERVISOR, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, SHERIDAN, WYO. Since the beginning of a native American puppet art about twenty years ago, puppetry has entered into many fields. Beside their established use in the entertainment field, puppets are now being widely used for advertising and publicity and for educational purposes. The puppet in education is our concern. What has brought about the recognition of puppetry in so many of the schools over America? Probably first is the natural fascination of the child for the animated, doll-like figures in their miniature world. Second, the educational values of the puppet are in the varied art, music, dramatic, and mechanical activities which go into the creation of a unit which requires both responsibility of the individual and cooperation with the group. Third, solving problems as they arise, criti¬ cizing constructively both individual and group work, using varied ma¬ terials, establishing good work habits because of enjoyable work, vitalizing literature and appreciation of other subjects, and establishing a hobby for some, are a few of the things to be gained from a puppet experience. The various types of puppets offer many creative possibilities. Some of those which have proved most adaptable for school uses are as follows: (1) string puppets or marionettes; (2) hand puppets (sometimes called fist or mitten puppets) ; (3) shadow puppets (opaque and translucent) ; (4) rod puppets (flat and round) ; and (5) curtain puppets. Puppetry is a good live problem which may be approached on any school level and in any number of different ways. The activities which it involves, the appreciations it may develop, and the creative efforts it may stimulate are recognized by anyone who has experienced puppets with children. If we are to build a better democracy in America, we must let our children experience those activities which will give them the most vital interest in problem-solving, taking responsibility, and working in a cooperative way for the good of the group. I believe puppetry to be such an activity. 210 National Education Association MODERN ART AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS THOMAS MUNRO, CURATOR OF EDUCATION, THE CLEVELAND MUSEUM OF ART, CLEVELAND, OHIO Art education in American schools is faced with a difficult and highly con¬ troversial problem as to the relation between art and contemporary social problems. Two very extreme and opposite tendencies are now being pushed forward. American teachers should work out a reasonable middle course between them. The trend in many countries, especially those under dictatorial govern¬ ments. either fascist or communist, has been toward making all art serve as propaganda for the state and the form of government in power. Children of all ages are made to draw, paint, model, and present stage plays which glorify the existing regime, and express its ideals and antagonisms. This not only represses creative imagination and freedom of thought among children, but often bores them and repels them from all art expression, leading to a general deterioration in both art and art education. In recent years, some writers in America have urged that we too should link up art education more closely with social problems, such as the ‘‘class struggle/' capital and labor, the depression, crime, social injustice, and parti¬ san politics. They argue that children should be brought into contact with these presentday realities, so that their art and other thinking will not be mere idle luxury but honest and realistic. At the other and more conservative extreme are those art teachers and school authorities who believe that art should be taught as a subject by itself, without any reference to controversial themes, in terms of esthetic principles, classical ideals of art, and subjects involving decorative beauty of accepted patriotic ideals. The recent tendency of schools to introduce an “integrated curriculum” usually involves linking up art and social problems. Even if no very contro¬ versial economic issues are dealt with in the art class, at least children are led to use as subjects ideas studied in history and social science, such as trans¬ portation, industry, commerce, and agriculture. To emphasize such subjects means as a rule less attention to “art for art’s sake," to form, technic, and decorative qualities. What constitutes a moderate and reasonable policy in this matter? I believe that there are many important values to be secured from a properly integrated course of study, in which art is definitely related to other sub¬ jects. But it should not be unduly subordinated to them, and sufficient at¬ tention should be given to the development of art appreciation and creative¬ ness in their own right. The school should not allow the child, especially the young child, to be overwhelmed, discouraged, or pulled about by the violent forces which are at war in the presentday world. He should be protected somewhat until his personality has a chance to develop. The traditional beauties of classical and decorative art are a part of his heritage which should not be crowded out entirely by economic discussions. At the same time, it is undesirable to isolate the child too completely from the outside world, so that he gets used to Department of Art Education 211 living only in a beautiful paradise. The shock of transition will be too great when he graduates, or even when he goes home at the close of the school day. Art education should formulate very clearly its own esthetic aims and standards, and refuse to let them be overwhelmed by a false type of “integra¬ tion,” or a false emphasis on extreme social realism. ART AND DEMOCRACY FRANK E. BAKER, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, MILWAUKEE, WIS. One of the serious problems confronting the American people is the preser¬ vation of their democracy. Art may be made a great power to that end, for art is by nature and in its functions essentially democratic. This generaliza¬ tion is based on the following grounds. I. Personality is a fundamental ideal of democracy. Someone has defined per¬ sonality as emotion expressing itself thru the intellect, thru bodily functions, and thru special capacities. Art is an important avenue of personal expression to all people and the supremely important avenue to those of esthetic capacity. II. Art tells the realistic truth. It always goes to the root of things; hence art is always radical. If democracy is to be perpetuated, the people must see the truth about all phases of life. Art portrays the realities of life — the brutalities of war, the wretch¬ edness of poverty, the baseness of crime, the vulgarity and nobility’ of the extremes of human nature, and the debilitating effects of both poverty and luxury. III. Art expresses the ideals of equality and the brotherhood of man. Art knows no race, no class, no creed. It paints the high and the low, the noble and the degraded, the beautiful and the ugly, in realistic forms and colors. Art recognizes no distinctions and no dividing lines. IV. Art broadens the standards of excellence in our common culture. The culture of the Western world is narrow because it measures all things by the standard of scientific excellence. We have neglected and almost wholly forgotten esthetic stand¬ ards. But beauty’ is just as valuable a standard of human excellence as scientific truth, and it would be a great gain to human progress if our culture could be broad¬ ened to include beauty in its standards of excellence. V. Art deals with the imperishables of life, and therefore it provides one great avenue for leading our culture out of its greatest weakness, materialism. Art is be¬ yond the measure of price, hence is not amenable to the profit system. There can never be any oversupply of beauty. Art always produces the demand for more art. The production of a great masterpiece, instead of satisfying the consumer’s market, en¬ larges and expands the demand for beauty, and hence increases the consumer’s market. VI. Art demands freedom. It brooks no censorship, no limitation, no restrictions either on expression or impression. I am referring here to the spiritual freedom that demands for human personality the right to do those things necessary for its com¬ plete development. VII. Art broadens the base of opportunity, and becomes one of the great economic avenues for the cure of permanent unemployment. If American democracy means anything, it means equality of opportunity; and as long as there are seven or eight million people who are denied the opportunity of useful employment, American democracy is to that extent dead. If we are to perpetuate democracy the permanent unemployment that now plagues us must be remedied ; and art dealing as it does with the im¬ perishables of life, offers one broad avenue for the employment of thousands of people. 212 National Education Association SECRETARY’S MINUTES Detroit, Michigan June 27 — July 1, 1937 The ninth regular meeting of the Department of Art Education was called to order Monday, June 28, at 1:30 p.m., in the auditorium of the Detroit Art Institute by the president, Grace Baker of Greeley, Colorado. x\ very appreciative audience listened to the interesting program, after which there was an informal intermission. During the few minutes of becoming acquainted many sought the treasurer to secure mem¬ bership by paying their 1937 dues. At 3:15 p.m., the Department held a joint meeting with the Department of Secondary Education. This was presided over by Elizabeth Wells Robertson, director of art education, Chicago public schools. The panel dis¬ cussion, “The Function of Art in Extracurriculum Activities in Secondary Schools,” was opened by Ruth E. Whorl of xAkron, Ohio, followed by other prominent edu¬ cators. The second session of the Department of Art Education was called to order on Tuesday, June 29, at 1:30 p.m., in the lecture room of the Detroit Art Institute by President Baker. A very large audience attended the meeting and listened most intently to the program which included several interesting addresses and a panel discussion which was presided over by Estelle M. Hayden of Des Moines, Iowa. Following the educational program the business meeting of the Department was held. Clara MacGowan of Evanston, Illinois, chairman of the Nominating Commit¬ tee, presented the Nominating Committee’s report. A motion to accept the report was presented and carried. (For list of officers see Historical Note, p. 204.) The report of the Resolutions Committee, which was accepted, is as follows: Be It Resolved: That the Art Department of the National Education Association cooperate with the art committees of organizations with a basic educational philosophy, such as the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, the General Federation of Women’s Clubs, the Garden Club of America, the American Red Cross, the National Tuberculosis Society. That the Art Department discourage art competitions and contests promoted by commercial firms for business purposes only. That a letter of appreciation be sent to Commissioner John W. Studebaker for his interest in creating a Division of Creative x\rts in the Office of Education. That the xAmerican Association of University Women be asked to reevaluate its membership requirements so that graduates of art and music colleges be in¬ cluded. That provision for a place be made for the Art Department on radio and moving picture programs; also that recognition be given to art as a subject on the “Our Schools” program of the National Education Association by means of talks by persons approved by the Art Department. On Tuesday evening at 6:30 o’clock in the Fountain Room of the Masonic Temple a lovely banquet was held which was attended by men and women from 28 states, Canada, and 1 territory. Two interesting addresses were presented. President Baker thanked the local chairman, Mrs. Mabel L. Smith, and her co-workers for the out¬ standing manner in which they entertained the Department. On Wednesday afternoon the members of the Department of Art Education visited a number of the art centers of Detroit and the Cranbrook Foundation at Bloomfield Hills, Michigan. On Thursday afternoon a demonstration of color and design was given at the auditorium of the General Motors Building. The officers and members of the Department are deeply grateful to the Research Division of General Motors Corporation for the hour of courteous hospitality. It was a great compliment to the Department and marked a very unusual favor on the part of the Research Division. Appreciation is also extended to those connected with the yarious art centers and. places of interest which were visited on our tour. DEPARTMENT OF ‘Business Education HISTORICAL NOTE The department of business education was created in response to a petition read at the meeting at Saratoga Springs, New York, July 1Z, 1S92 . from the Business Educators’ Association, requesting admission as a department of the National Education Association. The Business Edu¬ cators' Association was organized in New York City in 1878. Its constitu¬ tion was revised for acceptance by the Department of Business Education and may be found on page 958 of the proceedings of 1894. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-38 arc: president, Lola Maclean, Detroit Commercial College, Detroit, Mich.; first vice- president, Joseph DcBrum, Sequoia High School, Redwood City, Calif ; second vicepresident, Frederick Riccke, South Side High School, Newark, N. J.; secretary-treasurer, Mrs. Frances Donb North, Western High School, Baltimore, Md.; executive committee, Mary Stuart, Brighton High School, Brighton, Mass.; Vernal H. Carmichael, Ball State Teachers College, Mancie, Ind.; Herbert A. Tonne, New York University, Washington Square East, New York, N. Y. This Department meets once each year in July. The annual dues, $1, are payable to the secretary-treasurer of the Department. The chief pub¬ lication is the quarterly. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of the meetings arc found in earlier volumes of PROCEEDINGS OS follows: 1892: 31 1893 -.787- 807 1894 .957- 994 1895 :862- 890 1896:791- 835 189 7:792- 824 1898:856- 892 1899 -.998-1030 1900:542- 581 1901 :721-757 190 2:644-701 1903 -.719-752 1904 -.709-736 1905 -.669-705 1906 -.637-639 1907 -.877-903 1908 -.871-906 1909 -.701-718 1910: 833- 872 1911: 827- 868 1912 -.1031-1093 1913 : 619- 635 1914: 649- 662 1915: 883- 940 1916: 361- 395 1917: 315- 344 1918: 235- 247 1919 -.259-269 1920 -.263-270 1921 -.369-376 1922 -.575-590 1923 -.553-567 1924 -.429-438 1925 -.354-364 1926 -.373-391 1927 -.335-352 1928 -.305-324 1929 -.317-334 1930 -.275-292 1931 -.343-358 1932 -.283-302 1933 -.311-325 1934 -.301-312 1935 -.275-284 19 36:185-194 [214] LOOKING AHEAD IN BUSINESS EDUCATION ERNEST A. ZELLIOT, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF DENVER, DENVER, COLO. ; PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT Business education on a modern basis had its beginning seventy-five years ago in the private business school, created to train the army of office clerks required by the rapid expansion of business. Fifty years ago business courses were introduced into the public secondary school to meet popular demand. Twenty-five years ago business education was recognized on a professional basis in colleges and universities with the establishment of collegiate schools of business. Business education on each of these levels has developed until today the student enrolment included and the teaching personnel required exceed that of most other subjectmatter fields. Looking back it is a source of satisfaction to the fifty thousand members of the business teaching profession to know that business education is established on a strong foundation, as is evidenced by this unparalled record in educa¬ tional development. No form of education, however, can remain static, and particularly is this true in a dynamic field like business education. Business education will necessarily go forward. Educational leaders must continually look ahead if they are to anticipate desirable shifts and adjustments and be prepared to meet them adequately. While accurate predictions are impossible, some of the probable trends now seen on the educational horizon include : 1. Greater emphasis upon a broader type of vocational business education. In the past the tendency has been to stress skills and technics, to the neglect of equally important background preparation. 2. The offering of a larger number of vocational business courses from which the individual student may select. Past offerings have been limited too largely to re¬ stricted fields, to the exclusion of training for other equally important business occu¬ pations. 3. An up-grading in vocational business education. Increasingly, training for the more responsible business positions will be given on the junior college and university levels. However, with less than two out of five high-school graduates entering col¬ lege, a place yet remains for certain types of vocational business educatio‘n in the secondary schools. 4. More effective guidance programs and a better selection of students for voca¬ tional business classes. Business teachers should be the first to recognize students with potential business ability and encourage them to make appropriate preparation for business service in line with their capacities. 5. Closer cooperation between business education and business. The business man has much to gain from the schoolroom. The business teacher in turn has everything to gain from business. 6. Better integration of all educational activities in the development of employable personalities, rather than the present stress upon teaching segregated subject materials. 7. Wider recognition that business education should be considered an integral part of the whole program of education, and not as a separate department or even compartment. 8. The further development of a type of business education that will make for better econornic understanding and the wisest use of economic resources on the part of [215] 216 National Education Association everyone as citizens and consumers. In such a program, the business teacher has a very distinct contribution to make. 9. More attention to teaching the nature and purpose of business. Young men and young women should be encouraged to enter business on the same basis of service as in other professions. It should be kept in mind that the attitudes and the ideals of the business leader of tomorrow depend upon the attitudes and ideals engendered in the student of today. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Detroit, Michigan First Session, Monday, June 28, 1937 In the beautiful Scottish Rite Cathedral in the Masonic Temple, 850 teachers greeted President Ernest A. Zelliot when the first session was called to order at 2 o’clock. Platform guests included educators of national reputation as well as Detroit society leaders and representatives of business and industry. The audience included business education leaders representing every major part of the United States. The principal addresses were made by W. J. Cameron, of the Ford Motor Company, and James O. McKinsey, Chairman of the Board, Marshall Field & Company, Chicago. Second Session, Tuesday, June 29, 1937 This session began with a luncheon at 12 o’clock in the Hotel Statler ballroom and concluded with four sectional meetings in conference rooms of the hotel. The attendance at these meetings was: Luncheon, 300; Social Business Section, 125; Secretarial Section, 165; Clerical Office Machine Section, 65; Training for Store Work Section, 95. Lola Maclean, first vicepresident, presided at the luncheon. Harvey Campbell, vicepresident-secretary of the Detroit Board of Commerce, was the guest speaker. Eugene B. Elliott, state superintendent of public instruction, expressed greetings, and stressed the importance of business education. Frank Cody, Detroit superintend¬ ent of public instruction, and James L. Holtsclaw, Detroit supervising principal of commercial education, also extended greetings. Platform guests included: City Directors of Commercial Education Irving R. Gar- butt, Cincinnati; Raymond C. Goodfellow, Newark, N. J.; Guy D. Miller, Spring- field, Mass.; John W. Edgemond, Oakland, Calif.; Charles E. Cook, Rochester, N. Y. Business Meeting, Tuesday, June 29, 1937 The business meeting was called to order in the Hotel Statler ballroom at 4:30 by President Zelliot. The annual financial and secretarial report was read by Mrs. Frances Doub North, secretary-treasurer, and on motion was adopted. The report of the committee on the revision of the Department’s constitution was read by Chairman Wilbur S. Barnhart, of Indianapolis, and on motion was adopted. Stanley S. Smith, state chairman for Michigan, read the report of the Committee on Nominations, appointed at the first session by President Zelliot. On motion of Chairman Smith, seconded by James L. Holtsclaw of Detroit, the report was adopted unanimously. The Committee was comprised of: Chairman Smith, Raymond C. Goodfellow of New Jersey, Julian C. Wood of Utah, Maco B. Whittall of Kentucky, Charles W. Perry of Wisconsin. (See Historical Note, p. 214.) A summary of the proceedings of the first and second sessions appears on the following eight pages. Department of Business Education 217 GREETINGS FROM THE STATE OF MICHIGAN EUGENE B. ELLIOTT, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, LANSING, MICH. May I present the greetings of the state of Michigan to the National Education Association and particularly to the Department of Business Education. I am keenly aware of the honor afforded Michigan in being chosen host for the seventy-fifth convention of your Association. Michigan welcomes you. Michigan is inspired to a more wholehearted devotion to its educational tasks because of you. It hopes that you, as its guests, may receive a large portion of profit and enjoyment during your stay here. In the last couple of decades Michigan has been changing rapidly from an almost exclusively agricultural state to one devoted almost entirely to in¬ dustry. It, therefore, has become cognizant of the importance of business education. With the advent of large and complex business corporations and their resultant demands for efficiency for successful continuance, there has developed a need for scientific and broad training in business. More significant, however, than the needs of business from the vocational point of view, is the increased emphasis being placed on the broader philos¬ ophy of business education. I am very much pleased that business educators are now stressing the need for consumer education, recognizing that not only the seller but the buyer needs help. The buyer must plan his budget. He must know how to buy. He must be able to live in the business world so that he may enjoy a measure of happiness. This new emphasis means that all individuals need business training. The second new element worthy of consideration is the need for creating employment opportunities. As we shift consumer demand and as new tech¬ nologies provide new sources of business opportunity, we must be ready to take advantage of these new offerings. It is refreshing to notice that the newer texts on business education con¬ demn profit as a sole motive of business. Such a motive is now considered exceedingly narrow and unworthy. Business leaders acknowledge that they, too, in common with the rest of humanity, must harmonize their business ethics with the ideals underlying a democracy. Recognizing that the major objectives in our democracy are “good government and the happiness of mankind,” it is their purpose to investigate how business can best achieve its share in realizing these ideals. These goals are the determining factors in choosing the content of business courses. The Department of Business Education of the National Education Asso¬ ciation is playing a very important role in this type of training. To insure the best methods of teaching and the most vital content of business courses, your organization has acted as a national clearing-house. This is both wise and necessary. It has kept us informed concerning national problems of business. Thru the radio, the telephone, and the rapid means of transporta¬ tion, local and state barriers have broken down. There is no longer such a thing as isolation. We need your organization to help us to see the “forest” as well as the “trees.” I wish you continued success. 218 National Education Association A MESSAGE FROM BUSINESS TO THE BUSINESS TEACHERS OF AMERICA HARVEY CAMPBELL, VICEPRESIDENT-SECRETARY, DETROIT BOARD OF COMMERCE, DETROIT, MICH. Those of you who comprise the business section of the National Education Association are to be congratulated. Yours is the most important function in education. Your students have a definite end in view. They want to work, and they know what work they want. Therefore, you teachers have an oppor¬ tunity to handle students who are going some place and who know where thev are going. This seems to me to be remarkable in the face of political and sociological theories which currently teach millions of people that they can live without working. One of our great needs is business education for politicians. Practically all of our elected leaders have never made a nickel with their hands and have never had to meet a payroll. When they come to discuss employer-employee relationships, and accept the responsibility for framing legislation to cure the ills arising from labor irritations, they do not know what they are talking about. They lack intelligence based upon experience. Their advisers are usually academic college professors. Therefore, it would seem that if we are going to reach any kind of utopia, it would be a great thing for some of our teachers to acquire a business education. I wish that your Department could take them in hand so that a lot of stupid instructors would stop prating about the “machine age" and a lot of other clap-trap. Some of these folks are misleading a number of students who later become radical labor agitators. This can be proved, because some of the agitators who are stirring up trouble in this very vicinity are raw reds, having taken a post-graduate course in Russia after having graduated from one of our local universities. If any of you have sympathized with teachers who claim that the “machine age" is throwing people out of work, stop for a moment and consider the typewriter. Consider the hundreds of thousands of men and women to whom it has given employment. Then think of your own jobs, many of which are dependent upon office machinery. Without business education America cannot survive. I do not confine my remarks entirely to business-office education. I mean vocational education as opposed to academic education. Upon business depends the maintenance of our nation. If the people of average intelligence in America would forget the words of agitators and stick to business, our worries for the future would be largely eliminated. May I ask you to convey a special message to your students. Tell them that if they are to get ahead in the world they must learn how to get along with people. Many graduates of schools and colleges, some of them thoroly competent and skilful in the branches you teach, never get beyond the average position in business, because they lack the right personal qualities; while others, frequently with less training and skill, go to the top, because they have the right attitude toward business and can get along with people. Department of Business Education 219 SOCIAL BUSINESS SECTION Chairman: Ray G. Price, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. Secretary : Julian C. Wood, High School, Tooele, Utah. Participants : Paul S. Lomax, Professor of Education, New York Univer¬ sity, New York, N. Y. ; Irving R. Garbutt, Director of Commercial Education, Cincinnati Public Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio; R. S. Hadsell, Consumers’ Counsel Division, AAA, Washington, D. C. ; Edmund F. Cameron, Insurance Department, F. C. Pilgrim and Company, Chicago, Ill. The more general aspects of business education have made a rather deep and lasting invasion into the business curriculum offerings of our public secondary schools. The need for this general, social, or consumer type of training for students of the business department is no longer a debatable question. Changing economic conditions, scientific studies of our graduates, and the realization of the need to educate the student in terms of his needs, regardless of future occupation, have all contributed to the support of and belief in social and consumer business education. The three traditional technic subjects, bookkeeping, shorthand, and type¬ writing, constitute only a part of the entire field of business education. The understanding of economic and business relationships is equally as important a part of business education. An understanding and appreciation of business as an institution, how business serves the individual, the individual’s place as a user of the goods and services of business are sound and legitimate as¬ pects of business education from the standpoint of both producer and con¬ sumer. Every child should be educated from the viewpoint that he will be both a producer and a consumer. Business educators have realized that they have been neglecting the general business phase of the student’s training. This gradual and constant revamping of business education in terms of student needs is no longer mere talk at conventions. Business educators and administrators are taking definite action and attacking the problem in an intelligent, wholehearted manner. The trends with regard to clerical wages, employment age, and mechanization of our modern offices have made these changes imperative. There is a tendency on the part of the business man to employ the more mature office worker. The high-school graduate of today, whose average age is seventeen, finds a distinct barrier set up before him. All these factors have caused the business educator to seriously consider the problem facing him and to devise ways and means of meeting this problem. The contribution of consumer business education to the better manage¬ ment of personal and family business affairs, to the wise spending of income, and to the intelligent use of business goods and services is a commendable one. Information regarding such specific financial problems as buying and renting a home; money and banking; insurance; savings and investments; credit and instalment buying; taxes, household records, and budgeting; and borrowing is a kind of business education valuable to everyone. Dr. Lomax, in his address, announced that the National Council of Busi¬ ness Education is planning a comprehensive national study of business edu¬ cation. 220 National Education Association SECRETARIAL SECTION ('hair man : Catherine F. Nulty, Assistant Professor of Secretarial Studies, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt. Secretary: Imogene Pilcher, Head, Commercial Department, Lincoln High School, Cleveland, Ohio. Discussion leaders: Mildred E. Taft, Colby Junior College, New London, N. H.,* Charles W. Perry, Lincoln High School, Milwaukee, Wis. The program presented secretarial training as viewed by the business executive and the practising secretary. C. S. Woolard, office manager, United Motors Service Corporation of Detroit, and Julian Hall, personnel director of The Detroit Bank, presented the viewpoint of business. Ruth Wright, Mary McElroy, Helen Dols, John P. Cook, and Clyde Ludwig responded on behalf of the practising secretary. Mr. Woolard stressed the importance of training students to have the right attitude toward business and people. He advised students and em¬ ployees to develop such characteristics as business integrity, fair dealing, enthusiasm, courtesy, good manners, punctuality, loyalty, dependability, cooperation, courage, originality, and a good sense of humor. Students should be taught that their returns from business, broadly speaking, will be in direct proportion with their contribution to business and that as soon as a business connection is formed they should feel they are definitely a part of business and particularly of the firm or organization that employs them. Since students and employers must ultimately meet, it is recommended that business executives and personnel directors be invited to discuss business relations with students, so that they may know what business expects of them when they apply for employment. Mr. Hall emphasized the importance of greater skill in shorthand and typewriting, a more thoro knowledge of English, and agreed with Mr. Woolard regarding the vital importance of training students to have the right attitude toward business. The practising secretaries recommended a thoro knowledge of English — grammar, punctuation, and spelling — because English is the foundation for secretarial practise. Speed and accuracy in transcription are determined largely by skill in typewriting and a knowledge of spelling and punctuation. The speakers advised secretarial students to acquire a good practical knowl¬ edge of bookkeeping, in order that they may have an intelligent understand¬ ing of the business of their employers. Secretaries are frequently asked to obtain information necessitating a knowledge of accounting practise. Stu¬ dents should acquire a thoro knowledge of postal rates and schedules and of political geography, including the spelling of geographical names. The secretarial speakers defined the “right attitude toward business” as not just doing work properly, but in addition to that, working intelligently for the promotion of the business and taking a proprietary interest in its success — not iust working by the hour, for no one has ever made a success of himself or the business with which he is connected who has worked that way. The employer and the employee should work together for the pro¬ motion and advancement of the business. Department of Business Education 221 TRAINING FOR STORE WORK SECTION Chairmen: Dorothy M. Baldwin, Teacher of Retail Selling, William Penn High School, Philadelphia, Pa.; J. M. Trytten, Director of Courses for Commercial Teachers, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Secretary: Helen A. Haynes, Emmerich Manual Training High School, Indianapolis, Ind. Participants : Lilian Stoddard Mencke, Assistant Personnel Director, J. L. Hudson Company, Detroit, Mich.; Paul A. Mertz, Director of National Training, Sears Roebuck and Company, Chicago, Ill.; Mrs. Rae C. Williams, Omaha Technical High School, Omaha, Nebr. ; Myrtle Glueck, John Hay High School, Cleveland, Ohio; Clementine Williams, Davis Technical High School, Grand Rapids, Mich. Training for store work has certain definite values to the three parties concerned — the student, the store, and the school. With the impetus given it by the George-Deen Act this type of training promises to become the most conspicuous development in commercial education in the future. 1. The teachers mast be well trained — Much of this work will be done under federal subsidy and, therefore, teachers will be required to meet the standards set up by the Federal Board for Vocational Education, calling for suitable and adequate education, teaching, and selling experience. Schools that do not take advantage of the George-Deen Act will set up the same requirements as nearly as possible. 2. Selection of students — Better results are naturally obtained where students are selected. Where the cooperative plan is followed, it is essential that students be selected. The store expects that the same care be given to selecting trainees that is given to selecting employees. The basis for selection will vary. In one school mental ability will outweigh other factors; in another, persistence. Social sense will be the most important. Where train¬ ing is offered on the usual classroom basis, the selection may not be so rigid. In most cases the training is now open to all who want it. 3. Cooperating merchants — Selecting cooperating stores, maintaining goodwill, securing enthusiastic cooperation in the training activities, and setting up an appraisal scheme are problems the coordinator or retail selling teacher must work out. Success depends upon the respect of the store personnel for the practical ability of the teacher and the degree of under¬ standing between the cooperating parties. 4. Compensation — The working situation is usually desired to be as real as possible ; the arrangement usually stipulates a minimum hourly wage for students while working. One of the schools felt the situation would be more controllable if compensation were not involved and the students might work for experience only. Many trainees remain with the stores and frequently advance to responsible positions. 5. Knowledge of merchandise — Knowledge of merchandise was admitted to be the most important factor in retail selling. Where only classroom in¬ struction is given, it is necessary to work out schemes for studying merchan¬ dise, handling it, displaying it on shelves and counters, or in display windows. 222 National Education Association CLERICAL OFFICE MACHINE SECTION Chairman : Mary Stuart, Brighton High School, Brighton, Mass. Secretary: James Turek, High School, North Tarrytown, N. ^ . Participants : Albert E. Cobo, City Treasurer, Detroit, Mich.; Helen V. Smith, Stenographic Personnel Director, Detroit Trust Company, Detroit, Mich.; H. M. Kaiser, Office Manager, Lnited States Rubber Products, Inc., Detroit, Mich.; R. Lawrence Rahbar, Department of Commerce, Lew Wallace High School, Gary, Ind.; Miss M. B. Murphy, Hadley Vocational School, St. Louis, Mo. Abstracts of the three papers presented at the Clerical Office Machine Section will be found below. The discussions of these papers were opened by Mr. Rahbar and continued by Miss Murphy. Mr. Cobo (Computing Machine Problems) : Operators of computing machines are, in large majority, the products of private business schools and of schools operated by the manufacturers of the various computing machines; they have not been obliged to fulfil any requirements prior to taking this machine training, and if such prior requirements had been prerequisite, many could not have qualified for the machine training. Many of them have no fundamental knowledge of arithmetic, and consequently they cannot be used, during peak periods, on any other type of office work. Some even claim that they are not hired to do any other work. These con¬ ditions not only make it impossible to promote such operators, but prove, as well, a costly condition in any office. Private business schools and manu¬ facturers’ schools are not to blame, for they deserve credit for teaching such poorly prepared individuals to operate the machines and thus gain a livelihood. The possible solution to this problem is the establishment by schools of definite courses as prerequisite for admission to training. Miss Smith (Transcribing Machine Problems) : Not all pupils should be directed to commercial work; certainly none but those who show an aptitude for getting along with people, who will apply themselves, and who will follow some definite line of self-improvement should ever be considered. If a beginner shows these traits, even a lack of machine training should not stand in the way. High-school graduation offers the highest prob¬ ability of success. Boys, as well as girls, should take up dictaphone work ; many large corporations prefer boys as beginners. Machine operators’ jobs are not blind alleys jobs to people of ability who are determined to get ahead. Mr. Kaiser (Bookkeeping Machine Problems) : In offices averaging 500 employees, from 50 to 60 percent of the workers are using various machines, and only sixty persons, 12 percent, are doing stenographic, dicta¬ phone, or typing work. Such an office will contain, in active operation, 150 calculating machines of various sorts. The schools are placing on the market more students with stenographic and typing knowledge than the market can absorb. There is, therefore, a need for greater emphasis on bookkeeping in the schools, but it ought to be bookkeeping taught on machines, and not the old folder-type of hand bookkeeping. Boards of education must be brought to realize that suitable machines should be put into the schools. Department of Business Education 223 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS W. J. CAMERON, FORD MOTOR COMPANY, DEARBORN, MICH. Business and education always have been related ; together they flourish or fail. Modern education depends for support on the economic ability of the people; on the other hand, economic ability is constantly elevated in power and quality by education. They represent complementary social dis¬ ciplines. Industry’s influence on education may be observed in the chemical, metallurgical, electrical, engineering, and business administration courses with their tens of thousands of students in our universities. The influence of education on industry is still in the making, but is already observable in this technological preparation and, we trust, in a higher type of character and a stronger sense of responsibility in the handling of men and the supply of social needs. Business asks of the educator not factory hands but American citizens, workers and builders. Education for business should include more than mere mastery of the mechanics of a specific job, because every job is so very much more than a job and has relations and ramifications of cultural value for those who are able to appreciate it. A business education that fails to make accessible the same cultural sources open to students in other fields lacks an essential element. The view men hold of the function of work and business determines to an important degree their effectiveness and happiness. Those entering busi¬ ness or industry should possess as part of their preparation a knowledge of the age-old functions of these as social institutions. The moral progress made by business and industry, and the causes of it, should be mapped in the student’s mind. He should know something also of the advance of social justice in industry, and the true causes of that, for upon this matter the schools reek with misinterpretation of the history and ignorance of the undeviating trend. Business should be presented as one of the higher quests of man, thru the ever insistent medium of his necessities, for a better knowl¬ edge of the laws of living together in society. It is a means by which the “problems of the kitchen side of life” may ultimately be solved, and man¬ kind liberated to the consideration of higher matters. It should be presented as a process incomplete but not incoherent or without fundamental natural direction. The fact that absolute laws govern business, and that these laws relate to physical, moral, and social values is too often forgotten. Business and industry are as subject to the laws of their own inner development as are medicine and architecture and music. It is from knowledge of these laws and cooperation with them that all physical and social advances in industry have come, and not from any other source or compulsion. To compel from without what must be built from within is impossible. With this understanding of the course and character of business and industry should go a thoro review of presentdav attitudes toward these activities. A student should be able to judge when taking a position whether he is engaging in an exploitation that degrades the dignity of human beings, or enlisting in a work that positively serves the world. No business education 224 National Education Association is complete that does not offer the basic materials for a judgment upon this question. Is the purpose or effect of machinery to make men obsolete? Equip the student to arrive at an intelligent view of that question by having him search out the proportion of labor -serving to labor-saving machinery in industry, or the ratio of employment to the population before and after machinery came in. Does mass production make the mind obsolete ? The scholastic answer is “Yes.” The factual answer is “No.” This also may be simply determined — go into it and see. Mass production requires a higher degree of mass intelligence than any other method. What is the real motive in business and industry — the original and deepest and longest surviving motive? The general answer is “Money.” That answer might be given concerning teaching too, but it would not be true. It is no truer of business. Most of our present industry and business began with men who had no capital but their overalls, their hands, an idea, and an urge to count for something in the world. The next generation of leaders will come from the same source. No hereditary aristocracy of money or power exists in America. Leadership is renewed from the original source generation to generation. Surely it is part of education for business to deal faithfully with those questions on which so much of men’s attitude toward their work depends. BOAT TRIP FOR BUSINESS TEACHERS MONDAY EVENING, JUNE 28, 1937 Four hundred members of the Department of Business Education were guests of the Detroit Reception Committee on a delightful evening trip on the Detroit River, on the steamship “Alabama.” James L. Holtsclaw, Detroit Supervising Principal of Commercial Edu¬ cation, was chairman of this very enjoyable affair. Fascinating views from the boat included : Detroit’s famous skyline, Canadian waterfront, beautiful Belle Isle (Detroit’s 1000-acre island park), Grosse Pointe Shores, and many other points of interest. The program included dinner on board the steamship. DEPARTMENT OF (Classroom Teachers HISTORICAL NOTE The department of classroom teachers held its first session at the St. Paul meeting. July 8, 1914. It was organised in response to petitions representing classroom teachers in all parts of the country. The Depart¬ ment xeas reorganised under a constitution at the Boston meeting in July 1922. For amendments see proceedings, 1923: 578; 1929: 365; 1931: 390-91; 1932 : 333-34. The Department of Classroom Teachers cooper¬ ates with the National League of Teachers' Associations. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-38 are: president, Emily A. TarbcT. 235 Glenwood Avenue, Syracuse , Ar. Y.; vicepresi¬ dent. David E. Temple. 215 Masonic Temple Building, 706 South Bos¬ ton. Tulsa. Okla secretary, Frances Jelinek, Room 150, Hotel Wis¬ consin. Milwaukee , IF is. : director ex officio, Albert M. Shaw, Box 885. Arcade Annex. Los Angeles, Calif.: regional directors: Midwest¬ ern Region . Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl. R.F.D. 2. Mound. Minn. ( term expires 1938 : Western Region, Elphe K. Smith, R.F.D. 1, Box 22, Tigard , Ore. {term expires 1939); Eastern Region, Mrs. Mary D. Barnes. 223 Summit Road, Elizabeth, K . J. ( term expires 1940). This Department meets at the time of the annual meeting of the Asso¬ ciation. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and record ef meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1914: 909- 916 1915 .1161-117: 1916: 6S7- 652 1917: 615- 622 1918: 381- 389 1919 1355-392 1920:343-355 1921 -.399-406 19 22 : 683-691 1923 -.569-620 1924 -.460-499 1925 -.365-402 192 6-.393A23 1927 -.353-390 1928 -.325-352 1929 -.335-368 1930 -.293-307 1931 -.359-392 1932 -.303-335 1933 :327-355 1934 -.313-344 1935 -.285-310 1936 -.195-218 AROUND THE YEAR WITH THE PRESIDENT ALBERT M. SHAW, HOLLENBECK JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. My year as president has been a pleasant and interesting experience. Altho arduous at times, it has been an instructive period of service in helping to earn' on the many activities of the Department. During the five years of my official association with the Department, I have observed a vast expansion in the activities. If it is possible to carry out the plans which are now being made, next year will bring about even greater development. It is becoming more and more evident to the administration of the Na¬ tional Education Association that if the membership is to increase as it should, a greater amount of service must be directed to the needs and wel¬ fare of teachers. The classroom teacher group is by far the largest one from which membership may be drawn. Of the 200,000 members enrolled in the National Education Association, approximately 150,000 are classroom teachers. With nearly 1,000,000 public school educators in the United States, there are probably about 600,000 classroom teachers who are not members of the National Education Association. This figure is far in excess of that of all other educators who are not members. This shows clearly the great field in which we need to work. There is a distressing need for a great, all-inclusive national educational organization. With only 20 percent of the educators of the country belonging to our Association, we cannot yet claim to have a truly representative organization. The difficulties recently encountered in attempting to have the Harrison- Black-Fletcher Bill enacted into law is evidence of our need for a larger and more influential organization. With a membership of 750,000 or 1,000,000 our requests to Congress for consideration of educational legislation would be much more effective. There is probably no other group who can create interest in the National Education Association among teachers as well as the classroom teachers themselves. If this is true, then the Department, thru its officers, must be afforded greater opportunity than it has yet had for accomplishing this. During the past year, the Department was handicapped in its held and con¬ ference work due to an inadequate budget allowance for this particular service. It was my privilege to hold conferences in various sections of the country but, as the places visited will be listed elsewhere, I shall not enumerate them here. However, there were many more requests for conferences than I was able to accept. The recommendations which follow at the close of this report are made in an effort to formulate a definite, aggressive campaign in which member¬ ships may be solicited and workers organized to secure additional member¬ ships after conferences are held. All of this work will be done in addition [ 227 ] 228 National Education Association to the usual conference work on classroom teacher and organization prob¬ lems. These plans, if carried out effectively, should not only pay the neces¬ sary expenses in additional and substantial N. E. A. support, but should yield satisfactory annual dividends as well. During the latter part of the year, I gave considerable thought to the plan of a well-organized series of con¬ ferences in the states,, and in this connection communicated with the state secretaries, presidents of state departments of classroom teachers, and others who are planning state and local meetings for the coming year. A most interesting and quite important part of my work as president has been serving as a member of the Educational Policies Commission. I at¬ tended the following meetings of the Commission at which intensive study was given to many fundamental problems: Crawford Notch, New Hampshire San Francisco, California Chicago, Illinois August 19-24, 1936 November 13-14, 1936 f December 4-8, 1936 1 April 30-May 4, 1937 Thru this intensive study and the searching discussion which are given to the great amount of material gathered for the consideration of the Commission, it is hoped to formulate pronouncements and recommendations which will make possible better educational procedure for the future. In turning over the presidency to another, I shall give my earnest and loyal cooperation to the new president in carrying out the plans outlined in this report and any others that seem desirable. I wish to thank sincerely the officers and members of the Department, and the headquarters staff of the National Education Association, for the thoroly loyal and very helpful cooperation and support which they have given me during my term of office. I know that all who are interested in the growth and progress of the Department will give the new president loyal support, and I wish the new staff of officers and the Department the greatest success for the coming year. It is my firm conviction and belief that this will follow. Recommendations Therefore, for the reasons given above and for others, I wish to present the following recommendations for next year: 1. Leave of absence for president: That the president be granted a year’s leave of absence with full reimbursement for loss of salary and with free¬ dom from all school duties, and that an adequate budget allowance be pro¬ vided for necessary expenses in giving full time to conferences, field work, and other activities. 2. Conferences and field work: That a well-organized series of confer¬ ences in as many states as possible be conducted by the president, with the cooperation and assistance of the other officers and past officers. That no officer, excepting the president, go into the region of another officer. (There will be exceptions to this, of course.) 3. N.E.A. membership : That the Department devote special attention to sections of the country in which N. E. A. membership is small. Department of Classroom Teachers 229 4. Affiliation: That assistance be given to inactive affiliates, as well as to groups that wish to organize,, and that more follow-up work be done in places where conferences have been held. 5. T eacher-tr aining institutions : That visits be made to as many teacher¬ training institutions as possible. 6. N.E.A. headquarters staff : That all this work be carried on with the active cooperation and assistance of the Division of Membership and the Division of Classroom Service of the National Education Association. Proposed Budget for 1937-38 1. Part-time for president . . $2,600.00 2. Conference and field work of officers, including travel, hotel expenses, etc . 4,350.00 3. Convention expenses, including travel, hotel, etc . 2,500.00 4. Local clerical expenses for officers, including postage, clerical help, etc . 300.00 5. Yearbook committees, including traveling expenses of com¬ mittee members . 600.00 6. Printing, including News Bulletin , Yearbook, folders, sta¬ tionery, etc . 3,800.00 7. N. E. A. office expenses, including clerical services, office sup¬ plies, postage, and telegrams . 1,100.00 8. Part-payment of convention expenses for a teacher of a rural school located at the greatest distance from the place at which the annual convention is held . . 100.00 9. Committee expenses . 150.00 $15,500.00 HOW JUNIOR HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS USE MATHEMATICS TO SOLVE SOME OF THEIR PROBLEMS C. C. WEIDEMANN, PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS EDUCATION, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO Attention may be focused on mathematics as both a language and a tool thru which new meanings of the environment may become appreciated. The symbol-system of number and digits is an essential and important way of explaining our experiences, and as such justifies its place in the elementary and secondary curriculum and its importance to the learner. To one child it seems usable everywhere with everything ; to another it seems to be a way to complete an idea; to others, it is interesting; and to some it is plain hard work to be done. Such importance, however, changes within the conscious¬ ness of a person as the number of its uses increases. To make such a viewpoint clear requires the use of actual problem situa¬ tions that are meaningful and of interest to the child as a problem which he feels the necessity of solving. Problems requiring collection of data, 230 National Education Association measurement, organization and computation of results, some simple way of sketching or accurate procedure of drawing to scale, formulation of tenta¬ tive conclusions, statements of new problems developing from the problem studied, self-evaluation of the worth of the problem to and by the child are suggested as useful to encourage the child to develop power to think thru a total problem situation to a satisfactory solution. Measuring rates of move¬ ment of living organisms; computing lunchroom unit food cost; recording the data and story of the process by which some object is constructed ; making tables and graphs of data; finding new ways, places, and things for the application of the basic principles of mathematics; these are but a few of the possible types of material and means thru which run the fundamental principles and processes of quantitative thinking. In the total process of development of almost every problem one or more processes or forms of arithmetic, algebra, or geometry are used. Thus the problem’s solution often requires the use of number, measurement, related¬ ness of quantities, and movement1 of the mind processes of thought toward the nature of the truth underlying the problem situation. Their use happens in such projects as construction of musical instruments, measuring instru¬ ments^ canoes, problems in social studies, fine arts, home arts, commercial arts, natural sciences or physics, health and physical education, and so on thruout many other phases of reality. Such projects as may occur in these areas of reality encourage the child to search for solutions of problems and to try to discover for himself the nature of the situation. As learners, children are stimulated and expected to make intelligent choices from among available preferences of better ways of procedure. The ways used should produce the maximum of achievement and satisfaction and a minimum need for the expenditure of effort per unit of time. This should guide the child toward finding and taking the easiest, quickest, and best way to desirable ends and supreme values of human living. Such values include efficiency in action, the good, the true, the beautiful, and the unity or wholeness of experience. DEVELOPING COOPERATION IN AN UNCOOPERATIVE WORLD LILLIAN LEWIS, ARMSTRONG SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL. Cooperation is defined as the joint effort, the association, or collective action of persons for their common benefit. The primitive or jungle type of cooperation is a banding together to provide protection against a common danger. It may be a kind of armed truce, a superficial unity between groups of persons who in ordinary times have no common aims or sympathies. It is similar to the truce among the jungle beasts at the water hole. Involuntary cooperation, obtained thru force, restricts individual activi¬ ties toward a so-called common good, but the common good is determined by those in authority. Intelligent, altruistic cooperation implies a voluntary, enlightened merging of effort toward the welfare of all. It comes thru social intelligence and a critical understanding, not thru blind allegiance to auto- Department of Classroom Teachers 231 cratic power. Cooperation is a way of living. In its highest form it is simply the democratic way, and like democracy, it is a relative term. It is not an accomplished fact but something toward which mankind is surely tho unevenly moving. The chief aim of education should be to teach how to live in a democracy. The first step is to develop the cooperative attitude toward life. This should begin in the kindergarten. In a recent article Angelo Patri stated : “The keyman in the school is the grade teacher, not the head, not the trustee, not anybody but the teacher. After the board of education has settled the budget, after the specialists have agreed on the curriculum, after the head has as¬ signed the teachers and laid out the work, the children gather around the teacher in a classroom and the door is shut. After that the teacher dominates the education and the growth of the children in that group. ... I want to point out that the real work, the functioning of the costly school systems of the world goes on in the classrooms between teacher and pupil. Consider the teacher first and the rest will follow.” In an article a few days later he said: “Altho the teacher is restricted to prescribed courses of study, and conditions ordered by authority, yet he may be free in spirit, if he wishes to be free. There is no law strong enough to crush the spirit of a soul that wills to be free.” Only the teacher who has the cooperative attitude toward life can create that attitude in the child. If the schools are the foundation of democracy then the teachers are the foundation of democracy. As a classroom teacher I say we must guard against the autocratic power of our position. It may be that some of the spirit of autocracy abroad in the country received an impetus , at least, from the dominating spirit exercised in the schoolroom. We must not dominate with our knowledge and experience. We must give the children the chance to think out for themselves the ideas we can more quickly express for them. As far as possible, problems of discipline and school¬ room procedure should be decided by free discussion and cooperation. Chil¬ dren honestly like to help make things go right. They will cooperate if that spirit is created. Controversial subjects, from those of the simplest form in the younger years to those more complicated as the child matures, should be approached with a desire to listen honestly, to think clearly, to know facts, and to draw one’s own conclusions. We should strive to produce in future generations the ability to think with the intellect, not with the prejudices. A school generation covers only about eighteen years. Education could do much toward establishing in a generation the impersonal approach to social and moral truths that the scientist uses in the search for scientific truths. Edu¬ cation could do much to find how men can get along together. But we must begin at the beginning. By the time a child has reached the high-school level his attitudes and habits of thinking are to a large degree established. It is easier to form than reform. Activity programs, projects, progressive educa¬ tion, and such are new terms for an old ideal, the ideal of making the school a place where we live and cooperate and learn the fine art of friendship among ourselves and children all over the world. It may be that in many 232 National Education Association schoolrooms in many lands this cooperative spirit is quietly being taught. Real growth is usually quiet and there is not much noise about real teaching. How shall teachers develop the cooperative spirit in themselves? Chiefly thru organizations. One of the chief aims of the Department of Classroom Teachers is to encourage the organization of teachers and to promote co¬ operation among them. Teachers, generally, are just beginning to realize the possibilities and the need of organized effort. Thirty years ago there were few active local teacher organizations and the state and national asso¬ ciations confined their efforts mostly to professional problems. Because they dominate their little world — the schoolroom — teachers tend to become individualistic, sometimes narrow and petty. Since their will is more or less law in their relation to the child, it is difficult for them to submit to the will of the majority in dealing with a group of teachers. This is shown by the number of small groups with special interests and the tendency of leaders to establish a separate organization when they fail to accomplish their objective. This situation creates a struggle for power among organi¬ zations and petty jealousies among leaders. One of the greatest obstacles to developing cooperation in and among organizations is the lack of democratic or ethical procedure. There is a need for a code of ethics in and among organizations. This code should establish more general use of the forum and panel discussion. It should be considered unethical to present one side of a question only. The leaders of groups dif¬ fering on vital issues should work out a plan whereby well-qualified repre¬ sentatives of both sides of the question may be heard by the same audience. The code should also recommend the parallel printing of different view¬ points of vital issues in bulletins so that the reader may have viewpoints for and against the issues at the same time. It should discountenance the modern method of propaganda which suppresses or refuses to recognize facts or truths which might hinder the success of a pet idea or scheme. It should not recognize the principle that the end justifies the means. This is the principle upon which war itself is based. The teaching profession should never resort to questionable means of expediency no matter how worthy the end it seeks. It should seek to establish proportionate representation in conferences of leaders where action is to be taken, thereby preventing leaders or small groups from outvoting those whose organizations have much larger mem¬ berships. Lack of proportionate representation tends to encourage division and the forming of small groups. Another vital factor in developing cooperation is cooperative leaders. Everyone who aspires to he a leader or an intelligent follower should read “Learning to be a Leader” by Joy Elmer Morgan in the Journal of the National Education Association for May 1937. Among other things, he says: “The first test of a leader is this: Can I put the common good above my selfish interests? The leader attaches himself to a worthy cause. He avoids too many projects or offices. Such a tendency easily degenerates into self- seeking and superficiality. The office becomes an end in itself, rather than an opportunity to serve some larger cause.” Department of Classroom Teachers 233 Some of our own teacher leaders who have rendered great service have held few offices. They have worked for a definite cause. Temporary defeat did not make them become disgruntled ; it spurred them on to greater effort. I have in mind a living example of this kind of leader. I do not recall her having been president of anything. Yet the ten-year struggle of Frances E. Harden toward a more democratic organization of the National Education Association, her many years of loyal effort to educate the classroom teachers to take their responsibility in that organization, her freedom from self-in¬ terest and the seeking of public acclaim, testify to the fact that she exemplifies the qualities of a good leader. Her name is one of the first on the list of dele¬ gates to the National Education Association chosen by the Chicago Division of the Illinois Education Association. Altho retired from teaching, she is still a member of the Chicago Division and when she serves the National Education Association she serves' Chicago as well. Finally, voluntary cooperation is an attitude toward life. It is the demo¬ cratic way of living. It was the ideal for which Horace Mann lived and sacrificed a hundred years ago. It is the ideal today. It is the ultimate plan of the universe. The ultimate plan does not change. THE VERSE-SPEAKING CHOIR AS A HIGH-SCHOOL ACTIVITY1 MARION L. MILLER, COOLEY HIGH SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH. A number of years ago, I chanced upon an article that made a deep im¬ pression upon me. It was in an issue of Stage and School, already two years old, and was called “The Verse Speaking Choir.” In vain I tried to dis¬ cover more of its author, Marjorie Gullan. Finally I learned the name of her publisher in London and ordered some of her books. Eager to begin, I did not wait for the books to arrive, but guided by Miss Gullan’s short article, I began my first experiment. I asked my principal for a certain class of ninth-graders of high mentality, promising him to cover thoroly the tech¬ nical requirements of the course if I might use the first ten weeks exclusively for poetry. This, by the way, is an excellent procedure to follow in any ninth grade when the course of study permits a choice of reading material. Before I began, I told the boys and girls that I knew no more than they about the subject, but that I hoped we should be able to create something of beauty in time for a public meeting to be held in our auditorium on Novem¬ ber 10. When I asked how many liked poetry, about eight of the forty- two raised their hands. When I requested that someone recite a poem from memory, only one was able to respond, and his selection was “My Shadow” by Stevenson, which he admitted having learned in the third grade. I should have been discouraged, I suppose, but I was not. Knowing how children love to hear their own voices, I encouraged every¬ one to bring in poems to read to the class. The result was a deluge of either moral or so-called humorous attempts culled chiefly from the daily news- 1 This talk was followed by a half hour’s demonstration by the verse-speaking choir from Cooley High School. 234 National Education Association papers. These were read with vivid appreciation, but the readings revealed every error that it is possible for the human voice to make. Nothing daunted, I next let them browse thru our admirable textbook, Yesterday and Today, by Untermeyer. From this they chose selections that appealed to them and one of those chosen* was, “The Cremation of Sam Magee.” However, my time finally came. I had listened with outward enthusiasm to the children, and they were now ready to listen to me. These preliminaries had revealed to me the size of the task I had under¬ taken. The Sherrard High School is in one of the poorest districts in Detroit. Altho Jewish and colored elements predominate, there were nineteen dif¬ ferent nationalities in the class I had chosen. Many of the families were on public relief and the others were perilously near. Foreign dialects and speech tunes, and a very practical outlook on life induced by economic difficulties, were certainly not conducive to the development of a speech art. To open eyes to beauty, to awaken imaginations, to train ears to appreciate good speech and speech organs to respond, and in addition to teach enough poems, given in rapid succession, to take up twenty minutes of a program — this was the task that confronted me in the nine weeks remaining. Happily I started with a poem that voices a universal feeling: Tennyson’s “Break, Break, Break.” I told the children of the circumstances under which the poem had been written, and discovered by inquiring that every child there had lost a human being or a pet dear to him, and could therefore sym¬ pathize with the poet. Next we pictured Tennyson seated upon a cliff, his thoughts turned inward, distantly aware of the breaking waves and looking out only in response to the sharp cries of the fisherman’s boy and the song of the sailor lad. We discussed the manner in which waves dash up and break. We illustrated this by drawing a cliff on the board and letting the chalk represent the waves. This poem is peculiarly suited to unison speaking. It seems to be able to assimilate all types of voices, and the children were excited by the harmony they had produced so easily. I was excited, too. Something had emerged. Artistic temperament had undoubtedly been at work, for a mood of such profound sorrow had been created as to be almost tangible. From then on I had no more doubts. Tech¬ nical difficulties, I decided, could be overcome as we met them — the indis¬ pensable vital force had been set in motion. To develop their imaginations, I read them poems that called for a vigor¬ ous re-experiencing with all five senses. We smelled camphor and spices; felt the shaking of mighty sails over our heads ; heard bells ringing over the quiet countryside; and we danced to the rhythm of the tarantella. Moreover, we noted the strange places in which poets found beauty. There was the poem about a bit of oil left by a bus on a dirt road, which formed a curious pattern in irridescent colors; and that of the lamp post in the city street — invisible stem on which hung a lovely flower. Soon it was evident to all that beauty lies not in objects, but in the eyes that behold them. I read Millay’s poem. My heart being hungry feeds on things The fat of heart despise: Beauty where no beauty stood . Department of Classroom Teachers 235 With the motto, “Beauty where no beauty stood,” these boys and girls deter¬ mined to see with new eyes. In no time they were bringing in their own experiences of beauty in strange places. Had there been more time, this effort might have resulted in creative writing of some worth — but nine weeks are not very many. We continued to work; and as we did so, the laws and principles of choric speech began to emerge for me. My books did not arrive until two weeks before our first recital. In the classifying of voices, I was grateful for every bit of musical training I had had, tho none of it had been professional. I discovered that differences were not of habitual pitch but rather of what I subsequently labeled “timber.” There was the light, breathy voice, capable of velvety flexibility; the dark, somber voice, also soft and rich, and much more fitted to blend with the light than were the clear, piercing medium ones, for which I cared little. By selecting an example of each of these, and matching the other voices, one by one, I finally achieved a three-part choir that satisfied me. I had had no training in conducting, but it seemed a very natural means to an end and offered no difficulty. On the appointed day, we were ready with our twenty-minute program. Nobody, I think, could have foreseen the enthusiasm with which our efforts were received. Two days later we were asked to broadcast over WWJ. Then requests from clubs and churches began to pour in, so that by the end of June this group had given more than thirty recitals. When, in May, we were able to secure Miss Gullan, on her first trip to this country, so much interest had been aroused that more than 700 people attended her lecture, and 250 came to our auditorium for the two lessons she gave on subsequent days. Five more choirs from our high school followed the first, and our number of recitals rose above seventy. As I look back over the years, the values of choral speaking stand out with startling clarity. And keenly interested as I am in all of these, there are two that seem to me supreme. The first of these is! the development of the stu¬ dent’s imagination. This seems to me enormously important and grievously neglected. The imagination is the only faculty thru which we apprehend the spiritual world, and conceive of our duties toward our fellowmen. Also, it is fundamental to all creative effort, whether this be the selling of a vacuum cleaner or the building of an empire. The condensed form of poetry de¬ mands the use of the imagination. And no one can speak a poem convincingly who has not re-experienced the poet’s thought and feeling. The second is the social value to the students. I believe that the verse- speaking choir has a valuable contribution to make to the activities program of any high school. It can educate the student body to higher standards of speech, voice the sentiment of special occasions with the dignity and im¬ pressiveness that could not be achieved by an individual ; and, most important of all, if the director’s purpose be sincere, it cannot fail to develop those valuable social qualities of which I have spokem 236 National Education Association REPORT OF 1937 COMMITTEE ON ACADEMIC FREEDOM EMILY A. TARBELL, VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL, SYRACUSE, N. Y., Chairman The Committee on Academic Freedom of the Department of Classroom Teachers of the National Education Association offers this report concern¬ ing its activities for the year 1936-37. During this current year only three cases have been referred to this Com¬ mittee. The first, that of the dismissal of teachers in Highland Park, Michi¬ gan, was by agreement turned over to the N. E. A. Committee on Tenure which undertook the investigation. Inquiry in the second case disclosed that the matter had been adjusted locally. In the third case, an inquiry is under way. To aid local associations, the Committee has in preparation a handbook on academic freedom which will be distributed in the fall. Forms for use of local associations in reporting investigations of cases have been prepared. Ini the legislative field, the Committee reports that Ohio has repealed its teacher oath law. In Massachusetts the repeal of its teacher oath law was passed by both houses but vetoed by the governor. The ‘‘Red Rider’’ affecting teachers in Washington, D. C., has been removed from the statute books. The Committee especially commends the educational material on academic freedom prepared by the local committee of the Highland Park Teachers Association for its membership. It also commends the radio program “Let Freedom Ring’’ presented by the United States Office of Education, and the N. E. A. radio series, “Our American Schools,” which have devoted a large number of programs to the cause of academic freedom. Whereas, many countries are bartering freedom for security, the teachers of America are urged to uphold with all their might the principles and responsibilities of academic freedom. The Committee stands on the program recommended in its previous re¬ ports adopted by the Department. This program urges: 1. Continual education in the rights and the duties of academic freedom among the members of the profession and the public 2. Appointment of committees by local and state associations to further this education 3. Investigation of cases of violation of freedom and judicious publication of the findings 4. Continuation of efforts for the repeal of teacher oath laws 5. Development of strong classroom teachers associations 6. Sustained effort on the part of the teachers to inspire students to search for the truth, to learn to distinguish between fact and propaganda, and to consider all sides of a question before forming conclusions. The Committee further recommends: 1. That associations sponsor, or assist in sponsoring, public forums in communities in order that discussion on every side of a question may be encouraged. 237 Department of Classroom Teachers 2. That the National Education Association, in keeping with the spirit and purpose of the public forum, be urged to schedule as speakers on the program of the annual convention national leaders who hold the center of interest in civic, economic, industrial, labor, and political problems, to the end that teachers may hear at first hand all sides of challenging issues of the day. 3. That teachers cooperate with the press in working for freedom of speech and freedom of the press. 4. That the Committee encourage and cooperate with parent-teacher associations and other civic organizations toward the growth and under¬ standing of academic freedom, and report to the Department outstanding work done during the year in order that the Department may officially recog¬ nize such contribution/ 5. That all cases of academic freedom presented to any court of record or duly authorized body of a state or national organization, and formally acted upon by such a body, shall be briefed to cover the essential facts, the principles of academic freedom involved, and the final disposition of the cases; and that the reports be placed in a permanent printed file and made accessible to all interested parties and organizations. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Detroit, Michigan Program of Events 1:30 p. m . Conference of presidents 5-7 p. m . Tea — Detroit teachers as hosts 2:00 p. m . Joint meeting with Department of Secondary School Principals .2:00 p. m . General conference 7:15 a. m . Breakfast conference of Advisory Council 2:00 p. m . Annual business meeting 6:00 p. m . Annual dinner Conference of Presidents Elphe K. Smith, western. regional director, presided at the Presidents’ Conference. Two things were undertaken. One was a rapid survey of economic recovery under the headings: salary restoration, satisfactory tenure, adequate retirement allowance, sabbatical leave, sick leave, and credit union. Informal reports on teacher participa¬ tion in curriculum building and textbook selection were also given. Mrs. Mary D. Barnes and Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl spoke briefly on the two yearbooks in preparation dealing with the health of the teacher and the use of re¬ search by the teacher, respectively. Reuben T. Shaw was called upon to answer questions concerning the amending of the charter of the National Education Asso¬ ciation. Meeting of Advisory Council Officers of the Department and members of the Advisory Council, which is made up of one representative from each state, met for conference at a breakfast on Wed¬ nesday morning. Mrs. Mary D. Barnes, vicepresident of the Department, was in charge of the conference. About forty persons were present and each representative discussed the professional problems in his particular state. Sunday, June 27 . . . Monday, June 28 . . . Tuesday, June 29 . . . Wednesday, June 30 Thursday, July 1 . . . 238 National Education Association First Session, Tuesday Afternoon, June 29, 1937 This session convened at 2 o’clock with Albert M. Shaw, president of the Depart¬ ment, presiding. The following participated in the program: Lillian M. Broderick, Yonkers, N. Y. ; Charles C. Weidemann, Ohio State University; Lillian Lewis, Chi¬ cago, Ill.; Daisy Lord, Waterbury, Conn.; Marion L. Miller, Detroit, Mich. Second Session, Thursday Afternoon, July 1, 1937 The annual business session was held on Thursday afternoon, July 1, 1937, at 2 o’clock in the Commandery Room of the Masonic Temple with the president, Albert M. Shaw, presiding. C. A. Bottolfsen of Arco, Idaho, served as parliamentarian. On motion of Mary C. Ralls the reading of the minutes covering the last business meeting held in Portland, Oregon, July 2, 1936, was dispensed with since an abstract of them appeared in the 1936 volume of Proceedings. Helen Bradley, chairman of the Rules Committee, was then called upon for her report which was as follows: 1. Call to Order The president shall take the chair at the time the meeting is convened. 2. Order of Business The order of business shall be as follows: a. Call to order b. Minutes of last meeting c. Report of Rules Committee d. President’s report and recommendations e. Reports of officers f. Report of Elections Committee g. Nomination of officers h. Election i. Reports of committees: Resolutions Academic Freedom Constitution Revision j. New business k. Result of election l. Introduction of officers elected m. Adjournment. 3. Nominations and Elections The nomination and election of officers shall be held following the report of the Elections Committee and installation of the new officers shall take place at the first meeting of the new executive board following election. There shall be not more than one nominating speech and two seconding speeches for any one candidate. Nominating speeches shall be limited to three minutes and second¬ ing speeches to two minutes each. 4. Recognition No member shall be granted permission to speak more than once on the same subject until all other members who wish to have spoken; and no speaker shall occupy the floor for more than three minutes at a time unless permission is granted by a majority vote. 5. Resolutions All resolutions, including those contained in reports of officers, boards, and committees, and the report of the Resolutions Committee shall be submitted to the delegates in writing before they arc voted upon. 6. Adjournment This meeting shall convene at 2 o’clock and adjourn at 4:30. 239 Department of Classroom Teachers 7. Rules of Order The rules contained in Robert’s Rules of Order, Revised, shall govern the assembly in all cases to which they are applicable. On motion the report of the Rules Committee was adopted. The annual reports of officers were the next order of business. The president called attention to the fact that these were all printed in the 1937 Official Report of the Department. He gave a brief summary of his own report, calling special atten¬ tion to the recommendations and proposed budget w'hich called for a considerable increase in the appropriation requested. The other officers were called upon to present their reports. The chairman asked if those present had copies of the Official Report in their hands and when it was found that they had not been given out, Agnes Winn was called upon to tell about the distribution. She explained it had been found more satisfactory to mail them out from headquarters after the convention. She stated that they were mailed to presidents and editors of local organizations, to presidents of state departments of classroom teachers, and to all others who attended the business session. After further discussion it was moved, seconded, and carried that hereafter copies be supplied to those in attendance at the business session. In answer to the inquiry as to whether the Official Report could not be sent out in advance the chairman explained that it was impossible for the officers to get their reports finished in time to get the report published at an early enough date to mail it out prior to the convention. Wilbur W. Raisner of San Francisco, chairman, presented the report of the Elections Committee, giving the procedure to be followed in the balloting. The nomination of officers from the floor was the next item of business. The fol¬ lowing candidates were named: for president, Emily A. Tarbell of Syracuse, N. Y., nominated by Mrs. Marguerite S. Welch of Syracuse, and seconded by Oma Clare Lafferty of Charlotte, N. C., Grace E. Burgess of Denver, Colo., and George O. Ross of Ann Arbor, Mich.; for viceprcsident, David E. Temple of Tulsa, Okla., nomi¬ nated by Kate Frank of Muskogee, Okla., and seconded by Daisy Lord of Waterbury, Conn., Jean Armour MacKay of Highland Park, Mich., and Mary C. Ralls of Kansas City, Mo.; for secretary, Frances Jelinek of Milwaukee, nominated by Frida Krieger of Milwaukee, and seconded by Leonore Holliday of Cincinnati, Edith E. Armitage of Auburn, N. Y., and H. H. Blanchard of South Bend, Ind. ; for eastern regional director, Mrs. Mary D. Barnes of Elizabeth, N. J., nominated by Mildred V. Hardester of Orange, N. J., and seconded by Mary E. O’Connor of New Haven, Conn., Clarence R. Briggs of Los Angeles, and J. G. Guenther of Omaha, Nebr. Katy V. Anthony was also nominated for eastern regional director by Mrs. Eleanor P. Rowlett of Richmond, Va., with seconding speeches by Eugenie J. Brown of Cleveland, Sara H. Fahey of New York City, and Thomas O. Keesee of Newport News, Va. The report of the Committee on Platform and Resolutions was then presented by Clarence R. Briggs in the absence of the chairman, Mrs. Pauline Merchant. The report first reaffirmed the platform as adopted by the Department at Portland in 1936. The chairman then proceeded to read Part I on Educational Welfare which contained five different items. When asked if each different item might be discussed as it was read, it was ruled that the whole of each part should be read first, with opportunity given for each item to be commented on and amendments offered if desired; and then action taken on the part as a whole. The chairman moved the adoption of Part I and it was seconded. Mrs. Johanna M. Lindlof of New York offered the following amendment to item 2 and it was seconded: (Before amended) An actuarially sound retirement system that will permit superannuated or disabled teachers to retire from service with a retirement allowance which will enable them to live in a comfortable, dignified way. 240 National Education Association (After amended) An actuarially sound retirement system, that will permit retirement of teachers after thirty-five years of service, as well as retirement allowance which will enable them to live in a comfortable, dignified way. Frances Jelinek of Milwaukee moved to amend the amendment by striking out the word “actuarially” and changing the article “an” to “a.” It was seconded by H. H. Paddock of Kenosha. After a lengthy discussion the amendment to the amend¬ ment was lost. In the discussion it was brought out that “a sound retirement system” should be sufficient because there are some systems that are sound but are not actu¬ arially written. The original amendment was then discussed and Gertrude Mallory of Los Angeles offered the following substitute amendment: “A sound retirement system for all teachers that will enable them to retire and live in a comfortable, dig¬ nified way.” The motion was seconded and carried. This took the place of the original item in the platform dealing with retirement. The chairman then called attention to the fact that the time had come for closing the balloting. He also stated that inasmuch as it had been agreed to close the meet¬ ing at 4:30 there were only ten minutes left for the transaction of a large amount of business. He said that the platform submitted was practically the same as the one adopted last year, with only a few slight changes, and should not require much discussion. The question of the substitute amendment that was adopted was reopened and doubt was expressed as to whether such an amendment could supersede one which had been lost, and which embodied the same principle. The parliamentarian ruled that because of apparent dissatisfaction the whole platform could be tabled. A motion was made and seconded to table the platform and recommendations but it was lost. After a lengthy discussion as to the best thing to do about the platform in view of the arrival of the closing hour Lillian M. Broderick of Yonkers, N. Y., suggested that the chairman withdraw his primary motion to adopt Part I of the platform, and to substitute for it a motion that it be accepted as a report of progress. That would allow the Department to keep in full effect the platform formerly adopted at Portland and leave the way open to adopt or reject it at the next meeting. Clarence R. Briggs, the chairman, withdrew his original motion that Part I be accepted with the consent of his second and moved that the report of the Committee on Platform and Resolutions be accepted simply as a report of progress. This was seconded and duly carried. He also asked the privilege of including in the last sec¬ tion, “Appreciation,” the service of the Boy Scouts during convention week, the press of Detroit, and other nationwide press services. He moved the adoption of these items and his motion was duly seconded and carried. The chairman of the Elections Committee then brought in the result of the ballot¬ ing. There were 249 votes cast. (For list see Historical Note, p. 226.) Vera Strong of Houston, Texas, presented and moved the adoption of the follow¬ ing recommendation to be incorporated in the report of the Committee on Platform and Resolutions: “We recommend to the incoming president of the National Edu¬ cation Association that the personnel of the present Executive Committee of the Tenure Committee be continued until important tenure legislation, now pending, is completed.” Seconded and carried. She asked that everyone present write to Secre¬ tary Givens and to the new president asking that this be done. Because of the lateness of the hour on motion the report of the Committee on Academic Freedom was accepted as a report of progress and the committee was ordered continued. This was seconded and carried. Frances Jelinek moved that the report of the Constitution Revision Committee be laid over until the next annual meeting in order to give time for further study of the changes proposed. This was seconded and carried. Under new business H. H. Blanchard of South Bend, Ind., summarized the senti¬ ment of the assembly regarding the way the important business of the Department had to be hurried thru in one brief afternoon. It seemed to be the general feeling that the business should be taken up at an earlier session in the week and carried Department of Classroom Teachers 241 over to later sessions if necessary. He then moved that hereafter the Department hold its sessions on Monday and Wednesday afternoons and that proper arrange¬ ments be made with the National League of Teachers’ Associations since the League has always held its meetings on those two days and that the matter be referred to the Executive Committee of the Department for action. The motion was seconded and carried. President Shaw introduced the new officers. A rising vote of thanks was given to the parliamentarian after which the meeting adjourned at 4:40 o’clock. PLATFORM * IVc reaffirm the platform as adopted by the D epartment at Portland, in 1936 Part I. Educational Welfare We believe that the success of our educational program not only necessitates pro¬ vision for the welfare of our children but also for the well-being of teachers. We recognize that children can be guided, taught, and cared for most efficiently by teachers who have adequate preparation and training, and who are free from handicapping restrictions which militate against their rendering the best service of which they are capable. To this end we urge that each state, territory, or district provide the following safeguards for the teaching staff: 1. Tenure laws and regulations that enable teachers after a reasonable pro¬ bationary period, not to exceed three years, to retain their positions during effi¬ ciency of service. No certification or contract proposals which tend to undermine tenure in any way should be permitted. We further urge that definite, active efforts should be continued for the establishment of satisfactory tenure laws in the states which do not now have such laws. 2. An actuarially sound retirement system that will permit superannuated or disabled teachers to retire from service with a retirement allowance which will enable them to live in a comfortable and dignified way. 3. Laws and regulations for leave of absence that will enable teachers to use a sabbatical year for professional improvement, including study, travel, rest, and restoration of health, and other appropriate means with the assurance that they may return to their former positions after the leave of absence. 4. Salaries based on training and experience that will provide adequately not only for a reasonable cultural wage, but also for the maintenance of regular pro¬ fessional improvement and those standards of respect and leadership which are expected of teachers in a community. The single salary schedule which provides for equal salaries for equal train¬ ing and experience to all teachers in a school system. 5. Cumulative sick leave regulations that will protect the teacher when she needs help most. Part II. Educational Opportunity We believe that: 1. An educational program should be provided not only for children of the usual compulsory school age, but for adults and those of kindergarten and preschool age as well. 2. The teaching load for each teacher should be such as to permit reasonable indi¬ vidual help and encouragement to each child. 3. A minimum program of health maintenance and correction of physical handi¬ caps should be provided so that children in need of such attention may receive it and may profit more fully by the regular educational program. * Adopted as a report of progress. 242 National Education Association 4. Every child has the right to efficient instruction by fully trained teachers. We, therefore, strongly oppose the employment of substitutes, apprentices, or teachers-in- training to fill regular vacancies or teaching positions. Part III. Teacher Training We believe that: 1. More selective requirements for entrance to teacher-training institutions should be established, and that the supply of newly certificated teachers should be more closely regulated to the actual demand. 2. Teacher-training institutions should not only include courses in current educa¬ tional problems such as tenure, retirement, professional organizations, and pro¬ fessional ethics, but also in economics and sociology so that teachers may become cognizant of business affairs as well as more broadly trained in the educational, social ideals and standards that should dominate our profession. 3. Professional preparation and admission to the field of teaching should require a minimum of four years of study beyond high school. 4. We approve of in-service training which recognizes the broadening influence of travel, professional study, participation in local, civic, and teacher-organization activities, as well as study of current problems in sociology, economics, and education. Part IV. Unfettered Teaching 1. Academic Freedom The Department of Classroom Teachers strongly reaffirms its endorsement of the National Education Association on academic freedom, or the child’s right to un¬ fettered teaching. “Teachers should have the privilege of presenting all points of view, including their own, on controversial issues without danger of reprisal by the school adminis¬ tration or by pressure groups in the community. Teachers should also be guaranteed the constitutional rights of freedom of speech, press, and assembly, and the right to support actively organized movements which they consider to be in their own and the public’s interest. The teacher’s conduct outside the school should be subject only to such controls as those to which other responsible citizens are subjected.” 2. Loyalty Oaths We hold that the loyalty and patriotic background of the teachers of America is beyond question. It is therefore unwise, unnecessary, and un-American to require special loyalty oaths of them. Part V. The Enactment of Civic Ideals and Professional Standards 1. Child Labor We believe that the children of our nation are entitled to their full educational and physical heritage, and that now, more than ever, they should attain their mental and physical development before being thrust into industry to compete with adults. We endorse all legislation for the proper protection of childhood in matters of safety, care of health, physical development, and freedom from exploitation and the burdens of continuous labor. 2. Opposition to War We believe war to be the greatest menace to civilization and to democratic insti¬ tutions. We believe fully in the ideals of a democratic form of government. We, therefore, urge the abolition of private owmership and manufacture of arms and munitions in time of war. We strongly recommend to classroom teachers thruout the United States that they teach the facts about war, emphasizing its cost in human life and ideals as well as in material wealth. Department of Classroom Teachers 243 We further urge that classroom teachers continue to use every reasonable effort to promote international peace and goodwill, and to exercise their full influence with all active forces in support of this policy for the welfare and protection of the youth of the world and the maintenance of humanitarian ideals. 3. Classroom Teachers Organizations Classroom teachers’ problems can best be solved thru their own active, interested efforts and, therefore, we urge the organization and continuance of purely classroom teacher associations, but which are affiliated with state and national associations. The classroom teachers of the United States are the keystone of the professional group in education, and with adequate organization this group can make important contributions to the educational program; therefore, we endorse local, state, and national professional organizations and pledge to them the support and cooperation of the Department of Classroom Teachers. 4. Motion Pictures There still are many motion pictures being shown which are objectionable for audiences in which children are present. Therefore, we strongly urge that every effort be made by all wrho are interested in the wise training of childhood to continue their efforts to secure pictures which have a clean, w'holesome influence. We condemn block booking. 5. Radio We recognize the importance of radio in the promotion of American education and cultural ideals, and desire to use our best influence for the improvement of radio programs and for securing more time for constructive, educational broadcasts. We would approve of a federal radio network for broadcasting educational and cultural programs of high standard. 6. Conservation of American Youth We urge that further, definite, constructive action, adequately financed, be taken for the conservation of American youth. We commend Congress and the states for provisions for vocational training made by caring for the youth of our high-school and college age. Recommendations 1. We recommend the formation of a committee authorized to seek expert advice in formulating a workable plan to be presented to local and state associations, to assist in putting this platform into effect. We further recommend that this committee publicize this program among the teachers of the nation. 2. We recommend that the business session be the first meeting of this Department in order that the members may have an opportunity to bring before the delegate assembly and the various N. E. A. committees any action they deem necessary. We further recommend that part of the second session be left open for new and unfinished business. 3. We recommend that the Department of Classroom Teachers request Congress to authorize a postage stamp to commemorate the one hundredth anniversary of Horace Mann’s service to public education. The Department recommends further that the local and state associations make the same request to the Congressmen of each state. 4. We recommend to the incoming president of the National Education Associa¬ tion that the personnel of the present Executive Committee of the Tenure Committee be continued until important tenure legislation, now pending, is completed. Appreciation We express our appreciation to the teachers of the Detroit Public Schools and of the state of Michigan, for all the courtesies and hospitality which have contributed so much to our comfort and happiness during the convention. 244 National Education Association We commend the forward educational outlook of President Orville C. Pratt. We wish to thank the Boy Scouts of this city for the kindly and very efficient serv¬ ices they have so unselfishly given during the convention. To the press of Detroit and nationwide news agencies wre wish to express our sincere appreciation for the publicity and fine reports covering the many activities and meetings in our extensive program. Without the cooperation of the press of the nation, we feel that educational progress would be seriously handicapped and democracy might soon become a thing of the past. Pauline Merchant, Chairman Rush Caldwell Susan Scully R. B. Huxtable Mary E. Bond Frederick L. Stone DEPARTMENT OF T>eans of Women HISTORICAL NOTE The department of deans of women (National Association of Deans of Women) associated itself with the National Education Association in 1918. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-38 are: president, Harriett M. Allyn, Academic Dean, Mount Holyoke College, South Had¬ ley, Mass.; vicepresident, Alice C. Lloyd, Dean of Women, University of Michigan , Ann Arbor, Mich.; treasurer, Gladys C. Bell, Dean of Women, University of Denver, Denver, Colo.; secretary, Helen Prit¬ chard, Viceprincipal and Dean of Girls, Hartford Public High School, Hartford, Conn.; headquarters secretary, Kathryn G. Heath, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W ., Washington, D. C. The publications of the Department consist of a quarterly Bulletin and a Yearbook. The annual dues, $5, are payable to the Headquarters Secre¬ tary. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and records of its meetings will be found in earlier volumes of proceedings, as fol¬ lows: 1918 -.391-417 1919 -.393-426 1920 :357-364 1921 -.407-420 1922 -.693-793 1923 -.621-636 1924 -.500-536 1925 \403-449 1926 -.425-457 1927 -.391-418 1928 -.353-374 1929 -.369-390 1930:309-330 1931 :393-413 1932 -.337-356 1933 -.357-376 1934 -.345-360 1935 -.311-326 1936 -.219-230 [ 246 ] COUNSELING HIGH-SCHOOL GIRLS FOR TWENTY-FIVE YEARS MRS. GRACE C. JONES, COUNSELOR TO GIRLS, COOLEY HIGH SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH. Psychologists tell us that the first six years in the life of a human being are the most important because the life pattern is shaped and fixed during that period. Likewise were the earlier years in this organization, now closing its first quarter century, outstanding years because the pattern then made has carried a style fitting for all time yet allowing for alterations and changes to meet new needs as they come along. In 1912 there were and had been deans of women in a few of our colleges and universities. Alice Freeman Palmer had been in Chicago University laying out for her followers an excellent pattern for that and other colleges. There were others. In the main, however, those earlier deans were older women who served largely as glorified chaperons, who supervised certain college social functions, and who talked whisperingly to college women on very personal affairs. Those deans sometimes taught an academic course or two but had little recognition as members of college faculties; they main¬ tained no well-organized office staffs; they prepared few if any statistical reports ; they were not always required to possess an academic degree. The life pattern for this organization, then, was set by those women whose work was limited by prejudice and pioneering. Yet they gave us standards in ethical values, cultural appreciation, and a sympathetic attitude toward women and girls that we still maintain in shaping present policies and practises. There were no high-school deans twenty-five years ago ; but social history has changed the situation and brought to us our positions. During and immediately following the World War our country was given a picture of itself by means of the rapidly developing mental tests. Physically and edu¬ cationally we were shown to be far below par, especially in certain localities. There followed in true American enthusiasm the demand for more educa¬ tion as a remedy for all ills; and compulsory education laws were passed. You are familiar with results. The high school as an institution for the highly selected and as a place of employment that attracted teachers from the homes of the highly cultured have become schools for the masses, with teaching staffs correspondingly democratic in make-up. Of course the need for deans became imperative. Problem cases could no longer be solved by expulsion. The curriculums were not easily changed to attract and hold and are not adequate even today. It was about twenty years ago that Ella Flagg Young made bold to appoint a dean of girls in a Chicago high school; and soon Sarah Sturtevant became known thru her experimental work in Cali¬ fornia, followed by her courses in Columbia University. Thru this period just before, during, and after the World War, great fortunes were easily amassed and money was given to build new colleges, [ 247 ] 248 National Education Association enrich college endowments, and popularize college attendance. The need for and the usefulness of the college dean increased and caused demand for professional study in educational guidance for high-school counselors. There were rapidly enforced changes in method and technic in all educational work, but in no place more noticeable than in the advisory staffs. Mother¬ hood. gray hair, and the appearance of a kindly nature no longer equipped anyone for counseling work. There had to be specialized training to enable one to interpret all the new educational turns and fancies. But what of the girl herself during this quarter century? From the long braid or heavy coil at the back of the head, girls took up the Mary Pickford curls. Then followed the vulgar knobs protruding from the sides of the head, followed by the boyish bob. From the cut hair there has developed gradually the fantastic styles of today until we are almost around the spiral to the long curls again. Dress styles have changed as greatly — each change reflecting, even more than the hair, the character of social conditions and the girl of her period. In less than twenty-five years we have traveled so far that we recognize openly dress style and make-up as essentials in a girl’s vocational training and give classroom instruction in these subjects in our courses in personal sendee and retail selling. In the present high school a beauty specialist may be teaching girls how to use rouge properly in a room only a door or two from the class in Ancient Greek. What a change has come over the attitude of deans in working with girls ! Let us look beneath the exterior to the girl herself. From the sheltered type with long hair, long cotton hose, and blue serge dress; from the group highly selected- socially and mentally, what has come to us thru this span of time? Let us be kind to her — and recall that since 1912 she has suffered the emotional season of a World War; she has been torn by the stress of a financial panic ; she has been tortured by newspaper gossip and criticism ; she has developed inhibitions as a result of misapplied psychology and mental hygiene ; she has had difficulty maintaining standards when church and home lost theirs; she has moved from a world where vocations came by acci¬ dent into a world demanding compulsory, studied, and trained vocational adjustment; from a world of prohibition and sublimation to a world of self-expression and individualism ; from a world of standardized political habits and customs to one of surging social and economic struggle. She has changed so much, and so rapidly, that counselors have had as much difficult}' in adjusting themselves as in making adjustments for the girls. Formerly, the girl accepted advice altho the counselor had little to give except knowledge that came intuitively or thru her own experiences. Today the girl is frankly asking for facts, has a desire to know herself and the world about her ; is willing to enter the vocational world and anxious to prepare to meet its requirements. She commands a highly sympathetic and truly scientific treatment in the counselor’s office. She and the trained counselor review her records together, discuss future possibilities, and con¬ sider results that may come from possible decisions. The counselor no longer imposes a decision. She advises the girl, but has her make her decision for Department of Deans of Women 249 herself. Then she adds emphatically, “When your decision is made, be ready to work toward it, and to take consequences as they come.” Strange to say, despite the impression she gives of being frivolous, indifferent, and shallow, the average girl does do constructive thinking about herself when the challenge comes. The presentday high-school girl is an enigma to her mother and her counselor — as a result of the social and economic upheaval in the past twenty-five years. The present high-school girl does not appear serious, or religious, neither does she show independence of action. Yet among her own associates, she discusses problems of religion, of sex, of ethics, of economics. The present girl drinks' and smokes. Drinking is a matter of concern to counselors in the cities. We approach the girls with tact. They are willing to discuss the practise of moderation, but not prohibition. The girls wish to prove to themselves and to others that they are able to make their own de¬ cisions, to study their own needs, and to chart their own courses. It is because of this burning desire in young people to understand life and to solve problems that there have come the different forms of the youth movement. There was a time when we clung to athletic activities as a solution for prob¬ lems arising among vigorous young girls. Now we allow them to talk them¬ selves to their salvation. In my twenty-five years with girls in Detroit, I have never been more hopeful of future womanhood than I am today. True, we have cheating and lying and stealing always with us. However, those innate desires of our girls for the building of homes, for the rearing of families, for the seeking after spiritual values are stronger than some years ago. After passing thru the slimy marshes of social deterioration from about 1920 to 1930, we are now in the high schools in a time of social reconstruction and are approaching alluring heights ahead. At the close of these tumultuous twenty-five years, I congratulate you and myself that we find ourselves in this most satisfying of all work, and that in the early days of this organization of deans the pattern for us was cut to emphasize the straight lines in developing the personal equation thru spiritual and ethical training that admits the coldness of statistical research only as an aid to the more valuable approach. In this messy world of ours, what cause we have for rejoicing! SPEECH TRAINING IN BUILDING POWER AND PERSONALITY MARION FRANKLIN STOWE, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF SPEECH, MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE, YPSILANTI, MICH. In the days of Augustus Capsar, public opinion was molded by the men who could sway the forum, the mob, and the “Roman legions” by the power of speech ; by the terse clear-cut phrasing of a political problem or of a religious belief. Now, in large part, the press has arrogated to itself this molding of public opinion, yet it is the men in city council, in the Senate and House, and the women on schoolboards or civic clubs — the clear thinkers 250 National Education Association and dynamic speakers of our day — who determine the policies of the nation, the state, the college, or the club quite as definitely as did Mark Anthony, Wendell Phillips, Alexander Hamilton, or Frances E. Willard — yes, and the prominent college speakers of your campus. Since all education begins at the cradle and since there is nothing beautiful in life that has an abrupt beginning — so the ability to speak and express oneself is a never ending process which should be cultivated thruout the edu¬ cational system. Even as the child learns the names of material things around him so he can be taught apt expression of his feelings and his thoughts; just as we prefer to buy the dress that fits exactly instead of one that will do — so he should be encouraged to find the word that expresses his thought exactly. In so doing he unconsciously acquires a vocabulary commensurate with his experiences, be they real or vicarious. Also as we all enjoy neat eaters at our table, so we rejoice in neat thinkers and speakers who enunciate clearly, pronounce correctly their words (the vehicle of thought) in our conversa¬ tional circle. This puts a responsibility on elementary teachers to be vigilant and firm with the children from homes of careless speech and homes of the foreign- born. The social consciousness of beautiful diction should be established in the early grades ; then as the child increases in mental stature and attempts longer expressions of thought in class, he comes naturally into what is techni¬ cally known as extempore speaking. It becomes natural for him to cultivate politeness by standing so that the whole class can see him, or to organize his few ideas so the class can easily grasp his thought, or share his story, or see his picture. He does not dread it as an occasion and something to be feared. By the time he is thru high school he should come to us with the basic equip¬ ment well in hand. The power accruing to the individual from the satisfaction of being able to express himself — or not being self-conscious and tongue-tied — of being able to read and follow directions accurately and thus develop self-reliance will in large measure free him to realize his best self. Perhaps you recall being in a foreign country and feeling helpless because you could not read the signs or understand the speech. ‘‘Knowledge is power,” we are told. Why should not the president of the Women’s League, Men’s Union, Junior Advisers, or club chairmen be required to have a knowledge of parliamentary procedure and forum discussion just as much as to have a “B” average, or a formal dress for a formal party? It would seem even more apropos. That is more obvious than the subtle power gained thru dramatic training of the psychology of human behavior which does stand one in good stead in handling individuals. You deans have had so much experience in reading people and so much theory about it that you surely realize the value. Students may not have the perspicacity to realize the law of cause and effect, neither do they care to be lectured concerning it ; but if they participate in a play that forces home certain inevitable results they will then be apt to believe. We all react differently to different people and sometimes, I think, differ¬ ently to different moods of the same individual. Robert Browning had this Department of Deans of Women 251 idea in “My Star.” Shakespeare shows that ambition can be inordinate, that the human mind cannot hold up under two murders even tho the will seems sufficient. Some men cannot withstand the taunts of a woman like Lady Macbeth. We all know a Cassius that “hath a lean and hungry look,” and that jealously may lead to destruction of the one we love. The girls of today do not seem to need an old nurse to be a go-between, but it must be a comfort to you to know that before you were deans, girls climbed out on balconies and surrendered to moonlight, if not love, as did Juliet. The more recent plays deal with social problems rather openly and one has but to contemplate the sequence of events and the forces therein to see where certain results are inevitable. George Cohan’s “Ah Wilderness” gripped us tremendously and we felt we must help the poor lad who fell into the clutches of the prostitute. Still we were able to leave the theater and count it a vicarious experience and a “good show.” When a student really constructs a speech he must know more than gen¬ eral information ; he must be specific, definite, concrete. He learns to research an idea and usually — as you and I — feels a need for a larger vocabulary. If he participates in extempore speaking or debate he needs a rich background of the social sciences: history, political science, economics, sociology, and civics. In debate, we hope he learns to reason with a cool head remembering that the hotter the argument the cooler the head, for facts, not prejudice, win in the end. Quick wits, a ready vocabulary, and an unfailing sense of values, the ability to analyze and reason to a conclusion — these are the everyday tools that should be the heritage and the assets of every student. Personality development is so subtle that like Maud’s beauty — “Oh if she knew it, to know her beauty might half undo it” — it is difficult to talk about. To me, just as the face reflects what is behind it, so the graciousness one learns as a prerequisite for becoming a pleasing speaker or reader — the sin¬ cerity and well-groomed body and mind, if one is to be accepted at par; the warmth and sympathetic understanding of other human beings with just enough humility to remember that he himself lives in a glass house, the cultured voice that flexes easily thru the gamut of emotions — reflects the individual himself. That much-coveted inner repose that bespeaks self- mastery in a difficult situation not only puts an audience at ease but saves many a critical moment. To live with the thoughts of great poets whether they be bits of philosophy or gems of description, to make them your own and recreate them in others is a definite art that we learn in interpretative reading. Tennyson says, “I am a part of all that I have met,” and truly we are, only some have not met very rich and inspiring thoughts or people. Those who have met these inspiring thoughts sometimes cannot share, so our aim in interpretation is to train the voice to respond to our thought and feeling. To do this we must first be aware of that fine discrimination expressable in words, we must draw on our imagination and our experience, for there can be no adequate expression without clear, vivid impression . To get the meaning of the poem is one problem, but to share it with the audience so that they in turn recreate according to their own background and experience, takes years of training. 252 National Education Association Holmes in his “Chambered Nautilus” suggests this as he says, “Year after year beheld the silent toil that spread his lustrous coil ; still, as the spiral grew, he left the past year’s dwelling for the new . . . built up its idle door, stretched in his last-found home, and knew the old no more.” Think for a moment of what this means even as St. Paul has said : “When I was a child, I spake as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child; but when I became a man, I put away childish things.” I insist that if you think of the lustrous coil in terms of the physical, mental, and emotive selves you will agree that the physical takes care of itself ; the mental, the state governs by law, at least for sixteen years and sometimes further. But who, I ask, helps the child with the most treacherous and powerful of his selves? Here we feel the dramatic art bolstered by interpretative reading courses. Let them study “Lady Macbeth” or “Hamlet” or “Othello” till they become so well acquainted that they take on the thought processes, the feelings; the ambition that overleaps itself; the jealousy that would kill the thing it loved, and they have experienced vicariously a great truth. Mean¬ while the diction of Shakespeare is sure to leave a lasting imprint. When a girl really feels “what’s done cannot be undone,” or truly contemplates “to be or not to be,” she has added to her understanding of life. Plato com¬ forts us with, “All experience is valuable: what cannot be used for virtue may be used for knowledge.” Since all life is relative it is necessary to know and experience varied emotions in order to evaluate. We could not fully appreciate a great masterpiece in music, art, or drama unless we could com¬ pare it with a lesser work. Carlyle has said, “All are parts of one stupendous whole whose body Nature is and God the Soul.” Quite as in any other art those who achieve the highest goal have a God-given talent but it does not keep the average student from developing some power and learning to radiate whatever warmth of personality he has. In the last analysis, all the skilful technic of the debater or actor or reader must be augmented by a true warmth of human understanding, a tolerance for his friend’s ideas, and a sincere search¬ ing for truth. For “tho I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and have not charity, I am become as sounding brass or a tinkling cymbal.” GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMMUNITY COLLEGES HARLEY L. GIBB, DIRECTOR, COMMUNITY COLLEGES, WAYNE UNIVERSITY, DETROIT, MICH. In the fall of 1934 conditions in the educational world were no better than in the industrial world. In Michigan alone there were 1340 unem¬ ployed teachers. High-school graduates unable to secure positions and also unable to continue their education because of lack of funds had become very dissatisfied. On September 9, 1934, I was appointed to act with the State Director of the Emergency Education Division of the FERA and was asked to get into operation Freshman Colleges which were to be sponsored by Wayne Uni- Department of Deans of Women 253 versity. My chief jobs were to get unemployed teachers to work and to make possible the opportunities of education to the young people who were without financial resources to attend college. Districting and organization — At the preliminary organization meeting held in Lansing on September 19, 1934, there were present 150 superin¬ tendents of schools of the state, the director of the Emergency Education Program, a representative of the State Department of Public Instruction, and representatives of all of the state tax-supported collegiate institutions. The state was divided into eight areas, each area to be placed under the sponsorship of one of these institutions — Michigan College of Mining and Technology, Michigan State College, University of Michigan, and Wayne University. Two general plans of procedure were adopted. The majority of the collegiate institutions required the local superintendent of schools to allocate to the Freshman College physical equipment. Provided he could guarantee a student body numbering not less than 40 students, he might file an application with the director of Emergency Education for the estab¬ lishment of a Freshman College. He was to select the teaching staff and administer its functioning, while the SERA was to pay the staff members $15 a week and the director $18 a week. Wayne University, being located in Detroit, the center of the most densely populated area in the state, was allocated four contiguous counties which included about 40 percent of the population of the state. In this area the second plan of organization was adopted. It provided for a more centralized procedure. The director of the Freshman Colleges employed the stall and became responsible for the general operation of the Colleges. The superintendent of schools was responsible for the physical equipment and for sponsoring a student body for the College. In the state as a whole 100 Freshman Colleges were organized but this number dropped to 96 at the beginning of the second semester. In the four counties under the sponsorship of Wayne University, 25 Freshman Col¬ leges were organized in 21 communities. Later two were amalgamated. It might be said that the concept of Freshman Colleges was the work of David D. Henry, then assistant state superintendent of public instruction, now assistant to the executive vicepresident of Wayne University, and Orin W. Kaye, state; director of Emergency Education and a member of the staff of Western State Teachers College. It seems they used as a basis for their project a similar experiment which was already in operation in the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University. Supervision — By the middle of October 1934, practically all of the Fresh¬ man Colleges in the counties sponsored by Wayne University had been opened. They were staffed with almost 200 instructors and had an enrol¬ ment of approximately 2400 students. The central office staff consisted of ten people. In addition, there was a supervisory staff of six persons in¬ cluding a medical doctor. District directing staff — The organization of an office staff was the first problem. Within the first week four people were engaged. Two of them organized a curriculum. One man was general office clerk and one woman 254 National Education Association was to assist the writer in the general organization and field work. Events moved very rapidly. Unemployed teachers were interviewed, and qualifica¬ tions taken and classified. A hurried survey of the possibilities for student bodies was made. Within five weeks of the initiation of this movement, 25 Freshman Colleges were in operation in this district. A whole system of office procedure and records had to be set up reminding one of the feverish activities of the early War days of 1917. Nature of the work offered — With so much organizational work neces¬ sary, the curriculum activities did not receive sufficient attention. Most of the work done the first semester was a duplication of the academic work done in the parent institution. We soon discovered that there were many people to whom even a free college education did not especially appeal. Something more than the pure college academic work was demanded. For the want of a better title, such studies were designated as “special interest” courses. About 60 such courses were offered, without college credit, from the middle to the latter part of the first semester. At first we were disappointed in the number of students who took these courses and with their somewhat irregular attendance. Some of the diffi¬ culties were : ( 1 ) these courses were devised by people looking backward with their realization of what they would prefer to take in college. (2) We were startled when we realized what a tremendous salesmanship-factor college credit had been. More than 90 percent of our students that first semester were under twenty-two years of age. Their greatest desire seemed to be to eventually acquire a college diploma. Hence, our first efforts in this direction did not seem at the time to be successful as they later proved to be. (3) Many of these students wanted practical courses. Most of the colleges and universities of the North Central Association do not give such courses to freshmen. The heads of departments at Wayne University made an arrangement whereby these people might take certain sophomore courses of utilitarian value with the provision that they take them for four or five hours per week with but three hours’ credit. The faculty of the business administration department of Wayne University wrote and pub¬ lished a special edition of its own accounting textbook and accompanying work books. Altho Wayne University might grant freshmen credit for these courses, no such commitments were made if a student asked to have such credit transferred to some other college or university. Such courses were therefore called “conditional credit” courses. For work satisfactorily completed, Wayne University grants extension credit to the extent of 30 hours if applied for within two years after the date of completion, provided, of course, the student meets the regular en¬ trance requirements of the university and does satisfactory work. In certain communities there was little interest in a college program until a loyal student body was built up from a small nucleus. In fact in some communities it became the fashion to go to college. As a means to these ends the central office issued a monthly publication. We also encouraged the establishment of a news organ by each individual Freshman College, and in a short time there were twelve different colleges publishing papers. Department of Deans of Women 255 Analysis of the first year’s zuork — When the first year’s work of the Freshman Colleges closed, the enrolment for the state was about 6000 students, of whom approximately 3400 were in the area sponsored by Wayne University. At a meeting of the Michigan Academy of Science held in Ann Arbor in the spring of 1935, the officers of this project in all of the institutions sponsoring Freshman Colleges were represented together with the state director and Dr. Henry of the State Department of Public In¬ struction. A committee was appointed consisting of Professor Woody of the University of Michigan, Doctors Henry, Rankin, and Bergman of the Detroit Board of Education, and two supervisors from our staff. This committee devised a series of tests in English, history, and intelligence which was administered by our supervisory staff to approximately 700 students. All students who were graduates of a high school were accepted but we expected to transfer credits for only those students who were recommended for college entrance by the regular channels. The tests referred to above revealed that some of our best students had not taken college preparatory work in high school at all; that some who had done poorly in high school did well in the Freshman College; and that some who did well in high- school college preparatory work did very poorly with this work. The prac¬ tise was adhered to in the area sponsored by Wayne University (Detroit excepted) of placing no instructor in the Freshman College in his own home town since the students complained that going to Freshman College was just like going to high school. Non-resident instructors combined with our close supervision and direction had a tendency to make the students feel that they were enrolled in a higher education institution. Community Colleges — When it came time to begin the second year of work a meeting was held in Lansing. It was unanimously agreed that the name “Freshman College” was unsuitable. It was misleading and non- inclusive, and it had a tendency to be obnoxious to our older students. Our aim was to develop a college for the local community, and therefore, the name “Community College” was chosen. As an objective it was further proposed that guidance in community activities be included in the curricu¬ lum. For example, in one college, community activity in sewing and knitting has been guided by instructors. Unfortunately due to questions of policy in Washington — i.e., federal versus state control — the whole program of allocation of federal funds was delayed for several months. The entire Emergency Education Program was transferred from the FERA to the WPA where it was placed under the Women’s and Professional Projects, with the personnel requirements of WPA in force. Those teachers who had been oq the Emergency Edu¬ cation Program on or before May 1, 1935, were automatically certified for the educational program of WPA. Except for 10 percent from non-relief, our instructors had to be taken from relief. This delay was responsible for a decline in interest. By the time the funds were released, one whole semester had been lost. Wayne University had its territory restricted to Oakland and Wayne Counties. However, the work 256 National Education Association was organized with 12 colleges, a staff of about 100 instructors, and an enrolment of 1149. The particular emphasis was given to the “special interest" courses and the selection of competant instructors who were sympathetic with this type of instruction. There were many difficulties, such as the lack of a suitable and adequate text, irregular attendance, less definitely defined objectives of the course, the lack of social viewpoint, and unwillingness on the part of a few instructors to “blaze the trail." Curriculum $ — In Detroit as well as in three of the outlying colleges the academic courses made up the largest percent of student elections. In three other outlying colleges “special interest" courses accounted for 80 percent, 63 percent, and 53 percent of the student selections. The younger group chose largely academic courses, the middle group chose from each type of course, and the oldest group chose largely “special interest” courses. In this younger group of students last year it was noticed that many taking academic work in 1936 were Negroes or the children of families of recent immigration. During the present year about the same results are apparent. Applied psychology has proved popular, and this past year commercial work has attracted many who are anxious to see a quick financial return. This last year we have added to our curriculum in the held of orienta¬ tion. We have also added to our staff a woman supervisor as counselor for women, who has conducted in each unit a course in social hygiene. Our grading system has been similar to that at Wayne and many other univer¬ sities. In “special interest" courses the students have been graded on an achievement basis. To date the Community Colleges sponsored by Wayne University have served 4684 students. Of this number 472 have transferred to 39 different established institutions. In those cases where the records of former students have been checked, they compare favorably with the regular college students. Surely this alone justifies the existence of the colleges. During the present year about the same results are apparent. One con¬ clusion which may be drawn is that there are many adults who desire to continue their education on a college level. When such courses are given by members of regularly established faculties frequently they are modifica¬ tions of established academic courses rather than courses continuing adult education on a college level without the concept of credit. There has been too much emphasis placed on credit and degrees and probably not enough upon the intrinsic values. It seems safe to conclude that there is a decided demand for these newer life-interpreting courses. Summary — As industrial conditions in this area have become more stabilized, many of our students have found employment. Many students have dropped only those courses that interfered with their work. As condi¬ tions improved the number of full-time students (those carrying ten or more hours) has decreased and the number of part-time students has in¬ creased. This work has truly been an adventure in education. It has helped many to a new faith in themselves. DEPARTMENT OF Educational "Research HISTORICAL NOTE THE AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ASSOCIATION WCLS formed at tJlC Cincinnati meeting in 1915. At first its name was the National Associa¬ tion of Directors of Educational Research. This organization met regu¬ larly at the time of the winter convention. In 1929 the Association applied to become the Department of Educational Research in the National Edu¬ cation Association. The proper notice was given at the Atlanta meeting in 1929 , and final action in creating the Department was taken at the Columbus, Ohio , meeting on July 3, 1930. The research organization brings with it a history rich in achievements and places the National Education Association in closer touch with colleges , universities, and research agencies. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-38 are: president, David H. Sutton, Director, Division of School Finance, State Depart¬ ment of Education, Columbus, Ohio ; vicepresident, W . A. Brownell, Professor of Educational Psychology, Duke University, Durham, N. C.; secretary-treasurer, William G. Carr, Director, Research Division, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W ., Wash¬ ington, D. C.; executive committee, Philip A. Boyer, Director, Divi¬ sion of Educational Research, Board of Education, Philadelphia, Pa.; H. A. Greene, Director, Bureau of Educational Research and Service, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa ; officers of the Department, ex officio. The annual dues, $5, are payable to the American Educational Research Association, at 1201 16th Street, Washington, D. C. The chief publica¬ tions are the review of educational research and the A.E.R.A. pro¬ ceedings. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as fol¬ lows: 1931:415-431 19 33:3/7-394 1935:327-348 1932 :357-375 1934 :361-386 1936 :231-237 I 258 ] EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH FOR THE CONSUMER — Abstract WILLIAM H. BRISTOW, GENERAL SECRETARY, NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS, WASHINGTON, D. C. IN social and economic planning more and more consideration is given to the consumer. In this respect, education is no exception, and those responsible for planning educational programs are increasingly concerned with the needs of the groups to be served. Educational research, if it is to make its full contribution to educational planning, must take into con¬ sideration the uses which are to be made of the finding of educational re¬ search in initial planning, carrying out, and interpretation. Education is so complex that educational research has difficulty in know¬ ing just what group or groups of consumers are to be most concerned with any particular piece of research. An analysis of the field reveals at least seven such groups. 1. The first group may be classified as technical — those trained in the field of research and actively engaged in research studies. This is an important but a relatively small group. 2. The second group is composed of administrators and supervisors, a small selected group. It is for this group that most of the technical publications are now prepared. 3. A third group comprises a great mass of teachers for whom research must be interpreted. 4. The fourth group consists of teacher educators who must keep abreast of the times in their important task in the education of prospective teachers. 5. The fifth group consists of professionals, groups closely related to or allied with education. The activities of this group mesh in with education. In this group is an increasing number of psychologists, pediatricians, recreation workers, social workers, and others. 6. The sixth group consists of members of boards of education, trustees of educa¬ tional institutions, legislators, mayors, in other words, that large group of the lay public to whom education must look for support, finances, programs, policies. 7. The seventh group consists of parents and the general public who, after all, may appropriately be considered as the large consuming group, altho, of course, we must consider the children themselves as the ultimate consumers in education. The English consultative plan of carrying on research and study which eventuates in policies and programs has much to commend itself to us. On the consultative committees which have meant so much to English educa¬ tion have appeared lay people and representatives of those primarily con¬ cerned with education. Out of the findings of the consultative committees have come many recommendations which have influenced in a large way Eng¬ lish education. One who has read these studies cannot help but be impressed by the fact that research and public relations go hand in hand, and that with the completion of a given study or given piece of work, much of the groundwork has already been laid for an effective public relations program. It is to be regretted that similar commissions and committees working in American education have not made full use of this procedure. A good [ 259 ] 260 National Education Association example of the technic of the English consultative committee is The Educa¬ tion of the Adolescent. In the preface to its report the consultative com¬ mittee says: “We began our consideration of this problem in May, 1924, immediately after we had completed our Report on Psychological Tests of Educable Capacity. The full Committee has sat on 46 days between May, 1924, and October, 1926, and has examined 95 witnesses (see Appendix I [A])."1 2 Appendix I (A) consists of a four-page list of government de¬ partments, directors of education and members of local education authorities, associations representing local education authorities, organizations represent¬ ing teachers, other organizations, religious bodies, and individual witnesses. In addition there are ten pages listing organizations and agencies who sent memorandums, statistics, and other data for the committee. Contrast this with a statement from the recent report of the Committee on Orientation of Secondary Education : The two reports of the Committee are addressed primarily to the leaders of thought about secondary education, whether they are within or without the pro¬ fession, whether they are administrators, supervisors, or classroom teachers, or, on the other hand, business men or other citizens. Those who are truly leaders will courageously accept the challenge to clarify their own thinking and to fortify their own convictions. They, as already suggested, will popularize these funda¬ mentals with others both within and without the professions, so that the number of potential leaders may be increased. Each recommendation should be studied by college and university classes in education, by teachers in their meetings, and by intelligent groups and individuals among the laity. They need to convince them¬ selves which road is the sound and the necessary one for democratic society to follow. Then they will ask what procedure is indicated as ideally desirable and what is possible under the handicaps that are present in the community." Do not misunderstand me. I have the deepest admiration and respect for this committee and its work, and I feel the contribution which it has made is both significant and far-reaching. The names on the committee list are all first-rate, but the modus operandi of the committee is that of most of our educational committees, and much of our research — all within the body of the lodge. As a result the ‘‘consumers, professional and lay, are lost sight of, and as a consequence we fail to capitalize on an important pos¬ sibility to advance our understanding and appreciation of education. Developments in the American Council on Education have more and more considered the larger aspects of education and its many relationships to other areas of social life. The American Youth Commission, organized under the direction of the Council, promises to give more consideration to the consumer in its research program, both in planning and execution, than almost any other similar venture in educational and social research of recent years. While it is too early to make any prediction relative to the research pro¬ gram of the American Youth Commission, it seems highly probable that the procedures which it is following may eventuate in some technics which 1The Education of the Adolescent. Board of Education, Report of the Consultative Committee. His Majesty's Stationery Office. London. 1926. 2 Report of the Committee on Orientation. Department of Secondary School Principals of the National Education Association. Volume 21, No. 64. January, 1937. p. 21. Department of Educational Research 261 will be of much use to education. In the first place, the American Youth Commission is not stacked. On the Commission are individuals of differing points of view, both education and lay. Second, at each step in the planning, consideration is being given to the form which reports will take and to relationships with other agencies, organizations, and institutions concerned with the youth problem. In the third place, the Commission has in its membership, individuals from various areas of American life who can ably represent many points of view. It is hoped that the Educational Policies Commission of the National Education Association, thru its plan of con¬ sultants, may in some measure achieve the values of the English consultative committee. In connection with the development of any research proposal it is sug¬ gested that' the following questions be raised in the initial planning of the study : 1. Who will be the consumers for this particular research? 2. What are their background, experiences, and interests? 3. Is the process proposed in connection with educational research too complicated for the consumer to understand or to have confidence in the findings without considerable preliminary work taking him along from step to step in the procedure? 4. In planning and developing the research have consumer groups been consulted to get their point of view as to any questions which they may have which the research might help to clear up? 5. In connection with the research has the problem of possible repeats been taken into consideration so that as technics are developed suggestions for repeating the studies may be made? 6. If the findings are to be used outside of the technical group, are the definitions and terminology originally used in the research such as are understandable to the individuals who are to make use of the research? 7. If wide interpretation is desired are plans for popularization and interpreta¬ tion developed simultaneously with the planning and development of the research? Many years ago, one of the most astute statesmen-politicians in this country gave me a fundamental principle for dealing with people at large which I think may well be considered in connection with the educational research and the consumer. He said : “Things not only must be right, but they must also seem right.” This is a first principle of strategy for the man of public affairs. Considering the consumer at each stage of the development of research will insure more effective interpretation and consequently will build up confidence in the research, which will in turn extend its usefulness. It will help also to answer the question, Why does educational research not have a greater effect on practise in education? In summary, it seems to me that we need to recognize the following three important functions connected with research and action: (1) fact finding; (2) discussion; (3) action. The first step is historically recognized as a job of research, but more and more research must take into consideration the second and third steps, else much which is done by research will be to no advantage and to no avail. 262 National Education Association THE VALUE OF A RESEARCH PROGRAM IN THE SMALL COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS — Abstract R. W. OGAN, DEAN OF THE COLLEGE, MUSKINGUM COLLEGE, NEW CONCORD, OHIO My chief opportunity to observe at first hand the consequences of an organized program of faculty studies has been in my own institution. I shall, therefore, have special reference in this presentation to the program of service studies which the Muskingum College faculty is carrying forward. I should further limit my topic by saying that service studies do not in general fall in the classification “research,” if that term is used in its strictest sense. The Muskingum service studies do, however, use research technics, and do make as much use as is practicable of primary sources. They are not so narrowly delimited as are pure research studies and, there¬ fore, involve more assumptions. The purpose of the service studies is to solve a local problem and not to derive generalizations of universal appli¬ cability. In last analysis, the chief difference between research studies and service studies is probably one of degree. The problem of estimating the value of a program of faculty studies is a difficult one. I shall state what I believe to be some consequences of the Muskingum program, altho in doing so I sense the risk involved when one attributes cause and effect relationships to important elements in a concrete situation. I shall base my statements upon my own observations and judgments and upon many reactions of my faculty colleagues during the last six years. I shall make some use of faculty statements which I collected nine months ago for the purpose of securing faculty judgments as to the results of the Muskingum program of service studies. I shall describe consequences which I believe to be significant and valuable in the life of the college. The Muskingum program of service studies was introduced by action of the faculty in the autumn of 1930 as an integral part of the regular college program. The program aims to encourage and to assist individuals on the faculty to formulate important local problems precisely and concretely, to study these problems to the point of reaching valid solutions, and to modify the educational program of the college in light of the solutions. The preservation of individual freedom and of a sense of personal responsibility are prime objectives of the set-up. Each investigator follows the dictates of his own interests, has freedom of inquiry and discussion, and assumes personal responsibility for initiating his study, for carrying it forward, and for demonstrating the validity of his findings and conclusions. A faculty committee usually aids the individual investigator, but in no case has a faculty committee, as a committee, assumed responsibility for the intro¬ duction and prosecution of a study. No committee controls any investigator. Care is exercised to avoid compulsion or pressure as a means of fostering research activity. Department of Educational Research 263 A basic assumption underlying the plan is that a faculty research program will succeed only when faculty members themselves initiate and participate in studies; a research bureau that purports to do all the investigation is useless or futile. In the administration of the program effort is made to provide for ade¬ quate, critical faculty discussion of each study; to promote systematic, sus¬ tained effort rather than occasional, irregular effort; to protect and encourage individual initiative; and to conserve the time of the investigator. Specific measures to facilitate the program include the development of a committee on experimentation and appraisal, the provision of research counselors and guest speakers, the development of a faculty library in the field of college education, the issuance of a mimeographed Faculty News Bulletin composed of materials prepared by the faculty, the financial encouragement of faculty members interested in publication, and the revision downward of the service loads of faculty members, especially of those who are interested in making studies of important problems. The studies which have been made may be classified under the following major topics: experimental studies, evaluation of student achievement, deter¬ mination of objectives, curriculum administration, character education, and problems of general administration. Consequences of the Muskingum Program One consequence of this program of studies is an increase in the amount of faculty writing for publication. In 1930, and for some years previously, the faculty of fifty persons totaled an average of from three to five magazine articles per year plus an occasional book. The average number of published articles per year for the last two or three years has varied between twenty- five and thirty for a faculty of forty-five persons. If articles in the Faculty News Bulletin were considered as magazine articles the number of publica¬ tions would thereby be increased two or three times. An important incidental aspect of the current program of studies is the publication by Muskingum College of a book of three hundred pages, entitled A Liberal Arts College Looks at Its Program. The volume contains twenty-eight chapters con¬ tributed by nineteen persons. The experience of studying an educational problem and of reporting findings has value indicated in an increased and increasing awareness of concrete problems of college education. An educator who is keenly aware of his specific problems and of their importance is, therefore, well on the road to progress. He is likely to achieve significant improvement if he is given freedom, encouragement, and the cooperation of his colleagues. A concrete example will illustrate how the experience of making a study and of reporting findings fosters a problem-conscious outlook. One Mus¬ kingum professor undertook an experimental study to evaluate a specific, clearly-defined procedure. Criticism stimulated him to question seriously the validity of his criterion of student success. At best he had to admit that several of the important and of the measurable outcomes of instruction 264 National Education Association were not directly evaluated by his examination. The implication for the experiment of a poor measure of student achievement seemed more serious as he thought more about it. To remedy the situation the professor took time to improve the exami¬ nation by which he proposed to evaluate student achievement in his experi¬ mental study. His first step was to attack the problem of formulating his objectives concretely in terms of desired student behavior. This incidental study grew in its importance to the point that the professor is continuing it. For purposes of the proposed experiment the investigator finally devised an examination which purported to measure two of five major objectives of his course. He expressed a keen sense of the need for a better measuring instrument, and of regret that his carefully planned experiment would be inconclusive because of an inadequate evaluation of student achievement in his course. When the professor found that his students made almost the same scores at the end of eighteen weeks’ instruction as at the outset of the term in Part I of the examination (ability to apply principles), he faced an intriguing problem. Either his teaching had been ineffective or his test was invalid or both of these weaknesses existed in some degree. The professor has gone to work to find what is wrong. When he reported his disconcerting findings from the experiment he said, “I am no good and I know it; some of the rest of you fellows are no good but haven’t found it out.” The professor’s continuing study is promising. His colleagues, too, get stimulation from his work. His study of objectives, of examinations, and of instructional procedures, it now appears, will result in changing the subjectmatter of his course and of his department. He will organize it more nearly in terms of the student as a center of reference. He will seek to revise his program of student evaluation in terms of his carefully formu¬ lated objectives and revised course content. Thus, the felt need of faculty investigators has led quite a few persons to explore for the first time the possibilities of experimental study. This particular exploration has required some study of statistics and of educa¬ tional measurements. The study of problems has led certain investigators to feel for the first time a personal need which a correlation coefficient, for example, exactly meets. The experience of studying an educational problem has a value indicated in increased and increasing study of research literature. Such study means greater capacity to evaluate and to use the findings of research in the educational program of the college. Probably the best consumer of research is the man who has tried or is trying to do research. Some program of research might indeed be justified solely on the ground that it creates better consumers of research. Another major consequence of the activities associated with our program of service studies is a spirit of cooperation, of zeal for continuous progressive change, and of appreciation of common interests. The study activities have fostered a more democratic state of affairs. Faculty discussions seem to be Department of Educational Research 265 more evidence-centered and more above the level of disputation. Interest in inquiry and in the critical evaluation of hypotheses seems to be growing. Practically without exception, every faculty member who committed to writing his impressions of the results of the program of service studies made some reference to the value of the efforts to date (July 1, 1936) in promoting cooperation and cooperative sharing. Here I shall quote several of my colleagues : 1. Our program has impressed more fully upon my mind the possibility and the necessity for the unification of educational endeavors thruout the institution — especially in the fields of objectives and testing — and that without any loss of individual initiative and ingenuity. It has offered me added encouragement to think cooperatively, sharingly; and to discover what is involved in the science and art of active minds working together upon educational projects. It has given me opportunity to learn by actual practise how to give and take criticism effectively and advantageously for all parties concerned. 2. I have come to understand my colleagues better, to respect their abilities more, and to appreciate their contributions. More cooperation and less jealousies between departments. 3. It has contributed to a fine spirit of comradeship among faculty members and with administrative officers as we have labored together in search for truth and for the solution of common problems. 4. One of the most valuable results has been the stimulating effect of working with other faculty members on common problems and the creation of an attitude of helpful and friendly criticism. 5. If nothing more results from this effort [i. e., publication of the book men¬ tioned at outset of the paper], certainly the ability to criticize impersonally, the ability to accept such criticism and profit by it, and the development of a fine spirit of tolerance make our efforts decidedly worthwhile. 6. It has fostered the development of a level and tone of endeavor which frees us from controversy concerning such trivial matters as departmental advantages. To whatever extent the foregoing quotations faithfully represent a con¬ sequence of the program they indicate a valuable outcome. Another consequence of the activities associated with this enterprise is the modification of the educational program of the college in the light of study findings. I shall cite some indications of faculty interest in doing something about the findings of their careful studies. S. H. McGuire, pro¬ fessor of social science, made a study to determine the major objectives in social studies appropriate to Muskingum College. He states some impli¬ cations of his study which may be summarized as follows : less memorizing of more or less isolated facts ; more critical attention to study methods as a means of acquiring beliefs; more extensive use of major problems as assign¬ ments, with correspondingly less emphasis upon covering sequentially a stated number of pages or topics or chapters in a textbook; more extensive “jumping across” conventional departments and subjectmatter boundaries; more extensive reading of current literature; more extensive student efforts at productive thinking and creative writing under the critical guidance of the teacher ; more freedom to the student to discuss issues, to think for himself, and to draw defensible generalizations; more continuous emphasis of the point that the student is obligated to arrive in his thinking at some convictions and to use some semblance of consistency in his thinking; more 266 National Education Association extensive student practise in skills such as the use of a library, keeping a notebook, writing scientific reports, and building a bibliography. The in¬ vestigator regards the implications just stated as tentative and subject to change and to clarification as his study continues. He is chairman of a long-term faculty committee to continue the study of the problem. A study conducted by R. N. Montgomery, president of the college, has had far-reaching consequences for the social and recreational life of Mus¬ kingum students and faculty. President Montgomery and his assisting gen¬ eral committee — representative of students, faculty members, and mem¬ bers of the College board — evolved an all-college recreational program including dancing and card playing which previously had been prohibited by action of the College board. Evaluations of this all-college program since its adoption afford basis for believing that it is an improvement of real significance. President Montgomery’s study has greatly strengthened faculty belief in the validity of several important principles. These principles are that students will give prolonged and serious consideration to problems affecting college life, if they are given a proper opportunity; that faculty- student sharing in such a study promotes mutual understanding and good¬ will ; that students and faculty working together on a problem of student affairs, with entire freedom of discussion and of inquiry in a scientific temper, are more likely to arrive at valid conclusions than if the two groups work independently; that committee discussions must rise above the level of mere disputation to the level of evidence-centered discussions in order to produce adequate results; that it is necessary to discriminate between valid evidence and such substitutes for evidence as assumptions, cherished but unsupported beliefs, and untested generalizations, that there is no force so effective for social and moral control as an active, unified, public opinion. In conclusion, I believe that a research program or program of service studies in a small college of liberal arts is entirely practical and within the reach of any interested college whose faculty and administrative staff want to have it. The program will be valuable to the extent to which it accom¬ plishes the threefold aim, namely, to encourage and to assist individuals in the faculty to formulate important local problems precisely and con¬ cretely, to study these problems to the point of reaching valid solutions, and to modify the educational program of the college in light of the solution. An effective program will foster both the personal, professional growth of staff members and the improvement of the college in educational effectiveness. EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND THE FIELD WORKER A. S. BARR, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WIS. The address of Dr. Barr is to be published in full in the Journal of Educational Research. Department of Educational Research 267 RESEARCH IN THE INFLUENCE OF THE DEPRESSION UPON EDUCATION — Abstract JESSE B. SEARS, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, STANFORD, CALIF., AND SPECIAL CONSULTANT, EDUCATIONAL POLICIES COMMISSION The Depression Period Unique for Education In this depression we have seen hopes blasted, not of individuals alone but of large groups, even of institutions. We have seen ambitions thwarted. We have seen despair written in the faces of children and youth as no recent generation has seen it. Graduation came for thousands, but no job, no career was waiting at the end. Other thousands wanted to go to school but somehow the old dream, that thru education we can get up in the world, seemed no longer true. Parents felt this; youth felt it. Hope seemed to falter. The hope that America, that democracy, had built upon seemed suddenly revealed as a false hope. Enemies of education, or of taxes for education, seized this opportunity to cry down the schools. The people in their desperation gave ear to this cry and the schools began to tumble about our ears. Many were closed. Terms were shortened, programs were shifted back to where they were fifty years ago, buildings were left to decay, equip¬ ment was not provided, and the clear and loud call for new kinds of school service to fit these new and chaotic times went unanswered. Only when this wreckage grew deep about us did we realize that we were surrendering one of our dearest heritages. Then the scene changed. The flag for free schools was raised again and the call went forth that our schools must not be sacrificed. From then on the schools suffered much but their ultimate safety was never again in doubt. The story of this period will mark many changes in American history and in no aspect will this story be filled with more shocking turns of events than in the field of education. It is not for its romance alone, however, nor for its tales of heroism that we should compile the facts and try to interpret what happened to education thru these years. There will likely be other depressions. The question is, Can we learn by a study of this one how to face it if and when it comes? Need for Research in This Period The Educational Policies Commission of the National Education Asso¬ ciation and the Department of Superintendence, being concerned with the development of long-term policies for education in this country and rec¬ ognizing that we have no assurance that we shall not soon be confronted with another depression, decided that this period ought to be studied as a basis for judgment of what major policies the country should adopt on matters where a serious depression is involved. To further this end the writer was invited to examine the field and prepare a plan of researches covering all phases and aspects of the question, “What effects did the depres¬ sion have on education?” Arrangement was made with the Social Science 268 National Education Association Research Council by which this study would be published as one of a series of monographs dealing similarly with perhaps a dozen of the major aspects of social life. If any statesmanship is to be applied in social planning, in educational planning, this action of the Social Science Research Council and of the Educational Policies Commission would seem to be much in order. Their reasoning is simple enough and their purpose is clear. They know that there is continuity in the history of human culture, that the past and present point toward and, in no small way, foretell what the future holds. They know, too, that the practical exigencies of life are in some degree controlled by principles; that by proper application of these principles, some change in social trends can be effected. The programs of research they ask for are not mere inventories of incidents but systematic searches for principles as well. What does it all mean? What must we do about it? They view the depression as a symptom of social disease and ask for a plan of diagnosis in order that a remedy may be prepared against a possible need in the future. Development of a Plan of Research As a method of procedure, keeping this general idea of a research pro¬ gram in mind, the literature bearing upon the problem was assembled and reviewed with the purpose of discovering research approaches to the field. Problems were formulated touching any and all phases and aspects of the field. When some three hundred such problems had been prepared and set down on cards they were classified under eight headings suggested by the nature of the questions they raised. The following headings were used and later they served as chapter headings for the monograph presenting the plan : 1. Historical and Comparative Problems 2. Problems in the Theory and Philosophy of Education 3. Problems in the School Population 4. Curriculum Problems 5. Staff Personnel Problems 6. Problems in Organization and Administration 7. Financial and Business Problems S. Problems in Scientific and Professional Developments. Literature in the Field The literature touching the field is large. More than 2000 titles were assembled and classified.1 Special attention was given to titles representing research in any way touching problems that had been listed. Characterization of the Plan The plan of research itself can be no more than sketched in outline here to show a few of the lines of inquiry that have been proposed for each of the major divisions of the field. The plan includes a list of some 300 research problems organized under the eight topic headings previously noted. In each of these collections the questions are woven together about the major 1 This bibliography is being published as a separate volume by the Educational Policies Commission of the National Education Association and the American Association of School Administrators. Wash¬ ington. D. C.: 1201 16th St., N. W. 1937. Department of Educational Research 269 issues and problems. In each case two or three problems have been set up in formal way for attack and have been discussed for the research worker. These samples are meant to illustrate the research attack on the problems. The discussion in each group could not be lengthy in a relatively short monograph. The purpose was to reveal the point of view from which the question was raised, that is, the educational philosophy or the practical situa¬ tion that provoked the proposed research, and to make clear what the pro¬ posed line of inquiry might hope to lead to. In the monograph no proposal was made that students of education con¬ cern themselves with search for a theory of depressions. This is important, but it lies in the field of finance, economics, business, and sociology, rather than in education. The plan presented assumes that educators can become acquainted with the symptoms of depressions, with their behavior, and with the types of things that happen to education as a result of them. It assumes that the experience in the present depression, properly studied, may reveal principles and many procedures that can be useful. It asks, therefore: What happened? What effect did it have? What did the school, the people, the government do about it? Did that help any? Where does the school stand now and what is needed next? It is as much concerned with needs not met as with those we tried to meet. The following will serve to illustrate the types of researches proposed for each of the eight divisions of the field. Historical and comparative — We think of this depression period as a rapidly moving one, but no one thinks of it as totally new and apart from the past. Nearly every interpretative discussion of the depression explains it by reference to certain accumulations from the past. Obviously in this field research could not wisely overlook the historical approach. Quite possibly booms and depressions are acute social illnesses ; possibly they are chronic, with a period dormant and a period active. It is conceivable that for the social service we call education, depressions may display regular symptoms from stage to stage, symptoms that we can learn to recognize. Possibly whole chains of causal relationships may be regularly operative thru such periods. To be able to detect such symptoms would be a first step in finding a way to control them. In the study of these problems there is room for scholarly contributions to the literature of American history as well as to that of education. The practical worth of such studies might easily prove substantial. Along with this historical group of studies the plan calls for comparative studies that would check American experience with that of other countries. For instance, the CCC program might be compared with that of the German Arbeitslager. Salary trends in a group of countries, or attendance at school, or budget reductions, or forms of relief that affect the schools or that affect teachers or students would be other useful lines of inquiry that might help to show whether education fares better in fascist, in communist, or in democratic states. Educational theory and philosophy — The second major area of the field had to do with the theory and philosophy of education. There is no time 270 National Education Association so rich in possibilities for the philosopher as a time of confusion. One cannot review the literature of this period without feeling the near chaos that arose among the previously assumed educational values and among the basic theories in education during this depression. What problems in educational philosophy and theory arise in an individual’s mind as he contemplates the obvious misfit of much of what the schools have been teaching with con¬ fidence in the recent past! How can schools help to drive out autocracy when they are as yet not even seeing the child as a free personality, to say nothing of not seeing society as a society of free men ? That this depression has forced us to see how very far we are from having a theory of education that is apace with scientific developments and with current social needs is very clear. Then, if we look at education as a function of our government we are no less disturbed. The CCC and the NRA have done things to edu¬ cation. While these are practical facts, back of them is a substantially dis¬ turbed theory of how education is to be made an effective function of our government. Student personnel — In the general field of student population there is a wide and rather miscellaneous literature. One comes away from reading it realizing that education has a social function that is real and vital, and that that function has been seriously disturbed. The depression did things to the children, the youth, and the young adults of America, to their way of seeing life and to their way of seeing education. Not all of them became rebellious or cynical or sad or frightened or disheartened, but many did. They did not all lose faith, either in their country or in education, but some did and thou¬ sands were forced away from life programs they had planned to programs not of their making. Very soon this group will be in charge of our schools, our government, our churches, our business, and our social standards. Have we a guess at what this may mean? Curriculum — The curriculum was affected by the depression in two ways. First, it was reduced, both by compressing units of it and also by taking out other units. Second, it was prevented from revisions that should have been made to meet the new needs created by the depression. For research this area offers wide possibilities. What, for instance, are we now building up out of this depression as a new body of fact, a new set of experiences and understandings to be used as media thru which our chil¬ dren may learn how to face the next depression ? What new needs, not now met by our curriculums, has this depression brought to light? What new light has this shock thrown upon some of the subjectmatter we have been relying upon? What is the nature and extent of the social, economic, and political illiteracy that came to light so clearly in this period ; and what has the curriculum to do to improve the situation? Have any important new issues arisen, or have any old issues been sharpened by this depression that should he dealt with in our curriculums? Staff personnel — In the field of staff personnel there has been some re¬ search, but there is room for much more. A study of the problem of unem¬ ployment among teachers and of what the unemployed of the profession did to meet the situation would be of value. How did our tenure laws affect Department of Educational Research 271 retrenchment programs of schoolboards ? It would be of value to know who the people were that lost jobs. Did we dismiss our youngest teachers and so raise the average age of the group ? Did we dismiss married women ? What of legislation on this latter problem? What became of our vast army of private teachers of music and art and dancing during these years? Did the oversupply of teachers lead to the raising of certification requirements? How has the increased work load affected the teacher’s freedom to con¬ tribute to policy-making and administration ? Why such increase in alleged abuses of freedom in teaching? What has led to legislation establishing loyalty oaths? What effect has the depression had upon the social com¬ position of the profession ? These questions suggest some of the promising lines of study in this field. Administration — The field of administration, used in a wide sense of that term to cover national, state, and local problems of legislation, policy¬ making, organization, and management, but not personnel and finance, is the field where the depression hit very directly and where action was taken regarding what was happening. More than a third of the literature in the entire field falls in this area. There should be a general stock-taking before our schools begin to launch new developments. Every past policy and plan ought to be scrutinized, for service in a school system that is looking forward, and not blindly con¬ tinued in the hope that no more depressions will come. If this is a new age we need to reshape the school policies and programs to fit it. Finance and business — The direct impact of the depression was of course financial. Policies, plans, programs shrank because income fell off. Things happened in a way to daze people, so that our handling of retrenchment problems was often unwise. Too many superintendents assured the public that the schools were safe long after they were clearly unsafe. Then, when retrenchment was entered upon, these same public leaders assured the people that what was done would not hurt the schools. Is it any wonder that a flood of criticism arose that really harmed the schools? This movement ought to be studied to see whether that criticism did not actually destroy a host of budgets and close large numbers of schools. The depression did one service perhaps by doing injury. It revealed the breakdown of our systems of local school support and helped to bring at least some state aid to the schools, and Anally national aid, at least as an emergency measure. The depression also impressed another idea upon us. It showed us that education is not so sacred to the people that at times some are not willing to desert it in order to lower tax bills. In showing this, how¬ ever, it showed also the opposite that, when driven too far the people will turn and Aght for their schools. It was good to have this test to reveal these two things. Still another point brought out was the fact that people began to try to separate wheat from chaff in education as they had not done before. Educators also tried, and we see now that a mess was made of it in many cases. How many are surer now than before as to what is essential, what is desirable but not vitally necessary, and what is pure luxury in our program ? 272 National Education Association Professional and scientific activities — There is one other field that offers attraction. What did the profession produce thru these years in the form of leadership and in the form of scientific output? America must look to its educational workers for leadership. Can some ingenious research worker find the facts and tell the story of how this group behaved during these trying times? Did teachers desert their professional societies or cling to them ? Did superintendents and principals gain or lose power in this period ? Did they accept criticism meekly and stand by while lay boards directed the schools, or did they demonstrate leadership? What did the professional organizations do? Did they collapse or did they rise to the occasion and show the people the way out? We are familiar with the work of the Emergency Commission and with the start already made by its successor, the Educational Policies Commission. The story of the activities of such professional groups ought to be put together. The facts for it are abundant. Then, what of the scientific output of our people thru this period? Among the 2000 titles of the bibliography assembled for this study the amount of general information and of speculation is large but the amount of real research is small. Did we continue thru these strenuous years to work at our old tasks? Must research always be academic and remain blind to the urgency of the times? We are in an age that needs research now, research to resolve present issues. True, the old tasks are permanent; they are chal¬ lenging; they must be kept going. But research in education must also be current and responsible as the pioneer. It must be moved up to the front line of trenches and kept there. One cannot go thru the literature of this problem and not feel the urgency of this demand, nor can he go thru the plan of research here so sketchily outlined without seeing how essential its proposals are for any forward looking program of development. If by the suggestions of this study the Educational Policies Commission stimulates school executives to demand a reyiew of their depression experiences before formulating their plans and policies for the next forward move, it will have done a lasting service. AN APPROACH TO THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL CURRICULUM — Abstract KENNETH L. HEATON, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF CURRICULUM RESEARCH, STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, LANSING, MICH. Educators are assuming that there will be significant changes in secondary education during the next few years. They are assuming that there will be a rethinking of the objectives of the secondary school in terms of the func¬ tional needs of presentday life ; an adaptation of instruction to the abilities, achievements, and interests of the individual student ; an emphasis upon self-d irection and upon the ability to solve new problems as they arise. If such changes are to take place there is need for a method of approach to curriculum planning whereby students and faculties may proceed with con¬ fidence toward the discovery of this better pattern of learning. Department of Educational Research 273 The basis for re-planning of the curriculum may well be a systematic study of the needs of individuals as they live in the relationships of the com¬ munity, the family, and the vocation, and in the relationships of personal life. These needs may be studied systematically and objectively by faculty and students. Every teacher and every student may become a research worker. In schools where this procedure has been followed, students have clarified their goals and objectives. They have been able to plan for more economical and effective use of school time. They have taken more interest in their work. They have been able to appraise their own growth and to profit from a knowledge of their own successes and failures. Education has functioned more effectively in the various relationships of daily life. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Annual Business Meeting, February 20, 1937 President Harry A. Greene presided. The minutes of the 1936 annual meeting were approved. The report of the Secretary-Treasurer was read and accepted. The report of the Auditing Committee, Walter C. Eells, chairman, was submitted by Carl A. Jessen and approved. The report of the Necrology Committee, J. Murray Lee, was presented, in part, as follows: FRANK C. TOUTON It was with the greatest of regret that the year 1936 marked the passing of one of our most valued members, Dr. Frank C. Touton, vicepresident of the University of Southern California. Dr. Touton’s contributions to the science of education in the fields of collegiate research, secondary education, and the teaching of mathe¬ matics will long stand as monuments to his energy and his scholarly achievement. To know him was to renew one’s faith in the search for scientific truth as a way of educational direction. He gave himself to the end that education and the uni¬ versity might advance in service to mankind. The report of the Committee on Selection and Evaluation of Research Studies in Education was presented by the chairman, Walter S. Monroe. The report was discussed and adopted. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SELECTION AND EVALUATION OF RESEARCH STUDIES IN EDUCATION 1. The Committee on Selection and Evaluation of Research Studies in Education recommends that the American Educational Research Association inaugurate the practise of selecting annually thru a Committee on Awards, one or more outstand¬ ing researches for such recognition as may seem advisable. It is believed that by thus directing attention to studies of high merit, a contribution will be made to the stimu¬ lation of high-grade research in education. 2. The Committee on Awards shall consist of three members of the American Educational Research Association appointed by the Executive Committee. After the initial appointment, the term of service shall be three years but a member shall be eligible for reappointment. In the initial appointment the Executive Com¬ mittee shall designate one member of the jury to serve two years, one to serve three years, and one to serve four years. Thereafter, one appointment will be made each year. Vacancies shall be filled by the Executive Committee. 274 National Ed location Association 3. The first step in determining outstanding researches shall be the solicitation of nominations from members of the committees responsible for the issues of the Review of Educational Research and from such other persons as may appear desirable. In making a selection from the nominations received, the Committee on Awards will be expected to seek the advice of persons competent to evaluate the researches being considered. 4. The basis of an award shall be the published report (article, bulletin, or monograph) of a scientific study or group of closely related scientific studies. A report published under a joint authorship or a group of reports of closely related studies by different authors may be considered. 5. The Committee on Awards shall each year review the studies reported in the Review of Educational Research during the preceding year and report at the next annual meeting of the Association. The Committee shall determine the number of selections made in any year, but in doing this it shall restrict the number as much as seems feasible in order that the distinction of selection may not be minimized. 6. The award of a given calendar year shall be determined by November 15. The chairman of the Committee on Awards shall report the selection or selections to the president of the American Educational Research Association. Respectfully submitted. Carter Alexander, F. N. Freeman, W. W. Charters, W. S. Monroe, Chairman. The Executive Committee recommended the following revision in Article VI, first paragraph, of the constitution for favorable action at the business meeting of 193S : Executive Committee — There shall be an Executive Committee of five members, consisting of the three officers named under Article V above, the chairman of the Editorial Board, and the immediately preceding president of the Department. The Nominating Committee, John Guy Fowlkes, Walter D. Cocking, and Fred C. Ayer, submitted the following recommendations for officers for the ensuing year : For President: David H. Sutton, Director, Division of School Finance, State Department of Education, Columbus, Ohio. For Vicepresident: W. A. Brownell, Professor of Educational Psychol¬ ogy, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina. There being no further nominations, those recommended above were declared elected. William G. Carr, Secretary- T reasurer. Department of Educational Research 275 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY-TREASURER FOR 1936 Membership The December 1936 records indicate an increase of 17 active members over the records of 1935. The table concerning membership given below will be of interest : Decem- Decem- Re- Dues New Members NetIn- BER BER SIGNED UNPAID MEMBERS REIN- DEATHS CREASE 1935 1936 1936 1936 1936 stated 1936 for 1936 Active . 390 407 5 10 27 6 1 17 Honorary .... 11 11 Life . 1 1 In securing the payment of 1936 dues the Secretary-Treasurer’s office mailed at different times thruout the year three communications urging renewal of membership. These letters were in addition to the customary notice of dues sent out at the beginning of each year. Subscriptions and Sales There was an increase of 29 subscriptions to the Review of Educational Research during 1936, there being 439 subscriptions in 1935 as compared with 468 subscriptions in 1936. Four letters were mailed at various times during the year urging subscribers to renew their subscriptions. The income received from the sale of single copies of the Review, Official Report, and reports during 1936 amounted to $1994.01, an increase of approximately $84 above the amount anticipated in the budget for 1936. The income from the sale of these publications during 1935 amounted to $1535.61. Official Report Information concerning the cost and sale of the 1936 Official Report is given below: Number Printed Cost of Printing Approxi- Number mate Distributed Number to Members Sold Approxi¬ mate Number Receipts on from Sales Hand 600 $771.05 410 148 $222 42 Applications for Membership and Action Taken Forty-one applications for membership in the Department were approved by the Executive Committee. Of these 41, 23 accepted membership for 1936, 16 accepted membership for 1937, and 2 are pending acceptance. In addition, 4 others accepted invitations to membership which were extended them in 1935, making a total of 27 new members during 1936. Six applications for membership await the action of the Executive Com¬ mittee at the New Orleans meeting. 276 National Education Association Review of Educational Research A list of the issues of the Review published during 1936, together with information concerning the cost of printing, number of copies distributed, number of copies on hand, etc., is given below. Cost Number Number of Print- Dis- Number Title Chairman Printed ing tributed on Hand Vol. VI, No. 1, Mental and Physical Development George D. Stoddard 1,500 $621.14 1,030 470 Vol. VI, No. 2, Pupil Personnel, Guid¬ ance, and Counseling Arch O. Heck 1,500 520.53 1,328 172 Vol. VI, No. 3, Psychology of Learn¬ ing, General Methods of Teaching, and Supervision G. T. Buswell 1,500 343.63 1,500 out of print Vol. VI, No. 4, History of Education and Comparative Edu- Newton Edwards 1,500 468.44 975 525 cation Summary of Receipts and Expenditures There follows a summary of the receipts and expenditures from Jan¬ uary 1, 1936, thru December 31, 1936, accompanied by the statement of the Auditing Committee. Miscellaneous Activities The Secretary-Treasurer’s office has replied to approximately 1000 re¬ quests for information concerning the American Educational Research Asso¬ ciation, qualifications for membership, the Review, etc. Approximately 500 bills have been sent out covering subscriptions to the Review. Letters have also been sent to contributors to each issue of the Review advising them that reprints of their chapters may be obtained at cost should they so desire. A letter was sent in November to each member in order to ascertain the correct names and positions for inclusion in the directory published in the December Review. In an endeavor to increase the sales and subscriptions to the Review, Official Report, and the report entitled The Place of Research in Educational Reconstruction, a letter and advertising leaflet were sent under date of June 4, 1936, to approximately 700 libraries and 200 deans of schools of education. A letter calling attention to the Official Report and the report, The Place of Research in Educational Reconstruction, was also sent to sub¬ scribers to the Review. Department of Educational Research 277 Many activities in connection with the annual meeting and dinner of the Department have been handled. The Secretary-Treasurer’s office handled the editorial work, the print¬ ing, and the distribution of the second Official Report of the Department, covering the 1936 meeting. Each member of the Department received a copy of the Official Report as part of his membership. The income from the sales of the remaining copies is shown earlier in the Secretary-Treasurer’s report. Various members of the staff of the Research Division, National Educa¬ tion Association, have spent considerable time checking references, reading proof, and otherwise getting manuscripts for the Review printed. William G. Carr, Secretary-Treasurer. SUMMARY OF RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES FROM JANUARY 1, 1936, THRU DECEMBER 31, 1936 Received or Balance or Receipts Budget Disbursed Deficit Dues of active members . $2,000.00 $2,025.00 $25 . 00 Subscriptions . . . Sale of single copies of the Review , Official Report, 1,720.00 1,655.80 —64.20 and reports . 1,910.00 1,994.01 84.01 Sale of tickets to annual banquet . 300.00 259.50 —40 . 50 Total . Expenditures $5,930.00 $5,934.31 $4.31 Clerical service at N. E. A. headquarters . $800 . 00 $532.55 $267.45 Printing programs for annual meeting . 75.00 84.30 —9.30 Printing Review (5 issues @ $520 per issue) . Printing membership cards, blanks, and banquet 2,600. 00 1,879 .93 1 720.07 tickets . Postage and mailing, supplies, publicity, addresso- 30.00 35.80 —5.80 graphing, multigraphing, mimeographing . 700 . 00 732.97 —32.97 Expenses of the Editorial Board . 300.00 223.28 76.72 Expenses of annual banquet . Purchasing and mailing of five issues of the Research 300.00 314.42 —14.42 Bulletin . 120.00 67.12 52.88 Printing Official Report, St. Louis meeting . Joint Yearbook Committee of the A. E. R. A. and 700 . 00 771.05 —71.05 Department of Classroom Teachers . Committee on the Place of Research in Educational 250 . 00 154.20 95.80 Reconstruction (Dr. Sears, chairman) . 225.00 245.00 —20 . 00 Miscellaneous . Bad accounts . 53.83 106.88 — 53.83 — 106.88 Total . Balance N. E. A. treasury, January 1, 1936 . Receipts . Total . Disbursements . Cash balance N. E. A. treasury, January 1, 1937 . $6,100.00 $5,201.33 $6,999.88 5,934.31 $12,934.19 5,201.33 $7,732.86 $898.67 1 Includes only 4 issues of the Review (December, 1935; February, April, and June, 1936). . - DEPARTMENT OF Elementary School ‘ Principals HISTORICAL NOTE The department of elementary school principals, temporarily or¬ ganised as the National Association of Elementary School Principals at the Atlantic City meeting of the Department of Superintendence in Feb¬ ruary 1921, became a department of the National Education Association at Des Moines in July 1921. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-38 are: president. Mason A. Stratton, Principal , Brighton Avenue School, Atlantic City, N. J first vicepresident, Edythe J. Brown, Principal, Kaley-Mar- quette Schools, South Bend, Ind.; second vicepresident, Isabel Tucker, Principal, Festus Wade School, St. Louis, Mo.; third vicepresident, H. B. Norton, Principal, Robinson School, Birmingham, Ala.; fourth vicepresident, Arnold Gregory, Principal, Raupp School, Lincoln Park, Mich.; fifth vicepresident, Harry H. Haw, Principal, Alice Birney School, San Diego, Calif.; executive secretary, Eva G. Pinkston, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.; executive committee: Maude A. Rhodes, Principal, Whitefoord School, Atlanta, Ga. ( term expires 1938 ) ; Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Principal, Washington-Gatewood Schools, Nor¬ folk, V a. ( term expires 1939) ; Ira M. Kline, 177 Gibson Avenue, White Plains, N. Y. (term expires 1940); Irvin A. Wilson, 437 S. Stone Avenue, La Grange, III. (term expires 1941); Certification Division, Cassie F. Roys, 2609 Bristol Street, Omaha, Nebr.; Life Membership Division, Herbert C. Hansen, 1045 N. Lockzvood Avenue, Chicago, III.; Retirement Division, M. Emma Brookes, Miles-Cranwood Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. This Department meets twice each year, in February and in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follozvs: 1921 :453 1922 -.851-886 1923 -.663-666 1924 -.545-564 1925 -.450-477 1926 -.459-495 1927 -.419-455 1928 -.375-409 1929 -.391-424 1930 -.333-365 1931 -.433-465 1932 -.377-406 1933 -.395-422 1934 -.387-408 1935 -.349-378 1936 -.239-266 [ 280 ] READING FOR LEISURE IN THE NEW AGE WILLIAM S. GRAY, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. WE are deeply submerged today in an era of national development. As in the past, the dominant needs and aspirations of society are influencing to a large extent the purpose and nature of reading activities both in school and in adult life. In seeking to define such motives, attention is directed instantly to the insistent demand for social understanding and en¬ lightenment, for wise social planning and reconstruction, for the develop¬ ment of a vital American culture, for enriched and stable personalities, and for the wise use of the greater leisure which the machine age promises. Such needs and aspirations form basic criteria for use in judging the social worth of reading activities during leisure hours. Purpose of leisure — The first purpose of leisure is undoubtedly to provide relief from the rigorous demands of vocational or professional life and to insure complete relaxation. It also makes possible freedom of action and pro¬ vides opportunity for self-expression in various forms. The reality of the problems thus created is widely recognized. Of major importance is the fact that means be adopted which will prevent or eliminate possible devastating influences inherent in leisure. As Professor Dewey has forcefully pointed out, “a new conception of the use of leisure has to be created ; boys and girls need to be instructed so that they can discriminate between enjoyments that enrich and enlarge their lives and those which degrade and dissipate.” The value of reading as a leisure-time activity has long been recognized. Investigations made a decade ago showed that intelligent reading was a significant means of familiarizing adults with current events, with signifi¬ cant social issues, with community and national problems, and with Amer¬ ican institutions, ideals, and aspirations. It also served to keep the mind stimulated with important things to think about, to develop a broad outlook on life, to satisfy curiosity, and to secure rest and stimulating recreation. Values of reading — Various writers have recently prepared summary statements of the values that attach to leisure reading. Headley, for example, identifies several rewards of reading: “The fundamental return made to the reader is information. . . . Reading is the best marked-out avenue to the land of pleasure. . . . But there are other rewards that are equally gratify¬ ing. For one thing, reading aids understanding. . . . One of the chief serv¬ ices rendered to those who read is the opportunity for thought stimulation. When properly directed, it may serve as a great creative force in modern life. This is particularly true when thought stimulation is accompanied by inspiration.” “Such then,” says Headley, “are the rewards of reading.” The foregoing statements suggest some of the values inherent in leisure reading. And what an array of possibilities they present — information, en¬ joyment, understanding, stimulation, inspiration; a necessary outlet, a vision of the ideal, a deeper knowledge of human nature, the glory of the common¬ place; and finally, catholicity of mind with its time, space, and thought di- [281 ] National Education Association 282 mensions. These are resources on which we may draw heavily today during leisure hours. Whether or not these ends are fully attained in the future depends in large measure on the nature of the reading interests and habits which chil¬ dren and young people acquire today. Herein lies one of the challenging opportunities which the schools of America face. It is no incidental task; in fact, it is one of the fundamental objectives of teaching at all levels and in practically every subject or field taught in school. The results sought are not to be attained thru the use of a few spectacular devices. They are rather the product of well-conceived, carefully directed guidance in both the home and the school life of the child. Wh at then are the specific conditions beginning at the preschool level under which desirable reading interests can be developed and stimulus pro¬ vided for the rational use thru reading of a part of one’s leisure time? 1. The first requisite is that the home provide a wholesome reading atmosphere during the preschool as well as during the school life of the child. This means that parents should take genuine interest in reading, should provide attractive, whole¬ some books and magazines, and should engage in frequent discussions of topics of interest to children. The early school environment of the child is just as important as his home environment. Fortunate, indeed, is the child who enters a school in which the teachers are keenly interested in children's stories and who have the capacity to inspire pupils to read about and to discuss the things in which they are interested. 3. The methods employed in teaching pupils to read are as vital as the atmosphere of the classroom. It was formerly believed that the chief aim in teaching reading in the primary grades was to master the mechanics of reading. With a new vision of opportunities, the dominant aims today are to extend and enrich experience, to cultivate keen interest in reading activities, and to stimulate habits of good thinking while reading. D<\ 'doping habits — As children advance thru the grades, new problems are encountered. Of primary importance is the need of developing habits of intelligent reading. If leisure reading provides in the future needed informa¬ tion and stimulus in various fields, pupils should acquire greater accuracy and clarity of comprehension than in the past. As a profession, we need to rededicate ourselves to the time-honored obligations involved in developing thoroness in comprehension. If, in addition, leisure reading aids in the clarifi¬ cation of thinking and in the definition of human values, pupils should ac¬ quire both breadth and depth of interpretation. To insure satisfactory progress, teachers should provide rich and vivid experience in the various fields taught and should encourage studies of the meaning and social sig¬ nificance of what is read. In this connection, the facts presented should be re¬ lated to familiar concepts, experiences, or basic principles, and interpreted in the light of them. It follows that there should be much weighing of values and critical thinking as pupils read, as well as subsequent to the act of read¬ ing. As a result, the content of the page will be more fully appreciated because its value, significance, and implications are clearly understood. Only by this arduous route can we make definite progress toward social enlightenment and the broader vision. Department of Elementary School Principals 283 Paralleling the development of appropriate reading habits, pupils should acquire broad interests. The fact has often been pointed out that desirable types of recreational reading arise from keen interest in and curiosity about things. It follows that if children and young people acquire interests in school that function to advantage thruout life, they must become deeply interested in the facts and principles of the various fields which they study, such as history, geography, and the natural sciences, must revel in the field of litera¬ ture, and must become deeply absorbed in modern social problems and the means of solving them. We need at all levels in our school system, and in every great field of study, inspiring teachers of broad interests who recognize fully their obligations in broadening and deepening the interests of their pupils and in initiating them into life-long careers of stimulating and pro¬ ductive reading. As a means of establishing permanent habits of reading in various fields, frequent opportunity should be provided for pupils to pursue more or less independently problems in which they are keenly interested. Projects have not only immediate value but they deepen interests which function actively thruout life. If each broad field that is pursued in school cultivates a few centers of interests under the leadership of inspiring teachers, the guarantee is large that reading will contribute generously during leisure hours to social progress and to the enrichment of life in general. May I emphasize once more that the uses which we make of leisure assume vital significance in the new age. It is not sufficient that we engage merely in wholesome recreation, essential as such activities are. Of primary im¬ portance is the fact that leisure activities should contribute specifically to social enlightenment, to the solution of urgent social and economic problems, to the development of a broad common culture appropriate for our American democracy, and to the promotion of enriched and stable personalities. In achieving these ends, reading rightly assumes a large role. By cultivating appropriate reading interests and habits among children and young people today, we may look forward hopefully to notable progress during the years to come in developing a better citizenry. REMEDIAL READING FOR A BETTER CITIZENRY MARGARET L. WHITE, SUPERVISOR OF ELEMENTARY ENGLISH, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND, OHIO It is a truism to say that any effective program of reading must take into account the varying backgrounds and abilities of children. We are all cogni¬ zant of the fact that such differences do exist, and we speak quite glibly of “individual differences.” However, too often, the Intelligence Quotient is the only phase of these varying needs that is seriously considered. We over¬ look the fact that children differ also in types of minds, rates and methods of learning, interests, background, physical fitness, and emotional stability. Educationally the child who does not read well is at a great disadvantage, for he is not only unable to enjoy good stories but is decidedly handicapped in other school subjects. Lack of success in reading may cause emotional 284 National Education Association disturbances in children, evidenced in a multitude of ways. The educational and emotional maladjustments of the child naturally tend to unfit him for suitable social relationships, resulting in conflicting attitudes and emotions. Since such educational, emotional, and social handicaps, even tho cor¬ rected, may leave lasting scars, much thought and energy should be given to preventive work in reading in an effort to reduce the number of children needing remedial work. Looking toward preventive work, any program in reading must have three objectives: 1. To teach a child how to read 2. To teach a child what to read 3. To develop in the child a lasting interest in reading. These objectives may be accomplished by giving attention to reading readiness, the use of simple reading material, reading on the same level for a longer period of time, the use of a variety of materials and methods, emphasis upon comprehension and enjoyment, the teaching of various types of reading, and the use of interesting good books. While a child’s ability to read is highly important in developing a perma¬ nent interest in reading, it is probably no more important than the necessity for providing the opportunity for the child to read good books. A child develops into a good citizen or a poor citizen, not only as a result of his herit¬ age and experiences but also as a result of what he reads. Often the initiation of the purposes which govern adult life can be traced to books read in child¬ hood. It is amazing that frequently the parents and teachers who are most concerned with the type of associates a child has, will give little attention to the type of books that he reads. We have every reason to be optimistic about our reading program and its development of a better citizenry. The public libraries, with the children’s rooms, have done much to stimulate the interest and appreciation of children and schools in better books. Then, too, the books for juveniles are improving each year, affording a variety of subjects. Children can be aroused to an interest in and an understanding of mankind, and to the perpetuation of peace thru prolific reading of good literature. SANE VIEWS OF SPORTS AND THEIR USES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS THURMAN B. RICE, PROFESSOR, INDIANA UNIVERSITY, SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. The school exists in order that it may be of assistance in preparing children for the problems and responsibilities of life. One frequently hears it said of an individual that he has a good education or that he has made a great success. Probably the most complimentary expression that can be applied to an indi¬ vidual, however, is for his associates to say that he is a “good sport,” a “real fellow,” one who “plays the game squarely and honestly.” It will probably seem to some persons that sports should be considered as being entirely sub¬ ordinate in importance to the fundamental academic subjects which have for Department of Elementary School Principals 285 so long a time claimed the entire time of the student. It is not our wish to discredit in the least the value of these academic subjects but rather to emphasize the fact that those activities which help us to win the love, respect, and approbation of our associates are also of tremendous value and may even transcend in importance the conventional studies. It is extremely important that in matters pertaining to education, hygiene, and physical training we should give careful consideration to the direction in which the native instincts of the race point. Play is an instinctive activity which is indulged in, in one form or another, by every young, healthy animal. The play of the child should be social to a large extent for the reason that the activities of a man or a woman will be largely social. Modern life is ex¬ ceedingly complicated with many laws and rules. For this reason the play of a child, provided he is not a very young child, should be increasingly com¬ plicated with clearly defined rules and principles of the game. The various recreational activities probably have much more to do with the development of character and disposition than do the academic subjects. This is because character, honesty, and industry are developed by actually doing things rather than by merely reading or hearing about them. The orderly progression by which a child moves from the diversions of an infant to an appreciation of the great organized sports should be uniform and gradual. In the earlier years the games that he plays have essentially no rules. At another level rules may be made to cover the intramural sports of a given school or of a city league. Finally in the highly-developed sports such as baseball, football, and basketball there are national rules committees which compile complicated systems governing the manner of play. The Olympic rules are extremely detailed and published in many languages. Where do the sports of grade school stand in this progression ? Obviously they should be far from either end, and probably are best set somewhere near midway between the two extremes. Surely we will agree that the excessively complicated rules for games such as are played by our universities and pro¬ fessional clubs are quite too involved for use in the grade schools. On the other hand, there should be developed in the grade-school child the ability to abide by the decision of some neutral person or official without too much protest. He should learn to wish to play the game in a manner that is acceptable to his playmates and his opponents. Such an individual may be presumed to be more willing in later life to abide by the laws and customs which will control his adult activities. The development of good sportsman¬ ship is one of the most important considerations of child training. No one likes a “quitter,” a “cry-baby,” or the fellow who is “cocky” in victory and vindictive in defeat. It will be agreed that the scope of activities of the grade school will be less competitive than that for high schools and colleges. For example, there is a record of inter-high-school and inter-college track and field events. It would be easy to find what the best college mark for the hundred yard dash may be. It would be a little harder to find what the best high-school record may be. I sincerely hope that it will be impossible to find what is the best time in which a grade-school child has done the hundred yard dash. Likewise it 286 National Education Association would be comparatively easy to come to some sort of a conclusion as to which university has the best football team or which halfbacks are entitled to all- American recognition. High-school records of the same sort are sometimes available for cities or even states, but grade schools, 1 hope, will manage to get along without such devices for some time to come. The criticism is made that the American people take their sports far too seriously. It is my opinion that the criticism is iust. Too often we are in¬ clined to play for the sake of winning rather than for the sake of playing. A sport of this sort then becomes essentially work rather than play. The team which wins is likely to emphasize the extent of its superioritv far bevond legitimate grounds. On the other hand the boy who is defeated may be broken¬ hearted and may suiter remorse out of all reason or proportion. The star player will often be the hero of the school tho he may be a posi¬ tive menace to the morals and educational standards of the institution. This is not a place to discuss the various misdoings of college athletes. We merely are insisting that in the grades, certainly, the emphasis must be put on whole¬ some fun and good fellowship rather than upon winning. Possibly the cure for evils in college athletics lies in the development in children of a spirit of sportsmanship based upon correct values. It is possible that children so trained will learn to play for the sake of playing rather than for the sake of the score. Many cities encourage the development of interschool competitive sports in their ;unior high schools. With careful supervision such activities may possibly be permissible but certainly wider competition should be dis¬ couraged. Even when competition is within a given city, care should be taken that very little publicity or emphasis is given to the various events. Grade children need very specifically to be shown the reason why it is unsportsmanlike to take unfair advantage pr to cheat. They need to be shown the reason why betting on athletic events is unsportsmanlike and that it tends to prostitute otherwise excellent sports. Betting is simply a means of inten¬ sifying the rivalry between two teams or two competitors. Most of the evils of modern amateur athletics are due to the fact that competition is already too sharply drawn. Certain very excellent sports have been utterly ruined by the fact that betting has been an incentive to cheating and to “fixing. Prize¬ fighting. wrestling, horse-racing, and certain other perfectly legitimate forms of sports are in disrepute because the stakes are so high that there is always the temptation to gain the desired end by foul means if necessary. Ordinarily the school welcomes the interest of patrons and older persons of the communin' in its various activities. The same can hardly be said of the sports program. The school teachers who have given this matter some study and who appreciate the real function of the sports program can usually be trusted not to earn' the emphasis too far. Likewise the children can be trusted because, while they may become considerably excited at the time, they tend to regain their poise quickly concerning these matters, and to return to their normally wholesome interests. Parents and other adults, however, are extremely likely to have the desire to win so firmly entrenched in their beings that they encourage young people in the schools to go to absurd lengths. Department of Elementary School Principals 287 True it is that these problems which I am mentioning are abuses not seen in the grade schools but in the high schools. We mention them to show what is to be avoided in the grade schools. By no means must the contaminating hand of the ticket office or of the highly competitive sportsman touch the sports program of the grade school. It might appear from this that the entire sports program for the grade school is of negative value and should, therefore, be discouraged. This is by no means true; quite the contrary, indeed. We need the stimulating effect of competition, on the level at which it can be indulged in by red-blooded boys and girls. Various games and exercises that are suitable for common school participation will have the effect of stimulating the physical and mental development of the children and will tend to make them more self-reliant and aggressive. It will help them to learn to accept defeat graciously and to have respect for the rules of the game. W e heartily recommend a broad pro¬ gram of diversified sports in the grade schools provided the various dangers expressed and implied in the pages are carefully avoided. There is another serious criticism which can be made of American sports, namely, that they are so intense and specialized that one can expect to play them only when he is in school himself, and even then, only when he is one of a very small group commonly designated as the squad. It is extremely important that every individual should learn to play. Most tragic are the lives of those persons who know how to work but do not know how to relax and enjoy themselves. The nervous aggressiveness which so often character¬ izes the American citizen has, it is true, been extremely fruitful in producing world’s goods, but it is also the basis for the accusation that the typical American does not know how to enjoy himself and even when he is supposed to be so doing he is likely to go to extremes. In the minds of the rest of the world we are incurable dollar-chasers and money-grabbers. Inasmuch as the young people from high school and college are likely to be attracted into some particular sport, it is well that while in grade school they be encouraged to become interested in a wide variety of physical activities which may be expected to instil in them a love for such physical activities as may last as long as they shall live. The broad foundation for a safe and sane physical program must be laid in the form of a well-balanced sports and physical education program in the school. This program must be free of ballyhoo and box-office. It must avoid the high pressure competition usually seen in high school and in college. THE LOUISIANA PROGRAM OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT M. P. ROGERS, DIRECTOR OF CURRICULUM, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCA¬ TION, BATON ROUGE, LA. The natural desire of teachers for freedom to direct the learning experi¬ ences of their own groups was fundamental in the beginning of a curriculum program in Louisiana that now includes every teacher in the state. The whole teaching corps is organized in basic study groups that center around indi- :ss National Education Association vidual schools. These school groups are represented, thru parish and district groups, in the state unit and their reports become source material for all state reports. The foundation for a state program of curriculum development has been laid over a period of five or six years but the intensive part of it was planned only last summer. About fifty selected teachers, supervisors, and superintendents met at that time, studied similar programs in other states, and described an organization and procedure for Louisiana. This group concluded its work with the preparation of a handbook that now serves as a guide for the work of the whole organization. The immediate objectives of the present program are listed as understand¬ ings — understandings of educational philosophies, aims of education, learn¬ ing materials, etc. Teacher growth is the primary objective of the early part of the program. There is a general conviction that improvements in educa¬ tional materials and teaching procedures can be made in the state. These im¬ provements will, of course, involve changes, and changes cannot be safely made without adequate preparation. This fact justifies teacher growth as the primary objective of the early part of a program of curriculum improve¬ ment. After this period of study, Louisiana teachers look forward to the collection and organization of new materials and to the preparation and installation of teacher guides. This part of the work is still before us. The direction which it takes and the final outcome have not been predetermined by the acceptance of any educational philosophy. We are frankly in a period of criticism, of study, of discussion, and of reevaluation. We expect to improve our school work and base our greatest hopes on the democratic spirit of the whole program and on general participation of the whole teaching corps. If completely successful, such a program will go as far as any state program can go toward the placing of an enthusiastic, well-trained, and discerning teacher in every classroom — and this is the solution to all educational problems. • EXPERIENCES OF A WOMAN COLUMNIST t MRS. E. M. GILMER (DOROTHY Dix), INTERNATIONALLY KNOWN WOMAN COLUMNIST, NEW ORLEANS, LA. Not very long ago I received a letter telling me about all the harm 1 was doing. It read: “Dear Miss Dix: I wonder if you know how much harm you are doing in the world. I was in love with a man, who did not notice me at all, and I wrote you to ask you how I could attract him, and you told me how to do it, and I did, and married him, and now I wish I had not!” I am very happy to be able to add my word to the welcome you have been given in New Orleans. As you know, New Orleans is a convention city, but we rarely have so large a convention as you have brought us today. I suppose the principals of the elementary schools also know that the parents of today have passed the buck, so to speak, to the schools, and they expect the teacher not only to teach their children learning, but morals and manners as well. The babies have been thrown squarely in your laps, so what happens to the country in the future depends on how you bring these youngsters up. Department of Elementary School Principals 289 When I was asked to report at this auspicious assembly, I was proud and pleased, but when I was told 1 was to talk about myself, my various under¬ takings seemed to have run out on me. Our favorite indoor sport, in talking about ourselves, is in talking about our work. In my occupation of writing a love column, there are many things that are really very funny. I do not know why, because love is a most serious thing in the world — it makes the world go round, and is the cause for most of the trouble made and murders committed. I do not know wdiere my work begins or finishes, of course, but I do my bit toward keeping things going. I have been writing this column for a long time. When I started, things were not what they are today, and nothing amazes me so much as the different questions people ask me. Forty years ago people asked me whether it was proper to help a boy friend with his overcoat when he called ; now it is : “Do you think it is any harm to go over and spend a week-end with him ?” I have no end to the number of letters where girls have asked me how to keep their husbands. There is hardly any question in the world that comes up between mothers and fathers, and between them and their children, and between husbands and wives, and sweethearts, that in one way or another does not fall into my collection. One person wrote me that she was thirty-five years old, with a peaches-and-cream complexion, and that she was going to be married to a man of forty ; that there was nothing in the way now, except that she had false teeth. “Now,” she said, “what must I do about it? Should 1 tell him before I marry him that I have false teeth and disillusion him, or wait until after we are married and run the risk that he might throw them in my face? Shall I break the engagement on some trilling excuse and carry my secret to the grave with me? It is a question. What do you think of it?” I thought long and seriously, and then wrote to her: “Marry your man and keep your mouth shut.” A man not long ago asked me the same question; he also had false teeth. And I told him : “Go on child, she would not know the difference if she saw you. You might think, judging by my gray hair, that I was past the marrying age, yet no debutante gets half the proposals that I do, but they always say: “I will not interfere with your career.” I spent last summer on a ranch in Colorado, and while there I received a letter from a man who said he had long thought that I would make the kind of wife he wanted. He heard that I was on this ranch, and proceeded to tell me that he was a middle-aged man, owned a huge ranch, and lived ninety miles from a railroad, and then : “I have to come down into your neighborhood anyway, to look over a bunch of beef cattle, so I thought I could come and see how we w^ould like each other.” I wrote him that I thought he was better at driving cattle than love on a ranch! My chores are many, ranging from naming babies to finding ways and means for all sorts of people from all walks of life ; but the questions I receive are so unique that I have copied a few from some of the letters I have received : My husband tells me to go to hell. Have I a right to take the children? We have been married two weeks, and have not quarreled yet, but are working up to it. 290 National Education Association Shall I tell the boys I stutter? I use Life Buoy soap and still no boy friends. I took your advice, Miss Dix, about being a perfect lady, and now I stay at home every night alone. I am fifty years old, madly in love with a woman who already has a husband. What is the quickest and most humane way of getting away with same? As soon as I come into the house he yells at me “you dog” and “go to hell,” and sometimes he also uses profane language. One nice youngster wrote : There is nothing you cannot do; thank you in advance for a home, and a hus¬ band, and a playmate. I have a nice home, a car, a fur coat, jewels — everything a girl marries for. I have been a decent girl as far as I can remember. You speak of girls having a technic with boys; what is this technic and where can you buy it? My husband beats me until I am black and blue, but my mother advises me to pay no attention and act indifferent. Of course we have spats, as all. married couples do, and I got one arm broken, but we never have any disagreements of a serious nature. There was a great void in my life, so I fell madly in love with a dentist. I am married to a book-worm — what is good for worms? A woman depreciates faster than her automobile, and that is going some. In high school I was an honor student, with very few friends, and none of them boys. Please do not put this in the paper because my girl reads your pieces — she has no sense at all. Miss Dix, is my boy friend just a good Catholic, or is he trying to get rid of me; he said he has given me up for lent? He has bought a license for his dog, and his car — oh, my, why don’t he buy a marriage license? My husband and I quarrel like cats and dogs. My birthday is on May 12, and his is on September 15. Are we congenial? My child’s father is married, but I am not. What is my relationship to my child’s father? Some of them are very nice and tell me that I have helped or taught them something. One of the greatest compliments I have ever had came in a letter: “M iss Dix, I usually take my boy friend to dinner, but now I want advice from someone who is really practical, and I am coming to you.” EXPERIENCING A PROGRESSIVE PROGRAM IN OUR TRAINING SCHOOL A. E. PHILLIPS, DIRECTOR, LOUISIANA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE TRAINING SCHOOL, RUSTON, LA. We have for many years tried to find ways to make school work and school life function in the lives of our children and have tried to impress upon our teachers in training that the wholesome development of child life is their principal function as a teacher. I do not believe that there is anything new in the basic principles of progressive education. Whether one is a progressive teacher or has a pro¬ gressive school depends on his attitude toward the following: (1) child and child life, (2) education, (3) the function of the school, (4) the subject- Department of Elementary School Principals 291 matter used (curriculum), (5) learning and how it is brought about, (6) the function of the teacher, and (7) methods of teaching or directing learning. I have studied the various movements, other than progressive education, and it seems to me that all this talk about curriculum revision, mental hygiene, integrated learning, and activity work are all driving toward the same ends — ends that we have been stressing for many years under the name of “child development” or “child growth.” There is much interest shown in our part of the state in rethinking our school problems. This is best illustrated by the experiences of the teachers in visiting our open program for the last two years. Without any special preparation or publicity, more than 200 teachers spent some time with us during the summer of 1935. In the summer of 1936 our program was enlarged somewhat and a little publicity was given to it. There were 150 teachers enrolled in special courses and more than 500 teachers who spent some time in observing our training school. As to the success of our program, we know that we have a happy group. We know that they more than hold their own in college work. We know by standardized tests that they are ranked high in the subjectmatter fields. We believe that we turn out a successful group of elementary teachers when we rank them on a comparative basis. Possibly the greatest success we have had is getting the parents inter¬ ested in our work. This is manifested in many ways. THE THREE C’S OF EDUCATION— CHARACTER, CITIZEN¬ SHIP, AND CULTURE MRS. HELEN GIBSON HOGUE, COUNSELOR IN MENTAL HYGIENE, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, HIGHLAND PARK, MICH. My approach to this subject must necessarily be from the point of view of the mental hygiene worker who is concerned, of course, with the per¬ sonality development of the child and his relationship with his world ; who feels that education for character, citizenship, and culture cannot take place effectively unless the curriculum, the activity, in fact, the whole atmosphere and approach of the school is permeated with understanding of the importance of the raw material with which the school works, viz., the personalities of the children themselves. We cannot “lead out” to a high order of citizenship and a living culture unless we know the mental, physical, and particularly the emotional make-up and needs of the child we are attempting to educate. Here in America, it seems to me, if we accept the direction of the best in democracy, as the basis for our education, we may be able to develop the highest civilization that has ever been known, for democracy is a culture in the making. It holds within it the possibility of emerging in many direc¬ tions. And educators are in a strategic position for guidance. The cultural pattern of a cooperative society, as contrasted with a coercive one, will require for its survival and growth the developing of personalities who are emotionally mature. They must not feel the need, growing out of 292 National Education Association past experiences, to dominate others, to escape into day-dreams, illness, or self-pity; to regress to an effortless infancy; to punish because of their own past sufferings; or to destroy those who oppose or threaten their personal ambition for supremacy. The schools must know the psychological impli¬ cations of such needs. Such personalities are the victims of their infantile fears, hates, and self-loves that have grown out of their past experiences in meeting their world. The fact that these personality patterns which determine the character of the child are given their original set in the home does not lessen, but greatly complicates, the responsibility of the educator. How to help the child to become a healthily functioning part of the social organism in spite of his past experience, is the challenge which the school must meet. A society that values the individual and makes it a satisfying experience for the indi¬ vidual to contribute the best of which he is capable, is building a society of individuals who actively promote the best interest of society as a whole. If the school, thru a more scientific and objective approach, can learn the child’s individual talents and needs ; if it can supply relationship where it has been lacking and see that growing personalities continue to widen and build broader relationships; if it can supply activities that require the chil¬ dren’s cooperative consideration of school problems, and cooperatively made plans for carrying out suggested solutions ; if it can promote a genuine inter¬ est in and appreciation of the group for the contribution of the individual’s best effort, and a healthy joy in the individual for the accomplishment of the group; if the children themselves can gradually be given an insight into causes for antisocial behavior and an understanding of what constitutes a healthy personality; if these things are done thoroly, actively, consciously, then education may indeed be helping to integrate the inner nature and activity of the individual with the cultural pattern that was the dream of our founders, “one for all and all for one.” The success of this dream would be the social triumph of the highest spiritual law that has yet been sensed by man, viz., the triumph of the power of persuasion over the power of coercion and force. Can this higher divine law triumph over that of the tooth and the claw? As a race we are very young and immature. On an unconscious plane we are largely at the mercy of our hates and fears and self-loves — but we have a vision — and I believe that the greatest concrete manifestation of the new spirit that has yet appeared, that of the public school, free to every child, is our strongest, most efficient tool for building our dream into a reality. HORACE MANN— AN EXPONENT OF EDUCATION FOR A RICHER AND FULLER LIFE EUGENE B. ELLIOTT, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, LANSING, MICH. While monuments and buildings have been erected to the memory of Horace Mann, there is no greater memorial to him than the educational progress which has been made thruout the years in emphasizing the need Department of Elementary School Principals 293 for education in a democracy. If Horace Mann were alive today and could see the millions of children in schools he would realize dreams come true. When Horace Mann was born on a poor New England farm on May 4, 1796, near Franklin, Massachusetts, no one realized the part he was to play in education. No one could have realized that from this New England soil would come a modern Peter the Hermit, soldier, missionary, zealous leader for public education. His mother died when he was thirteen years of age and one of the most glowing tributes that was ever paid to motherhood was written by Horace Mann describing her as “one of those sober, sensible, energetic New England women who bring to the dull, ceaseless routine of domestic drudgery the will and courage of actual heroines.'’ After attending the school at Franklin only eight or ten weeks a year and for a very few years, he took some preparatory work in an academy and entered Brown University. After completing the work at Brown University he taught Latin and Greek literature in that institution. While thus engaged he studied law, leaving the University to practise his chosen profession. So successful was he that the people of Massachusetts elected him to the Assembly and it was as president of the Massachusetts Assembly that on April 20, 1837, he signed the act which created the first State Board of Education in Massachusetts. This was the beginning of one hundred years of rapid progress in education. In many ways Horace Mann may be classified as our greatest educator, but he was extremely human. The reactions of Horace Mann to many of the aspects of life will serve to show us how human he was. He lived at a time when the abolitionist was hated beyond words. Legis¬ latures in many states had passed laws seeking to eliminate the anti-slavery element in society. In the face of these laws and considerable opposition from his friends and acquaintances, he was an ardent abolitionist. In preference to any extension of slavery to the other states he would prefer “the rupture of the Union, civil war, even servile war.” This in itself illustrates the character of the man. Many have argued that Horace Mann was irreligious. They say that he left the church. It is true that he was driven from the Congregational Church, which was the church of his forefathers, by a fanatical preacher who was an extra- or hyper-Calvinist. He found a religious refuge for his active mind in the Unitarian Church. He was a lover of nature. To him the laws of the physical universe were sublime, but above the sublimity of these laws existed a moral law to which the highest intelligence bent the knee. Just as he was an ardent abolitionist, so was he an active temperance worker. In 1832 Mann proposed a law which forbade the selling of intoxi¬ cating liquors to the public on Sundays. He later cautioned school exam¬ iners to never grant a certificate of fitness to any teacher who was habitually addicted to the use of spirituous liquors. He carried his attitude on tem¬ perance into the habit of smoking. He went even further in his attitude on temperance to include the temperate use of food. He regretted that the quantity and quality of food which people ate could not be determined by a fixed rule. Again it should be pointed out that he himself failed to properly 2Q4 National Education Association consider his own bodily requirements in his enthusiasm to accomplish desired ends. It would he unfair to Mann to fail to mention his regard for his fellow men. He was a great believer in the common people. To him who could do the most for his fellow men went the honor of being the master of masters who had learned the art of arts. His real contribution to education came shortly after he signed the act which created the first State Board of Education in Massachusetts. Begin¬ ning with July of that year he left a very lucrative law practise to become the first secretary of the first board. Mann, a voluminous and colorful writer, was a keen observer. During his twelve years as secretary of the Massachu¬ setts State Board of Education he worked unceasingly for the cause of public education. During the twelve years he saw the salaries of men teachers increase b2 percent and the salaries of women teachers increase 54 percent. Every year thousands of people gathered to consider the problems of edu¬ cation. Mann said that as he went from town to town expounding the doc¬ trines of public education he felt like a tramp before the door waiting for a few crumbs to be thrown out to him. Mann's reaction to the severe infliction of punishment and the rule of the rod of his day resulted in the establishment of a normal school where teachers could be trained in proper methods of teaching, subjectmatter, and the managing of children. He secured a textbook grant whereby hooks were made available for instruction in each school district. In 1843 he visited Germany. This was at a time when the German schools were far ahead of the American schools and he came face to face with the need for compulsory education for all children. In the field of reading he found that the German schools were using the word and phrase method as contrasted to the letter method em¬ ployed in the American schools of the day. In Germany they had discovered that there was a close association between writing and drawing, and even at that time geography was associated with history and the natural sciences. Singing was considered so important that it had been introduced into the schools. Is it any wonder that when Horace Mann returned to America he said that the American schools were no more than dormitories and the children were no more than “hibernating animals — actual marmots”? Such statements, as well as general opposition from the private schools, which lost membership to the extent that the number of children in private schools declined during these twelve years from 76 percent to 36 percent, resulted in Mann’s dismissal. After a term in Congress Mann came back with new zeal. His friends suggested that he run for the governorship of Massachusetts but he chose the presidency of Antioch College, a Christian Union School to be started at Yellow Springs, Ohio. It was here that Mann was enabled to work out many of the theories regarding the education of young people. It was at Antioch, also, that he suffered his greatest privation. It was here that he virtually wrecked his own ship. At one time, in order to secure enough money for the institution, he ate only one meal every two days for a period Department of Elementary School Principals 295 of six months. At another time we know he went to his doctor to ask him what he could do for a man who had not slept for three weeks. One of Mann’s principal innovations at Antioch was to establish a co¬ educational school. He believed that women should be educated as well as men, altho he always considered that this education should be somewhat different — their education should not be identical. Mann himself rejoiced in the fact that the outcome of his coeducational plan resulted in the engage¬ ment of many couples which “enlivened the monotony of these studies in common.” Antioch was dedicated to the discipline of freedom. Self-govern¬ ment was established. Mann could not see how it would be possible to maintain a democracy unless people were able to guide themselves. He thought they could not guide themselves unless they had been taught to do so. The autocratic, domineering teacher found no place in his classroom. The classroom was a cooperative enterprise. Problems were to be settled on the basis of fact and merit rather than prejudice and emotion. Another innovation established at Antioch was the privilege of students electing optional courses. Up until Mann’s day we heard very little about the plan of allowing students to make an election of subjectmatter which they deemed necessary for particular needs. But his idea of selective subject- matter was limited. One might substitute calculus for Greek or Greek for calculus ! In 1859 his health broke down. The lack of food and sleep, coupled with worries innumerable, brought about the collapse. He must have known that the end was approaching. In addressing the graduates of Antioch he told them that if he could issue his life in a revised edition he would do more and greater work for education, peace, temperance, especially the education of women, and that if he could enrol in another fifty-year campaign he would do more for humanity. He closed the baccalaureate address with the stirring appeal that one should be afraid to die unless some victory for humanity had been won. A few weeks later this lover of moral law, believer in mankind, the soldier and missionary for education, lay upon his deathbed. With a few students and a few members of his immediate family he uttered three words which we can easily remember and which sums up the life of this great leader more than the volumes which have been written about him. These words were: “God — Man — Duty.” EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY WILLIAM J. CAMERON, FORD MOTOR COMPANY, DETROIT, MICH. It seems to me, if we are to make progress toward the dim ideal we call democracy, especially if we are to educate for it, we must take into account the indestructible human instincts that motivate our social forces. That is all you have to work with, and you must work with it according to its own laws, and not your own theories. You will not find this in books. There is as yet no sociology that fits the American people and American life. The sociology you read of most concerns peoples who can be subjected to pressure. 296 National Education Association What elements are present in the societies that have most closely and normally approached what we think we mean when we say “democracy.” 1. There is government , which forms the framework within which the social life is lived. In its defined limits, government is autocratic — the expression of our own individual autocracy. Among a free people govern¬ ment is an allocation and limitation of autocratic power for specific purpose, and under a free government we retain large areas for our own individual autocratic control, and for aristocratic and theocratic control. 2. To maintain this framework, to make it more than an empty shell, there is aristocracy, which is an unofficial, private leadership of brains, taste, vision, character — the whole field of the quality of life. That this is a matter of mind and not of class, we fully recognize in our American school system. This inner sway of the best upon our people utilizes gifts no govern¬ ment can confer or take away — government can only maintain the condi¬ tions of their free exercise. And the work of government gives scope to but a small part of these gifts — so small a part, that most of the ability of the country always is functioning outside the government. By these government lives, and not they by government. 3. Neither of these two desirable conditions exists in any considerable degree where there is not, over men’s principles and thoughts and conduct and relations, something that answers to theocracy — some belief in God or the essential morality of the universe that holds the helm of character firm from the wrenching and diverting power of passionate storms and the cur¬ rents of selfishness to which our as yet undeveloped humanity is exposed. If there is not such a theocratic over-rule, societies have found it necessary to invent one. 4. Separately these degenerate — autocracy into tyranny; aristocracy into caste and class; theocracy into spiritual oppression, and then what we call democracy arises fiercely to redress the balance. But when the three ’ocracies are in free and balanced operation, the label “democracy” is not needed; we then have the thing itself. If you add democracy as a fourth element — then the others rise to redress the balance, for that is class rule. Each of the three calls for the other, and their union is what we know as democracy. Democracy is not a separate system; it does not arrive by superseding the others ; it is the name we give to the goodly effect of all the others on human welfare. 5. The very first education for democracy, it seems to me, is to under¬ stand that all the kingdoms of the mind minister to democracy, as all the kingdoms of nature minister to human life. To become apostles of any single ’ocracy in the hope of abolishing human selfishness is merely to give a new boost to the selfishness we would eliminate. Where “democracy” is most loudly touted, as a separate system, selfishness is most rampant — but it is the same wherever any of the other social elements have been unnatu¬ rally elevated. To belittle any of the constructive elements of society is to hinder the coming of democracy. Anyone who discovers that his zeal for democracy fosters antagonism toward any class, or breeds a fanatical belief in the superiority of any class may be certain he is on the wrong track. These Department of Elementary School Principals 297 are the most subtle and powerful hindrances to the social conditions desired by honest and competent minds. They lead toward counterfeit democracy. The fact that the counterfeits have found no foothold in this country indi¬ cates that we have a sufficient degree of the real democracy, or real social health, to resist these diseases. It is the sign of a misinformed mind when the obvious imperfections of our present condition breed social antagonisms. I am speaking now of edu¬ cators and of other leaders. The masses have no recourse other than social antagonism. They cannot but complain. And we glory in their freedom to complain. In other societies with greater imperfections, there is no freedom to complain. Where no rights exist, no wrongs are ever heard of ; where every right exists, the smallest wrong is touted to the skies. To that extent we are free — we are going on toward what we mean in our best use of the word “democracy.” To interpret our restlessness and to maintain its quality of aspiration, is the work of educators, and it is to be regretted when we see them falling into the same fallacies and futilities that beset those who do not understand. We sometimes wonder where our teachers get the ideas they communicate — from what anti-democratic source they come. Should we be so informed, so balanced, as the teacher? Who should be less deceived by the temporary sensations — the short-lived political and economic fallacies that rise out of societies that have no traditions? Who should know better than the teacher that here we are biologically and spirit¬ ually immune to the fevers that have overset so many modern nations? And who, more than the teacher, should possess and impart that breadth of knowl¬ edge and sanity of interpretation which alone can keep open the road to the democracy of the future? In any case, our teaching concerning democracy should be of such character as to leave least necessity for painful unlearning in its wake. MENTAL HYGIENE AND BEHAVIOR HARRY J. BAKER, DIRECTOR, PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, DETROIT, MICH. It is the purpose of this address to emphasize our understanding of behavior problems. A better understanding of these cases also leads to an improved point of view with regard to the psychology of all children. We are begin¬ ning to develop the term “mental hygiene” as a general title for these activities. Inasmuch as the age of criminals has moved definitely downwards to an average of about nineteen or twenty years, it is believed that more intensive study can he made of crime while children are yet in school. The overwhelm¬ ing costs of crime make it imperative that education do its part in crime prevention. In terms of public relations, schools are often harshly judged by those wffio deal with behavior maladjustment outside of school in legal and primitive activities. We must rid ourselves of the historical biases against behavior children and study their problems as natural results of certain 298 National Education Association factors in themselves and their environments. Behavior problem children must be considered not as children in need of punishment but rather those worthy of our most careful study and best efforts. Children’s behavior is largely influenced by their feelings and emotions rather than their intellectual activities which we cultivate in school. Young children reach emotional conflicts over the goal of self-satisfactions versus the goal of social service. The adolescent reaches his emotional crisis by escaping from the dominations and decisions handed down to him from others into making his own decisions. Adolescence is a very dangerous and difficult period, psychologically and emotionally. In a more specific way, behavior causations fall into the following groups: 1. Physical and health factors, such as vision, size, motor control, and general health. Any of these conditions which limit the child’s ability to express himself and to compete normally with other children brings about thwartings of the emotional life. Children who cannot gain satisfactions for desirable accomplishments eventually seek recognition by creating disturbances. 2. The personal habits and recreational factors of the child as developed in his home are direct!} related to his attitude and behavior at school and on the play¬ ground. There is a need to interpret these factors to the child and to the school more than is usually done. 3. Personality, social and emotional factors which deal with anger, fear, pity, interests, initiative, and ambition. This group of factors has proved to be the most significant in distinguishing between behavior and non-behavior children. +. The parental and physical factors of the home are represented by the parents’ intelligence, education, age. health, personality, occupation, economic status, and adjustment to brothers and sisters. We must learn to take inventory of the best features of the poorest environments and capitalize on them in salvaging behavior problem children. 5. Home atmosphere which includes the ideals, the religion, attitudes, and the social adjustment. This group of factors, rather than the physical side of home atmosphere, is probably the real crux of the home environment. In understanding behavior problems all factors must be taken into account : each must be made very specific and its effects understood. How each factor is related to each other factor in an individual’s case is also important. By the proper understanding of all of these problems, behavior children may be radically changed for the better. The study of these factors in behavior children should also bring about a better understanding of all children, which is good mental hygiene. SECRETARY’S MINUTES New Orleans, Louisiana February 20-25. 1937 The Department of Elementary School Principals held two general sessions in the auditorium of the Medical School. Tulane University, on February 20 and 23. The musical program given by the Children’s Band, Crossman School, was exceptionally well executed by a group of kindergarten children, trained under the expert leader¬ ship of May Cabiro. Miriam Cohen is principal of the school. On Tuesday afternoon those present were given another musical treat by a group of children, from Mc- Donogh School No. 16, who in costume sang several French folk-songs. Anna F. Kennedy is principal of the school. Department of Elementary School Principals 299 Breakfast, Banquet, and Reception The Department breakfast on Monday morning, February 22, held at the La Louisiane, down in the Old French Quarter, was a most enjoyable affair. The unique surroundings, the creole breakfast, and the program were thoroly enjoyed by the 200 present. President Edythe J. Brown asked Amy H. Hinrichs, chairman of local affairs for the Department, to make an announcement about the banquet; invited our honor guest, J. B. Edmonson, dean, School of Education, University of Michigan, to tell of the arrangements he had made for us this summer at our Conference on Ele¬ mentary Education which will be held July 5-16, Ann Arbor, Michigan; and gave to the group a brief summary of the w'eek’s activities, inviting all present to come share in the fun at our social gatherings and learn from those who were to bring us messages on our programs. The banquet on Monday evening at the St. Charles Hotel at which Mrs. E. M. Gilmer (Dorothy Dix) was the guest speaker, will forever live in the minds of the 513 present, as one of the most delightful affairs of the convention. The group singing wras led by Mary M. Conway, director, division of music, New Orleans public schools, with Cornelia Cooke, teacher of music, Audubon School, as accompanist. Beautiful harp selections were given by Viola and Elizabeth Turnbow, pupils of Lucienne Lavendon. The invocation was given by Reverend Dunbar H. Ogden, pastor, Napoleon Avenue Presbyterian Church, New Orleans. After a delightfuLand delicious southern dinner, President Brown presented the distinguished friends of the Department seated at the head table. Josephine E. Hildebrandt, president, New Orleans Principals Association, and principal, Robert M. Luther School, gave a word of greeting and presented beautifully framed and original Audubon pictures to Joseph M. Gwinn, former superintendent of the New Orleans schools, Mrs. Nicholas Bauer, who received it for Superintendent Bauer, New Orleans, President Brown, and Eva G. Pinkston, executive secretary of the Department. All were par¬ ticularly honored by the presence of Mrs. E. M. Gilmer (Dorothy Dix), an inter¬ nationally known personality, who gave the address of the evening on ‘‘The Experi¬ ences of a Woman Columnist.” After the general meeting on Tuesday afternoon, the New Orleans Principals Club gave a reception to all visiting principals and their friends in the dining room of Tulane University Medical School. Punch and cakes were served, and it was here that the group mingled and enjoyed another festive occasion. If the size of the crowd expressed to the New Orleans Principals their appreciation for this lovely entertain¬ ment, they know that it was a happy experience for all. Executive Meeting, Sunday Morning, February 21, 1937 The meeting was called to order by President Brown in Dining Room No. 1, St. Charles Hotel. Those present were: Edythe J. Brown, president; Maude A. Rhodes, second vicepresident; Clifford E. Perry, fourth vicepresident; Isabel Tucker, fifth vicepresident; Ira M. Kline, member, Executive Committee; Cassie F. Roys, director, Certification Division; Herbert C. Hansen, director, Life Membership Division; M. Emma Brookes, director, Retirement Division; Aaron Kline, past president; Maude McBroom, L. M. Fertsch, and Cecelia Galvin, members, Editorial Com¬ mittee; Richard R. Foster, assistant director, Research Division, National Education Association; Amy H. Hinrichs and Josephine E. Hildebrandt, hospitality chairmen, New Orleans meeting; and Eva G. Pinkston, executive secretary. President Brown expressed regret that all members of the official family were not able to be present, and asked the secretary to read the messages received from the absent members. Telegrams had come from Harley W. Lyon, first vicepresident; Irvin Wilson, third vicepresident; and Mason A. Stratton, member, Executive Com¬ mittee. A letter had been received from Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, member, Executive Committee. A motion was made by Miss Brookes, seconded by Miss Roys, that the secretary be instructed to write to those absent expressing regret at their inability to be at the meeting. Motion carried. 300 National Education Association A motion was made by Miss Rhodes and seconded by Mr. Perry that the reading of the minutes of the Portland meeting be omitted because they were approved by all before they were published in the October issue of the National Elementary Principal. Motion carried. President Brown asked Miss Hinrichs and Miss Hildebrandt to outline in general the plans they had made for the meetings in New Orleans. They gave a splendid report. Miss Brown requested them to get in touch with her or Miss Pinkston if the Department could be of any assistance to them. President Brown asked Mr. Foster to report the plans and progress made by the Editorial Committee, since Samuel Berman, chairman of the committee, had been called back to Philadelphia. Mr. Foster reported that the Editorial Committee had completed a three-day meeting, just prior to the convention, at which time it had finished planning the new yearbook, Appraising the Elementary-School Program. Mr. Foster stressed the need of the appraisal of the policies and activities of the elementary school in its relation to the growth of children. The major contribution of this yearbook wfill be the description of methods of technics of appraisal as used in specific school situations, and the main emphasis is on hoiv to evaluate the school program. Mr. Foster gave the names of the chapter topics and discussed each. A motion was made by Ira M. Kline, seconded by Miss Tucker, thanking Mr. Foster for the splendid report and thanking the Editorial Committee for the great amount of work which it has done in getting this splendid book ready. Motion carried. A motion was made by Mr. Perry, seconded by Mr. Hansen, that the secretary write Mr. Berman, chairman of the Editorial Committee for this yearbook, and ex¬ press appreciation to him for meeting with the committee just before convention and regret that he could not stay for the meetings. Motion carried. President Brown asked Mr. Foster to tell the group the tentative plans for the future yearbooks, since Mr. Berman, the retiring member of the Editorial Committee, has recommended that a meeting of the committee take place in Washington in the spring. Mr. Foster reported that “Reading in the Elementary School” had been chosen as the topic for the 1938 yearbook. A lively discussion took place, since this is one of the most vital subjects taught in the elementary school. The 1939 yearbook is to be entitled “Vitalizing the Elementary School Curriculum.” Ira M. Kline expressed the belief that it may be a good thing to select yearbook topics even further in advance than just two years. A motion was made by Miss Tucker, seconded by Miss Rhodes, that if the funds of the Department were adequate to include this extra expense, the Editorial Committee meet about May 15 in Washington. Motion carried. The secretary reported that Ralph D. Owen of Temple University had kindly allowed one of his students, Robert C. Alexander, to compile an annotated bibli¬ ography of the Department’s first fourteen yearbooks as a partial requirement for his master’s degree. Mr. Alexander has done such a splendid piece of work that the secretary expressed the wish that each member of the Department have a copy. The problem was discussed as to whether it should be printed and placed as an additional signature in the 1937 yearbook, should be printed as a separate bulletin, or just mimeographed and sent at request. A motion was made by Mr. Hansen, seconded by Miss Roys, that if the funds were available, this valuable study be printed as a separate bulletin and sent to all members early in the fall. It was suggested that a bibliography be made of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Yearbooks, and be added to the material at hand. Motion carried. A motion was made by Miss Roys and seconded by Miss Brookes that the meeting be recessed until Monday, February 22, at 9 A. M. Executive Meeting, Monday Morning, February 22, 1937 The second meeting of the Executive Committee met in Dining Room No. 1, St. Charles Hotel, at 9 A.M., February 22, 1937. Those present were: Edythe J. Brown, president; Maude A. Rhodes, second vicepresident; Clifford E. Perry, fourth vice- president; Isabel Tucker, fifth vicepresident; Earl R. Laing and Ira M. Kline, mem- Department of Elementary School Principals 301 bers, Executive Committee; Cassie F. Roys, director, Certification Division; Herbert C. Hansen, director, Life Membership Division; and Eva G. Pinkston, executive secretary. President Brown asked that the reading of the minutes of the Sunday meeting be omitted and that the report of the secretary be discussed. This report contained a summary of the trends in education as seen from headquarters; a list of the activities of the office — routine and special; a three-year comparative financial statement; a list of the securities of the permanent fund; membership figures of February 1, 1937; and problems confronting the Department. The secretary’s report included figures which show that there were 3454 members on February 1, 1936, and 4408 members on February 1, 1937. The membership on February 19, 1937, was 4566 plus 147 life members. After discussing the problem as to whether the Department should publish bulle¬ tins on such subjects as guidance, health, etc., it was decided that headquarters should collect material on such subjects as are requested and loan these as needed. The secretary reported that the supply of life membership keys is low, and if more are purchased before June, they can be bought at the present price. A motion was made by Mr. Kline, seconded by Miss Rhodes, to buy for anticipated needs the life membership keys now. Motion carried. A motion was made by Miss Roys, seconded by Mr. Perry, to accept the secretary’s report as discussed. Motion carried. President Brown asked Mr. Laing to outline for the group the tentative plans for the Detroit meeting. Mr. Laing’s report made all realize that we would have another splendid meeting this summer. The Detroit group is planning many attractive features for our entertainment. The secretary was instructed to carry full details in the April and June issues of the National Elementary Principal. President Brown asked if all arrangements for the Conference on Elementary Education, which is being sponsored by the Department of Elementary School Prin¬ cipals, had been completed. This conference, July 5-16, is to be held immediately following the N.E.A. convention at Detroit at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. The secretary gave to each person present leaflets which had been prepared, and said all arrangements had been completed by the committee and Dean J. B. Edmonson. A motion was made by Mr. Perry; seconded by Miss Tucker, that the secretary be instructed to write to each member of the committee and to Dean Edmonson thanking them for making such a splendid set-up for the conference. Motion carried. A motion was made by Miss Tucker, seconded by Mr. Perry, that Mr. Laing be appointed to represent the Department of Elementary School Principals in affairs concerning the World Federation of Education Associations. Motion carried. A motion was made by Mr. Hansen, seconded by Mr. Kline, that letters be sent to Amy Hinrichs and Josephine Hildebrandt, hospitality chairmen, for the many courtesies extended to the members of the Department. A motion was made by Miss Tucker, seconded by Mr. Laing, that letters be sent to those who participated in making the Monday and Tuesday programs the suc¬ cess that they were. Detroit, Michigan June 27-July 1, 1937 The Department of Elementary School Principals held its semiannual meetings at Detroit, Michigan. The Department breakfast was served on Monday, June 28, at the Statler, the headquarters hotel ; the two afternoon general sessions, Monday and Tuesday, June 28 and 29, were held in Memorial Hall, Woodward Avenue Baptist Church; and the banquet took place, Tuesday, June 29, at the Detroit Golf Club. The lovely musical program which preceded the Monday afternoon general ses¬ sion was rendered by pupils from the Stephens School, of which Esther J. Cousins is principal. At the Tuesday afternoon program the music was furnished by the 302 National Education Association District Band and Glee Club — District P — of which Earl R. Laing is district prin¬ cipal. The music on both of these programs demonstrated the splendid quality of the work which is being done in the Detroit schools. The breakfast for the members of the Department and their friends was held in the Ballroom, Statler Hotel, on Monday morning at 7 :30 o’clock, with President Edythe J. Brown presiding. The 22+ persons who attended enjoyed the meal, were glad to see their friends, and were happy to make new acquaintances. The com¬ mittee on arrangements had a feature which caused all present to try to sing. Earl R. Laing, chairman of affairs for the Detroit meeting, opened the meeting by extending a word of welcome to those present and inviting all to intersperse their convention duties with fun and pleasure while they attended to business. He then presented Edythe J. Brown, president of the Department and principal of Kaley- Marquette Schools, South Bend, Indiana. President Brown made several announce¬ ments which were of particular interest to those present, after which the breakfast meeting was adjourned. The banquet, held at the Detroit Golf Club, was one of the most enjoyable affairs ever given for the Department. Appropriate music was rendered by a selective Detroit High School Orchestra as the guests assembled. Attractive girls, dressed in yellow, escorted the 5+0 guests to the tables. The holiday spirit of the group with their ready repartee and banter caused the evening to be one of scintillating en¬ joyment. At the close of the dinner, George P. Becker, a tenor soloist, graciously rendered a number of beautiful songs, followed by several delightful selections by the Ford Dixie Eight. Benjamin Lovett directed twenty couples of young students of Edison Institute, Greenfield Village, in a demonstration of old-time dances. After the young folks showed the “oldsters” how easily and gracefully the dances could be done, Mr. Lovett invited the group to participate. Executive Meeting, Sunday Morning, June 27, 1937 The first executive meeting, held in the library on the Mezzanine floor, Statler Hotel, was called to order by President Edythe J. Brown. Those present were Edythe J. Brown, president; Maude A. Rhodes, second vicepresident; Irvin A. Wilson, third vicepresident; Isabel Tucker, fifth vicepresident; Earl R. Laing, Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, and Mason A. Stratton, members of the Executive Committee; Herbert C. Hansen, director of the Life Membership Division; Cecelia Galvin, member of the Editorial Committee; and Eva G. Pinkston, executive secretary of the Department. The following Detroit people were invited by the president and Mr. Laing, chairman of affairs, to be present: Herman Browe, Esther Cousins, Irene Sauble, and Jennie Clow. Miss Clow told of the arrangements made for the breakfast on Monday morning. Miss Cousins spoke of plans for the afternoon meetings; Miss Sauble gave a report of arrangements made for the banquet; and Dr. Browe told of the plans which had been worked out for courtesy cars to be available thruout the week. All guests for the banquet were to assemble at either the Statler or the Book-Cadillac and be taken to and from the Detroit Golf Club. A motion was made by Mr. Hansen, seconded by Miss Rhodes, that appreciation be expressed to Mr. Laing and thru him to his entire committee for the splendid arrangements made for the meeting. Motion carried. President Brown expressed regret that all members of the Executive Board could not be present and instructed the secretary to write to the absent members. A motion was made by Mr. Laing, seconded by Mr. Stratton, that the reading of the minutes of the February meeting be omitted since they had been sent to each member and later published in the April issue of the National Elementary Principal. Motion carried. A motion was made by Mrs. Joynes, seconded by Mr. Stratton, that a letter of congratulations be sent to Floyd Potter, for his appointment to the new post of director of elementary education in the Atlantic City schools. Motion carried. Department of Elementary School Principals 303 A motion was made by Mr. Stratton, seconded by Miss Tucker, that a revolving fund of $1200 be established so that certain bills of the Department could be paid immediately by the executive secretary instead of waiting until the end of the month. Motion carried. A motion was made by Mr. Wilson, seconded by Miss Tucker, that no charge be made on the fund except by the authority' of the executive secretary. After a discussion of the auditors’ report, Herbert C. Hansen, chairman of the Budget Committee, submitted the following proposed budget for the Department of Elementary School Principals for 1937-38 and moved its adoption. This report was seconded by Mrs. Joynes. Motion carried. Budget 1937-38 Estimated receipts . $25,600 Expenditures Printing . $7,000 General office . 8,000 Salaries . 8,200 Convention expense . 500 Editorial Committee . 500 Miscellaneous . +00 Contingent . 1,000 Total . $25,600 A motion wras made by Miss Tucker, seconded by Mr. Wilson, that the annotated material prepared by Robert Alexander in partial preparation for his master’s degree be checked and supplemented to include the Fifteenth Yearbook. This material is to be printed and sent to all 1937-38 members of the Department of Elementary School Principals as an added service. Motion carried. A motion was made by Mrs. Joynes, seconded by Mr. Hansen, that this annotated material be printed and sold to non-members of 1937-38 for not less than 50 cents. The exact cost will be determined by the executive secretary after bids on printing are received. Motion carried. A motion was made by Miss Rhodes, seconded by Mr. Wilson, that the executive secretary be instructed to write letters to the 1040 new members of the Department, inviting them to become life members. Motion carried. Membership procedures were discussed and it was the decision that the goal set for 1937-38 should be 6000. The Department had an increase of 25 percent for the year 1936-37, the goal at that time was 5000. Meeting recessed until Monday, June 28, at 9:30 a.m. Executive Meeting, Monday Morning, June 28, 1937 The second meeting of the Executive Committee was also held in the library on the Mezzanine floor, Statler Hotel. Those present were: Edythe J. Brown, presi¬ dent; Maude Rhodes, second vicepresident; Irvin Wilson, third vicepresident; Isabel Tucker, fifth vicepresident; Earl Laing, Mason A. Stratton, Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, and Ira M. Kline, members of the Executive Committee; Herbert C. Hansen, director, Life Membership Division; and Eva G. Pinkston, executive secretary. President Brown called the meeting to order. The minutes of the meeting on Sunday, June 27, were read and approved. Some of the problems of the previous meeting wrere discussed again. A motion was made by Miss Tucker, seconded by Mr. Laing, that the Editorial Committee be asked to submit a list of topics for future yearbooks at the February meeting, and that tentative selections be made. This early planning, it was thought, might be of great assistance to the Editorial Committee in planning its work. Motion carried. A motion was made by Mr. Kline, seconded by Miss Rhodes, that the apprecia¬ tion of the Executive Committee be expressed to the Editorial Committee for the 304 National Education Association great amount of work which it has done in editing such splendid yearbooks for the Department, and that the executive secretary be instructed to write a letter to the retiring chairman, Samuel Berman, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, thanking him for giving his time so unstintingly for the three-year period, and for his great contri¬ bution to the principals of the nation. Motion carried. A motion was made by Miss Rhodes, seconded by Miss Tucker, that the Visual Education Committee, of which Harry H. Haw of San Diego, California, had charge, make arrangements to show the motion pictures it has collected, before and after the afternoon programs on Monday and Tuesday. In this way the Com¬ mittee will be given a better opportunity to let the group see the marvelous work which it is doing. Motion carried. The request of Maude McBroom that the Department of Elementary School Principals have a joint meeting with the National Conference on Research in English, of which she is president, at the Atlantic City meeting next February, was discussed. It was decided that inasmuch as the Tuesday afternoon program is always furnished by the group from the state and city in which the convention is held, it would be impossible for the Department to give up the Monday afternoon program to a joint meeting. The Executive Committee regretted exceedingly that it had to make this decision. Mrs. Joynes made a motion, seconded by Mr. Kline, that the secretary write Miss McBroom expressing regret. A motion was made by Mr. Kline, seconded by Mr. Hansen, that the newly elected president appoint a Committee on the Maintenance of Professional Standards for Elementary Principals. This Committee is to consist of five members from dif¬ ferent sections of the United States, with one of the vicepresidents acting as chair¬ man. Motion carried. A motion was made by Mr. Wilson, seconded by Miss Rhodes, that a committee be appointed to contact state departments and request that directories, giving the names of elementary principals, be prepared and published, just as the directories of those wTho are in secondary education. Motion carried. A motion was made by Mr. Laing, seconded by Miss Rhodes, that the Committee for the Conference on Elementary Education be reappointed for this coming year. Motion carried. A motion was made by Mr. Stratton, seconded by Mr. Laing, that the executive secretary be instructed to inquire into the cost of covers or folders to be used and sold with the annotated list of references which is to be sent as an added service to all members of 1937-38. Motion carried. A motion was made by Mr. Hansen, seconded by Mrs. Joynes, that the executive secretary be instructed to wTrite to all who had made this convention such a wmnderful success and express the great appreciation of the officers. Motion carried. Business Meeting, Tuesday Afternoon, June 29, 1937 Reports of the following committees wrere given: Report of Yearbook Committee — Cecelia Galvin Report of Necrology Committee — Isabel Tucker Report of Resolutions Committee — Maude Rhodes Report of the executive secretary. Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Norfolk, Virginia, chairman of the Nominating Committee submitted the report for officers for 1937-38. A motion w^as made by Mrs. Joynes, seconded by Jess Hudson, Tulsa, Oklahoma, that the report be adopted. Sophie Bachmann, Detroit, Michigan, moved that nominations be closed. R. H. Under¬ wood, Fountain City, Tennessee, moved that voting by ballot be dispensed with, that the executive secretary be instructed to cast the vote of the assembly, for the nominees presented by the Committee. This motion was seconded by J. D. Williams, Birmingham, Alabama. Motion carried. The ballot was cast by the executive secretary. (See Historical Note, p. 280.) DEPARTMENT OF Kindergarten-Trim ary Education HISTORICAL NOTE The department of kindergarten-primary education grew out of a meeting of the Froebel Institute of North America, which met in con¬ nection with the Association’s meeting in Madison, Wisconsin, in 1884. The name of the Department was changed in 1927 to the Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-38 are: president, Mrs. Ada J. Farmer, 1623 Southeast Ladd Avenue, Portland, Ore.; vicepresident, Evlyn Bird, 22 East Shadowlawn, Atlanta, Ga.; secre¬ tary-treasurer, Anne O’Neill, Supervisor, Normal School, Monmouth, Ore.; regional directors : Helen Johnson, Supervisor, Central Teachers College, Mt. Pleasant, Mich, (term expires 1938); Ethel Massengale, Kindergarten-Primary Supervisor, Board of Education, Atlanta, Ga. (term expires 1939); A. Maud Sproat, Supervisor, City and County Building, Salt Lake City, Utah ( term expires 1940) ; Ethelyn L. Mitchell, 5535 Kenmore Avenue, Chicago, III. (term expires 1941 ). Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and records of its meetings will be found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1884: 74 1885 \349-368 1886 \500-559 1887 -.331-361 1888 -.323-359 1889 -.441-482 1890 -.543-581 1891 -.527-568 1892 -.251-303 1893 -.321-381 1894 -.679-704 1895 : 510-560 1896 -.471-514 1897 -.584-613 1898 \589-619 1899 -.530-574 1900 \365-402 1901 -.500-539 1902 -.409-429 1903 :377-406 1904 -.415-437 1905 -.341-372 1906 -.626-629 1907 -.455-474 1908 -.501-541 1909 -.437-456 1910 -.375-415 1911 -.477-515 1912 -.607-632 1913 -.425-445 1914 -.405-420 1915 -.629-671 191 6:289-310 191 7 -.417-429 1918 -.151-155 1919 -.171-178 1920 \191-202 1921 -.461-469 1922 -.969-985 1923 -.705-718 1924 -.583-596 1925 -.478-503 1926 -.497-527 1927 -.457-472 1928 -.411-433 1929 -.425-448 1930 :367-389 1931 -.467-481 1932 -.407-414 1933 -.423-433 1934 -.409-421 1935 -.379-388 1936 -.267-273 [ 306 ] THE KINDERGARTEN CENTENNIAL EDNA DEAN BAKER, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, EVANSTON, ILL. The year 1937 marks the one hundredth anniversary of the establish¬ ment of the first kindergarten in Blankenburg, Germany. It also marks the eightieth year since the first kindergarten was open on American soil. In the early reports of the United States Commissioner of Education, the significant statement was made that “so democratic an institution as the kindergarten was more indigenous to American soil than to German soil,” and so it has proved to be. No country in the world has given more recogni¬ tion to the kindergarten or to the ideas enunciated by Froebel and the great group of educational reformers of the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries than the United States. What are the principles of education upon which the kindergarten is based? Nina VandeWalker, in her book on the kindergarten in American education names four which have persisted in their influence not only upon early education but upon all education. Education thru play is readily accepted today, as play rooms, playgrounds, play clubs, and even play schools scattered all over America indicate. This principle, however, was considered extremely radical when Froebel first enunciated it, and it brought forth a volley of protest. Education incorporating natural child interests in singing, talking, making things, playing games, etc., is a second principle which has inserted new life into the school, until today every modern school has caught the idea to some extent. Froebel talked much about self-activity and its influence in relation to learning. Modern interpretations of that principle have led to much learn¬ ing by doing and considerable creative effort and creative expression. Perhaps the greatest single contribution of the kindergarten has been the emphasis upon social education versus solitary play. Froebel started an ex¬ periment in social education that has been one of the participating forces bringing about the wide experimentation along social lines in the modern school. We might say, as did the boy who was asked to give the gold fish fresh water: “They ain’t finished the water I gave them yesterday yet.” We are still at work on these principles of education. It took genius to discover them ; it has taken as great or greater genius to find out how to make them work most effectively. In the years following the death of Froebel the kindergarten was promoted by his students not only in Europe and in the United States but, largely by * the inclusion of it in missionary enterprises, it spread all over the world. Japan is a good illustration, from the inception of the kindergarten in that country, thru the opening of the Glory Kindergarten many years ago by Annie Howe, to the present time when kindergartens are generally a part of public schools. The growth of the kindergarten, however, was not rapid in any country. No large sums of money were spent on propaganda, no great magazine sup- [ 307 ] 308 National Education Association ported it, as was the case with the early introduction of the Montessori School into this country. On the contrary, many women like Elizabeth Peabody, Susan Blow, Kate Douglas Wiggin, Mrs. Alice Putnam, Eliza¬ beth Harrison and, in more recent years, Alice Temple, Patty Smith Hill, and Lucy Gage gave devoted, ardent, and self-sacrificing services in its behalf. A few men of vision supported them. William T. Harris, Francis Parker, and William Hailman are among those who, in the early period of the ETnited States, were of the greatest assistance in spreading the kinder¬ garten idea. Clubs, churches, settlements, and later public schools began to adopt the kindergarten, and the pioneer period came to a close with the opening of the nineteenth century. During this early period the influence of the kindergarten on other forms of education was profound. Gradually singing, games, stories, handwork, pictures, flowers, pets, began to appear in schoolrooms, heretofore ornamented only by blackboards, clocks, and globes and devoted to the formal teaching of the three R's. The influence of the kindergarten began to appear in the home, as well as in the school; The Mutter and Rose Leider by Froebel stressed the im¬ portance of mothers playing with their children and suggested that crude instinct was not enough to guide mothers in the wise handling of their infants and young children. Kindergartners following the example of Froebel developed many contacts with the home, including mothers meetings. Sporadic and unscientific as these early attempts at parent education were, they laid the foundation for the modern parent education movement. The influence of the kindergarten spread to the church, to the settlement, to the community; great expositions featured the kindergarten; Chautauqua speakers eloquently pictured the happiness of little children in the modern child school ; and gradually the attitude of people in general toward young children and their early training changed. The education of the little child became important in a way that it had never appeared to be before. The principles of education, of which we have spoken, permeated the contact of various organizations and institutions in the community in their relationships to children. The kindergarten was not perfect as Froebel worked it out ; in fact, it had many weak places. During the pioneer years those wdio had studied with Froebel tended more and more to adhere to the letter of his contribution and the pattern of the early kindergarten school crystallized into a routine. The happy, free, out-of-door life in forest, on hill, and in the village which Froebel emphasized in connection with his own work with children, was largely forgotten and many kindergartens became entirely indoor schools with a set program and materials. Beginning late in the nineteenth century reformers within and without the ranks of the kindergarten grew busy in the effort to change it. Out¬ standing among such reformers were G. Stanley Hall, Patty Smith Hill, and William H. Kilpatrick. They criticized the small blocks, the intricate designs on sewing cards and weaving mats, the complicated marches and highly organized games, the lengthy talks, stories, and songs. They criticized, Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 309 too, the philosophy of Froebel, particularly his stress upon symbolism and his use of symbolism in all of the activities of the kindergarten. Some of the movements which have contributed to modern childhood education and to the reform of the kindergarten are the Child Study Move¬ ment, of which G. Stanley Hall was the first great leader ; the Child Devel¬ opment Movement, with which we connect the names of Arnold Gesell, Bird T. Baldwin, Helen T. Woolley, George Stoddard, John Anderson, and others; the so-called Scientific Movement in education, and that other movement so fruitful of change which John Dewey has led — the Social Education Movement. Hygiene, including mental hygiene, has played its part, as has the Montessori School and the nursery school, in making the modern kindergarten what it is today. Perhaps no single contribution has been as great as that of the nursery school. These schools which were developed in England as early as 1907 by Grace Owen, a kindergartner, and the Macmillan sisters, who were social workers, began to appear in the United States in 1919. In 1930 there were 343 of them. In 1932 the United States Government opened emergency nursery schools, and in the four years since that time these schools have appeared in practically all the states and several island possessions, taking care of an enrolment of around 50,000 children each year. Emphasis in both the regular nursery schools and in the emergency nur¬ sery schools or the WPA nursery schools has been on health, social welfare, parent education, pre-parental education and, particularly in the regular nursery schools, upon research in child development and the use of research in building the program. All of these contributions of organizations and individuals have empha¬ sized the importance in the preschool years of every contact, of home and school and community, upon the life of the child. They have emphasized the value and necessity of the mutual cooperation of parents and teachers work¬ ing together upon common problems. They have stressed the fact that each has information necessary to the others. In the kindergarten today we see several significant trends. The health of the child has first consideration. There is often a thoro physical examina¬ tion for each child, either before he enters the kindergarten or soon after; daily inspection by a nurse or a physician insures the comparative safety of the children in relation to the common cold and children’s contagions. Teachers are trained to understand the health needs of young children and to work consistently for good habits. There is also an understanding of the importance of mental health. Kindergarten teachers have always known that it was important to make the kindergarten a happy place, but they have not known how to eliminate tension, to induce relaxation, to develop poise and self-control, as well as they do today. The kindergartner, like the nursery school teacher, attempts to modify or eliminate the child’s fears, his temper tantrums, his moodiness and overaggressiveness. A second trend in the modern kindergarten is the attempt to understand and help the individual child to learn and to express himself according to 310 National Education Association his individual make-up and to modify or eliminate individual difficulties or handicaps. In the past, kindergarten children, like grade children, have been handled more en masse, altho it has been a part of the kindergarten philosophy to care for each individual. The technics, however, for doing this have not been well known or as successfully used as at the present time. The kindergarten has always given attention to the social needs of children, but not until the recent studies on character and social development, have the teachers understood behavior as a symptom and index of character. There is, therefore, a new attack upon this problem at the present time with a full understanding that so many later personality difficulties get started during the preschool years. The kindergarten has taken its place with the progressive primary grades in the movement to develop a purposeful activity curriculum adapted to the abilities and needs of young children. Large materials are in use, much freedom is allowed for choice, a great deal of experimental play precedes purposeful construction; projects are based upon the interests of the child in nature and in the social life about him. One such project, or more fully organized unit, leads on to another in a program which takes care of growth of the individual and watches carefully for the experiences which new maturations make possible. This curriculum is designed not only to give the child tolerant under¬ standing of the world in which he lives but also to allow him abundant op¬ portunity for creative work, particularly along the line of the arts. Every child is an embryo artist, and in the modern kindergarten he wields the brush, the hammer, and the needle ; and every child has the opportunity to work in clay, in sand, and to build with blocks. As a result of all the influences that have reached the kindergarten and the changes that have been brought to pass one might well say of the modern kindergarten as did the child to the teacher who complimented him upon his improvement, “Well, I think you have improved, too!” In spite of the improvement and the growth, the kindergarten at its peak enrolment in the United States has registered only 750,000 children in about 3500 cities and towns. It is estimated that these children represent only 14 percent of the four- and five-year-olds in this country, so that 86 percent are still without the opportunity. In this connection we might say as Jack did of the new baby, “He isn’t big for his size, is he?’’ But when the baby began to cry, Jack hastily remarked, “But he has a large voice for his age!” The present kindergarten is a part of the much larger movement, the modern childhood education movement; it is vocal, it does have a large voice, and it is being heard ! We, therefore, look forward in the not very distant future to legislation in our various states which will accord to all the four- and five-year-old chil¬ dren the privilege of a good modern kindergarten, and to the parents of these children opportunities for a new understanding of them. Therefore, better homes and more effective training will fit these children for mem¬ bership in the primary grades and for successful living. Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 311 THE YOUNG CHILD AS A PERSON GARRY CLEVELAND MYERS, HEAD, DEPARTMENT OF PARENT EDUCATION, CLEVELAND COLLEGE, WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY, CLEVELAND, OHIO Let us think today of the young child as a person rather than as a pupil. If, indeed, we can understand him as a person, we shall easily come to know him as a pupil. Anyway, he is most interesting as a person. But we are prone to ignore his personality because we oldsters, creatures of habits that we are, tend to grow so absorbed in the measurable and material as to overlook the immeasurable and spiritual. The little person in the kindergarten or primary grades has been a person since his birth, if not before, and a person different from all other persons of the entire world. He has grown slightly different from the person that he was, yet tremendously like the one he was. What he is as a person he grew to be, to a great extent, while at home before he entered school. Even during his school years new patterns of his personality are being molded, for the most part, in his home. The springs of his emotional life are there. In order, therefore, to understand this child as a person, we need to know his family, need to know all who have been nearest and dearest to him. Our success in helping this child to develop best will depend on how well we are able to build at school upon the best habits, feelings, and attitudes he has exercised at home ; will depend, moreover, on how well we are able to culti¬ vate the growth of these best items by helping his parents celebrate their own successes at properly guiding this child and in leading these parents to choose to seek ways of growing to become still better parents. The child at school is not just an individual child but a personality tied by heartstrings of pains and pleasures, hopes and fears, joys and sorrows. It is his emotional life that is most significant. Facing every child are con¬ flicts with his parents and other adults who assume responsibility for his conduct, and the conflicts he must have with other children. How mild and few these conflicts are is a measure of the child’s mental health, personality, and behavior — his happiness, likableness, citizenship. The school affords special opportunities for the child to learn to get along with other children happily: lots of other children there to mingle with. But the child who has not from his early years at home played freely with those of his age right near the house he lives in, who has never learned to get along well on the home playground, and who therefore is a lonely, timid child, will continue all the more to be a lonely, timid child at school, in the presence of so many other children. What we are prone to overlook is that the child’s social fears and anxieties at school and his dread of ridicule have more to do in impairing his learning progress than anything else, as a rule. How well he can speak, how well he can concentrate, how well he can study at school depend largely on the degree of emotional comfortableness he enjoys in the classroom and on the school playground. 312 National Education Association NEW WAYS WITH POETRY MAY HILL ARBUTHNOT, WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY, CLEVELAND, OHIO It is always a bit presumptuous to attach the word new to anything we do. About the time we think we have something really new to spring upon the breathless world, we discover that one of the Ptolomeys, some two thousand B.C., abandoned our pet novelty as smacking of the old-fashioned methods of his father’s dynasty. Therefore, I hasten to explain that while my “New Ways with Poetry” might have seemed old ways to Methu¬ selah’s tutor, still I use that naive phrase for the purpose of calling atten¬ tion to certain shifts of emphasis in our use of poetry with young children today. This shift is noticeable first, in the kind of poetry we are choosing in the elementary school. First of all, we make sure that the poetry we choose for children is genuine poetry. The doggerel we leave to the nonsense verse, of which children will always demand a liberal allowance. Of the authentic poetry, we choose material that is on the whole livelier, gayer, and briefer than adult poetry. We avoid nature personifications because they are all too often poor verse, and chiefly because they confuse the literal-minded young child. Aside from this possible limitation, subjects may be almost anything within the child’s age interest, just so they are treated simply, directly, and without ambiguity. Most of the poems we choose will be markedly rhythmic in character. We shall expect no subtle analysis of poetry by the children but instead we shall hope to lead them to such wholehearted participation in saying poems, hunting for poems, and incidentally reading them voluntarily, that it will become a lifelong habit. Finally, we must remember that not all poetry skips and frolics. With this in mind we shall slip in occasional ex¬ amples of the great lyric poetry that is the heritage of every English-speaking person. We will choose such simple ones, at the child’s own level, that we shall hope that presently he, too, will find time ... to turn at Beauty’s glance And watch her feet how they can dance. Because, after all, one of the objectives of our new-old ways with poetry is to equip these children with a richer leisure than perhaps their parents enjoyed ; the kind of leisure W. H. Davis describes in his poem of that name: What is this life if, full of care, We h ave no time to stand and stare. No time to sit beneath the boughs And stare as long as sheep or cows. No time to see, when wToods we pass, Where squirrels hide their nuts in grass. Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 313 No time to see, in broad daylight, Streams full of stars, like stars at night. No time to turn at Beauty’s glance, And watch her feet, how they can dance. No time to wait till her mouth can Enrich that smile her eyes began. A poor life this if, full of care, We have no time to stand and stare. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Detroit, Michigan Business Meeting, Tuesday Afternoon, June 29, 1937 The annual business meeting of the Department of Kindergarten-Primary Educa¬ tion of the National Education Association was called to order by the president, Mrs. Ada J. Farmer, with Grace F. Andrews acting secretary in the absence of Anna O’Neill. The minutes for the 1936 meeting were approved as printed in the Proceedings. The financial report, as of June 1, 1937, was read and accepted. A. Maud Sproat, a member of the Executive Board, then presented a proposal from the Board that certain matters be considered for the more effective functioning of the Department. Having secured the unanimous consent of the group, the bylaws were altered, incorporating the proposed changes regarding membership. Article III was stricken out and “D” of the proposal was substituted, to read: “All N.E.A. members who are interested in early childhood education shall thereby become members of the Kinder¬ garten-Primary Department.” Motion was made by A. Maud Sproat, seconded by Ella Victoria Dobbs. Article IV, Section 5, was amended to read, “The retiring President shall become a consulting member of the Executive Board for the period of two years following her retirement.” Motion was made by A. Maud Sproat, seconded by Donna Hill. Article IX, Section 1, regarding dues, was eliminated. Motion was made by Miss Sproat, seconded by Mrs. Eugenia West Jones. A motion was made by Anna Irene Jenkins, seconded by A. Maud Sproat and carried, that the president communicate to Willard E. Givens the action taken, especially concerning the payment of dues, and urge that “C” of Board’s proposal be given serious consideration by the Executive Committee of the N.E.A. “C. Proposed, that the National Education Association shall make available necessary funds for the organization of a program for the Annual Convention.” The following committees were appointed by the president to act thruout the year: Resolutions — Grace Phelps, Detroit, Mich.; Mrs. Cooper, Pomona, Calif., and Mrs. E. J. Lemaire, Detroit, Mich.; Publicity — Mrs. Grace Bowe, Los Angeles, Calif., Marjorie Struble, Detroit, Mich., and Hattie Parrott, Raleigh, N. C. Motion was made by Anna Irene Jenkins that the president appoint a Head¬ quarters Committee to see that suitable and attractive headquarters be maintained at all convention meetings. The motion was seconded by Donna Hill and carried. A brief statement by Harriett M. Chase and by Mary Leeper on the advisability of keeping members of the Department informed of materials available from the United States Office of Education was made. The Courtesy Committee, of which Anna Irene Jenkins is chairman, reported at the luncheon on Wednesday noon. The Nominating Committee presented the following report: “That present officers be reelected and that Ethelyn L. Mitchell of Chicago, Illinois, be chosen to fill the 314 National Education Association vacancy on the Educative Board left by the retirement of Dodie Hooe of Dallas, Texas.” The report was accepted, and a unanimous vote cast for the officers. (See Historical Note, p. 306.) At the request of Mrs. Eugenia West Jones, a note of appreciation for the untiring efforts and services of the officers of the past year was acclaimed by the group. Meeting adjourned. DEPARTMENT OF £ip Treading HISTORICAL NOTE The department of lip reading was established at the Philadelphia meeting of the National Education Association in July 1926, following the required successive meetings of the group , and after a petition had been presented to the Association. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-38 are: president, Eliza C. Hannegan, Public School Adult Classes, Portland, Maine; vice- president, Mary E. Van Horn , 360 East Fiftieth Street, New York, N. Y secretary-treasurer, Elsie 0. Bensing , 932 38th Street, Des Moines, Iowa. Meetings are held once each year in July. The Department publishes an occasional Bulletin. The annual dues, $1, are payable to the Secretary- Treasurer. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are to be found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 192 6:1067-1100 1927: 473- 486 1928: 435- 446 1929: 446- 462 1930 : 39 1-400 1931 \483-494 1932 -.415-422 1933 -.435-443 1934 -.423-433 1935 -.389-396 1936 -.275-282 [ 316 ] GREETINGS MRS. A. J. KNISELY, PRESIDENT OF DETROIT LEAGUE FOR THE HARD OF HEARING, DETROIT, MICH. IT is with much pleasure that the Detroit Society for the Hard of Hearing extends greetings and a hearty welcome to the lip-reading section of the National Education Association. We are very grateful to the faithful teachers who have taught us, step by step, the words that are conveyed by the eyes, after the ear has failed us. It is thru you that the deaf and hard-of-hearing child and adult go forth to a fuller, happier existence, able to take their place in life. We hope your stay in our city will accomplish two objectives: (1) that you will receive new inspirations for your work with deafened children, and also the adult you may come in contact with; (2) that you can find some time to visit some of the high spots of interest in Detroit, especially the Art Gallery and Public Library on Woodward Avenue. May you go home with a warm feeling in your heart for Detroit and the many friends you have made here. GREETINGS GERTRUDE VAN ADESTINE, SUPERVISING PRINCIPAL, DETROIT DAY SCHOOL FOR DEAF, DETROIT, MICH. It is my happy privilege today to welcome to our school and its activities this particular group of the National Education Association which has for its objective a better understanding of those with the handicap of defective hearing. And while our activities are based on the needs of the younger per¬ sons — that is, the children — we are mindful of the fact that our vision must be far-sighted enough to see these children as they become adults. Our purpose is twofold : ( 1 ) to teach the child to live with himself, to face his handicap and the shortage it may involve, and also to appraise his own abilities and make the most of them; and (2) to teach him to live with and among others, and in so doing learn to adjust himself to a society that demands much of its members. The last time the National Education Association met in Detroit, in 1901, our school was in its infancy. However, it presented a program of beginning speech and lip reading which showed the possibilities of success with teaching children with this type of handicap. As the years have gone by, the work has developed until at the present time we have in our school 315 pupils to whom are taught the elementary subjects with speech and lip reading and whose hearing is trained for further usefulness. The school also serves in bringing to the slightly deafened children who remain in the regular grades, training in lip reading which is taught at various centers in the hearing schools. At the present time we bring relief and renewed courage to well over 600 children handicapped by hearing difficulties. [317] 318 National Education Association Together with the entire membership of the Lip Reading Department of the National Education Association we meet on a common ground of service to the ear handicapped, and in hopeful anticipation of greater opportunities of understanding their needs we bid you welcome to our school. VISUAL HEARING OF THE SPOKEN WORD MARIE K. MASON, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF SPEECH CLINIC, AND ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF SPEECH AND VISUAL HEARING, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO We live in a world of countless and varied sounds. We hear all about us the sounds of industry, of commerce, of nature. In our daily communica¬ tions with other human beings we hear the oral articulations and vocal inflections which we call speech. We do not depend wholly upon the ear for this communication. It is said that 30 percent of what we hear depends upon vision. We interpret spoken thought not merely from the words a speaker utters, but also from his ac¬ companying facial expression and bodily gesture which convey so much of the real meaning of speech. For the normal hearing person, this understanding of speech is both an “auditory” and a “visual” function. For the person of defective hearing, it becomes, according to the degree of impairment, a partial or complete “visual” process. The term “visual hearing” (visual comprehension of spoken thought), therefore, seems to be accurately expressive of this function of the hard-of-hearing person who “hears by means of the eyes.” Some contributing factors which affect a successful visual comprehension of spoken thought may be: 1. Variations in the visible speech manifestations of different speakers in their utterance of the same oral statement 2. Variations in the visible speech manifestations of the same speaker in successive repetitions of the same oral statement 3. Variation in rate in which different speakers give the same oral statement 4. Variation in light upon the speaker’s face in different situations 5. Variation in distance from the speaker to the “visual hearer.” These factors incapable of control in ordinary classroom situations, may be made effectively constant by the use of the motion picture technic, origi¬ nated by the author and in daily use in her visual hearing classes. In this Visual Hearing Method, a motion picture camera is used to photograph speakers while making an oral statement. When projected on a screen, the above mentioned factors of variations of light, rate, and visible speech differ¬ ences are identical on each showing of the film. Such technic was used by the author to measure the progress of groups of students and of individuals. Two tests were administered, one at the be¬ ginning of the experiment and another at the end of a course in visual hear¬ ing. In each test the student was asked to write his visual comprehension of “silent” screen speech. A control group was used for comparison. This group consisted of students who received no instruction in the subject. Department of Lip Reading 319 Analysis of the objectively scored students’ responses leads to the follow¬ ing conclusions : L The efficacy of the Visual Hearing Method in teaching visual com¬ prehension of spoken thought. 2. Marked progress indicated in the achievement of all-visual hearing students, as compared with the non-visual hearing groups. 3. Students’ scores of the two tests show a uniformity of achievement. 4. That “visual hearing” is used not only by individuals with defective hearing, but by those of normal hearing as well. 5. That the factor of “memory” assists in a test of “visual hearing.” SPEECH-READING IN COLLEGE ANNA M. BUNGER, INSTRUCTOR IN SPEECH READING, MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE, YPSILANTI, MICH. In twenty years of growth as a public school subject, speech-reading has reached the college and university in three fields — rehabilitation, teacher training, and research. Michigan State Normal College had the first ac¬ credited course for adults in 1926. Speech-reading is now offered in one or more of the three fields in nine colleges and universities. College is the logical place to look for instruction in how to develop a skill which will do more than anything else to normalize the deafened person’s contact with the people of his world. The advantages and opportunities of studying speech-reading in college are dependent not only on the fact that the subject can be pursued in direct connection with departments of speech, psychology, and physical education, but also on the outside activities and general living conditions which the students on a college campus are obliged to accept. They cannot escape daily application of classroom instruction and practise since they contact dozens of other students in the course of their daily living. The length of the aca¬ demic year is sufficient time to bring students to a realization of their own responsibility in applying general practise habits to individual needs. To students of a regular college age, the speech-reading classes may be the determining factor in deciding whether there will be a college education. To older students, the campus offers opportunities to follow some long cherished interest in connection with the study of speech-reading. The variety of life interests and vocations insures a spirit of friendly cooperation among the students. The normal college training classes for teachers have before them many challenging opportunities. New methods and technics must be developed. Teachers going into the public schools must have a comprehensive knowledge of the problems and needs of the deaf and hard-of-hearing child and special training for the teaching of speech and speech-reading. They must know how to care for patients recovering from diseases which cause deafness and also how to use group hearing-aids and audiometers. The greatest contribu¬ tion to the future of the work for deaf and hard-of-hearing children lies in the adequate training of teachers. 320 National Education Association The work of one field contributes to the work of another field. Research departments can train field workers to become experts in diagnosis and in¬ struction for remedial measures. School superintendents can employ full¬ time speech-reading teachers for their high schools, a real need at the present time. State legislatures can increase the appropriations for their normal col¬ leges so that speech-reading classes may be organized to serve hundreds of hard-of-hearing students in the colleges all over the country. Audiometer tests as a requirement for all incoming freshmen would reveal the appalling need for college speech-reading classes. The first eleven years of college speech-reading classes point the way to far-reaching advancement for the cause. Speech-reading belongs in college! LIP READING FOR THE YOUNGER HARD-OF-HEARING CHILD LAURA WORDEN PALMER, DIRECTOR OF DAY SCHOOL FOR DEAF AND HARD OF HEARING, ST. CLOUD, MINN. From the topic assigned I assume that we are to discuss the problems presented by the hard-of-hearing child from kindergarten thru the primary grades. These problems are: (1) what material should be used, and (2) how shall it be presented ? We all know from experience how necessary it is to gain the child’s interest and have him realize what fun the lip reading period can be. I have found that in the beginning the use of simple sense-training devices, espe¬ cially that of matching pictures pleases the tiny child very much. It is best that these be simple and easy at first, for then the child has the delightful feeling of having accomplished something, and is ready for the next task. One difficulty which arises is that the lip reading teacher must necessarily include in her primary group the children from kindergarten and the first three grades. Perhaps the work which is easy enough for the kindergarten child may seem to bore the third-grade child. Personally, I have never had this trouble. The matching process to be of value must proceed rapidly; and by letting the third-grade child match first, he is later interested in see¬ ing how well the younger children do. I never use the same device twice in the same year with the same group. If as time goes on, I find one or more children who are slow to grasp lip reading, I plan more and more sense training rather than less and less. It means that one has to use ingenuity to make them harder and still keep them interesting, but I know it pays. When it comes to choosing the material for the actual lip reading lesson, one must be guided by the activities which are going on in the child’s class¬ room. Here, of course, is that same difficulty of having children coming from perhaps four different classrooms. Also we must choose a vocabulary of visible words for our first lessons. It has been my experience that all primary teachers use the family and home as their first approach ; and since we can find many visible words in connection with the home, we should be able to plan our first lessons around such an activity. Department of Lip Reading 321 Other activities which can be worked out for the mixed primary grades are Our Pets, Our Helpers (postman, policeman, milkman, fireman, etc.), Building a House, Safety, Transportation, and those which are suggested thruout the year. In presenting these lessons it is very essential that many appropriate pictures be used. Every lip reading teacher should have a file at her disposal for keeping all pictures that she finds or that the children bring in. Surely there is no other teaching job which requires as much preparation or as much ingenuity on the part of the teacher as that of the primary lip reading teacher. It needs the concentrated efforts of us all to work out our common problems, and I am sure we all desire suggestions and welcome constructive criticism. LIP READING FOR THE YOUNGER HARD-OF-HEARING CHILD ELIZABETH A. SCHLEICHER, TEACHER OF LIP READING, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, GARY, IND. Since our kindergarten, first-, and second-grade children are not given group tests with the 4A-audiometer, we discover the younger hard-of-hearing children only when teachers, parents, doctors, or nurses refer them to the school physician for advice. Some of them are able to take a 2A-audiometer test or they can be tested in other ways. If there is any question of their ability to hear, they are given a trial in the lip reading class. It is very difficult to select appropriate material for these children. They are almost always poor readers and better results are obtained in the lip reading class if, for a time, the same vocabulary as they use in their academic classes is used. These children are asked to bring their readers to the lip reading class and the academic teacher assigns the lesson that we are to use. It is one which has been studied in the reading class or one in which there are no new words to be worked out. The lip reading lesson consists of questions ex¬ pressed in the words of the book, and the children read the answers from their books. The questions must be simple and worded in such a way that they can be answered in a word or two, for the lesson must not drag. Some¬ times we write the hard words on the board as we find them, or we use the printed word cards for sentence building and conversation practise. After a few months of this kind of work, the children show a decided improvement in oral reading and comprehension as well as in lip reading. In the first lessons we say nothing about the formation of movements. The formal work is begun later. Most of the younger hard-of-hearing children, as well as the older ones, have voice and speech defects, and they also have work with the teacher of speech re-education in addition to their lip reading lessons. All of the children like to have a short test at the end of each lesson. This is made simple enough so that most of them can make perfect marks. The grades are recorded on a chart which is put on the wall where all of 322 National Education Association the children can see it. It is the first thing that they look at when they come in for their lesson. The children love games, too, especially those in which they can follow directions. There are some very good ones published now, and others can be worked out from pictures and clippings that the children bring. These pictures and clippings probably indicate their interests. By keeping these interests constantly in mind we can work toward a program which will cultivate their special talents and capabilities. These may later develop into hobbies or even into a field of work that will enable them to become respon¬ sible citizens. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS ELIZA C. HANNEGAN, PUBLIC SCHOOL ADULT CLASSES, PORTLAND, MAINE It is a privilege for me to be present today and to greet you personally. The interest and cooperation of the officers and members of the Department have been largely responsible for the remarkable progress made this year. The meetings of yesterday and today are evidence of the fine spirit of the midwestern members. To Margaret Kelly, program chairman, to Mrs. Knisely and the Detroit League for the Hard of Hearing, to Gertrude Van Adestine and the faculty of the Detroit Day School for the Deaf, and to all who participated in the program and exhibit, including the American Society for the Hard of Hearing, the Department is very grateful. The ap¬ preciation of their services is not limited to those who have been present at the meetings. It has been expressed verbally and in letters to me by others who regretted their inability to attend. The nominating chairman, Jane Cronholm; the membership chairman, Mary \ an Horn; the editor of The Lip Reader , Mrs. Bertha Chase; and the members of their committees have given generous service that merits the deepest appreciation. The Lip Reader, published that we might have a better understanding of the national aspects of our work, has aroused interest in hearing programs in various public school systems and has been the means of sustaining Depart¬ ment memberships. The membership chairman and others who have secured new member¬ ships have promoted the National Education Association as well as the Department of Lip Reading. The Detroit Day School for the Deaf has made an outstanding record in this Department by the enrolment of the principal and sixteen members of the faculty. While the membership is larger than in any preceding year and covers a wide area, the Department of Lip Read¬ ing is probably the smallest, numerically, in the National Education Associa¬ tion. We must go forward! We must have vision to extend our work and bring others into our ranks. The hard-of-hearing members of the Depart¬ ment, who are the successors of its hard-of-hearing founders, should wel¬ come the interest and enrolment not only of other teachers with impaired hearing but of teachers with normal hearing, especially those who have Department of Lip Reading 323 specialized in our field of education. Only by contact, intelligent study, and free discussion can problems confronting us be solved. Communities are becoming more conscious of the problems related to hear¬ ing losses and school administrators will be guided, naturally, by the atti¬ tudes and policies of the National Education Association. It is my earnest hope that the Department of Lip Reading may be given an important part in the shaping of these attitudes and policies. During the past year, Associa¬ tion officials have been most responsive to requests made by this Department. Can we not show our gratitude by striving more earnestly to carry out the ideals of the Association and those of the Department of Lip Reading? Someone has said: “Ideals are like stars. You cannot touch them with your fingers, but like the mariner on the desert of waters, you can follow them and following, come to port.” Let us take as one ideal for the coming year, a 100 percent increase in membership. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Detroit, Michigan First Session, Tuesday Afternoon, June 29, 1937 The eleventh meeting of the Department of Lip Reading of the National Education Association was held in Detroit, Michigan, June 27 to July 1, 1937. The program was arranged in two sessions, both meeting at the Detroit Day School for the Deaf. The first session, “Open House,” at the Detroit Day School for the Deaf, was held on Tuesday, June 29, 1937, at 3 p. m. A cordial greeting was extended by the prin¬ cipal, Gertrude Van Adestine. The pupils of the School presented a program of rhythms and dancing, under the direction of Mrs. Gertrude Darnell, the health edu¬ cation director of the School. Following the program, tea was served thru the courtesy of the Detroit League for the Hard of Hearing. An exhibit of interesting materials was displayed thru the courtesy of the American Society for the Hard of Hearing and members of the Department of Lip Reading. The guests were then cordially invited to inspect the building. Second Session, Wednesday Afternoon, June 30, 1937 The second session was held on June 30, at 2 p. m. The auditorium, which was wired for the occasion by the courtesy of the Detroit League for the Hard of Hear¬ ing, was filled to capacity. Among those present were members of the League, otolo¬ gists, teachers of deaf and hard-of-hearing children, teachers of lip reading to adults, and officers and members of the Department of Special Education of the N.E.A., meeting in a separate section. An interesting educational program was given, followed by the business meeting. The business meeting was called to order by the president, Eliza C. Hannegan. The report of the Nominating Committee was read by Jane Cronholm. It was moved and seconded that the report of the Nominating Committee be accepted. The motion was carried. The president instructed the secretary-treasurer, Marie K. Mason, to cast the ballot. (For list of officers, see Historical Note, p. 316.) The secretary-treasurer, Marie K. Mason, then read her reports, which follow: Report of the Secretary-Treasurer The eleventh annual report of the secretary-treasurer of the Department of Lip Reading for 1936-37 represents a period of increasing growth. Since June 1936, 32 new members have been added to our membership, 17 of them being teachers in the Detroit Day School for the Deaf. We are happy to 324 National Education Association welcome these newcomers and wish to highly commend the Membership Commit¬ tee at this time for its splendid endeavor. We are especially pleased to note our new memberships more than double the figure for last year which was 14. Ninety renewals were received out of our 1935-36 membership of 99. Out of these 9 non-renewals, the following three have sent in their resignations: Mrs. Isabel Ausherman, Miami, N. Mex. ; Pansy Olney, Sioux Falls, S. Dak.; Elizabeth Warren, Boston, Mass. Two members who dropped out in 1935-36 renewed their membership this year, which makes a total of 92 renewals. This figure to¬ gether with the 32 new members makes our total membership 124. We feel very much encouraged by this report, since in 1935-36 there were 27 non-renewals compared with but 9 this year. And of this 9, 3 had been members for one year, 2 for two years, 2 for three years, and 2 for four years. During the year the printed bulletin, The Lip Reader, was sent to members of the Department of Lip Reading by the editor, Mrs. Bertha W. Chase, and her assistant, Mrs. Blanche Haskell of Portland, Maine. This bulletin in its present form is a substantial improvement over the mimeographed form of previous years, and we feel the editor is due a vote of thanks for her excellent achievement. The duties of the secretary-treasurer for the past year included: (1) mailing statement of dues to all members, and the regular follow-up work, in an effort to obtain as many renewals as possible; (2) forwarding membership cards; (3) relaying dues to the N.E.A. secretary; (4) keeping membership list up to date for our president, Miss Hannegan, and chairman of the Program Committee, Miss Kelly; (5) answering inquiries concerning lip reading and the activities of the Department; (6) publishing announcements ; and (7) communicating with officers of the N.E.A. and the Department. It may be of interest to note that New York state leads in membership with 24 members; Michigan next with 20; Massachusetts third with 13; California fourth with 11; Minnesota fifth with 10, and New Jersey and Washington tie for sixth place with 5. As I close this second term as secretary-treasurer to the Department of Lip Reading, I wish to gratefully acknowledge the splendid cooperation of all officers in the N.E.A. and the Department, and to thank those responsible for bestowing upon me the honor of serving in this office. The work has been most enjoyable, and I was delighted to serve in this capacity. Financial Report of the Treasurer The balance in the treasury of the Department of Lip Reading on June 1, 1937, was $152.52. The balance on hand June 1, 1936, was $138.01. The financial state¬ ment from June 1, 1936, to June 1, 1937, is as follows: Debit Credit Balance on hand June 1, 1936 . $138.01 Receipts in 1937 Memberships (124) . 124.00 Expenditures 3 issues of The Lip Reader, including printing, postage, and envelopes . $67.64 Stationery, stamps . $31.85 Stenographic services . $10.00 Total debits . $109.49 Balance on hand June 1, 1937 . $152.52 It was moved and seconded that these reports be accepted. The motion was carried. The president’s address followed. Miss Hannegan voiced her appreciation of the splendid cooperation accorded her by the officers of the Department of Lip Reading and the program committee of the conference. (This address appears in the preced¬ ing pages.) The meeting closed on a motion for adjournment. DEPARTMENT OF -Music Education HISTORICAL NOTE The department of music education was created by the Board of Directors at the Madison, Wis., meeting in 1884. The Department, dis¬ continued in 1928, was re-created in 1934 by action of the Representative Assembly at the Washington meeting. No officers were elected for 1937-38. The following committee was ap¬ pointed to work with the president of the Music Educators Conference : Fozder Smith, Director of Music Education, Detroit Public Schools, Detroit, Mich.; Clara Ellen Starr, Detroit, Mich.; and Juva Higby, Ann Arbor, Mich. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1884: 23 1885 -.369-405 1886 -.563-599 1887 -.607-653 1888 -.625-665 1889 -.665-703 1890 -.811-827 1891 : 807-827 1892 -.507-533 1893 -.507-543 1894 -.925-957 1895 -.765-807 189 6:718-754 1897 : 772-792 1898 :832-856 1899 -.970-998 1900 -.531-542 1901 -.704-721 190 2:614-644 1903 -.683-719 1904: 675- 709 1905: 627- 668 1906: 703- 706 1907: 849- 877 1908: 835- 862 1909: 673- 701 1910: 789- 833 1911: 787- 827 1912 -.1001-1031 1913: 601- 619 1914: 625- 649 1915: 847- 883 1916: 575- 613 1917: 473- 491 1918: 315- 323 1919: 291- 303 1920: 309- 311 1921 : 507- 515 1922 -.1047-1063 1923: 733- 737 1924 -.597-613 1925 -.504-522 1926 -.527-536 1927 -.487-495 1934 -.435-440 1935 -.397-402 1936 -.283-287 [ 326 ] VOCAL MUSIC AND SECONDARY EDUCATION HARRY W. SEITZ, HEAD, MUSIC DEPARTMENT, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, AND INSTRUCTOR IN VOICE, WAYNE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH. For many years we have generally thought of singing and the teaching of singing as the simple process of assembling students into glee clubs, choruses, etc., teaching them songs and calling it finished. After years of this sort of thing we find that school music has not progressed as we had expected it to do. Many of us as individuals have given this problem careful study and experimentation over a period of some years. We are willing to admit that much of the trouble, that is, our failure to attain the heights in choral music, is that we have not taught our students the use of their voices. By that I mean actual and definite voice training is not given to our classes before these classes grow into choruses, choirs, glee clubs, etc. It is not my purpose today to convince anyone of the value of class lessons in voice ; their value has been proved. What we are still looking for are methods of procedure, better materials, and more definite and higher aims of accomplishment. The study of vocal physiology is surely a very essential duty of a singer. The singing organs are the most delicate, vital, and complicated parts of the body. It is not reasonable then to say that one can train them without knowing their natural functions. Physiology tells us that the process of breathing is threefold: First, the lungs serve as an excretory organ straining from the blood thru a delicate bit of filtering tissue, as thru a blotting paper, a waste product known as carbonic acid. Second, the lungs import oxygen into the blood and thus into all corners of the organism. Third, the lungs supply air for the voice, and it is in this capacity that we are the most inter¬ ested. More voices are ruined by breathing faddists than by any other type of vocal teacher. The damage done in this way is the most dangerous because of it being so insidious. Healthy breathing is simplicity in itself. We tell our classes two things: the first, which has nothing to do with breathing directly, but with posture, is, lift the chest as high as it will go and keep it there thruout the whole process of singing, from a single note to a song. In other words, stand as tall as you can. The object of the raised chest is threefold: ( 1 ) to get it out of the way and to give free play to the lungs; (2) to give increased resonance; and (3) to give good posture. During the emission of sound the vibrations cause the air column in the windpipe to vibrate, which makes the tones fuller and richer. If the windpipe rests on something solid the tone will be steady and certain, sure and full ; if not held firmly the opposite will be the result. The second thing we tell the class to do is to breathe in the middle. It is nothing but common sense to say that the control of breath should be given to that part of the body which has the necessary muscles to assume it. There is exactly such a muscle in the center of the body and it is capable of develop¬ ing unlimited powers of expansion and gradual relaxation. After getting the students acquainted with the motor power, our problem is getting them to use that power in producing a vowel sound. So the class [ 327 ] 328 National Education Association is taught the technic. There are two adjustments necessary to produce a given tone. One is the adjusting of the laryngeal muscles which determine the pitch, and the other is the adjusting of the resonance cavities for the proper resonating of the vowel and its fundamental. The two actions are in a sense reflex actions because we do not feel the actual muscles that are used. The class should have, however, a very clearly defined mental concept of the pitch and vowel they are to produce, since it is from these mental pictures that the reflex action is made. In working with a class the questions that come to our mind are : Is the class improving, are we getting any place ? These are the gauges we use : ( 1 ) The actual voice should become a better natural voice. (2) It should im¬ prove in the sense that the muscles of the larynx act better. (3) The range and power is increased. (4) The natural quality of the voice really begins to come out. (5) At the same time intonation is improved. (6) The sense of strain, effort, constriction, and the obstructions are eliminated step by step. The disregarding of the musical and interpretive side of singing is in¬ excusable since it is only the result of laziness or lack of musical knowledge on the part of the teacher. Singing is composed of two acts: the conception of musical sense, and the communication of these conceptions to an audience. This ability to produce a musical sense depends upon our musicianship — the other, our performing power, depends upon our technic. We aim to give our students the knowledge of correct breathing, good vocal technic, the ability to read the printed page, and a fine sense of inter¬ pretation so that they acquire a definite independence in song and so that their ambitions will not lead them to attempt things for which they do not possess the natural qualifications. THE DEVELOPMENT OF HOMEMADE MUSICAL INSTRU¬ MENTS FROM THE MATERIALS OF NATURE CHARLES C. WEIDEMANN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY SCHOOL, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO A total situation consisting of the things of nature and a quality of dynamic relatedness between such things and man provides the foundation out of which a large amount of human experience develops. Altho this brief statement cannot include an exhaustive treatment of either the topic or the principles involved, sufficient illustrations are provided to establish the idea that materials from nature may be used as a means to provide boys and girls with the opportunity to develop new values and appreciations of music. Once the child grasps the idea of making and playing upon primitive musical instruments he begins to enjoy these experiences and thru guidance is led onward and upward to a richer musical and cultured life. The good, the beauty, the wholeness of the experience cannot be measured ; only the perfection of execution may be fully realized. Much of what follows rests upon an important assumption; namely, that any substance which may be vibrated with sufficient suddenness to be heard can usually be organized into some kind of a scale. If such vibration is Department of Music Education 329 pleasing to the ear, and not merely noise, the scale produced becomes a musical scale. This practically means that music from sound is audible vibration under human control. Illustrations of the viewpoint include the building of and playing upon musical instruments made from clay, tile, hard limestone, chalcedony (type of agate), petrified wood, fossilized bone, and plate glass. Another group includes aspen wood, a hardwood xylophone, a large homemade myrimba- phone, and a bugletone or tunaphone. The bugletone is used to play bugle calls and consists of four wooden bars whose tones are increased by reson¬ ators. A third group of instruments includes a set of pipes made from turkey “drum sticks,” bones, paper tubes, bamboo stalks, brass, and glass tubing. A description of how the viol family develops from the bow and arrow thru a series of instruments could also be included. The outstanding human qualities which are essential to develop such instruments seem to be patience, a well-trained ear, and a willingness to experiment with simple materials and tools. In every one of the illustrations, the situation for purposeful activity consists of man’s mind related to some selected material from nature in a dynamic process of trying to organize the materials so that a musical scale consisting of pleasing tones is produced. RADIO AND THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS ERNEST LA PRADE, DIRECTOR OF MUSIC RESEARCH, NATIONAL BROADCASTING COMPANY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Those who advocate changes in our system of secondary education believe that the secondary schools should be brought into ’“closer relationship with the realities and problems of modern life.” To that end radio can cooperate effectively by bringing important phenomena of contemporary life into the schoolroom. Schools equipped with radio receivers have access to outstanding musical performances in all parts of the world. There is a growing realization among educators of the importance of enlisting public interest in the problems which face secondary education. Radio has already done much in that direction and awaits the opportunity to do more. The following objectives in the field of music education may also be included among those which radio may help to attain : 1. Equal opportunities for pupils in all schools, rural as well as urban 2. Provision of desirable activities for young people who have finished their formal schooling but who cannot immediately be absorbed into vocational employ¬ ment 3. Development of desirable attitudes and ideals thru exercise of power to dis¬ criminate. Available statistics indicate that many secondary schools are already using broadcast programs and that more would welcome them if they could adjust their schedules to take the broadcasts. As it is manifestly impossible for net¬ work programs to adapt themselves to the requirements of schools in four different time zones and innumerable independent systems, it seems likely 330 National Education Association that broadcasting to schools, except for certain outstanding programs of an inspirational type, will develop on a local or regional rather than a national basis. Effective service by radio to the schools is dependent not only on the initiative of broadcasters but also on the cooperation of educators. Ways in which educators might cooperate more fully include : 1. Constructive criticism of existing programs 2. Statement of needs and preferences regarding subjectmatter, treatment, and scheduling of programs 3. Development of more effective methods of utilizing broadcast materials 4. Encouragement of out-of-school listening 5. Establishment of vocational courses pertaining to broadcasting. The current movement towards a revision of the aims and processes of secondary education is of immediate concern to those interested in edu¬ cational broadcasting. In the event that such revision takes place along the lines proposed by the Committee on Orientation of the Department of Secondary School Principals, radio will be able to render increased service to the schools, particularly in the field of music. DEPARTMENT OF PWr al Education HISTORICAL NOTE The department of rural education grew out of the Department of Rural and Agricultural Education which was authorised by the Board of Directors in 1907 . At the Chicago meeting in 1919 , the Department was reorganised with three organised rural groups then existing — the Na¬ tional Association of State Supervisors and Inspectors of Rural Schools , the County Superintendents’ section of the National Education Associa¬ tion, and the National Association of Persons Engaged in the Preparation of Rural Teachers — under the name of the Department of Rural Educa¬ tion. See proceedings, 1920: 279. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-28 are: president, Fred C. Fischer , Superintendent, Wayne County Schools, Detroit, Mich.; vicepresident, I. Jewel Simpson, Assistant State Superintendent in charge of Elementary Instruction, Baltimore, Md.; secretary, Mrs. Katherine M. Cook, Chief, Division of Special Problems, United States Office of Education, Washington, D. C.; executive committee, O. H. Bennett, Superintendent, Hamilton County Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio (term expires 1938) ; Francis L. Bailey, State Commissioner of Educa¬ tion, Montpelier, Vt. (term expires 1938) ; Chloe C. Baldridge, Director of Rural Education, State Department of Public Instruction, Lincoln, Nebr. (term expires 1940); R. D. Baldwin, Professor of Education, West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. V a. (term expires 1941); S. T. Burns, State Director of Music, State Department of Education, Baton Rouge, La. (term expires 1942) ; president and vicepresident, ex officio. The Department meets twice each year, in February and in Jidy. The annual dues, $2, are payable to the National Education Association. Each member receives all issues of the N. E. A. research bulletin, the Yearbook, and occasional Bulletins. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1907: 44- 45 1908 -.1187-1215 1909: 953- 992 1910 -.1081-1114 1911 -.1117-1161 191 2:1365-1413 1913: 801- 818 1919: 281- 288 1925:522-576 1914: 877- 907 1920: 271- 303 19 26:537-600 1915 -.1131-1159 1921: 523- 616 1927:497-559 1916: 613- 636 1 922:1099-1222 1928 -.453-543 1917: 599- 613 1923: 745- 841 1929 -.463-541 1918: 271- 293 1924: 651- 714 1930:401-499 1931 -.495-540 1932 -.423-453 1933 :■ 445-461 1934 -.441-460 1935 -.403-428 1936 -.289-320 t [ 332 ] NEWER ADMINISTRATIVE AND INSTRUCTIONAL PLANS FOR SMALL HIGH SCHOOLS FRANK W. CYR, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The rapid growth of high-school enrolments during the last quarter of a century has focused attention on the larger schools. The small high school has attempted to serve its youth by blindly imitating the methods successful in large schools. It has built small buildings of three stories when one story would have served the purpose better. It has built small compart¬ ments for classrooms to house special activities when several activities carried on simultaneously in the same room would have been more effective. It has attempted to use teachers who were highly specialized in one subject field, to teach in five or six subject fields. It has depended on the traditional gen¬ eral property tax for support when most of the wealth of the United States has taken other forms. Hozv can the small high school break away from this blind imitation and develop a program suited to its needs f 1. By learning to think in terms of the purpose that the school should serve in the lives of boys and girls rather than the means it uses — buildings, schedules, classes, etc. 2. By adapting the experimental approach to its problems. Trying out new methods if they will achieve desired purposes. 3. By using the community resources and building a curriculum which both grows out of and “returns to enrich” community life. The Ellerbe School in North Carolina illustrates this. 4. Supervised correspondence study offers one of the most promising methods of teaching small groups in small schools. One high school has been offering the •courses to meet individual needs which range from accounting, advertising, avia¬ tion, blueprint reading, civil service, cartooning, dressmaking and design, mechan¬ ical drawing, practical electricity, and photography to trigonometry. THE ADMINISTRATION OF TRANSPORTATION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS HARRY A. LITTLE, HEAD, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION AND TEACHER TRAIN¬ ING, GEORGIA STATE COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, MILLEDGEVILLE, GA. In many instances transportation of pupils to school has been provided with little or no thought as to the administration of this transportation. The result has been undue criticism of consolidated schools by patrons and educators. In all too many instances the safety of the pupils has been en¬ dangered and the efficiency of the school curtailed. All administrative machinery of the schools exists for only one purpose, to provide the best possible teaching situation. There is no excuse for complicated administrative procedures that serve to handicap the actual teaching of the children. In the administrative planning of transportation, school executives must bear in mind that the three criteria of a good system [ 333 1 334 National Education Association of transportation are : the safety of the pupils transported ; the comfort of the pupils in going to and coming from school ; and the efficiency of the system in getting the children to school. There are some general principles of transportation administration that have developed from the experience of schools in transporting pupils during the past twenty years : 1. The control of all transportation should be centralized in one office, and should be on a countywide basis. 2. The school should own all transportation equipment, and should be responsible for its upkeep. This equipment should be owned on a county basis. 3. Drivers should be selected for efficiency, not for how cheaply they will work. 4. All buses should be kept in good repair and inspected every day. A county repair garage in a central location renders the best service. 5. Buses should be selected on a basis of safety and comfort. 6. A definite schedule should be maintained by all buses. 7. If children must walk to the road to catch a bus, waiting stations should be provided. S. Bus drivers should be under the control of the superintendent and responsible to him. They should be under strict supervision. They should have a responsibility on the bus similar to the teacher’s responsibility in the classroom. 9. Adequate records must be kept as to operation, cost, and efficiency. Schools could profit from the records kept by private transportation systems. For a long time we have been in a period of expansion as far as our transportation is concerned. Now, we must refine its use. Properly administered transportation is not unduly expensive. Studies prove that consolidated schools with proper transportation are no more expensive than schools not consolidated. FUNCTIONS AND PURPOSES OF SUPERVISION IN PRACTISE M. GAZELLE HOFFMAN, DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LEWISTON, N. Y. Defining supervision as improvement of teaching, the functions of super¬ vision in a supervisory unit of New York state are unsatisfactory due to lack of supervisory service. The district superintendent is handicapped by the size of the unit and the fact that he must act in the dual capacity of administrator and supervisor. A recent study shows that he does not have more than 80 days a year to give to actual supervision, and is attempting to supervise from 50 to 627 teachers. According to standards of urban sec¬ tions, such supervision would be considered inadequate, yet few states pro¬ vide more supervision for rural areas than does New York. New York state assists rural supervision by having a rural bureau with one rural supervisor, by providing syllabi for various subjects, by preparing some statewide examinations, and by printing various bulletins for infor¬ mation of teachers in service. The district superintendent must take responsibility for all other super¬ vision. He supervises by such visitations as the limited time allows, and then largely supplements by other methods. Chief among these are teachers con- Department of Rural Education 335 ferences, group conferences, advice about texts and materials used, super¬ visory bulletins and letters, exchange visits by teachers, demonstration teach¬ ing, extension classes for teachers, encouragement of experimental work, requirement of assignment books, teacher’s self-rating scales, encouragement of reading by pupils and professional reading by teachers, improvement of supervisory records, use of cadet teaching in cooperation with normals, and organization of teachers clubs. Such services are more than one person can render satisfactorily when less than half of his time is free for them. Cadet teaching for normal students and teachers clubs are somewhat unique and are proving helpful. The district superintendent organizes the clubs for small groups of teachers who act as officers and take responsibility for the programs. Some outcomes sought are to develop the teacher’s own leadership, to encourage initiative, and to give more self-confidence. Since rural schools have for the most part inexperienced, immature, and untrained teachers, the need for more rural supervision is great ; yet it is not available in practise today. Equal educational opportunity will not be secured for rural children until a supervisory program equal in scope to that of the best cities is provided. It is the greatest need in rural education everywhere today. THE UNION DISTRICT HOMER R. ASHLAND, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PLAINFIELD, VT. The typical union district is formed by the natural community boundaries of five contiguous towns or townships, with a total area of about 180 square miles, in which there are 19 schools taught by 45 teachers. Within this district, supervision has been on a professional basis since the early years of the twentieth century, and is carried on by a superintendent of schools, some¬ times with the aid of one supervisor. Certain important administrative functions of the superintendent are the preparation of the budget, the pur¬ chasing of all books and instruction supplies, and complete freedom in selection of all teachers. The fundamental idea of supervision in the union district is the training of teachers in service. This is accomplished thru the classroom instruction of the teacher, to secure improvement, basing the work on needs of the children, instead of on subjectmatter. This is made possible thru the frequent visits which a district superintendent can make to his teachers. Conferences follow¬ ing these visits can be made very helpful both to the teacher and to the superintendent. In all cases, the superintendent will leave written sug¬ gestions for the teacher. Other means of training teachers in service are both large and small group teachers meetings, and individual help with special problems. Among other supervisory services of the district superintendent are : (1) he sets up desirable objectives; (2) he conducts a testing program; and (3) he advises teachers concerning remedial instruction. The advantages of the union district type of organization include the following : 336 National Education Association 1. It provides local educational leadership. 2. It provides for educational integration by maintaining natural communities of interest. The use of such an arbitrary boundary as that of the county would thus offer a serious disadvantage. 3. It provides an economical unit for special types of service, such as that rendered by the music supervisor or by the school nurse. 4. Finally it provides an opportunity for real supervision as opposed to inspec¬ tion, thru the opportunity of personal contact. Recent thoro reorganizations in the union district states have greatly increased the effectiveness of this type of supervision, and have further emphasized the idea that this is the best type of supervision for our needs. ADULT EDUCATION IN RURAL COMMUNITIES MRS. ELIZABETH C. MORRISS, DIRECTOR OF EDUCATION, WORKS PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION, RALEIGH, N. C. Van Hornesville, a little village in New York, is finding a new way of life. The children are in excellent schools; the youth of the area are being organized into a Youth Council; Mothers Clubs are being established; the religious forces of the neighborhood are now united and instead of having seven run-down churches as they formerly did with no resident minister, they now have one church organization with two full-time resident min¬ isters and a full-time woman director of religious education — all specially trained in problems of the countryside. As an essential part of these com¬ munity activities, other specific programs of adult education are being under¬ taken. Truly this is a pleasant picture made possible thru cooperative plan¬ ning and Owen D. Young. Rural problems and possibilities — An analysis of typical rural com¬ munities in any part of the United States would disclose conditions some of which probably still exist in Van Hornesville and which this awakened com¬ munity is probably planning to attack thru its program of continuous educa¬ tion. All too often in the typical village there are shortages in sound health and sanitation practises. Production is far less than is reasonably possible because of the use of antiquated agricultural methods in soil conservation, planting, cultivating, and harvesting. Despite much talk, there are strikingly few rural communities where modern cooperative buying and marketing have actually increased the income or where cooperation has provided either the physical facilities or the administrative machinery for well-rounded educa¬ tional, recreational, and social programs. Too many of the homes — both inside and out — lack the charm that would come from a little attention to the color, harmony, balance, and form of the rooms, buildings, and grounds. The too numerous churches are too often meagerly staffed and without much influence. There is a dearth of skilled workers. In the public schools there are too many evasions of the compulsory school laws, lack of essential home cooperation in the whole school program, and a tragic load of retardation. There are shortages in adult education and library services. The challenge for adult education and for all other community agencies is Department of Rural Education 337 strong, in fact the rural situation is a dynamic one. Every rural community has untapped human resources and raw materials which could be organized to bring pleasure and profit to every member. Public schools the logical sponsor's of coordinated plan of attack — The lag between the possibilities for development and the actualities in rural communities is so wide that no one agency can meet the situation even for its own clients. The leaders of significant rural programs as the public school, the church, agricultural extension, the library, the Grange, the Farm Bureau, folk schools, opportunity schools, University Extension, radio, and the federal program, WPA education (including seven phases of adult education), are increasing^ striving for intelligent cooperation. They know that it is too vital to their purposes longer to be left as a peripheral matter. It must be made central and leaders are considering the problem of deter¬ mining the agency best adapted to sponsor and head up a coordinated program. Logically a public education program should be administered by a public edu¬ cation authority. More especially, there is general agreement that as an agency of society, the ordinary public school serves two distinct purposes: ( 1 ) the training of boys and girls, and (2) aiding in the general enterprises — social, economic, and civic — of the community. In this connection, progres¬ sive public school administrators — both rural and urban — are saying that often times it is erroneously thought that the school discharges its second function somehow thru the training of children. The evidence is increasingly clear that this is not so. In achieving its second purpose, the school as an in¬ stitution should undoubtedly endeavor to ^ork thru direct contacts and rela¬ tionships with the adult portion of the community of which it is the center. Th is is the great function and place of adult education. A leading authority in adult education thus concludes: Whatever the effect, in the next decade, a large part of the adult education program will pass into the hands of professional school people. The public school is the one agency in every community which is universal and continuing, locally controlled and equipped. It could probably conduct a program of adult education better than any group existing today or likely to be created in the near future. Problems to be faced by sponsoring agency — The first problem to be faced is the character of the adult education program for rural agencies. Vocational education is already established. To the removal of illiteracy, lip service is given, but there are all too few programs of adult elementary education in rural areas for enabling the millions of illiterates and near-illiterates in the adjustment and enrichment of their lives. And how shall choice he made in the wide field of general adult education — relational (as parent educa¬ tion), liberal, and political? Probably no rural community could at present afford a comprehensive program of general adult education. Nor are many of them yet ready to make use of it. One practical way of beginning an at¬ tack on the problem of selection may well be to study four factors in present situations: (1) present programs under way, (2) leaders, (3) other resources, and (4) interests. A second major problem is that of organization and administration. The new program would project education forward into mature years and back- 338 National Education Association ward thru preschool years (nursery schools). The integration of these new phases with the present education system would create new and vital prob¬ lems in organization and administration. There is, for example, the matter of licensing the professional staff. The present rules and regulations of rural boards of education might not fit the needs, for all of the teachers of adults do not need to be on a full-time basis. In fact, limiting the staff to full-time teachers might seriously restrict the program. Again, it is often highly advantageous to select as teachers masters in special fields outside the ranks of the profession. An allied problem is that of certain basic goals and technics. School people will have to increase vastly their vision and enliven their technics. The third problem is finance. The tentative budget would be based on the answer to such questions as: What will adults demand in their program? How many teachers, full and part-time, will be needed? What will be the expense of instructional materials and physical equipment ? Adult education leaders vary in their estimates as to the probable appropriation required for an adequate program, from 1 to 5 percent of the total education budget of a community or state. Can rural areas afford this additional expense? On the other hand, would it not make simpler all of their other financial problems? Plans for the development of a coordinated program — The American Council on Education has formulated a most inclusive plan for the conserva¬ tion of human resources — another term for adult education. The five sections in their plan are on genetics, childhood, youth, adult life, and special advisory committees cutting across section lines. Each section would plan for specific objectives. For example, some of the outstanding objectives for which the section on adults would plan are : increased understanding of contemporary economic and social problems by citizens, consumer education, parent educa¬ tion, elimination of illiteracy, more worthy utilization of the abilities of persons over sixty years of age, and fostering the art of living. If carefully devised long-range goals like those of the American Council on Education are to be reached, many carefully devised intermediate steps must be taken. Recommendations — Among the resolutions as to necessary intermediate steps, the following were adopted last February by the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association: 1. That adult education be recognized as a function of the public school system. 2. That local communities be encouraged to make increasingly liberal provision for forums and similar services thru state and federal support. 3. That adult education programs be kept functional and dynamic, as needs may arise, and carefully guarded from undue formalization. 4. That the public schools should seek opportunity for cooperation with, and func¬ tioning thru, such existing community and state agencies as are already making worthwhile contributions to adult education. 5. That the public school should provide a program which will recognize the needs of youth between the approximate ages of eighteen and twenty-five. In the light of these recommendations, public school men — both rural and urban — may well hasten to seize the immediate opportunity of con¬ serving in a permanent program the values in the federal ‘‘emergency” edu- Department of Rural Education 339 cation program. Its social value has been demonstrated. It may be assumed that federal money for relief will not continue to be available indefinitely for a relief program of adult education. Nor would this be desirable. But the 2,000,000 students who have profited from the program will want to go on. Wholesome community life will be advanced if they do go on. A permanent program of adult education will be achieved, however, only thru strong cooperative efforts. The biting edge has been worn off much of our talk about cooperation — so that it seems unattached and unattainable. It will have to be more solidly based and realistic before sound programs of adult educa¬ tion can become an integral part of the public school system. The emergency education teachers will have to make a program so effective that public opinion will demand its continuance. Public school men, backed by public opinion, will probably have to secure state and local financial support. The federal government will probably have to make funds available for the financially weaker states. These would be cooperative accomplishments with practical meaning and vital force. Education in rural communities would no longer be divided into compartments but would be continuous with life. OPPORTUNITIES FOR EXTENDING VOCATIONAL EDUCA¬ TION IN RURAL COMMUNITIES RAY FIFE, PRESIDENT, NEW MEXICO COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS, STATE COLLEGE, N. MEX. The extension of vocational education in rural communities can assume two forms: (1) It can be extended so as to serve more communities. (2) The program itself can be extended so as to provide a broader and more comprehensive type of vocational education in those schools 'which already include vocational education in their curriculums. Both forms of expansion have been in process, particularly since the enactment of the Smith-Hughes Vocational Education Act. May I comment in beginning this discussion that vocational education should hardly be classified under the general title of “Other Agencies.” It has special financial support and special supervision but it is a definite part of the public school system. It must be admitted at the same time that our definition of the term “school’’ must be extended in many instances to include various phases of vocational education. While many school systems are still experiencing financial difficulties, the depression has taught both young people and adults the necessity of secur¬ ing training for making a living. As a consequence school authorities in the majority of rural communities have been overwhelmed with demands for vocational courses. This unparalleled and unexpected demand has caused a crisis in vocational education in the majority of states. In many cases adequate room facilities are not available. Vocational education is expensive, hence many communities are not financially able to support it without outside assistance. The George-Deen Federal Vocational Education Bill was en¬ acted by the last Congress to meet this need. Particularly in vocational agriculture, there is a marked scarcity of qualified teachers. To a lesser extent perhaps the same situation exists in home economics. With increased indus- 340 National Education Association trial activity we can expect a similar situation in trade and industrial vocational education. There are few rural high schools in which vocational education in some form should not be offered, but in few cases should it be required. Sins of the past, so far as vocational education is concerned, have been largely sins of omission. There is danger now that we may turn to sins of commission. True vocational education is not a type of education for amateur teachers. Much of it will be specific education offered in response to specific needs. All students are potential citizens but they are not all potential farmers or plumbers or stenographers, or even homemakers. Careful guidance, carefully planned programs of instruction, profession¬ ally and technically trained teachers with occupational experience, and adequate instructional facilities are prerequisites to further expansion of vocational education in rural communities. We realize the position of a rural school administrator when his school patrons become insistent that voca¬ tional agriculture and vocational home economics be added to the school program. In the choice of alternatives a delay of a year or so is certainly more desirable than an ineffective program. The second general type of expansion — viz., the broadening of the pro¬ gram of vocational education — was stimulated rather than hindered by the depression. Vocational education of 1917 was largely a matter of teaching skills. Boys in agriculture were taught to prune a tree ; girls in home eco¬ nomics, to cook and sew. Except in trades and industries, vocational educa¬ tion instruction was confined largely to class work on the high-school level. There has been a vast change in the program of vocational education in two decades. Vocational education is still specific. Vocational education has not been broadened thru generalization. Essential skills are still taught in vocational education classes, and there are many skills which are essential in spite of the modern machine. But the teaching of skill has been supple¬ mented and made intelligent by the teaching of vocational understanding. The successful vocational agriculture teacher of today trains for life on the farm. The potential agricultural mechanic of 1917 is now the practical farm manager with an understanding of the basic economic and social problems affecting agriculture and rural life. Similar aims are beginning to pervade the field of vocational home economics. Vocational trades and industries courses with their related science, mathematics, and economic and social subjects, are supplementing mechanical skill with mechanical and industrial understanding. In practi¬ cally all phases of vocational education an attempt is being made to serve the high-school youth, the out-of-school youth, and the adult, and to offer to them at least the beginnings of this broader type of vocational education. Along with the programs of direct vocational instruction, we find the organization of the Future Farmer of America movement in vocational agriculture, and the newer Future Craftsmen and Future Home Makers in trades and industries and home economics. Leadership, scholarship, thrift, and many other qualities are encouraged thru these related organizations. Not the least of the outcomes is the dignifying of the occupation itself thru Department of Rural Education 341 the public recognition which is given to the organization. In the autumn of 1937, 10,000 Future Farmer delegates will assemble at Kansas City to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the founding of the National Association, Future Farmers of America. The contribution of this organization to the advancement of rural life in America has been almost beyond measure. The educational group represented at this and succeeding annual conven¬ tions of the Department of Superintendence will have much to do in en¬ larging or diminishing the opportunities for vocational education in both urban and rural communities. Speaking from the viewpoint of rural education, there are several dangers which may restrict quite seriously the opportunities for extending real voca¬ tional education. 1. It has already been mentioned that the demand for vocational education may result in such a lowering of standards that pseudo-vocational education may be the resulting product. 2. In rural schools particularly there is danger that with increasing extra-cur¬ riculum activities and with heavy teaching loads, the vocational education teacher may be just another chore boy or girl in the school system. In such instances the practical phases of instruction as represented in home projects, laboratory, and shop work are bound to suffer first. Without these devices of instruction, vocational edu¬ cation becomes just another subject which is taught from a book. 3. There is danger also in the so-called “integration,” standardization, and systematization of vocational education. Adaption to the needs of rural communities is the very life of vocational education, particularly vocational education in agri¬ culture. There are many school administrators who insist that all education must conform to a set pattern. This is undesirable with all subjects but with vocational education it is almost fatal. The attitude of school authorities on the preceding points will have much to do with the decision as to whether or not real vocational education will be conducted within or without the public school system. It may even be pos¬ sible that the form may be maintained within the school while tjie substance is actually secured elsewhere. School authorities, occupational organizations, and parents will have as much to do with the final decision as the vocational educators themselves. In some manner or other, vocational education must find its proper place in the whole scheme of education without losing its own identity and its own peculiar opportunity for usefulness. THE EXTENSION SERVICE IN AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS AS RELATED TO COUNTRY SCHOOLS ONAH JACKS, STATE GIRLS CLUB AGENT, EXTENSION SERVICE, AGRICUL¬ TURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE, COLLEGE STATION, TEXAS The extension service in agriculture and home economics has no official connection with the rural schools or any phase of the public school system, except thru the agreements made concerning vocational education. Both the extension service in agriculture and home economics and the rural schools are educational agencies supported by the government and conducted to offer educational advantages to rural people. For a long time the rural 342 National Education Association schools alone held this field. Then the extension service was created, followed by the Public Health Service. Other agencies promoted by the government and having at least some educational functions for the purpose of equipping rural people to improve themselves, their homes, and their communities have recently been added — Rural Rehabilitation and Resettlement, Soil Conser¬ vation Service, Social Security, and the Agricultural Conservation Service. Each of these, altho in general a service agency, has its educational feature. Many other organizations like the churches, the Young Men’s and Young Women’s Christian Associations, the Boy and Girl Scout organizations, magazines and newspapers, organizations of the people themselves like the Farm Bureau and the Grange, operate so that the education of rural people is broader and more effective in making happy individuals and useful citizens of them, but unlike the first-named group these organizations are not sub¬ sidized by the government. With so many organizations operating in the same field for related pur¬ poses it is necessary that the work be well defined if the results are to be satisfactory. In the case of the extension service and rural schools the fields are clearly enough defined that there is no mistaking the rights and duties of each. The rural schools are established to give to country children in an organized system a fundamental knowledge of language, sciences, and good citizenship. The extension service is charged with the duty of diffusing among the people of the United States practical and useful information on subjects related to agriculture and home economics, and encouraging the application of such information. The value of rural school work is con¬ ceded by all — so much in fact that children are compelled to avail them¬ selves of its advantages. As to 4-H Club work it may not be amiss to mention some of its values. The 4-H Club work, thru its subjectmatter and its method, affords rural boys and girls the best opportunity for relating themselves properly to their own environment. To carry on 4-H Club work boys and girls are obliged to share in the responsibilities of the home, its problems, its plans, and its work. The 4-H Club members become personally related to their com¬ munity thru demonstration meetings, achievement days, and recreation ; thru county meetings and organizations they establish personal knowledge of county officials and town leaders; thru club news reporting they become individually connected with the local papers and farm magazines; thru delegations to county, state, and national agricultural events they make themselves a real part of a nationwide endeavor to improve agriculture and rural life. The patriotic appeal is a healthy one. The family, the community, the nation take on new significance as the individual assumes new responsi¬ bility to them. The 4-H Club members thru parliamentary practise at meetings learn to look upon themselves as an influence and upon their contemporaries as the ones who help them to extend or hold back that influence as the interest or the good of the group demands. They learn the value of unified effort and the need of planning. They have an opportunity to test and develop their ability to work with a group and to assume positions of leadership. Department of Rural Education 343 All 4-H Club activities, of course, are intended to be organized and car¬ ried on so that club members are given a favorable outlook on rural life. There is still enough attraction to life in the city or to work in vocations other than farming that this tendency will hardly yet influence too many of the best people to stay on the farm. The 4-H Club work should result in stimulating boys and girls to perform whatever tasks they have to perform in the best way; it should help them to see that rural life is interesting and useful if carried on with the aid of the best information available. By directing and aiding some of their experiences with the soil, with plants and animals and wind and water, with tools and methods and changing seasons, with weather and people and current history, 4-H Club work should sharpen observation and awaken appreciations that make life richer. It should en¬ courage youth to join with their neighbors and “countrymen” to improve community and national life and certainly it should give them a determina¬ tion to search out some of the information and skills and associations that will help them live more satisfactorily and fully whether they finally choose country or city. The mutual advantages of 4-H Club work and school work are evident. But mutually helpful as the work of the two organizations is, one fact re¬ mains that unrecognized can prevent the most effective work of either; that is, that two organizations cannot work with the same people on different things at the same time. Under its present arrangement the school system naturally controls most of the time of the boys and girls. But 4-H Club work, if it is to be effective, must be done under certain favorable conditions too, and suitable time is an important factor. Three or four hours between 8 and 12 or between 1 and 5 o’clock once a month for a meeting in a farm home with the extension agent, and a few hours between 8 and 5 o’clock at various times for the agent’s visits to the home are highly desirable. Adjustments of time can usually be arranged easily with the small com¬ munity schools. As the schools increase in size, or as communities consoli¬ date for school purposes and schedules become more complicated, the ar¬ rangement is not so easy. The school’s grip on the child’s time is firmer. Teachers feel their own responsibilities perhaps more as facilities for helping the boys and girls have improved ; it is only natural that they should welcome nothing that breaks into the schedule they have made. But the advantages of 4-H Club work are as important to these boys and girls as to those in smaller schools. A 4-H Club in the larger schools too often meets at the school. The girls sit at their desks, the agent gives a demonstration using equipment that she and the girls have collected to “make-believe” a home situation. The atmo¬ sphere of school pervades. The agent herself is likely to feel and be treated like another teacher. Reports of work get to be too much like reports of homework at school. It is so much more interesting to tell how many eggs your new pullets laid if you are in the poultry yard inspecting your club poultry demonstrator’s flock than it is to report the same fact in a classroom without an enviable poultry flock to inspire you. 344 National Education Association Club activities usually carried on at school suffer a slump in attendance and interest after school is out in the spring. Another disadvantage of meet¬ ing at the schoolhouse is that boys and girls out of school are not so likely to take active parts. They think of club work as a part of the school activi¬ ties and are hardly more inclined to join it than they would be the high- school dramatics club or the basketball team. Meeting at the school is detri¬ mental to the school schedule in general. It often crowds the other children into quarters not designed for them, and gives occasion for new disciplinary problems. However, out of such arrangements have come some very successful club work — in fact, most of the work in Texas is so conducted. Out of 1615 4-H Clubs for girls about 1380 of them hold all their meetings with the agent at the schoolhouse. Plans for the agent’s visits to the demonstrators are ar¬ ranged usually as in the small schools — the agent taking the girl away from school for a period or so to help with her individual demonstration. The club may arrange for its second meeting during “activity” period, some¬ times during school. Seldom can they meet after school, for they go home on a bus. Meeting at activity period means that a girl must choose between 4-H Club work and orchestra or Spanish or basketball practise or some other regular school activity. The club at the consolidated rural school is often divided into as many community groups as there are communities from which girls come. Each group has its own demonstrators and sponsor in the home community, and holds one meeting a month, usually on Saturday, in the community. At the meeting of the club at the school the agent realizes that her help is not nearly so effective as it would be if she could arrange to give field demon¬ strations. One of the most satisfactory arrangements in a consolidated school from the standpoint of club work has been for the girls to be delivered by school bus to the home of the demonstrator for the club meeting. Some clubs have raised the money to take care of the extra expense of the school bus. As individuals, teachers are most cooperative concerning club work. They have made possible all the cooperation now enjoyed between the two agen¬ cies. Many teachers are well informed on extension work and are ingenious in proposing ways to encourage it. Many others, not so well informed be¬ cause their training has not given them an agricultural background, are none the less willing to cooperate. Many of them serve as ideal sponsors to clubs, altho usually other people make better sponsors because neither the girls nor the teacher can drop entirely the teacher-pupil relationship in their club associations. Some teachers arrange to give school credit for club work. I have some doubts too about the desirability of such a means of stimulating club work. I doubt, too, the practise of some teachers in prohibiting students not passing a certain mark in their school work from doing club work. It might happen that club work could so inject interest and purpose into that individual’s life that his school work would improve; or perhaps the indi¬ vidual who cannot achieve scholastic rating can achieve some skills in agri¬ cultural or homemaking activities that will make a happier and more useful person of him. But these attempts are made in the spirit of helpfulness and Department of Rural Education 345 are appreciated as such. All these problems the individual teacher must work out for herself more or less in conference with the local extension agents. The point that seems forgotten by agent as well as teacher is that farm people have the same right to the advantages of 4-H Club work that they have to schools — tho they are not compelled to participate. Individual teach¬ ers need encouragement from their supervising officers to recognize 4-H Club work as a sister agency to the schools — created and supported by the same authority. Agents need similar encouragement to press their claims for such recognition and to help teachers understand the real significance of 4-H Club work. As the extension service and the rural schools understand the work of each other and cooperate, correlating the work where possible, the greatest good can be done in providing a fuller education for rural people. THE RURAL CHURCH AND THE RURAL SCHOOL A. J. WALTON, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF EXTENSION AND PROMOTION, GENERAL BOARD OF CHRISTIAN EDUCATION, M. E. CHURCH, SOUTH, NASHVILLE, TENN. What should be the relation of the rural school and rural church ? Democracy demands comraderie and cooperation of persons and agencies. Both agencies are desired and promoted by rural people, and are necessarily related by the conditions imposed by the psychological and sociological unity of persons and the community. There are also very apparent economic fac¬ tors which increase the areas of relationship. We must view both of these social agencies in the light of the part they play in developing persons, and a community environment conducive and essential to a satisfying or abund¬ ant life. Church and school are increasingly aware that they must help develop motives, technics, creative vision, and power for achieving a satis¬ fying rural life as a basic factor in preserving our American democracy. School leaders say: “The school introduces the pupil to all forces and needs of individual and social life.” The church leader says: “The church introduces this same pupil consciously to God and His good way to use these forces and needs for individual and social life.” These indications of a grow¬ ing appreciation and understanding between church and school require some new thinking concerning the relation between the two American cultures of secular and religious idealism. Such thinking must preserve the privileges insured by the separate freedom of church and state, the unity of pupil per¬ sonality, and make clear the value of cooperation as the necessary check against factors of community disintegration. This thinking must also beware of promising too much without sacrificing the adventurous dare of far-flung vision. Schools and churches in the recent past promised more than they have been able to achieve. The school said, “Give us the opportunity to reduce illiteracy and we will eliminate crime, poverty, and ignoble citizenship.” The American public responded with an educational program unlike any¬ thing the world had ever known, but our record of crime, depression, poverty, greedy and dependent citizenship is not exactly utopian. The church said : 346 National Education Association “Give us equipment and means to spread our teachings and work over the country and we will turn men to righteous living.” The recent century saw more money spent for buildings, equipment, and service, more able literature and leaders, and more special efforts to win converts than any other century, but church membership has but slightly more than kept pace with population increase, and the current state of righteousness would hardly be cause for religious journal headlines. We shall not blame church and state for letting their vision exceed their grasp. We feel that they might have accomplished more if they had ad¬ mitted and observed the unity of both individual and community life by each admitting the contribution the other made toward a wholesome personality and a satisfying and helpful social life. Such feeling makes our discussion the more pertinent as we face the future realizing that secular idealism needs the stabilizing influence of a conscious religious devotion. We recognize that the only reason for a community to permit or promote school or church is that they shall be effective in developing satisfying and noble life. The United States Bureau of Education reports 51 percent of our popu¬ lation, 58 percent of our teachers, and 53 percent of our pupils are rural. This 51 percent of the population includes more than half of the young people and the old who are dependent. Thus rural people bear a dispropor¬ tionate share of responsibility for educating, clothing, feeding, providing oc¬ cupations, and caring for the dependent. They must do this on approximately one-tenth of the national income. Such conditions are setting in motion deteriorating forces which are weakening self-respect, limiting social con¬ tacts for lack of clothes and funds, menacing health by lowered medical care, encouraging dependence on public relief, and generally creating a situation in which class hatred, communism, facism, or other enemies of the best American ideals and democracy can spring, under agitating leadership, its dangerous power. Add to this the fact that cities are not now reproducing enough population to maintain themselves, and we see that the future of American culture depends in a large way on the ideals, motives, and develop¬ ment of the country people. The three dominant social agencies thru which influences and guidance must pass to enter rural life are the home, the church, and the school. These interest and involve more people than all other group agencies. Attempts to improve the quality and conditions of rural life will need full cooperation of all community agencies to stimulate vision and desire for an abundant life, and meet essential needs. Rural people need the following basic elements and experiences for abundant living: 1. In a world of rapid change and swift adjustments a philosophy of change 2. A wider range vision of rural opportunities, values, and respect for rural life, culture, and the dignity of labor 3. An understanding urge to live joyously rather than be dominated by the urge to accumulate things 4. To recognize the disintegrating and hindering forces in country life and know how to combat them 5. A larger share of the national income and the resultant sense of economic security Department of Rural Education 347 6. A broader sense of cooperation and an enlarged conception of a community and its brotherhood relations 7. A keen respect for the soil and an ethical basis for its use and care 8. More energetic assistance from social agencies of the community 9. A better understanding of the rural family as a basic unit of national security and progress 10. A finer understanding of the value of health and ways of promoting better physical well-being 11. Definite community thinking and planning for better life conditions 12. A leadership devoted to a noble and high-minded type of community life 13. An appreciative understanding that God cooperates in every good act and thought 14. A desire to promote human and spiritual values as a basis for the good way of life 15. Opportunities for friendly fellowship 16. Ways of providing youth with opportunities for work and life expression 17. Guidance in achieving satisfying worship experience 18. A sense of balance between mere entertainment and wholesome pleasure 19. To regain buoyant home and community vitality 20. An appreciation of diversified crop production for use 21. Consciousness of rural power thru organization 22. Cultivation of the knowledge and desire to conserve natural resources 23. An equal opportunity for their children to share in the progress of culture and social improvement. Given an understanding of the rural situation and the basic elements and experiences needed for a suitable democratic quality of life, what should be the specific services of church and school in promoting life? Which of these services shall be rendered cooperatively and which separately? The church and school can share together as community social agencies by recognizing that each has a task in preserving the person’s unity and com¬ munity solidarity. A good beginning could be made by both agreeing to share in helping our rural homes to rediscover their basic position in community life. At present the home is almost the forgotten member in a group of social agencies. Church and school have each contributed to the situation by bidding for as large blocks of individual time as each person could be persuaded to give. Neither has shown much consideration for the other, the rights of the home, or the persons involved. The following are some ways of working to¬ gether cooperatively: 1. Purposively seek a common ground of respect for the unity of individual and social life by group conferences or community council for the study of the whole situation; the planning of needed learning, guidance, and activities; and for de¬ termining separate and cooperative responsibilities. 2. Each should seek a sense of appreciation for the aims and work of the other by balancing critical evaluation with friendly truth. 3. Each should acknowledge the helpful elements and forces of the other in work¬ ing with the people of the community. 4. Schools should welcome church cooperation in carrying on community projects; the visits of ministers to playground, classroom, or assembly hour; the use of worthy hymns in the song and music period; the literary value of chosen Bible selections; and an interpretation of religious significance in literature, art, and history. The school should also acknowledge the right of the church to a part of the individual’s time and to certain periods of community time upon which the school will not infringe. 5. On the other hand the church should share in carrying on worthy school-pro¬ moted projects without seeking to dominate. The minister must learn that telling 348 National Education Association interesting stories or conducting brief devotionals in the school are of limited value in helping church and school achieve right ends, and are feeble substitutes for per¬ sonal conferences with school leaders and teachers and friendly counseling with pupils. The church must recognize the right of the school to definite blocks of pupil and community time, and be able to see God as the source and re¬ warder of every good in the community regardless of the person or agency promoting. Let us take a brief look at some present efforts or experiments in coopera¬ tion. The choice of those listed is merely the result of some personal knowl¬ edge of the work being done, and there is no claim that these are the best examples in so large a field of experimentation. The Methodist Episcopal Church, South, has kept a group of employed field workers studying and working with rural communities for twelve years. The past seven years the work has been more intensive and creative. The workers seek to discover community needs and trends and interest the whole community in develop¬ ing a cooperative life program. They seek to safeguard the workers from the mania for quick results; from flippant and quick shifting to new and half understood methods and ventures; from expecting one agency to bear all the responsibility or reap all the glory; from substituting a hobby or single phase of community life for the total program needed; from a “touch and go” method of enterprising community activity or change; and from per¬ mitting an individual or clique to attain a selfishly possessive attitude to¬ wards certain elements needed for community advancement which would serve to block future change. At this time when education is so vitally needed to save our fair land from dictatorship or civil strife, the church has the buildings and equipment, and much of the helpful and needed curriculums which, if properly used, will go far to create the understanding and balance needed. The opportunity is specially vital in our great rural population. There it is that tenancy, poverty, increased cost of government, greater burden of dependents, and units of social agencies are laying the foundation for bitterness, bafflement, and unrest. This vast group of people have in years past been our stabilizing ele¬ ment in periods of great industrial disorder and unrest. Today we face the danger of a simultaneous flaming of agricultural and industrial disorder. Such upheaval suggests unthinkable dangers. The church and state must join hands in a program of democratic education designed to raise the majority of our adults to a level of knowing and noble citizenship. HOW MAY RURAL SCHOOLS HELP DEMOCRACY TO SUCCEED? ERNEST BURNHAM, WESTERN STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, KALAMAZOO, MICH. This nation was told by the greatest of its founders that the hope of democracy is in its common education. We know that in round numbers and percentages we have proved and do prove better today our continued Department of Rural Education 349 and present faith in this dictum of George Washington’s. Recently, I heard George F. Zook, president of the American Council on Education, say that 65 to 70 percent of the youth of this nation who are of high-school age are entering high school, and that some 12 to 14 percent of men and women of college age are now enrolled in college. In truth we have raised the level of the majority of the new generation from the old level of elementary edu¬ cation, often itself abbreviated, to this new level of secondary education. I do not doubt that the great inclusive mass of citizens in the L nited States will presently accept and fulfil in fact or in an equivalent a practically uni¬ versal achievement of at least a secondary level of schooling in both city and country. For the states to provide such service universally to their citizens is the greatest possible present insurance for making democracy succeed. Such a service is the state’s greatest gift to the poor, and constitutes the noblest public welfare act by government. Democracy is helped to succeed by all schools which keep their service alertly in step with the times to the end that pupils in these schools come to know, to the full extent of their facilities for learning, all that is com¬ monly known by citizens who have achieved the completion of elementary and secondary schools; and by all schools which bring into use every possible group and inter-group experience, which the school work and environ¬ mental activities can by study, wit, and strategy be made to yield. The American citizen who today possesses the total fund of knowledge common at least to the level indicated, and who, with a patient and gracious manner in admirable combination with a restless and stubborn purpose, accepts every participation which his energy and money permits in the laboratory of organized social relationships in the common community life is the best proof that schools do help democracy to succeed. Some things can be said more specifically about how rural schools may help democracy succeed. In small town, village, and open country schools, in fact in all schools where life, as contrasted with metropolitan centers of population, is characteristically rural, there are distinct advantages for both achieving the level of common education already defined and for the most general practise of cooperation in mutual aid by individuals both within and between groups. The simplicity and high v isibility which obtains where communities are small enough to make possible a high measure of inclusiveness of indiv iduals and groups in the talk-over process, which is the method of democracy from time immemorial, lends this fundamental safeguard to all concerned. The measure of this advantage in any given community will turn upon the ade- quacv of organization and the unanimity of participation by individuals in the services by such institutions as the public schools. These small, well-organized communities, in which democracy may be most simply and completely demonstrated, were the type-makers of Amer¬ ican ideals in government. Where the rank of individual citizens is high in intelligence and character ; where economic status is adequate ; w here every social need is felt and fostered by the highest percent of the total number of the local population, here is the best setting for a school to teach democracy. 350 National Education Association In fact every such community is a school of democracy. Children growing up in these places are taught democracy because they live in it all the time. The rural school may well see to it that its own organization and method of life is democratic. No greater incongruity could challenge the imagination than an undemocratic school in a democracy. I am speaking of rural schools, which are coterminous with the com¬ munity. Of course we all know many rural schools which are smaller than the community of which they are a part. This fact sensed and accepted, not as a handicap but as an opportunity, opens to view another advantage which every such school has for teaching democracy how to succeed. By the very necessities of the situation these small schools must set their own work in such efficient order internally that cooperation with all the other schools, whether smaller or larger which add up to an integrated community, will be available to them. This means that teachers and pupils in these small schools must learn a vivid self-consciousness of the relative merits of their school and a quick sensibility of what can best be done by them and their school to win recognition and acceptance as helpful participants in and with the larger community life. In summary, rural schools may help democracy succeed by doing first, what many of them have always done, all that the best schools anywhere are doing, to aid each member in the new school generation in acquiring with economy, dispatch, and delight the common fund of knowledge demanded of the best citizens of their day; and second, by developing in each member in the new generation an understanding of and a practised facility in social participations by which each makes cooperatively, constructive contributions to the glory of the common life. Democracy comes to glory in the common life, if at all. LITTLE RED SCHOOL HOUSE— 1938 MODEL EDWIN R. EMBREE, PRESIDENT, JULIUS ROSENWALD FUND, CHICAGO, ILL. America has provided schools and colleges beyond those of any other nation at any time in human history. But our education is not as good as our school plant. Of the whole educational structure, rural schools are the most unsatisfactory. America has neglected rural schools and all other aspects of rural life. During the past one hundred and fifty years America has steadily expanded until her territory now embraces the rich temperate zone of an entire con¬ tinent. But even during the period of territorial expansion we have centered our interests and our ambitions not on farms and country life but on cities and industrial success. There is now some tendency to turn our attention to the country, to shift our emphasis from making a living to some regard for the quality and content of life itself. There is a healthy revival of interest in the rural school. The curse of the rural school in America today is rote teaching. The schools grind out routine drill in subjects meaningless to the country child and remote from his interests or needs. The best way to vitalize the learning Department of Rural Education 351 process is to keep close contact between school subjects and everyday activities. In rural areas simple handicrafts and nature study should be made a part of education, not necessarily taught in the formal courses but provided as related activities. The teaching of reading and arithmetic should be in close relation to these activities and to the other features of the rural scene. Since good teachers are essential, the strategic approach to any school reform is thru the normal schools and teachers colleges, which at the moment are the weakest members of our whole series of institutions of higher learning. Normal colleges heretofore have been swamped by the necessity of turning out huge numbers of teachers of any sort to meet the demands of our school system which from 1880 to 1930 was swelling at the prodigious rate of half a million additional pupils per year. Now that gross needs have been met, the normal colleges can turn their attention from quantity to quality. The greatest blessing that is coming to higher education in America is the trans¬ formation of teachers colleges into distinguished and creative institutions. CITIZENS JUNIOR CLUBS IN RURAL SCHOOLS MRS. JESSIE WILSON, RURAL TEACHER, WAYNE COUNTY, MICH. During recent years we have spent much time and effort in defining the goals of education. It is not my purpose to enumerate the established aims, but rather to dwell upon the general aim that education seeks to improve life or as a wise man has said, “Education is learning how to live.” The fundamental objective in American education today is to help the child meet life situations. Education is and must be life itself. The school exists for the purpose of providing the learner with experiences of everyday living, and to provide opportunities for him to make responses to situations as they occur. Kilpatrick tells us that “whatever of an experience we accept to act on now or later, that we learn and it becomes part of us.” Knowing and facing the responsibility of helping each child to experience life, self- directed and socially responsible, the Wayne County rural schools have used the Citizens Junior Club as one means to this end. We heartily endorse the slogan, “Learn to do by doing” or in its more modern form, “Learn to live by living.” With this in mind, we have an activity for the purpose of presenting opportunities for the child to experience cooperative group planning, executing, and judging on his level of understanding. Our task as teachers is to encourage the child to make favorable responses to life situa¬ tions on his level of ability. A Citizens Junior Club has been organized each year in every rural schoolroom in Wayne County since 1925. The membership consists of all the boys and girls enrolled in the room. Before the election, the teachers and children discuss the necessary qualifications for the officers of the club. A mimeographed copy of the constitution furnished by the county office is adopted and signed by the officers and members. It is also signed by the club counselors, namely, county superintendent, deputy superintendent, help¬ ing teacher, school nurse, social worker, and teacher. 352 National Education Association All the newly elected officers are inaugurated at three centrally located places in the county. They take the oath of office and receive badges which are worn at each meeting. A worthwhile program is presented for children and parents. In the past few years we have had as speakers the state super¬ intendent of public instruction, presidents of normal colleges, and an editor of a boys’ magazine, as well as superintendents of various city schools of the county. The president of the club presides at all meetings which are held every week or every two weeks, appoints committees, and represents the club on all public occasions. During the past year the president of each club had the opportunity of representing his school in a very impressive ceremony. An American flag was presented to each school in Michigan thru the cooper¬ ation of the Woman’s Division of the WPA and the American Legion. During the program the president accepted the flag with a few well-chosen words that showed more command of the situation than is sometimes found among older citizens. The vicepresident performs the duties of president during his absence and acts on the reception committee when visitors arrive at school, thus prevent¬ ing interruption of class work, since the teacher does not greet the guests until the end of the class period. Visitors in our schools are many and this officer has practise in becoming an efficient and charming host or hostess. The secretary-treasurer keeps the minutes of all meetings and has charge of the correspondence of the club. The correspondence consists of communi¬ cations to the office of the county superintendent of schools, to the county library, to the schoolboard, and to the patrons. These letters are prepared in English class, read, and judged. The best of each is chosen to compile a group letter, which is copied and mailed by the secretary. The boys’ and girls’ health officers have supervision of health activities, either one acting as chairman of the health committee. The object of the club, in the child’s language, is to be a good citizen, that is, a good first-grade citizen, a good third-grade citizen, or a good eighth-grade citizen, as the case may be. Some clubs collect very small dues from their members for the purpose of buying incidental supplies for the club. However, no emphasis is placed on this phase and the dues are in no way an obligation. The follow¬ ing aims have been set up : 1. To help the child live in harmony with the school group 2. To encourage the child to practise desirable health, safety, and social habits at all times 3. To help the child know the governmental activities of his community, state, and nation. The purpose of each individual club is made more concrete by having its members draw up and adopt their own “conduct code,” consisting of rules growing out of the needs of their particular school. These rules they follow as they learn their value. The club is in no sense a court to hear complaints and prescribe punishment. Department of Rural Education 353 Many and varied are the activities carried on thru committees appointed by the president. It might be well here to say that the teacher’s part is to serve as a counselor rather than as a director. The playground committee supervises the care of grounds and play equip¬ ment. Cleanup squads are on the alert for waste paper on the playground. Leaders are appointed to help organize games for the different age groups present. The room committee enjoys displaying the art work and other school material. They take care of the bulletin-board, choosing and displaying material related to the activity being carried on. Our bulletin-board this year helped us to become familiar with today’s great musicians and has become the guide in the choice of radio programs in many homes. The library committee is responsible for the charging and receiving of books, for their care and mending, for the arrangement of a bulletin-board to advertise their hooks, and for the planning of activities to develop interest and ability in the use of the books provided by the school library and by the Wayne County Library. The health committee assumes the duty of checking the temperature, ven¬ tilation, and lighting of the room. In the morning it checks the coat rooms for care of outdoor clothing ; at noon and recess it has charge of handwashing drill and dispensing of first-aid. If necessary this committee cares for the washing facilities and drinking fountain. It becomes assistant to the dentist during his annual dental survey and helps to sterilize the instruments under the supervision of the dentist and school nurse. The entertainment committee plans special day programs, picnics, and other social events. In some schools it has charge of the eighth-grade com¬ mencement exercises, it makes arrangements for transportation to rehearsals and the music festival, and it presents demonstration meetings for parent- teacher associations. There is no limit to the activities of the clubs. New teachers in our schools say the Citizens Junior Clubs carry over with duties previously assumed. High-school superintendents tell us that the boys and girls entering high schools have a good background in parlia¬ mentary procedure and an excellent spirit of cooperation. Parent-teacher associations recognize that Citizens Junior Club meetings are furnishing excellent opportunities for children to participate in parliamentary practise. The boys and girls of the Citizens Junior Club are learning responsibility, they are accepting it, reporting their success, criticising, and planning again. Their reports convince us that they have learned that working together brings more happiness to all. We believe the child who shares in the work and responsibility of home and school will later assume his share of respon¬ sibility in the community, state, and nation. He is experiencing life; he is learning to do by doing; he is learning to live by living; he is learning to contribute according to his ability. 354 National Education Association THE PUBLIC RELATIONS PROGRAM OF THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS IRVING F. PEARSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF WINNEBAGO COUNTY SCHOOLS, ROCKFORD, ILL. One of the chief problems of the school administrator is that of keeping the public well-informed in respect to the schools. This is true because of the greater need for an informed school public in rural areas, the remoteness of contact with the great majority of school patrons, the lack of local super¬ visory service, and the characteristics peculiar to local communities. Handicapped because of lack of time, sufficient office help, adequate finances, and the means of quick communication with his school patrons, officers, teachers, and pupils, it would seem that there is little opportunity for the county superintendent to create and maintain a program of public relations. There are, nevertheless, several means of promoting and maintain¬ ing that service. The public press is usually ready and willing to receive school news of publicity Value. Written agencies constitute a major source of public con¬ tact. Chief among these may be a mimeographed or printed bulletin or paper. The county superintendent’s report card is a means of contact. Letters to teachers, officers, and parents may be effective means of maintaining worthy public relations. The course of study, motion pictures, school exhibitions, county music festivals and pageants, athletic contests and tournaments, etc., serve a similar purpose. Tours by directors, teachers, and parent-teacher association leaders prompt worthy public relations. The radio is a new means of reaching county people. Addresses by the county superintendent and his assistants promote better public relations. The publication of interesting statistics from reports is another means. Finally, administrative honesty, integrity, and frankness may be the chief means of promoting public appreciation, understanding, and cooperation. SECRETARY’S MINUTES New Orleans, Louisiana Business Meeting, Tuesday Afternoon, February 23, 1937 The annual business meeting of the Department of Rural Education was held immediately following the program in the Public Service Auditorium, New Orleans. President Francis L. Bailey presided. The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved. The president called for the report of the National Conference Board on Rural Education. In the absence of the chairman, R. E. Jaggers, the report was made by Howard A. Dawson. It was reported that plans are being considered for a National Conference on Critical Problems in Rural Education to be called by the President of the United States and participated in by laymen and professional people interested in rural life and education. It was explained that the organizations represented on the National Conference Board on Rural Education will be requested to become the sponsors of the conference and to designate official delegates. The report was accepted and approved. Department of Rural Education 355 The president called for the report of the Committee on Program and Policy. Frank W. Cyr, chairman, reported progress in revision of the tentative platform submitted at the St. Louis meeting. He stated that the Committee needs to have a meeting extending over three or four days and recommended steps be taken to provide funds to defray the necessary expense. He requested the continuance of the Committee with authority to proceed with their deliberations. The report was ac¬ cepted and approved. The president called for the report of the Committee on Publications and Con¬ structive Studies. The chairman, Kate V. Wolford, reported that the yearbook, Adjustments in Rural Education , had been published. She reported that the Commit¬ tee was preparing a five-year program of constructive studies and requested approval of the following subjects for the yearbooks of the next two years: (1) Newer Types of Instruction in Rural Schools (progressive practises), and (2) Re¬ directing Rural School Administration. The report was accepted and approved. The president called for the report of the Committee on Resolutions. The report was made by the chairman, Mrs. Ida M. Warner. The report was accepted and approved. (This report follows the secretary’s minutes.) The president called for the report of the Nominating Committee. The report was made by the chairman, Norman Frost. A motion was made and carried to instruct the secretary to cast a unanimous vote of the Department for the persons nominated and the persons named were declared elected. (See Historical Note, p. 332.) In accordance with the provisions of Article VI of the constitution of the Depart¬ ment of Rural Education, National Education Association of the United States, Nor¬ man Frost proposed the following amendment to said constitution: Article IV, Section 3 of the constitution of the Department of Rural Education, National Education Association of the United States, shall be amended to read as follows : The Executive Committee shall consist of the president, the vicepresident, the retiring president, who shall serve as a member of the committee ex officio for one year subsequent to active service as president, and ten members at large. The members whose terms have not expired at the time of the adoption of this amendment shall continue in office until the expiration of their respective terms. In addition, six members shall be elected, two for terms of five years, one for four years, one for three years, one for two years, and one for one year. The proposed amendment was read and filed with the secretary. The meeting ad¬ journed. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS We reaffirm the resolutions adopted at the annual meeting, 1937. We especially reaffirm the position of this Department in favor of federal aid for public schools. To this end we endorse the Harrison-Black-Fletcher Bill now pend¬ ing in Congress, proposing to appropriate funds to the states to be used by them for the improvement of their public schools, leaving all control of public schools to the states and their local subdivisions. We urge Congress to enact this legislation im¬ mediately. We furthermore urge that the states use substantial amounts of such funds as be¬ come available thru federal appropriations to equalize educational opportunities within their borders. We urge that members of this Department see that adequate measures for equalizing funds be submitted to their respective state legislatures. We especially commend those states that have set up equalization funds as a means of giving additional aid to rural schools; and we recommend that all states accept the principle of equalization as the most effective way to provide equal educational opportunities for the children living in rural areas. We recommend that the Board of Trustees of the National Education Association make an additional appropriation sufficient to complete the study of the Economic Status of the Rural Teacher. Furthermore, in view of the necessity for carrying on 356 National Education Association the work of the Committee on Publications and Constructive Studies and the work of the Committee on Program and Policy, we recommend that the Board of Trustees of the National Education Association resume the former policy of making an annual appropriation to supplement the regular income of the Department of Rural Edu¬ cation. We express our appreciation to the school officials and citizens of New Orleans for the numerous courtesies extended to the Department. We especially thank John \1. Foote and his committee for making arrangements for the most enjoyable luncheon meeting of the Department. We also thank the Times-Picayune for excellent news¬ paper reports of the programs of the Department. Ida M. Warner, Chairman, Homer L. Johnson, Secretary. DEPARTMENT OF School Stealth and Thy sic al Education At the Detroit convention the name of this Department was changed to: American association for health and physical education, a Department of the National Education Association. HISTORICAL NOTE THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION IS the result of a merger of the American Physical Education Association and the Department of School Health and Physical Education of the National Education Association in 1937. The Department of School Health and Physical Education had its beginning as the Department of Child Study , created at the Asbury Park meeting held in 1894. In 1911 the name was changed to the Department of Child Hygiene. See proceedings 1911:870. In July 1924 the Department was merged with the Department of Physical and Health Education i under the name of the Department of School Health and Physical Education. See proceedings 1924:96. The American Physical Education Association zoos officially founded in 1885 under the name of the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education. In 1903 the name was changed to the American Physical Education Association. In 1896 the Association began the pub¬ lication of its official organ, the American physical education review. In 1930 the name of the publication was changed to the journal of health and physical education, and in the same year the publication of the research quarterly zvas begun. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-38 are: president, C. H. McCloy, State University of Iozva, Iozva City, Iowa; president¬ elect, Ay P. Neilson, Stanford University, Stanford, Calif.; vicepresi¬ dent, Margaret Bell, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.; past president, IP. G. Moorhead, New York University, Nezv York, N. Y .; secretary-editor, E. D. Mitchell, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. The internal organization of the Association provides for three divisions: the Diznsion of Health Education, the Division of Physical Education, and the Diznsion of Recreation. The Department has in the past met once each year in June. Beginning in 1938 the Department zvill hold its annual national meeting in April. In addition to the national organization of the Association, there are six regional district organizations, the Eastern, Midwestern, Central, Southern, Northwestern, and Southwestern. Each of these districts holds an annual convention, zvith the exception of the district in which the national meeting is held. This district holds its meeting jointly zvith the national organization. Facts relating to this Department are found in proceedings as follows: 1893: 615- 678 1894: 40 1895 : 944- 950 1896 : 893- 936 189 7: 870- 915 1898: 929- 959 1899:1064-1096 1901 : 758- 770 1902: 739- 758 1903 :817- 846 1904 :803- 841 1905:755- 779 190 6:711- 713 190 7:925- 950 1908 -.998-1045 1909:745- 788 1910:922- 948 1911 :905- 938 1912 -.1141-1151 1921: 517- 522 1930 -.501-527 1913: 667- 694 1922:1085-1098 1931 -.541-560 1914: 683- 720 1923: 744 1932:455-466 1915 : 971- 994 19 24 : 637- 649 19 33:463-475 1916 : 681- 698 1925 : 577- 597 1934:461-468 1917: 521- 533 1926: 601- 624 1935:429-438 1918: 339- 357 1927: 561- 581 19 36:321-331 1919: 315- 321 1928: 545- 567 1920: 311- 321 1929: 543- 558 [ 358 ] A PLAN FOR MEDICAL CARE OF INJURED ATHLETES EDWIN J. BRADLEY, BOARD OF EDUCATION, CLEVELAND, OHIO While, in OHIO, there can be no legal responsibility to care for ath¬ letes injured in high-school athletic competition, there is a moral obligation. Some schools provide the necessary medical aid, but in many cases parents must defray these expenses and usually cannot afford proper medical care. In September 1936 the foundation for the Cleveland High School Medical Fund was laid. At that time, all teams of the Senate (the Cleveland High School League) were playing in one group. It was decided to take the entire schedule of November 5 and play all of the games at the Cleveland Stadium for the benefit of the fund. This spectacle, witnessed by 20,000 people, as¬ sured the success of our enterprise. The Senate is divided along geographical lines into two groups of eight teams each. This creates keener neighborhood competition. Next year each League will be run as an individual group and the champion determined. On the fourth Saturday of November, these two champions will meet at the Cleveland Stadium in the Medical Benefit Fund Game. This game will decide the city scholastic title. It is planned to run a similar game at the end of the basketball season. A local newspaper for several years has been playing a Christmas Fund Game between the two outstanding teams in the district and the proceeds have provided food for the needy of Metropolitan Cleveland at Christmas time. To avoid any direct conflict and possible lack of interest in both con¬ tests, the Cleveland Board of Education and the Cleveland Plain Dealer have agreed to jointly sponsor the Senate Championship Game — the proceeds to be divided between the medical and the charity funds, the medical fund to receive 60 percent. That all of the schools in Metropolitan Cleveland may have a medical fund for injured athletes, the various suburban schools are included in the plans. No expense is incurred by the schools. Each will receive 60 percent of the gross sales in its school, and by assisting in the promotion of this game they will provide for their own injured athletes in the future. Whatever moneys are made over and above the actual medical fund expenses will be allocated to the sixteen high schools, to be used to purchase athletic equip¬ ment. The services of a group of prominent Cleveland physicians are obtained for the complete school year, and athletes are treated for all injuries received not only in actual scholastic competition but also in practise. The medical services cover football, basketball, wrestling, baseball, track, and swimming. Dental services are also provided. Since several groups of physicians in Cleve¬ land make a specialty of handling injuries received in athletics, we asked these groups to submit a bid covering the medical service for all sports for the entire school year. This year, for $2500 we are able to provide the following services: seven-day hospitalization, all X-rays, all dental care, and home 1 359 ] 360 National Education Association attention regardless of the period of time the patient might be convalescent. We further provide first-aid at all of our athletic contests thru the medium of our school physicians. The Academy of Medicine, as a rule, is opposed to work of this nature being given to a group of physicians. We have, therefore, made it clear to all of our teams that if they have a personal preference for a physician they are perfectly free to contract for his services. We agree to pay that proportion of their contract that the school might be entitled to under the contract price that we have received from the group physicians. In conclusion, let me say that we, in Cleveland, feel that our medical fund program has been a step forward. Aside from the fact that it has created an immeasurable amount of goodwill, we consider it a great humanitarian measure. THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF CURRICULUM AND EXTRA¬ CURRICULUM ACTIVITIES TO HEALTH C. H. MC CLOY, STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA, IOWA CITY, IOWA This discussion is limited to the health contributions of the curriculum and extracurriculum program in physical education. Other contributions of these programs, together with the health contributions of health instruction programs, are omitted from consideration. Health, in this discussion, is thought of more in its positive aspect of vitality, vigor, and ability to work constructively, than from the negative aspects of freedom from sickness. Innate differences in the quality of body structures are recognized, but functional health is considered not so much in relationship to longevity as in relationship to its positive contribution to the effectiveness of the personality. These contributions may be immediate in the sense of contributing to presentday health and vitality, or they may take the form of future dividends in contributing to the health in later years. First, what is the value of muscular exercise as a health producer? It is recognized by physiologists that tissues develop primarily in response to the stimulus of activity. While there are hereditary limitations to each person’s potentiality, the realization of the potentiality depends largely upon the proper developmental stimulus. The normal stimulus for most of the organs concerned in the more purely vegetative type of physical health is a proper amount of muscular activity. Second, what is the importance of bodily strength in the program of health? It is a well-known physiological fact that muscular tissue works at a relatively low degree of efficiency when overstrained. Individuals who are overweight for the amount of muscle they have are working at this physiological disadvantage. The same is true of individuals who are under¬ muscled, but of normal weight. In addition to the higher level of strain there is a greater amount of muscular fatigue. An adequate development of muscular strength is, therefore, one of the prime essentials for a positive functioning health. Third, is the problem of what is here termed “healthful expression.” The emotions of man crave adequate expression. Most specialists are apt to Department of School Health and Physical Education 361 feel that this should be thru one’s own specialty. Thus the English specialist is apt to stress expression thru literature. Motor activities offer opportunities for this emotional release thru types of expression which are deeply rooted in human nature and are much more closely connected with the age-old urges that made for survival than are those of the more cultivated esthetics. Not only does the curriculum program plan for the attainment of these various types of values of health, but the extracurriculum activities of the department of physical education, such as intra-mural activities, offer the same opportunities, tho frequently on a less well-organized basis. The extra¬ curriculum activities of music, dramatics, art, and debating offer the health values centered in expression, but seldom those centered in the strenuous muscular activity. In addition, all of these activities offer practise in skills needed for later recreation. The school administrator of today has a right to expect : 1. A physical education teacher who has been trained in the fundamentals of health education as well as in those of physical education 2. A physician, dentist, and school nurse who think education as well as health 3. A general teaching staff, or at least a part of such a staff, who think health as well as their subjectmatter and who are wdlling to do something about it. The physical education teacher of today has a right to expect an admin¬ istrator who has taken the trouble to inform himself as thoroly on the needs of health, physical education, and recreation as he has done in the other fields of teaching under his administration. If these conditions are met, a program that is planned and articulated specifically for the purpose of attain¬ ing such healthful results has a good chance to produce better health both organically and functionally. EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FOR THE SCHOOL PHYSICIAN EARL E. KLEIN SCHMIDT, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. Believing a thoro investigation of the activities, interests, and training of the school physician and medical inspector was needed, a committee of the American Association of School Physicians took steps to secure answers to the following questions : 1. What opinions do leaders in school work hold as to the training necessary for the school physician and school medical inspector? 2. What educational facilities are available for their training? 3. What are the present activities and interests of school physicians and school medical inspectors? 4. What is the training of school physicians and school medical inspectors now in service? 5. What duties and training should the school physician have? Action to secure answers to these questions was briefly as follows : 1. A study of the literature relative to expressed opinions of leaders in the field of school health concerning the training of the school physician and school medical inspector National Education Association 2. Correspondence with physicians and educators whose opinion would be of value in shaping the nature of the investigation 3. A stud} of the educational institutions in the United States and Canada that otter courses suitable for training the school physician 4. A questionnaire study of present interests and activities of school physicians and the training of the school physician and school medical adviser. For the most part, correspondents were inclined to favor additional train¬ ing for the school physician other than that received in the medical school. Columbia University was found to be the only institution offering a course of instruction specifically arranged for the training of the school physician. Over 50 percent of the 107 school physicians replying to the question about present duties stated that they carried out the following duties: routine examination or inspection of school children, special examinations, sanitary inspection of buildings and grounds, health instruction of children and parents, immunization against smallpox and diphtheria, certification of chil¬ dren returning to school after an absence due to illness, examination of chil¬ dren applying for work certificates, testing hearing and vision, preparation of reports, classroom inspection for communicable diseases, and first-aid. Approximately 50 percent of the full-time school physicians replying to the questionnaire had obtained additional training beyond medical school to fit them for their work in the schools. More than 25 percent had taken courses of instruction in public health, school hygiene and sanitation, health teaching, principles of teaching, physical education, public health adminis¬ tration. physiology of child growth and development, vital statistics, psy¬ cholog}' of education, public speaking, and child hygiene. Since these replies represent a cross-section of the school physicians’ training over the entire country, it can be taken as an indication of the trend of the times. On the basis of the findings of this study the committee on the training of the school physician and school medical inspector formulated recommen¬ dations for a course of instruction for the training of the school physician. TRAINING THE PHYSICAL EDUCATOR GERTRUDE E. MOULTON, DIRECTOR, PHYSICAL EDUCATION FOR WOMEN, OBERLIN COLLEGE, OBERLIN, OHIO Training for teaching of health and physical education must show the contribution physical education can make to the aims of general education. The teacher’s ability to see this relationship clearly will depend somewhat upon her 1. Q. Too often this ability has not been demanded by the super¬ intendents, nor has its fundamental value been recognized by the teacher- training institutions. Two sets of objectives, immediate and remote, are both necessary for effective educational work. They determine the direction and the goals. These aims are the why of teaching. Altho this why is the most important of all phases of teacher training, the greater part of the training time must be spent in developing skills in, and learning to recognize effects of, activities. Nothing can be substituted for this. The teacher must be reasonably skilled in many activities and should be exceptionally skilled in a few. Activities are Department of School Health and Physical Education 363 the vehicle used to carry one toward the desired destination. They are the ivhat of health and physical education teaching. A teacher must do more than know where she wants her students to go, and must show them the vehicle which can take them there. She must be able to interest and influence them in the process of going. A teacher cannot be a signboard, merely pointing the way. She must be an educator “leading out” others in the right direction. She must be able to adjust the day’s journey to the capacities and needs and abilities of the children. This is the how of teaching. It depends upon the “P.Q.” or the ability to influence and interest others. In personality rests the secret of successful method. But a teacher may be trained in the why, the what, and the how of her field and yet not make progress. She must thoroly comprehend the basic characteristics of the health and physical education program which make the greatest progress possible, and she must be prepared to meet the varying conditions in schools as they exist. She must know how to change them, or to yield, adjust, or withdraw as conditions demand, without ever losing sight of the ultimate goal toward which she is leading her pupils. This takes judgment, and judgment can be developed. It is the business of the training school to keep the balance and send its students out with clear-cut objectives, materials, and methods, trained in cooperation and in insight and in judgment. This demands certain basic courses and equipment and training as well as the cooperation and help of administrators and superintendents and principals. Those who hire the teachers must work with those who train them to accomplish the results. THE TRAINING OF THE HEALTH EDUCATOR C. E. TURNER, PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, MASSACHU¬ SETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. and PHILIP L. RILEY, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF PHYSICAL WELFARE, BOARD OF EDUCATION, CLEVELAND, OHIO The greatest single potential force for the promotion of the health of school children is the great body of classroom teachers, but trained leader¬ ship in organized health education programs is necessary if this force is to become effective. As school health and health department practises develop, certain facts with respect to health education are gradually becoming apparent. 1. The great body of classroom teachers are in a position to make an incalculable contribution to the health of the nation’s children, both thru the health education of the child, which is primarily their responsibility, and thru their participation in and cooperation with the school health services. 2. In addition to adequate training for classroom teachers, there must be health education leadership in the hands of a capable director of health education or a health education coordinator if the program is to operate most effectively. 3. The health education program in the community (the home) and in the schools (the classroom) are sufficiently interlinked and can become so mutually contributory that a closer relationship between the two should be established. 364 National Education Association The tendency to unify all community health activities and to establish generalized nursing makes it increasingly important that a health educator and coordinator should serve the school system. He may well serve the health department, also. After all, the child is a member of the community who spends part of his time in school. As community health activities outside of school continue to improve in quality, and as the important relationship of parents to the school health program is better appreciated, we must bring school health education and community health education into closer rela¬ tionship. There is recognition of the need for the wider use of health educators with sound training in ( 1 ) education, (2) personal health, (3) the main¬ tenance of a healthful environment, (4) community health organization and activities, and (5) the school health program with its interrelationships. THE PRIVATE PHYSICIAN AS A SCHOOL PHYSICIAN DON W. GUDAKUNST, DEPUTY COMMISSIONER, DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, DETROIT, MICH. A program of health for the school child is not and cannot be a program solely for the school. The health of school children, as of any other group or section of the community, depends upon factors outside the school — factors within the home and community. One of the most important of these factors is the private physician of that community. His ability, usefulness, avail¬ ability, cooperation, and understanding of the problems of school health, all play a tremendous part. The successful development of any school health program is so intimately dependent upon the practise of medicine that great thought and care must be given to securing the help and cooperation of the practitioner of medicine ; without his help and cooperation a truly successful program cannot be consummated. The participation of the private physician in school health work has not been earnestly sought by most departments engaged in this activity. Nor can cooperation or assistance be secured from groups or individuals unless they are fully aware of the procedures and play some part in every step. If every child were under the care of a physician, fully acquainted with schools and school programs, acquainted with the needs of the schools and the facilities of the schools for caring for children with handicaps and de¬ fects then, truly, most of the school health problems would be solved. Most of our efforts have been directed to sending children to physicians without adequate thought to the preparation of the physician to meet the special problems. The physician is in need of special training in this work. There is a special medical problem connected with the schools. There is need for the specialist in school health work, but there is also need for educa¬ tion and guidance of the practising physician in these same areas. Our schools, with their problems, afford a training ground and teaching center for these same practising physicians, if we only dare to use them as such. In Detroit, we have taken that step with great benefit to our children. School medical work, by action of the board of education, department of Department of School Health and Physical Education 365 health, and the medical society has been made a responsibility of a special committee of the county medical society. This committee is selected because of its training in and understanding of school health service. The director of school health service serves as a member of this committee. Thru this device the official medical organization is continuously informed of the health activities in schools. And, further, the director of the service has the advan¬ tage of an informed, skilled group of medical advisers. This is but the first step in securing the cooperation of doctors. The ex¬ amining school physicians afford the next. Appointments are made to the staff for two years only. Each year approximately half of the staff is new. During this two-year service period these doctors are given a post-graduate training in this specialized field. They are acquainted with the needs of the school ; they come to know the care the school can afford the underprivileged and handicapped ; they have, for the first time, an opportunity to examine large numbers of supposedly healthy children and have made known to them the great need for additional medical care of children. These physicians carry over into their private offices the knowledge, practises, and attitudes they acquire during their two-year period of employment as school doctors. In order to widen the scope of this plan the amount of service secured from each school physician has been reduced to one morning a week. Ap¬ pointments to this service are made almost entirely from younger men who have just finished a hospital residency. Each hospital in the city recommends candidates; each application is passed upon by the School Health Committee of the Wayne County Medical Society. After a brief preliminary instruction period these men are assigned to schools, where under supervision they carry on their examination work. The school nurse, principal, and teachers lend their full assistance to the phy¬ sician. This program has met with the most hearty endorsement of the school principals. Their enthusiasm was unexpected as a new school doctor every year or two creates a certain amount of additional responsibility and work for the school. Yet the school group was the first to fully appreciate the value of having in the neighborhood physicians practising medicine aimed and directed at solving problems of that school. The support and cooperation of the Medical Society is, of course, 100 percent, for this organization initiates and runs the service. The parents approve, for now their problems are not handled by a “school doctor” or a governmental agency, but by a practising physician who is one of their own group and community. Above all, the health of the children is definitely altered for the good. Today, in the city of Detroit, there are many hundreds of physicians who are doing all in their power, in their own offices, to improve the health of school children, for they have been trained to be school doctors, and to appreciate the needs, and have been shown the method of solution of the health problems of school children. 366 National Education Association CURRICULUM BUILDING IN HEALTH EDUCATION FLORENCE C. O’NEILL, SUPERVISOR OF SCHOOL HEALTH EDUCATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, ALBANY, N. Y. This paper offers a brief description of some of the practises used in New York state during the past several years in an endeavor to link teacher educa¬ tion at the elementary-school level with the actual solution of the health education problems of children in their homes, at school, and in the com¬ munity. In 1929 we made a comprehensive study of the health teaching programs in our state. A group of 1200 classroom teachers in urban and rural com¬ munities was selected to study the health teaching activities, materials, and personnel in the field. The data obtained showed great variance in the view¬ point, methods, and materials used even among excellent teachers. Such diversity of opinion and practises and such inconsistencies between objec¬ tives as stated and the content and methods used was disconcertive. This study gave evidence of great need for sound guidance in curriculum building in the field. Early in 1930 the New York State Department of Education undertook an experimental program of curriculum building. A state committee repre¬ senting normal schools and the elementary schools of cities and villages was invited to cooperate with our health teaching staff. Its personnel included a member who was doing classroom teaching, a school administrator, a school physician, a school nurse, a physical education supervisor, and five health education supervisors. The committee undertook to put into practise a democratic philosophy of education and of health education which would give to the several thousand teachers, parents, and children who participated in the curriculum activities an opportunity to grow with freedom to develop and express individuality. The committee decided that the needs of the state would best be met thru the construction of a flexible health teaching guide to help teachers in study¬ ing children and their environments, to find health needs, and to suggest ways and means of meeting these needs. As a first step a complete survey was undertaken of the behavior of a large sampling of individual elementary- school children thru direct observation of their behavior by teachers and parents, both in the school and the home environments. An endeavor was made to give both teachers and parents a sense of interest and responsibility in the study as well as complete details of operation. Two check-lists of behavior items were prepared, one for the home and the other for the school survey, covering fully the behavior implied by the best educational content and methods available. These items, covering the child’s whole day, were used by teachers and parents in studying a random sampling of 4000 boys and girls from the elementary grades. They were of varying intelligence, came from widely varying types of homes, and ranged in age from five thru thirteen years. This diversity allowed for conclusions in regard to distribution of health practises in the various groups. Department of School Health and Physical Education 367 Two thousand excellent classroom teachers and 4000 parents in fifty-four communities of the state participated in the study. The data were analyzed and organized by the State Department of Education. Conclusions were drawn in regard to the distribution of health practises, problematic and otherwise, in groups varying according to age, sex, intelligence, and home background. The report of the study included chapters on children’s be¬ havior related to sleep and rest, play and work, food and eating habits, cleanliness and health protection, and mental health. A clear-cut picture was presented showing different standards of living for the same child in his school and home environments. An interesting by¬ product of the survey was the emergence, in the picture of school and home programs presented, of the behavior of parents, teachers, and school admin¬ istrators, and more important still, of the relationships existing between the children and parents and between the children and teachers. While the dominant purpose of the study was fact-finding in regard to the health behavior of the children studied, the educational value of the study was large to all who participated. The printed report of the behavior study has been widely used by teachers and parent-teacher groups to aid them in studying children. This study of children’s behavior revealed the need for a unified 24-hour-a-day health pro¬ gram which would meet the total personality needs of the child thruout his whole day. A new guide for teachers was needed. It must be developed in the field by classroom teachers with the cooperation of the children and their parents. Teachers’ narratives of healthful experiences, actually a part of children’s living, should be used as illustrative material. For two years, study groups of elementary-school teachers under the guidance of state and local health teaching supervisors studied their children and environments, experimented with health materials and activities, and cooperated in the development of A Guide to the Teaching of Health in the ElerTientary School. In addition, teachers from many other communities and five normal schools have critically reviewed the curriculum materials as they have appeared in mimeographed form before printing. The first edition of this bulletin has been critically used in the schools for the past year. We hope for its early revision to record progress made thru this experimental work in the field. SOURCES AND USES OF MATERIALS IN HEALTH EDUCATION MARY P. CONNOLLY, DIRECTOR OF HEALTH EDUCATION, DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, DETROIT, MICH. The secondary-school student is beginning to develop social consciousness which includes the community in which he lives. Health education must pre¬ pare him to fit into an adult pattern of living, and must enable him to utilize the facilities in the community for maintaining health, and to learn to accept the newer advances as they come from the laboratories. In order to do this, an effective health education program in any secondary school must be the result of integrating the health content of many subjects. 368 National Education Association The young adult who is to function satisfactorily should know the medical facilities of the community, where and how to obtain personal medical serv¬ ice at the various economic levels of his community. He will be better pre¬ pared to deal with changes in health conditions in his community if he has some understanding of what has gone before. This can be made possible by a study of the vital statistics prepared by the local health department. He is a potential buyer of foods and other articles which will be used by his family when he assumes the responsibility of a home. He needs some basis of judging the worth of these commodities. In addition to this, he needs to learn to think straight in relation to health matters and he can only under¬ stand this if he possesses some basic knowledge of the functioning of the body. Material for health education for the secondary-school student lies all about him and the successful teacher will select that material which has to do with his needs and desires in order to prepare adequate material for him. THE MICHIGAN STATE JOINT HEALTH COMMITTEE CLARE GATES, PUBLIC HEALTH DIVISION, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. In 1921 the Michigan State Medical Society and the University of Michi¬ gan formed the Joint Committee on Health Education with the following objective : The function of the Joint Committee is to present to the public the fundamental facts of modern scientific medicine for the purpose of building up sound public opinion relative to the questions of public and private health. It is concerned in bringing the truth to the people, not in supporting or attacking any school, sect, or theory of practise. It will send out teachers, not advocates. From 1921 to 1927 the program of the Joint Committee was concerned with providing speakers representing the professions on matters concerning personal and community health before various high-school and adult audi¬ ences. In 1927 a health column was offered to the newspapers of the state. By 1930 the Joint Committee had a list of over 500 physicians who would give lectures. That year an estimated audience of 150,000 adults heard lectures on medical and health subjects and 127 high schools with a total enrolment of 40,000 pupils took part in a series of from three to five lectures. In addition, an estimated 2,000,000 persons were reached by 60 daily and weekly newspapers carrying the health column. During the depression years the activities of the organization were greatly curtailed. In 1935 came a renewal of activities and a broadening of program. To the thirteen member units composed of the major health agencies in the state other lay and professional organizations have been added until practically all concerned in education, and more particularly in health education, are represented in the Joint Committee, a total of twenty-three member units. The C ornmittee on Health Education in schools — This Committee is made up of leading health educators. Each Committee member represents a state organization such as the Michigan Physical Education Association, the Michigan School Health Association, and the Michigan Nurses Asso- Department of School Health and Physical Education 369 ciation. From time to time persons not appointed on the Committee are asked to advise with the group. The State Department of Public Instruction, as well as the State Department of Health, have each delegated one of their ablest staff members to this Committee. This makes possible the closest co¬ operation with the state department in their statewide study of the school curriculum. The activities have centered around the development of curriculum ma¬ terials and means for improving the in-service and pre-service health educa¬ tion of teachers. Three pieces of material have been prepared. This program is being initiated this summer thru conferences on health education at two state teachers colleges. Adult health education — Emphasis is placed on determining ways and means of coordinating the adult interests in school health education with the school health program. During this past year a statewide cancer educational program was conducted thru the Joint Committee under the direction of the cancer committee of the Michigan State Medical Society and in coopera¬ tion with the state officers of the American Society for the Control of Cancer. Also, the Joint Committee, in cooperation with the radio committee of the State Medical Society, initiated a series of eighteen weekly broadcasts on medical subjects over eleven radio stations in the state. In addition to these newer programs, the daily health and hygiene column and the health lectures have been continued. Launched on uncharted seas in 1921, temporarily drydocked during the lean years of 1933-34, the Joint Committee set forth in 1935 on a charted course along two main routes : one, school health education ; the other, adult health education. Both routes lead toward a definite goal — the cooperation of existing health agencies in more effective statewide health educational activities. ALCOHOL AND NARCOTIC DRUGS HAVEN EMERSON, PROFESSOR OF PUBLIC HEALTH, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The teaching of the facts about alcohol and the narcotic drugs should follow a general understanding of the principal features of human biology, after an introduction to general biology or nature study and the physical and chemical properties of matter. As self-control and the use of reason in determining the conduct of life are the chief objects of our teaching of school children so that they may make personal decisions wisely, we are bound to put such facts into their hands as will free them from errors of tradition, superstition, and social customs. Alcohol is a depressant narcotic drug with its chief and almost exclusive action upon the brain and other nerve centers. It is not a food, altho it is burned in the body as a fuel with the production of heat and energy. Even in amounts well below those that lead to obvious intoxication in the social or police sense, alcohol can be shown to cause delay and inaccuracy in ordinary reflex action involving eye, ear, and voluntary muscles, and appreciable error or inferiority in mental and physical performance. 370 National Education Association Alcohol can be so used in moderation with meals by healthy, well-nourished adults as to cause no appreciable harm to their health or longevity, altho as widely used there is abundant evidence that it causes much sickness, pre¬ mature death, economic dependence, and mental deterioration. No benefit to the health of normal individuals can be attributed to the use of alcohol, while physicians prescribe alcohol, tho much less than ever before, for its depressant and narcotic effect. The main reason for its habitual use, especially in excess, is the deceptive sense of exaggerated well-being and temporary relief from worry, monotony, and fatigue which it creates. Opium and the coca leaf and cannabis indica are properly banned by in¬ ternational agreement and national and local laws. Tobacco causes a variety of minor irritative and toxic states, including contraction of the arteries caus¬ ing a rise in blood pressure, but except in certain susceptible individuals does not seem commonly to affect health or longevity unfavorably. Its thoughtless use creates esthetic offense and some sanitary annoyance. Tea and coffee are pure stimulants and do harm only when used to overcome the warning sen¬ sation of fatigue and thus encourage further injudicious activity of mind and body. Artificial stimulation to remove a sense of fatigue is of less value than suitable physical and mental rest. Children should be taught the facts and be encouraged to reach their own decisions as to the use of food and drink. Choice of what is taken into the mouth and is swallowed will always be the responsibility of the person con¬ cerned, rather than a point determined by law or ethics. None of the so- called dietary drugs, alcohol, tea, coffee, or tobacco, adds to human health or development. Their use is a costly burden, with no contribution of endur¬ ing value and many harmful effects upon the individual and society. HEALTH PROBLEMS OF SCHOOL CHILDREN AS SEEN BY THE PRACTISING PHYSICIAN ISAAC A. ABT, PROFESSOR OF PEDIATRICS, NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY MEDICAL SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL. H ave school health problems become so technical that they require admin¬ istration by specialists? Or is there still a place for the general practitioner in this field ? The general practitioner has an advantage in having known the child from the cradle — his illnesses, his temperament, and the physical and social conditions under which he has grown up. This intimate knowledge is best obtainable by a family doctor, and is an invaluable asset in meeting the exigencies of a public health program in the schools. Altho the school specialists may have been trained for that particular work, very often instead they are physical education teachers. That medical, dental, or nursing degrees should be considered secondary to credits in administra¬ tion, education theory and gymnasium instruction is unacceptable from the physician’s standpoint. The reasonable and unbiased practitioner is fully aware of the need for medical supervision in the school. He realizes that permanent records kept by the school thruout the child’s educational career are indispensable. On the Department of School Health and Physical Education 371 other hand, it is generally accepted that the health and well-being of the child is primarily a responsibility of the parents and of the family physician. Assuming periodic examinations of the school child by the school doctor are a fundamental part of any public health program, what about more special¬ ized examinations — say, of the eyes and ears, or X-ray examinations of the chest — or what about tuberculin tests? The practising physician, in the vast majority of cases, recommends referring the patient back to the family doctor when any defect out of the routine order is encountered, including acute infections or contagious diseases. Full-time school physicians, employed by the board of education, county or municipality, are already with us and very probably their number will increase until school health inspection has become a special field of medical practise. If physicians of skill, experience, and special training alone are entrusted with the responsibility of this work, the family physician will undoubtedly find a place of compromise, harmony, and reciprocal adjustment in the pic¬ ture. This is especially to be expected if the school physician is one appointed or recommended by the local medical society. Under such circumstances, the health program of the pupil will be doubly protected, and the “guardianship” of health instruction, which is essentially the trust of all medical men, will be mutually upheld. THE SCHOOL’S CONTRIBUTION TO TRAFFIC SAFETY ALLEN G. IRELAND, DIRECTOR FOR HEALTH, SAFETY, AND PHYSICAL EDUCA¬ TION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, TRENTON, N. J. The school’s contribution to traffic safety has been large, probably much larger than we know, for we lack adequate measures of achievement. Yet safety education is still but an infant. By far the greatest problem we shall have to solve is our acceptance of the traffic accident. Statistics and news stories of accidents are so familiar they no longer impress us. The belief that popular indifference to the accident situation cannot be changed constitutes a serious problem. Compared with it other difficulties are insignificant. Our salvation rests in the education of school children ; a persistent educational drive, generation after generation. We must somehow give future genera¬ tions of adults a new psychology, the conviction that the chance of accident can be foreseen and eliminated. The trend in safety education today is very definitely in that direction. This points out our need of trained teachers — teachers who themselves have acquired good safety habits, for the effect of example is powerful. More teacher preparation courses, on both undergraduate and graduate levels, must be established. Judging from the demands of administrators the writer is certain that the special teacher of safety education will soon appear on the school staff and that safety education will become a new administrative unit, separate from either health education or physical education. This change will occur in the high school first, and signs of it are already in evidence. Safety education should be a credit course. The School Safety Council as a, 372 National Education Association contribution to traffic safety deserves top rank in view of its many activities in some communities. The School Safety Patrol deserves all the praise it receives, but we must cease thinking of the patrol as being only a protective agency. It should be regarded rather as a group of pupil citizens engaged in responsible work; an educative device with character-forming potentialities; and a wholesome influence upon the entire school. The contribution to traffic safety thru the patrol is evident in several ways: (1) protective duties; (2) the develop¬ ment of attitudes favorable to safety ; (3) ideals and practises of good citizen¬ ship ; and (4) an indirect influence upon adult drivers, especially parents. Safe transportation of pupils by school bus should be one of our best con¬ tributions. We must center our efforts upon the driver, for “the school bus is no safer than the driver who operates it.” We must also stand by the sound thesis that any bus which carries children should have incorporated in it all approved safety devices. For a full treatment of this subject see Research Bulletin of the National Education Association, “Safety in Pupil T ransportation.” Gradually an accident reporting system should be adopted. The standard system is that of the education division of the National Safety Council. Such accident reports provide a measure of safety education and are invaluable as a means of interesting the community in the school program. No discussion of school matters is complete without mention of parent cooperation. The student’s first car is in most instances the family car. This means further control. Parents should know what the school is teaching, but we must not allow parents to think that the school’s course relieves them of all responsibility. The automobile driver’s course is our best effort to date toward discharging the obligation of education. To date the course has suf¬ fered by reason of its introduction by pressure groups and for lack of strong support on the part of school executives. This course should be regularly programmed on school time. Safety cannot be taught to pupils, or acquired from a book. It is a quality of life taken on thru the medium of daily living. Methods, in a word, must follow the activity theory. The adolescent dislikes formal instruction and admonition. He is eager to explore life in his search for experience. To turn these characteristics of youth into constructive channels must be the key¬ note in driving instruction of the future. Department of School Health and Physical Education 373 SECRETARY’S MINUTES Business Meeting, Tuesday Afternoon, June 29, 1937 The meeting was opened at 4:15 p.m. by the president, Mrs. Edna W. Bailey. The secretary, J. E. Rogers, gave a brief history of the Department during the past fourteen years, and commented on the interest and support which W. E. Givens and Agnes Samuelson and the N.E.A. Executive Committee have given the Department in its reorganization plans. It is hoped that this same spirit of cooperation in our own group will carry on in the enlarged organization. Mrs. Bailey reported on the various meetings and conferences which had been held by the Department officers with the officers and representatives of the American Physical Education Association during the past year to formulate the organization of the new Department in which these two organizations have merged. The merger and the enlarged Department have been approved by the Executive Committee for a trial period of five years. It has been felt by all who have worked on the problem that this merger will do much to provide for the coordinated activity of all groups interested in any aspect of child health and welfare in schools, without interfering with the individual programs of these groups. Mrs. Bailey also reported on her work in planning the program for this meeting, and in the organization of the Health Education Division of the new Department. She has asked the following to serve as temporary chairmen of various sections: Don W. Gudakunst for School Physicians, Helen Hunscher for Nutrition Workers, Major E. V. Graves for Health Instruction, C. E. Turner for Teacher Training in Health Education, and Lulu V. Cline for the School Nurses. Mention was made of individuals and agencies who had been most helpful in assisting with the various plans and conferences during the past year. C. H. McCloy, president of the American Association for Health and Physical Education, a Department of the N. E. A. (the new title of the Department) discussed briefly the organizational aspects of the new Department, which has been to a great extent developed from the existing constitution of the A.P.E.A. This is not a final organization but a working basis for starting. Changes in it will be made as the needs are recognized. The main legislative body will be the Council, made up of representatives from the state health and physical education associations, from the various allied organizations, and from the sections (interest groups), plus the na¬ tional officers, district presidents, and the chairmen of the three divisions which are just being organized. It is hoped that in all these groups there will soon be an equal proportion of representation from the three divisions of interest — health, physical education, and recreation. The physical education representation is at present much the largest since its organization has been developing for over fifty years. Much credit is due Agnes Wayman and Agnes Samuelson for their interest and initiative in taking the first steps leading to this long-hoped-for merger, and to the cooperative spirit of the whole group which has made its completion possible. H. F. Kilander reported for the committee appointed by the A.P.E.A. Health Edu¬ cation Section to work on plans for the organization of the Health Education Division. The final report of this committee consisted of the following recommenda¬ tions : 1. That the Division Council be composed for this year of the Division chairman, the chairman of each section in the Division, and one additional representative from each section. 2. That this Council should have as its duties for this year the following: a. To decide on a permanent organization for the Division, this to be approved by the National Council at the April 1938 meeting b. To study the problem of coordinating the activities of the three Divisions c. To consider the problem of finances for the Division d. To decide on necessary committees e. To consider the possibility of a yearbook f. To discover if possible some ways and means of continuing the School Health Education Service of the Joint Committee 374 National Education Association g. To plan programs for presentation at the conventions of the Association, the N.E.A., and the American Association of School Administrators meetings. The following reports of Section chairmen were given: Dr. Don W. Gudakunst reported that a School Medical Section had been organ¬ ized, and that he had been elected as its chairman. The group, representing several national organizations, had voted to limit its membership to those who were also members of the American Medical Association or the American Dental Association. Dr. W. W. Bauer is secretary of the Section. The group is very appreciative of this opportunity to ally itself with the other groups interested in school health and to con¬ tribute to the enlarged program of the Department. Anita D. Laton reported for Clair E. Turner that the Section on Teacher Training in Health Education had elected Dr. Turner chairman, Miss Laton, vicechairman, and Mabel Rugen, secretary-treasurer. This group felt that there is a great need for a compilation of information on the standards which are being set up for teacher training in the various aspects of this field, and has asked its officers to set up the necessary machinery and appoint committees to work on this problem. The standards would be submitted to the other Sections for approval. Helen Hunscher reported that the Nutrition Section was organized, and is already working cooperatively with the Nutrition Committee of the Department of Home Economics, and is seeking the cooperation of other organizations in the field. The Journal of Home Economics is also interested in cooperating with this Section. Mari¬ etta Eichelberger was elected secretar)r of the Section, and the chairman is to be appointed. Major Graves reported that he had been elected chairman by the Health Instruc¬ tion Section. Mrs. Fleta McWhorter Dowling was elected secretary-treasurer, and Mr. Kilander, member-at-large. The chairman has been given authority to appoint any necessary committees during the coming year. Lulu V. Cline reported for the School Nurses Section that she had been elected chairman; Gertrude Cromwell of Des Moines, vicechairman; Marie Swanson of New York, secretary; and Ella McNeill, member-at-large. The Section has set up as its program for the coming year three problems: 1. The integration of various aspects of school health nursing 2. The interpretation of the school nursing program to educators 3. The interpretation of the standards of the N.O.P.H.N. Mrs. Bailey then introduced Agnes Wayman who spoke briefly on the great pleas¬ ure and satisfaction that this merger would bring to the physical education group which is wholeheartedly and cooperatively behind the new organization. After a few questions from the floor the meeting was adjourned. DEPARTMENT OF (Science Instruction HISTORICAL NOTE The department of science instruction is an outgrowth of a State Department of Natural Science Teachers which was organised at a meet¬ ing of the Colorado State Teachers Association in 1894. It zuas first known as the Department of Natural Science Instruction. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-38 are: president, Mildred M. Fahy, Principal, Peirce School, Chicago, III.; first vice- president, Charles L. Hampton, Science Instructor, Piedmont High School, Piedmont, Calif.; second vicepresident, Philip G. Johnson, Professor of Secondary Education, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y .; secretary, Lillian C. Compton, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Allegany County, Cumberland, Md.; treasurer, Harold E. Wise, School of Education, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. This Department meets once each year, in July. The Department publishes a Yearbook. The annual dues, $.50, are payable to the Treas¬ urer. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as fol¬ lows: 1895: 951- 958 1896: 937- 967 1897: 916- 958 1898: 959- 984 1899 -.1097-1117 1900: 592- 608 1901 : 771- 802 1902: 759- 789 1903: 847- 895 1904: 843- 896 1905 : 781- 825 1906: 719- 720 1907: 951- 957 1908: 965- 998 1909: 789- 828 1910: 949- 967 1911: 939- 992 1912 -.1153-1193 1913:695- 716 1914 -.721- 773 1915 -.995-1028 1916:699- 749 1917:535- 555 1918:295 1919:289 1920 :305- 308 1921 -.663- 666 19 22:1239-1265 1923: 84 3- 860 1924: 753- 774 1925: 598- 608 1926: 625- 636 1927: 583- 597 1928: 569- 589 1929: 559- 577 1930: 529- 542 1931 -.561-575 1932 -.467-480 1933 -.477-487 1934 -.469-479 1935 -.439-448 1936 -.333-346 [ 376 ] SPRING— A SEASON MARY L. GARVEY, FULLER SCHOOL, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Since man adjusts himself to seasonal changes, children must gain some understanding of seasonal rhythms. Shadows are indicators of the approach, arrival, and passing of seasons. We attempt to have the child gain during his early school life, thru shadow study, some understanding of the meaning of seasonal change and of the principle that the sun gives more heat when it moves higher in the sky and when days grow longer. As the child observes variation in shadow length and direction, and experiences simul¬ taneous changes in the natural environment, he gains some understanding of the dependence of all life upon the energy of the sun. We find that children who have had a background in shadow study grasp the idea of the influence of the sun on the lives of people, at home and in other lands, much more readily than do children without this experience. Shadow work helps chil¬ dren to see that there is a very definite relationship between the climate of a region and the amount of heat which that region receives from the sun. This helps them to see why man chooses to live as he does in various parts of the world. It also helps them to understand how the work, play, food, clothing, shelter, and health of people of such type regions as the polar lands, the desert, and equatorial regions are all directly related to the effect of the sun’s rays. Thruout the study of the variation in shadow length and direction, an effort is made to stimulate the child to an inquiring attitude and to satisfy his curiosity thru first-hand experiences that will help him to find answers to his own questions thru reasoning from cause to effect. As he advances in years, we may expect that he will apply his findings in these experiences to his solution of some of the complex problems of life as they confront him. We feel sure that the child who has had the benefit of these experiences will grow more tolerant of others and will enjoy seasons more because he under¬ stands them better. • > PHOTOGRAPHY AS AN EXTRACURRICULUM ACTIVITY JOHN W. SCHNECK, RIVERSIDE HIGH SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS. From all sides we hear educators say that the function of the school is rapidly becoming that of preparing their students for a profitable and chal¬ lenging use of our ever increasing leisure time. One needs only to consider the myriad applications of photography to realize its possibilities either as a hobby or as a vocation. Consider its use as an advertising medium, its value to the astronomer in recording what his eye cannot see, the story told by the news photograph, the telescopic view of the infra-red camera, showing clearly scenes 350 miles distant, the ultra violet photograph that restores the sig¬ nature of a completely charred bank check, or the high-speed camera by which inconceivably rapid motions can be made to stand still. [ 377 ] 378 National Education Association Modern amateur photography dates to the introduction of roll him and the box camera in 1900. Film consumption has grown steadily until the yearly consumption of roll him is represented by the staggering hgure of 150,000,000 rolls. Figuring 8 pictures to a roll there are then 1,200,000,000 amateur camera clicks per year. This means that Aunt Sue and Johnny, with his hrst pair of long pants, are each “snap-shotted” ten times per year. Of the 1,200,000,000 exposures made, 25 percent, or 300,000,000, are complete failures and are never printed. This represents not only a loss of many a scene that can never be duplicated but an actual money loss of $12,000,000. An additional 35 percent, or about 400,000,000 pictures that are printed are either out of focus, under- or over-exposed to the extent that the pictures are practically worthless. When we consider that 60 percent of the $40,000,000 spent for him is practically wasted, need we ask whether there is any need for a camera club in the secondary schools? The function of the camera club is not merely to put a picture on the 300,000,000 negatives that remain unprinted but to im¬ prove the 400,000,000 that are scarcely better than worthless. The amateur must and can be taught that it is as easy to make a good picture as a poor one. The hrst lesson that should be taught is that of proper composition. To most of us composition is a mysterious art that somehow seems beyond us. However, it can be simply dehned as the art of bringing things together in an orderly and symmetrical arrangement. A good picture should include a domi¬ nant hgure. There should also be some object of secondary interest con¬ nected with the principal subject. Backgrounds should be subordinate and unobtrusive. There should never be two highlights of equal importance. The exact center of the picture should be avoided. The horizon line in landscape pictures should be either one-third the distance from the top or bottom. In conclusion, photography is not only a most satisfactory hobby itself, but it enhances your canoeing, fishing, or hunting trip by producing a perma¬ nent record that will help you live your pleasant experiences, not once, but again and again, as you look thru your album. The Camera Club Program Enthusiasm is catching — If you are merely interested but not enthusiastic, read several books on photography before organizing. Have a definite program planned well in advance. Nothing kills the spirit of the club as quickly as the “well, what will we do today” attitude. Join a club yourself — You will be surprised at the number of valuable hints you get from contact with other picture enthusiasts. Write to: The Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, New York, for free literature. Ask especially for: (1) Photographic Service Bulletins — A forty-page folder on how to organize a camera club. Suggestions for exhibits. Dark room requirements and equipment. (2) An Elementary Course in Photography — A forty-four page folder, outlining in detail twenty-nine lessons in photography. Just the thing for a beginners club. (3) The Camera Club Library — A thirteen-page folder containing the names and publishers of 145 books and pamphlets on photography. A Suggested List of Club Program Topics 1. History of photography : Get your information from a book on photography or from any good encyclopedia. Department of Science Instruction 379 2. Composition: Show the students that composition is not a mysterious art. There are a few simple rules anyone can learn. 3. The pin-hole camera: Material and complete instructions may be obtained from the Eastman Kodak Company for 25 cents each. 4. Proper exposures : Stress focus, shutter speeds, use of light meters. Explain use of exposure tables. 5. Dark room practise: Developing films. Use a slow film that can be developed by inspection. Panchromatic films must be developed in complete darkness and, there¬ fore, are not satisfactory. 6. Printing the picture: How to select the proper grade of paper. Use both right and wrong paper to show that it does make a difference. 7. Practise in developing film: Have students develop film which they have ex¬ posed. 8. Practise in printing pictures: Let students print pictures from their own nega¬ tives. Do not be too free with advice. A lesson learned by making a mistake is less apt to be forgotten. 9. Hove to make pictures of moving objects: Have students make some action pictures — athletic pictures; candid snapshots. 10. An exhibit of pictures: Limit each student to four pictures. Offer awards or prizes if feasible. 11. Indoor pictures: Teach use of photoflood and photoflash bulbs. How to place lights for proper lighting. 12. Group pictures : Formal and informal groupings. How to stagger rows so no faces will be hidden. Group psychology. 13. Close up pictures voith portrait lens. Importance of focus. Putting your subject “at ease.” 14. The enlarger: Demonstrate its use. Suggest plans for a homemade enlarger made with a camera. 15. Practise in making enlargements: Warn students about sensitivity of bromide papers. 16. Amateur motion picture photography : Make your movie tell a story. Empha¬ size fewer and longer scenes. Always move your camera “with” never “against” the motion of the subject. 17. Final exhibit: This should include samples from various fields. Landscapes, action, enlargements, and indoor photographs. ESSENTIAL FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN DEVELOP¬ ING AN ELEMENTARY-SCIENCE COURSE OF STUDY MARY MELROSE, SUPERVISOR OF ELEMENTARY SCIENCE, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND, OHIO An elementary-science course of study must be so constructed that the child and the content become synchronized. The nature of the subjectmatter and the difficulty of the science concepts must gear in with the child’s age, inter¬ ests, abilities, and ways of learning. It is evident, therefore, that much experimentation must be done to help determine the best course. In Cleveland we have been fortunate in having two exceedingly valuable ways that permit of both intensive and extensive experimentation. In Doan School, the science curriculum center, experimen¬ tation has been going on with the pupils for the past nine years. Then, too, the science radio lessons going over the air to all schools furnish us with much data on what thousands of pupils can learn and how they can learn it best. One of the first factors to be considered is: How can the nature of the subjectmatter gear in with children’s interests? After pupil interests have 380 National Education Association been determined, how can they be utilized in organizing science units? In¬ stead of building a unit on mechanics around levers, inclined planes, and pulleys for children in the second, third, or fourth grades, why not build it around a paramount interest in what makes his toys run? Here you find that a spring and gears play an important role. A second factor is: How can the difficulty of the science concepts gear in with the abilities of pupils at different age-grade levels? The science concepts should be developed only to the level of understanding of the particular group being taught. We have, therefore, tried to analyze the science concepts into their simplest elements and have formulated in simple language the concepts which the teacher may expect a child of a certain grade level to comprehend. A third factor is: How can the subjectmatter be geared in with the ways the child learns? The teacher is confronted with the problem of getting the facts, principles, and generalizations to become real concepts in the minds of the children. Those who are concerned with the writing of the course of study should assume the responsibility of setting up the subjectmatter around learning situations. In the Cleveland course of study in elementary science we have definitely attempted to gear the content with the child’s interests, abilities, and ways of learning. The form of the course is in three parallel columns. In the first, the problem is given, then the'suggested procedures for solving the problem, and in the third column are listed the concepts the child should acquire thru these experiences. A PURPOSEFUL PROGRAM FOR IN-SERVICE TEACHER TRAINING GEORGE W. FOWLER, SUPERVISOR OF SCIENCE, BOARD OF EDUCATION, SYRACUSE, N. Y. Who shall lead the schools? Yesterday the answer might have been ad¬ ministrators, today it might well be teachers, and tomorrow the pupils. If this viewpoint is tenable then a program of in-service training for teachers that is wholly purposeful is quite essential ; one which has to do with “doing,” not with “listening.” “Thoughts do not educate, acts do.” The most effective classroom management conjoins teaching and learning. To do this let us avoid overemphasizing content, particularly small content; overstimulating slow pupils, and scaling down bright pupils to mediocrity; reducing thinking to a minimum and following a syllabus just because it is “the syllabus”; and a situation where teachers neither care nor dare to develop themselves. Let us teach boys and girls science, and not science to boys and girls. Teachers in service need a program of training which includes teachers meetings, supervision, demonstration teaching, committee work, reading, visitation to libraries, to museums, to exhibits, and campus courses to supply a felt need. Such a program put to work in junior high- and elementary- school science results in a very flexible course. This is important because no one is closer to the needs, desires, and interests of boys and girls than their Department of Science Instruction 381 classroom teacher. A program built up by teachers functions better than one prepared for and handed down to them. If a teacher needs help in the teaching of a unit, let the supervisor teach the class for a month and the teacher criticize him — a reversal of the usual procedure and a good thing for both. To stimulate and guide teachers so that they may stimulate and guide pupils is the highest function of in-service training in a school, city, or state. A BASIS FOR REVISING THE SCIENCE PROGRAM IN THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL WILLIAM D. BRACKEN, HEAD, SCIENCE DEPARTMENT, LAFAYETTE HIGH SCHOOL, ST. JOSEPH, MO. The goal towards which science is striving is enriched living. While its achievements are of a comparatively recent origin, yet it has already had a greater influence upon our social and economic lives than has any other phase of education. Hence, it should be given the same treatment in the curriculum as any other course of study. The junior high-school science program should be revised so that it will include a three-year course, differentiated according to the respective abilities of the seventh-, eighth-, and ninth-grade students. It should be of a socialized nature and at the same time it should give definite instruction in the fundamental principles of science. It should be divided into units which are closely related to the environments of the students and which are also closely connected with everyday life. These units should be so arranged that they will reveal the true natures and the opportunities offered in the major fields of science, and they should be sufficiently correlated with each other that they will offer an understanding of life problems. The course should be so modeled that it will continuously increase and enrich the work which the curriculum of the elementary school should originate. Mental growth is a gradual process, and to insure growth in the field of science, the course should be gradually enlarged so as to parallel the mental growth of the student. As he progresses thru the grades of the junior high school increasingly intensive and specialized study should be required, so that he will acquire an ability to apply his knowledge to his own experience and to interpret the phenomena of his own environment. A METHOD OF PROVIDING FOR RETARDED PUPILS IN . GENERAL SCIENCES ERWIN M. JOHNSON, PRINCIPAL, HIGH SCHOOL, RICHLAND, MICH. This is an account of an experiment with retarded boys in seventh-grade science on the principle of promotion to a tenth-grade class in general agri¬ culture, classifying them with students of their own chronological age to the relief of embarrassment and disciplinary ills by exposing them to concrete materials suited to their physical maturity and occupational interest. 382 National Education Association The plan followed was forty-five minutes devoted to auditing the tenth- grade class, each member being given freedom to contribute. This was fol¬ lowed by a complete “post-mortem,” to offset extremely poor reading ability. Home experiences and agricultural hobbies were incorporated, and school fairs and 4-H Club work were encouraged as summer follow-up. The same basic experiments used in science seven were given with an agricultural problem-solving interpretation. These boys benefited by the change in classification in that they got needed sex instruction thru the study of animal breeding. Ethical training was emphasized by pointing out the folly of misrepresentation of farm produce. In the study of feeds and feeding the students were introduced to balanced diets and classes of food. Conservation emphasizing the human factor captured interest. In this experi¬ ment, boys with bad disciplinary records were kept so occupied for an hour and a half that no problems of this type arose. Tho a negative argument, this is a virtue in itself in a small almost non-vocational high school. The most interesting part of this whole activity is that there were no restrictions, no courses of study, no precedents, no requirements other than those that were self-inflicted. The evidences thus produced made their con¬ tributions to our course of study by the variations we included later in our regular curriculum offerings. TEACHER IMPROVEMENT THRET A STATE COOPERATIVE TESTING PROGRAM GEORGE K. PETERSON, HEAD, SCIENCE DEPARTMENT, SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL, SHEBOYGAN, WIS. Science education is probably not making the greatest use of the possi¬ bilities offered by the varied subjectmatter of science for broadening and enriching the student’s understanding and appreciation of his environment. Objectives and instruction must be improved if we are to contribute ade¬ quately to the training of our future citizens. In Wisconsin one method being used to accomplish this purpose is a cooperative testing program. A committee composed entirely of teachers, and appointed by the Wis¬ consin Education Association in 1932, worked out a “Wisconsin Philosophy of Science Teaching” and devised tests to measure the specific objectives of this philosophy, placing emphasis on the scientific method of problem solving and scientific attitude. Over 300 teachers cooperated with this com¬ mittee in working out the original philosophy. Tests have been developed on the (1) fact-theory concept, (2) cause-and-effect relationship, (3) under¬ standing of a controlled experiment as a part of the scientific method, and (4) evaluation of information as a part of the scientific method. Four other committees of science teachers have worked out yearly tests in general science, biolog}’, chemistry, and physics which have emphasized command of factual information, familiarity with laws, principles, and theories ; and the ability to apply this material. As a result of this testing program the emphasis of science instruction is being shifted from the mere memorization of facts to the understanding of principles and generalization, scientific method, and the development of scientific attitude. Department of Science Instruction 383 EXPERIENCE WITH A CONTINUOUS SCIENCE PROGRAM GEORGE W. BLOUNT, HEAD, SCIENCE DEPARTMENT, ABRAHAM LINCOLN HIGH SCHOOL, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. Abraham Lincoln High School is a four-year high school with an enrol¬ ment of 2700. Its student body is cosmopolitan. A continuous science program has been in operation for three years. Every student studies in the science field for three years, a fourth year being optional. Our curriculum provides a general background of experience for every student, and also a special training determined by native endowment, economic and social need. The common core includes social living (four years), science (three years), and health (four years). The science curriculum is an integral part of the core experience of each student. It is geared into and interprets for him the experiences of the past and the probabilities of tomorrow. Much latitude is granted to instructors in the development of the program, but minimum essentials include the following units: 9-B grade: A general introduction to the entire field of science 9-A grade (girls) : Infant care and home nursing 9-A grade (boys) : First-aid and simple machines 10th grade: The growth of living organisms 11th grade: (1) Biological field (one semester), removal of waste products, re¬ production, heredity 11th grade: (II) Physical field (one semester) — (a) transformation of energy, (b) transformation of matter. Thruout the entire program are woven four broad fundamentals, truths which permeate all experience, namely: (1) the adaptation of living organ¬ isms to changing environments; (2) electronic attraction and repulsion; (3) the effects of friction and inertia; and (4) the properties and effects of wave motion. The entire course is designed to be a progressive development of the significance and the implications of these fundamental conceptions, all pointing toward and culminating in one magnificent conception — the order¬ liness of the universe. “The orderliness of the universe is the supreme dis¬ covery of science!” SECRETARY’S MINUTES Detroit, Michigan First Session, Monday Afternoon, June 28, 1937 The first session of the Department of Science Instruction was held in the Com- mandery Room of the Masonic Temple at 2 p.m. The theme of the meeting was “Selecting, Organizing, and Teaching Subjectmatter for a Continuous Program in Science.” The president, Ira C. Davis, University High School, Madison, Wisconsin, presided at the general session. Two topics were discussed. The first topic, “Shall the Desirable Objectives be the Basis for the Selection of Subjectmatter?” was presented by Francis D. Curtis, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, and the second topic, 384 National Education Association “Shall This Subjectmatter Taught be the Basis for the Selection of Objectives?” was presented by Carleton E. Preston, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. After a short but interesting discussion from the floor, the group divided into three sec¬ tions — the senior high-school group, the junior high-school group, and the elementary section. The elementary-school science group met in the English Gothic Room with Mildred M. Fahy, principal of Peirce School, Chicago, Illinois, as presiding officer, and Lesley C. Walker of Oakland, California, as discussion leader. The following program was presented: “Amphibian and Reptile Pets,” LaVerne Argabright, State Teachers College, Kalamazoo, Michigan; “Air,” Mrs. Alma Jolson, Grayling School, Detroit, Michigan; “Beavers,” Betty Jann, Poe School, Detroit, Michigan; “Spring — A Season,” Mary Garvey, Fuller School, Minneapolis, Minnesota; “Air and Fire,” Lillian C. Compton, assistant superintendent of schools, Allegany County, Cumber¬ land Maryland. The junior high-school science group met in the Romanesque Lodge Room with Ira C. Davis as the presiding officer, and James F. Beckwith of James Lick, Jr., High School, San Francisco, California, as the discussion leader. The four topics presented were: “The Junior High-School Science Program in Indianapolis,” Virgil E. Stinebaugh, assistant superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Indiana ; “A Three- Year Science Program in the Junior High School of Superior,” J. R. Jacobson, Cen¬ tral High School, Superior, Wisconsin; “Shall We Have a Continuous Program in Science for the Junior High School?” Clarence B. Evaul, head of science department, West High School, Rochester, New York; “Extra-Curriculum Activities in Conser¬ vation,” B. J. Rohan, superintendent of schools, Appleton, Wisconsin. The senior high-school science group met in the Commandery Room with Charles L. Hampton as the presiding officer, and Harry T. Blair of South Division High School, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, as discussion leader. The following topics were pre¬ sented : “The Science Program in the Senior High Schools of Detroit,” Fred J. Leonhard, head, science department, Mackenzie High School, Detroit, Michigan; “A Course in Biology for the Modern High School,” J. Paul Visscher, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio; “Using Research as the Basis for Selecting Subject- matter,” Robert L. Ebel, Roosevelt High School, Cedar Rapids, Iowa; “Photography as an Extracurriculum Activity,” John W. Schneck, Riverside High School, Mil¬ waukee, Wisconsin. State Directors Meeting A brief meeting with the state directors was held at which time ways of securing members in the various states were discussed. The directors recommended that the dues be increased to fifty cents per year. A nominating committee consisting of D. W. Pettit, Iowa City, Iowa, as chairman; C. E. Preston, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Aelfric James, Sr., Easton, Pennsylvania; W. D. Bracken, St. Joseph, Missouri; A. T. Mathewson, White Plains, New York; and E. H. Schroer, Omaha, Nebraska, was appointed. Second Session, Tuesday Afternoon, June 29, 1937 A luncheon in the Fountain Room of the Masonic Temple, attended by more than a hundred persons, was sponsored by the science teachers of the city of Detroit and the state of Michigan. Elizabeth Lockwood, Wayne University, Detroit, Michigan, acted as toastmistress, and introduced Edsel A. Ruddimon, Research Chemist, Food Laboratory, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan, who spoke to the group about “The Soy Bean and. Its Uses.” The topic was so well presented that many teachers tarried to examine the interesting products made from the soy bean. The luncheon meeting gave the teachers an opportunity to become better acquainted. At the general meeting in the Commandery Room, Ira C. Davis introduced Wilbur L. Beauchamp, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, who spoke on “Organization of Subjectmatter on the Unit Plan.” George Skewes, State Teachers College, May- Department of Science Instruction 385 ville, North Dakota, presented the topic “Avoiding the Unpsychological Unit in the Organization of Science Subjectmatter.” The elementary-science group was presided over by Lillian C. Compton with Bernice G. Lamberton, Washington, D. C., as discussion leader. The following topics were presented: “Essential Factors To Be Considered in Developing an Ele¬ mentary-Science Course of Study,” Mary Melrose, supervisor of elementary science, Cleveland, Ohio; “A Method of Organizing a Unit in Elementary Science,” Mar¬ garet L. Wilt, Peirce School, Chicago, Illinois; “The Grade Placement of Soil Con¬ servation Teaching,” Helen M. Strong, soil conservationist, Division of Cooperative Relations and Planning, Washington, D. C. The junior high-school science group was presided over by Mildred M. Fahy with Josephine Goodall, supervisor of science, Toledo, Ohio, as discussion leader. The following three topics were presented: “Providing for Individual Differences thru the Contract Plan,” Dorothy F. Osburn, West Lake Junior High School, Oakland, California; “The Science Program in the Junior High Schools of Springfield,” Eliza¬ beth Cadle, Reed Junior High School, Springfield, Missouri; “Effect of Instruction on Superstitious Beliefs,” Rosalind Zapf, Cleveland Intermediate School, Detroit, Michigan. The senior high-school science group was presided over by Charles L. Hampton with Aelfric James, Sr., Easton High School, Easton, Pennsylvania, as discussion leader. The following three topics were presented: “Specific Illustrations of the Re¬ organization of Subjectmatter in the Senior High School,” Leslie Ferguson, Cranston High School, Cranston, Rhode Island; “Reorganization of Science in the Senior High School,” Louis J. Mathias, Jr., Devilbiss High School, Toledo, Ohio; “A Science Course for Non-College Students,” Mrs. Freda Parmalee, Central High School, Flint, Michigan. Third Session, Wednesday Afternoon, June 30, 1937 The business session convened at 1:30 o’clock. The Nominating Committee gave its report which was unanimously accepted. (See Historical Note, p. 376.) The dues were increased from twenty-five to fifty cents. Due to the absence of Esther W. Scott, the treasurer, her report was read by Ira C. Davis. It showed a membership of 4300, and a balance of $700 in the treasury. The following resolution was passed: In appreciation of the outstanding service during the past three years in organizing and leading this Department to the important position which it now occupies in the National Education Association; for the work of molding and directing the program of the Department along lines that must be productive of improvement in, and integration of, the science education of the nation, the mem¬ bers of the Department of Science Instruction wish to extend to Ira C. Davis, our retiring president, our most sincere thanks. At two o’clock Dr. Davis introduced J. A. Hollinger, supervisor of science, Pitts¬ burgh, Pennsylvania, who told “How Teachers May Improve in Service.” R. T. Shaw, head, science department, Northeast High School, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, spoke on “Using Hobbies as a Means of Improving Teaching.” The elementary-school science group met with La Verne Argabright, State Teachers College, Kalamazoo, Michigan, as presiding officer, and Lillian C. Compton, Cum¬ berland, Maryland, as discussion leader. The three topics presented were: “How Teachers May Improve in Service,” Bertha M. Parker, University of Chicago, Chi¬ cago, Illinois; “A Suggested Method for Improving Teachers of Elementary Science,” Theodosia M. Hadley, State Teachers College, Kalamazoo, Michigan; “The Co¬ operative Teacher Improvement in California,” Lesley C. Walker, Stonehurst School, Oakland, California. The junior high-school science group met with Mildred M. Fahy as presiding officer, and Dennis Cooper, Sherrard Intermediate School, Detroit, Michigan, as discussion leader. The three topics presented were: “A Basis for Revising the Science Program in the Junior High Schools,” W. D. Bracken, head, science department, 386 National Education Association Lafayette Junior High School, St. Joseph, Missouri; “A Method of Providing for Retarded Pupils in General Sciences,” Erwin M. Johnson, Richland High School, Richland, Michigan; “A Democratic Approach to Science Instruction,” Keith John¬ son, Eliot Junior High School, Washington, D. C. The senior high-school science group met with Charles L. Hampton as presiding officer, and Greta Oppe, Ball High School, Galveston, Texas, as discussion leader. The following three topics were presented: “Teacher Improvement thru a State Co¬ operative Testing Program,” George Peterson, head, science department, Senior High School, Sheboygan, Wisconsin; “A High-School Science Curriculum which meets Individual Needs of Pupils,” Norris F. Bush, South High School, Denver, Colorado; “Experiences with a Continuous Science Program,” George W. Blount, head, science department, Abraham Lincoln High School, Los Angeles, California. Luncheon Meeting, Thursday, July 1, 1937 A joint luncheon meeting with School Garden Association of America was held. There was an excursion to Dearborn, including luncheon and a visit to Fordson High School, Fordson Horticultural Gardens, Henry Ford Farms, Ford Rotunda, and Mrs. Ford’s Rose Gardens. An address was given by Paul R. Young, supervisor of gardening, Cleveland, Ohio, entitled “A Philosophy for the School Garden Association.” DEPARTMENT OF Secondary Education HISTORICAL NOTE The department of secondary education was established in 1886. It lapsed temporarily in 1924. In 1931 it was revived by the Delegate Assembly of the Xational Education Association at its annual convention in Los Angeles. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-38 are: president, George R. Rankin. Boys Technical High School, Milwaukee, Wis.; vice preside nt, Ralph S. Christen, JVilbur Wright Junior High School, Detroit, Mich.: secretary, Mrs. Nettie R. Bolland, High School of Commerce , Portland, Ore.; treasurer, Allegra Nesbit, Lew Wallace High School. Gary , Ind.; executive secretary, Ernest D. Lewis, Evandcr Childs High School, New York, N. Y. This Department meets once a year, in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department, its revival, and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1886: 21 1895 -.579-635 1904 -.473-536 1913 -.469-499 1922 -.1267 -1293 1887 -.393 -442 1896 :557-619 1905 -.423-479 1914 -.445-488 1923: 861- 880 1S8S :401- -433 189 7:644-699 190 6:633-636 1915 -.723-753 1924: 775- 802 1889:49/ , 533 1898 -.664-700 1907 -.521-710 1916 -.517-574 1932: 481- 492 1890:613 -655 1899 -.601-817 1908 -.577-667 1917 -.253-284 1933: 489- 506 mi :615 -687 1900 -.428-453 1909 .479-522 1918 -.177-189 1934: 481- 492 189 2 :333 o/j 1901 -.565-604 1910 -.443-533 1919 -.195-204 1935: 449- 460 1893-477- 242 190 2 -.455-492 1911 -.555-657 1920 -.209-230 1936: 347- 360 1894 :743 -794 1903 -.429-486 1912 -.663-765 1921 -.667-678 • [ 388 ] Round-Table Conferences Concerning Extracurriculum Ac¬ tivities in the Departments of Junior and Senior High Schools IN ANCIENT LANGUAGES HELEN L. DEAN, HEAD OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES, LEWIS AND CLARK HIGH SCHOOL, SPOKANE, WASH. OUR entire SCHOOL is organized into career groups, which makes class¬ room grouping less difficult. The art students try their skill at posters, commercial advertising, and cartoons prompted by local and national events and made effective by a classical setting, an allusion, or a Latin quotation. The would-be journalists increase their vocabulary in various unique ways and gain practise in reporting by using the bulletin-board for daily news flashes of the lesson — the latest news from Caesar at the battle front, the gangsters at the Mulvian bridge, exciting senatorial investigations, and many more. The law-minded, aside from learning legal terms first hand, conduct panels and debates on social and economic problems paralleled in contemporary life. Those interested in other vocations work in their indi¬ vidual groups at stated times and under teacher guidance, assisted by a very adequate traveling library. Creative ability is encouraged by writing skits and plays, some in Latin and some in English, by dramatizing parts of Vergil, by impersonating mythological characters, and by entering sonnets and verses in the school's poetry contest. An exhibit case in our main corridor offers opportunity for extracurriculum activities. In the case is put original work by students — portfolios, replicas of the Coliseum, a temple of Vesta, the Winged Victory, a theater stage, a miniature battle-field, etc. Extracurriculum activities in Latin find their climax in a Classical Club, of which there are many in the Northwest. Its activities must be purposeful and functional. Its installation ceremony, written in Latin by a club member and conducted by a triumvirate, is presented in Roman costumes and is characterized by real beauty and dignity. The club dramatizes episodes from the yEneid and originates shadow plays. An annual Roman banquet honors the seniors and pays tribute to some famous Roman, or commemorates some festival day, most of the toasts being original and written in Latin. The club spends an evening now and then with the gods on Mount Olympus and with Horace on his Sabine farm; they enjoy choral reading, chanting pas¬ sages from Vergil and Horace ; they present living statues in a dignified and impressive manner. A special committee assists the Boy Scouts in learning the Latin names of wild flowers, trees, birds, and constellations that they may pass their examinations for merit badges. Special students are assigned as reporters to write up Latin activities for the school and the local papers. Tribute is paid to modern writers indebted to the classics — Vachel Lindsay, [ 389 ] 3% National Education Association Andrew Lang, Stoddard King, and others. A Circus Maximus scene from the Trojan Women, Roman games and contests, original skits, farewell speeches to outgoing members, recognition of students of outstanding ability, all combine to make the club’s annual picnic enjoyable. These activities give pleasure, cultivate poise, and awaken creative ability and a feeling of “respon¬ sible self-direction,” all of which assert themselves in more active partici¬ pation outside the classroom. IN ART RUTH E. WHORL, SUPERVISOR OF ART, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, AKRON, OHIO It is thru the extracurriculum activities in the secondary schools that the art department can make one of its greatest contributions to the enrichment of school and community life. If these activities are based upon the sound educational theory of interest and activity and prove their worth, they become a force in stimulating curriculum reorganization. Since the school aims to develop students who will become valuable citizens of our democratic society and this changing world, life situations must be brought into the classrooms. Art is occupying such an important place in the lives of people today that the schools must continue to give greater opportunities in the creative arts and in the development of apprecia¬ tion thru understanding. An individual is poorly educated who lacks an appreciation of the beautiful or who has never experienced the joys of creative expression. In our changing civilization, with shortened working hours resulting in lengthened free time, the school must play a more important part in guiding leisure-time interests and activities. Greater opportunities must be pro¬ vided to discover latent interests and talents. The arts exert a tremendous influence on international understanding, an understanding based not upon facts but upon an attitude of respect and tolerance for the art heritage of other races and cultures. If these objectives are to be realized, it is clear that the secondary schools cannot solve their problems and at the same time retain a traditional cur¬ riculum. The elementary schools have changed their patterns in the past few years, but the secondary schools lag. With increased interest in the creative arts and a greater desire on the part of the great mass of people to appreciate and understand the arts, high-school administrators will be forced into curriculum revision. Before progress can be made along these lines, however, the importance of the arts and crafts in education and in life must be clearly understood by school principals and teachers of all sub¬ jects. Art must be made an integral part of all school activity, released from its former isolated position. Developing an awareness or sensitiveness to art is more important than mere talk. A real art must be taught in tune with contemporary times, interesting and useful — an art which is social as well as individual. Department of Secondary Education 391 IN ENGLISH THELMA MC ANDLESS, SUPERVISING TEACHER OF ENGLISH, ROOSEVELT SCHOOL OF MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE, YPSILANTI, MICH. Since publication work adhered closely to the established criteria for extracurriculum activities, it was pigeon-holed early, and it threatens to remain there. Some may say: “Why should it not? It is an extension of the normal curriculum activity of the English department. It gives incentive to the classroom experiences. It develops in the child initiative, independence, self-reliance, critical thinking, cooperativeness, and mental and emotional stability. It makes a definite contribution to school spirit and school morale. It favorably affects the relationship between the school and its constituency — Mr. John Q. Public. Therefore, why is publication work not a highly com¬ mendable extracurriculum activity?” The answer is, of course, that it is. But it should be more. It should be cur¬ riculum or at least co-curriculum. In a 1937 publication, Co-Curricular Activities in Elementary Schools, the authors (Henry J. Otto and Shirle)^ A. Hamrin) reported on the development of the school paper. Several sur¬ veys reveal that there is no elementary paper more than twelve years old, and two-thirds are less than six years old. Furthermore, at least half of a selected group of progressive schools have some form of a school publication. It is also pointed out that sponsors are more often teachers of English than of any other subject. In a period averaging approximately six years, the elementary-school teachers and their principals have recognized the value of the school publi¬ cation, have adroitly curricularized it, and have avowed publicly their support of this endeavor. Why, then, has not a similar fate befallen the high- school paper? It came into existence three centuries ago with a no less illustrious organ than the Literary Journal of the Boston Latin Grammar School. The Literary Journal, like the aristocratic classical school from which it sprang, set an amazing precedent. The years passed and the nation’s school boys, and later girls, found in the columns of their school paper an audience for their pseudo-philosophic or mayhap anemic outbursts on memory, the past, or beautiful spring. It would appear that at least 50 percent of the paper staffs in secondary schools today engage in the publication activity without regard for credit. The percent of students interested probably runs as high as 9 percent of the nation’s secondary-school enrolment. Judged by those who represent their schools in national and state press association meetings, most of the 9 percent would fall in the upper quartile of their respective classes. Should not these students secure credit for their publication work? Would it not be better for the English teacher to have the publication course regularly sched¬ uled on his program ? Certainly it requires much more of his time than his other instructional duties. Perhaps, however, curricularization might have the wrong psychological effect. Since many children do it well now, just for the fun of it, it might be a mistake to put the activity on a credit-earning 392 National Education Association basis. Of course, there is another angle to the case. The hours they devote so religiously to this non-credit earning enterprise are sometimes subtracted from the required credit-earning. This often arouses the ire of the completely academic-minded teacher. It is my belief that school publications are as fine a type of activity as any found in the modern schools. However, since they have been shown to be so intimately related to the English curriculum, and so vitally affianced to the objectives of the complete educative program, it seems reasonable to suggest, or, perhaps better, to hope that the publication activities now 50 percent extracurriculum be made curriculum as quickly as possible. It makes no difference when this day comes, thru years of depression, of normalcy, or of boom, the school publication will stand on its own as an enterprise of value as thousands of them have succeeded in doing during this last phe¬ nomenal fifteen-year period. IN GEOGRAPHY ERMA B. HODGS6N, HEAD, DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY, BAY CITY JUNIOR COLLEGE, BAY CITY, MICH. Geography is one of the cogs in the social studies program and it aims to allow the student a broader and more sympathetic understanding of the world about him. In this age of fast developing systems of transportation and communication, it is very necessary that youth develop an intelligent appreciation of his world neighbors. An understanding of geographical environment and the uses to which man has put the natural factors, in the establishment of his cultural pattern, gives a clearer conception of the folk¬ ways and basic cultural traits found among people of foreign lands. The evolution of regional development is best seen thru the window of geography. Just as the specialist in history, economics, or sociology presents his key for the understanding of his field, the geographer, I think, should approach his study by means of the geographical region which may be either natural or cultural. The world is the laboratory of the geographer, and geography above all subjects has the opportunity for developing skills in field methods, effective descriptive writing of landscape patterns, and the interpretation, reading, and making of maps. Industrial distribution, population problems, accessible raw materials, markets’ power, and other business factors can best be understood when there is a clear picture of the geographic set-up in the region involved. The correct interpretation of the daily newspaper and the visualization of place names as recorded at the beginning of each associated press article is merely one of the everyday uses in which geography may be made to function toward a fuller appreciation of life about us. Thru geography, students come to realize that thru scientific research man gains greater control of his environment. One must be alert to grasp the changes manifest in the ever changing world and children must be taught to adapt themselves to progress. Department of Secondary Education 393 Material for the opening of a project should stimulate thought and set up a desire for individual activity which has a definite purpose in the mind of the student. Individual interests and aptitudes can be met by allowing the choice of topical study after the general problem has been introduced. The classroom should furnish an atmosphere encouraging students to be geography-conscious. Bulletin-boards, managed by a student committee or at least containing student contributions, should show pictures and articles from the daily papers and current magazines. A display board for maps which have been made by the students is of great value. A reading shelf displaying a few new books including technical ma¬ terial, travelogs, and late magazines of geographic value will encourage leisure-time reading. A set of files to which both teacher and students con¬ tribute pamphlets, tourists maps, government bulletins, literature from boards of commerce, and industrial bulletins serve as a source of reference for individual study. The possibilities offered by geography for integration with other phases of study are many. Geography as a profession, as a general cultural subject, or as a leisure-time activity is gaining in importance. Once a subject by itself, later absorbed by the other social sciences which could not stand alone without it, it now emerges as a master and much needed friend to a deeper appreciation and understanding of international relations and toler¬ ance of our fellow men. IN HEALTH EDUCATION C. E. BREWER, COMMISSIONER OF RECREATION, DETROIT, MICH. The relationship of curriculum and extracurriculum activity programs to health should not be discussed from the viewpoint of how long a secretion from a certain gland, excited thru emotion, remains in the body; or how many hours these activities should be taught each week ; or whether a foot¬ ball player evading tacklers on a football gridiron can better evade auto¬ mobiles in crossing the street. The instruction of activities, particularly those which have a carry-over value into adult life, should be based on the psycho¬ logical effects upon the mind and morale of the individual, resulting in improved health and physique, rather than physiological results. When a student has left school and entered the busy industrial world, he is swamped by the specialization of modern business so that unless he has an outlet in some sort of an activity or hobby he soon realizes that he is only a part of a machine. If he cannot adjust himself to his environment he may find himself in an asylum or a prison. Most of the ills of society may be traced to misspent or improper use of leisure time or the lack of knowledge or skill to engage in a leisure-time activity. The extracurriculum activity may develop a sort of mental hygiene which will govern the individual’s social behavior and enable him to enjoy a richer and more abundant life. Participation in a leisure-time activity is one way of avoiding that getting-old-and-must-take-it-easy feeling. 394 National Education Association IN HOME ECONOMICS HELEN BRAUSE, ANN ARBOR HIGH SCHOOL, ANN ARBOR, MICH. If education is preparation for living as well as preparation for earning a living, and if home economics is one of the subjects best fitted to teach the immediate problems of life, then certainly our work must reach every student — boys as well as girls. Extracurriculum activities can be used as valuable teaching problems and as a means to increase interest in the field. For many years, teachers have felt that they and their pupils were being exploited to the advantage of the rest of the school. Many teachers are still afraid of exploitation. This feeling of being imposed upon has been the result of failure to realize the very aims of home economics, for certainly home economics should prepare the girls for these various situations which are typical of similar ones that arise almost daily. The extracurriculum activities furnish a workable means for making home economics a useful department in the system, thru the use of a well- planned program. At the beginning of the school year the student program of activities for the coming year should be studied carefully, and the events listed that will be a part of home economics work. Other activities that have possibilities of needing help from that department should be included in the program where they can best carry out the desired ideals and objectives. Teaching problems should be used far enough in advance of the actual occurrence of the event so that the student will have time to think and plan carefully. Merely following the teacher’s directions is of compara¬ tively little value. Activities should be decided on that can best be done by each class. The extra work, to be most effective, must for general purposes be planned far enough ahead so that it can be distributed to the appropriate classes. There will always be a few emergencies. They occur in home life too, and they have some value. As these emergency cases arise during the year, the girls can help evaluate them and decide upon those which must be done regardless of class time. Girls gain far better understanding of our social order and our responsibility to society in actual situations than they ever learn from textbooks. After planning for all outside activities, it is wise to present the plans to the superintendent or principal. Attention will be called to a planned home economics program immediately. In this way the idea of using the home economics department as a clearing-house for work that does not seem to belong to anyone can be eliminated. A plan of work like this will put home economics before your student body in such a way that there will be an increased interest in the subject. With the growth of present new ideas in the field of education, the future offers two possible outcomes: Home economics can lose its identity and become an integrated part of other subjectmatter, such as history or English, or it can increase in importance and become the medium thru which these other subjects will be taught. We are not in a position to foresee which cause will predominate. Home economics workers as a group must be willing Department of Secondary Education 395 to accept the organization of work which will give the most good for the greatest numbers, and they must take every opportunity to more firmly establish home economics in our school systems and increase the scope of its field. IN MODERN LANGUAGES ROWLAND D. HASS, FOREIGN LANGUAGE DEPARTMENT, EASTERN HIGH SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH. We have met in our presentday teaching a new situation, namely that approximately 73 percent of our students in high school, and ours is a fairly representative group, have not the ability to take the traditional language course. Of the 27 percent remaining, only 15 percent take college pre¬ paratory language work. We must continue to meet the needs of the 73 per¬ cent in our general language work. The number of general students in school is rapidly increasing because of a new social and economic situation. The educational systems are seeking to meet the needs of those who finish the twelfth grade, and cannot go to work, by providing either a thirteenth and fourteenth grade in high school or by a school of general studies in the first two years of college. In the teaching of general courses we keep a controlled vocabulary and use reading material. We always test for comprehension and seek to stimu¬ late motives which will lead to greater outside reading in the literary material or the material covering some phase of a hobby or vocation in which the pupil is particularly interested. There is, in addition, much reading done in English on collateral material. The cultural side is stressed and the drudgery of the traditional course is replaced with reading for comprehen¬ sion, songs, poems, art, and music appreciation. Simple conversations are carried on and are repeated until the student feels at home in the language he is using. With the integrated material he becomes social- and language-conscious. The relationships between English and the foreign tongue are continually stressed and not only the etymological phases of the work are made obvious to the student but the social forms, such as those used in letters, are also studied. The relationships of the literary movements of the various countries are also traced. In the field of social studies more stress is being placed upon the purely literary aspect. Geography and the study of the language environ¬ ment naturally go hand in hand. We emphasize the relationships and differ¬ ences between the environment of the people studied and that of the Amer¬ ican people. The study of civic problems of another land brings home to the student, as will no other means, the differences of our own situation and the manner in which we meet them. By emphasizing languages as a social study, stressing the cultural back¬ ground, and endeavoring to develop natural ability we are meeting an apparent need in the study of foreign languages of today. 396 National Education Association IN SOCIAL STUDIES ROBERT H. WYATT, HEAD, DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL STUDIES, HIGH SCHOOL, FORT WAYNE, IND. It is assumed that there is a common understanding among us as to the general scope of the extracurriculum field. It is also assumed that we generally agree that such a program seeks to cultivate worthy leisure-time interests; to furnish opportunities for leadership not possible in the class¬ room; to stimulate a sense of joy in rendering service; and to develop a love for wholesome companionship and cooperative action. More generally speak¬ ing, the extracurriculum program contributes to a breadth of interests and a depth of character. Into this general picture, then, comes the specific question as to the con¬ tribution of the teacher of social studies. Is the contribution greater or less than, or merely different from, that of a teacher of any other subject? There are certain qualities of character, personality, and interest that must be present in any teacher who seeks to work in the extracurriculum field. These qualities certainly may be found in any department in the secondary school. It would be overpresumptuous for us, as social science teachers, to conclude that for some reason an unusual abundance of these personal qualities are found in the department of social science. At the same time it does seem logical, when one considers the content and impli¬ cations in the social science curriculum, that the training and natural inter¬ ests of the social scientist would mark out for him a distinct type of service in the extracurriculum field. The activities which might naturally fall into this type of service may be grouped as follows : 1. The group of activities related to one’s political participation in community life — These relate to leadership and followership in political parties and political cam¬ paigns, study of issues and candidates, a rational conception of party loyalty and party participation, and the ever interesting procedure of voting. Many phases of such political club activities are easily adaptable to both junior and senior high- school pupils. 2. The closely related group of activities connected with many types of community participation — The materials for such activity abounds in the many questions of the day relating to the park and playground construction and use; the planning of city streets, parkways, public buildings, civic centers, and public works; and in the many issues which continually arise in every modern community. To these may be added problems of state, national, and international scope. 3. The field of activities in which the emphasis may he placed upon forms rather than content — I refer to such activities as parliamentary groups, debate societies, legislative groups, school forums. Because of the fact that abilities thus developed are so widely used in social and political groups, the professional student of history and current affairs is a very natural sponsor. 4. The departmental club, designed ptirely a?id simply for more intensive study in the social science field than is practical in the classroom — The author of this paper frowns upon this type of extracurriculum activity. In the first place, the secondary- school pupil is not yet far enough advanced to devote a large part of his leisure time to specialization of an academic character; and, second, such clubs usually attract only the superior students who are probably attracted already by too much activity of an academic sort, However, within the limits which seem to me to prevail, I Department of Secondary Education 397 believe there is opportunity for fascinating extracurriculum activities for students and teachers alike. A miscellaneous group may be listed which in fact could swallow up the other four. It is broader, however, and includes any activities which in any way concern the intermingling of people or their study of each other. IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION c. R. van nice, managing editor, School Activities, topeka, kans. If the secondary school is to stand as the American "people’s college,'' it must contribute materially to the solution of our problem of vocational maladjustment. If the curriculum cannot offer a solution, then the extra¬ curriculum and other agencies must offer it. Extracurriculum activities are particularly suited to the task of vocational adjustment. In the first place, such activities are entered by students enthu¬ siastically, for they are voluntary. They spring up ideally from the love of learning or doing. Success in an extracurriculum activity appeals to the student as being most practical. As in life, the value of an activity depends upon how it turns out. A student may be praised, blamed, ignored, or damned with faint praise for the way he carries a part in a school play, but he gets results — results with a feeling of contentment — not grades or marks. He is being guided toward or from the vocational pursuits touched by the school play in which he had a part, such pursuits as playwriting, costuming, acting, broadcasting, or teaching dramatics. The student who is on the staff of the school paper is confronted with a life situation which, with its quick rewards and punishments, will guide him unmistakably toward or away from a journalistic career. If he decides to become an editor, a reporter, an advertising agent, or a publisher, it will not be because his father was one before him or because someone with such a calling has impressed him with the easy work and good income. It will be because the work on the school paper gave him the satisfaction that comes from doing a thing well, the kind of satisfaction that is good for a lifetime when a person is happy in his calling. Aptitudes developed or discovered in competitive athletics point strongly in one way or another with regard to the advisability of many vocational choices. Experience in athletics opens the way to consideration of the many new and growing opportunities in sports, physical education, public health, personal hygiene, leisure, and many others. Swift, sure, and impressive is the influence of athletics upon the inclination of a boy to consider entrance into a calling that overlaps the field of that activity. The factor in the extracurriculum set-up that perhaps offers most oppor¬ tunity for vocational guidance on the part of the teacher and for vocational exploration on the part of the student is the homeroom. The flexibility and many-sided nature of the homeroom invites "activities” anywhere within the 398 National Education Association sphere of student interest. Typical homeroom projects are: discussion of courses offered by the school ; information talks on vocational guidance ; reports of visits to shops, offices, or industrial plants; job analyses of trades and professions; current events; talks by guests regarding their various callings ; similar talks by imaginary guests ; writing the history of industries of the community; book reviews; and story telling. Such activities can easily be made to appeal to the like-age and like-grade groups of the homeroom, and the result is a material contribution to the vocational orientation of the students taking part. Extracurriculum activities, properly conducted, make a rich and generous contribution to all the recognized objectives of public education, but nowhere do they contribute more than to the vocational adjustment of secondary- school youth. THE FUNCTION OF THE LIBRARY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL GERTRUDE MALLORY, LIBRARIAN, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN HIGH SCHOOL, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. According to the National Survey of Secondary Education the three most frequently accepted functions of the secondary-school library, as reported by librarians, teacher-librarians, and principals, are: to enrich curriculum and supply reference material; to provide for worthy use of leisure time; and to train pupils in the use of books and the library. For the most part, however, a strange omission has been made. Teachers have not been trained to advantageously utilize the facilities of the library for instruc¬ tional purposes. In too many instances they do not stimulate and guide pupils in the intelligent use of books, periodicals, and other library materials. Little or no correlation is effected between classroom subjectmatter and ex¬ periences and materials available in the library. Altho, unfortunately, the materials are meager in some institutions, there appears to be, in too many instances, a failure to use even those which are available. Furthermore, it is not uncommon to find that very little use is made of some exceptionally well-supplied high-school libraries. With a view to correcting this deficiency in teacher preparation, the college of education, University of Illinois, in September 1935 added one semester-hour of library instruction to two of the required combined courses in student-teaching and the technic of teaching. English and the social studies were selected for the introduction of this plan, because the teachers in these areas normally use the library more extensively than do the teachers in the other subjectmatter areas. This addition was made for the purpose of realiz¬ ing the following aims: (1) To offer student teachers such non-professional training in library classifica¬ tion and cataloguing as will facilitate their use of books, periodicals, and graphic materials valuable for the enrichment of the secondary-school curriculum. (2) To provide an opportunity for student teachers to learn to utilize a school library as part of their teaching equipment. Department of Secondary Education 399 (3) To acquaint student teachers with the book collections of secondary-school libraries. To realize these aims, the following units of work were formulated for trial during the school year 1935-36, with special emphasis on Unit III : III. Library methods A. Concept of the relationship of the library to methods of teaching with par¬ ticular emphasis upon the subjectmatter areas in which the students are doing student-teaching. B. An understanding of the methods of teaching the use of the library to high- school pupils. (1) Preparation of library lessons. (2) Correlation with classroom activities of lessons in the use of the library. i It is believed that this will make for a better understanding of the use of the library, and for a policy of centralization rather than decentralization. PHOTOGRAPHY AS AN EXTRACURRICULUM ACTIVITY JOHN W. SCHNECK, RIVERSIDE HIGH SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS. Since the purpose of an education is to prepare the individual for “com¬ plete living,” it becomes apparent that with the reduction of working hours the task of the school becomes increasingly avocational. Where the wage- earner of 35 years ago had scarcely enough free time in which to eat and sleep, the laborer of today finds himself with six to ten hours of leisure time on hand every day. It is obvious that the field of extracurriculum activities offers the most promising place in which to find the solution to the problem of providing work for “idle hands” during leisure hours. Any activity which is to merit a place on the pupil’s school program must be one which promises to give him a continuously challenging pursuit, not for the duration of his schooldays but after he has taken his place as a workingman. To many, it seems that photography furnishes such an interest. One need consider only the myriad applications of photography to realize its possi¬ bilities either as a hobby or as a vocation. The list is too long to enumerate completely, but consider its use as an advertising medium, its value to the astronomer by recording on a film what his eyes cannot see, the story telling power of a news photograph, the ability of the aerial camera to map a city or a country far more accurately than a surveyor, the penetrating power of the microphotograph, the telescopic view of the infra-red camera showing scenes clearly which are 350 miles distant, the ultra-violet photograph by which signatures are restored on a completely charred bank check, the radio¬ graph which is able to locate safety pins in a child’s stomach, or the high¬ speed camera by which inconceivably rapid motions can be made to stand still, permitting detailed analysis ; these and many others point to photog¬ raphy as an avocational interest that is not lacking in its challenge. Just before the turn of the century, roll film wTas placed on the market. This, together with the introduction of the cheap box camera was the beginning of the popularization of amateur photography. From this small 400 National Education Association beginning the amateur trade has grown until the yearly film consumption by the amateur exceeds 1500 tons, or 3,000,000 pounds of film stock. When one considers that the weight of a film in an average roll is only one-third of an ounce, one is confronted by the staggering figure of 150,000,000 to represent the annual roll film consumption. Figuring eight pictures to a roll there are, then, 1,200,000,000 amateur camera clicks per year. This means that on an average every man, woman, and child is “snap-shoted” ten times each year. On the authority of a local firm that develops 4000 rolls of film per day, 25 percent of all snapshots taken result in total failures. This means that of the 1,200,000,000 exposures made, 300,000,000 are never printed. This represents not only the loss of many a scene which can never be duplicated but an actual loss of money which totals $12,000,000. An additional 35 per cent, or about 400,000,000 of the pictures that are printed, are either out of focus, under-, or over-exposed to the extent that they are practically worthless. This leaves approximately 40 percent of the pictures originally taken that will produce really good pictures. When we consider that prac¬ tically 60 percent of the $40,000,000 spent for film is wasted, need we ask whether there is a need for camera clubs in the secondary schools? THE USE OF ENRICHMENT MATERIALS IN SECONDARY MATHEMATICS JOSEPH C. SHUTTLESWORTH, SUMMIT HIGH SCHOOL, SUMMIT, N. J. 4 It is agreed rather generally that the mathematics courses of the future must make a much greater effort to develop cultural and practical aspects as well as mathematical technics. I do not see how this can be accomplished adequately unless the classroom provides, among other things, an oppor¬ tunity for laboratory study corresponding somewhat to the same work in the sciences. Mathematics, if treated in this way, can contribute much to the life of the pupil. This can be done, I am sure, without destroying or de¬ tracting from the beautiful logical system of geometry, and at the same time it will give added meaning and establish more permanently the algebraic technics. In discussing the use of materials in high-school mathematics, I am not thinking merely of field work with the plane table or the transit. I am thinking of the problem more broadly; any opportunity that the pupil may have to apply the mathematical principles he has learned, whether with drawing instruments, hammer and saw, mechanical devices, or any other concrete material, comes under this category. I should like to illustrate in some detail the variety of opportunities that present themselves in an appar¬ ently obscure topic in plane geometry. Quite early in the geometry course we were studying the propositions rela¬ tive to the sum of the angles of a polygon. Some additional work was sug¬ gested beyond the range of the textbook. Tho not specifically required at first, it soon became a part of the regular class work. The work proposed was as follows: Department of Secondary Education 401 PLANE GEOMETRY UNIT Polygons The following suggestions are made for students wishing to do additional work in connection with the study of the angles of polygons: 1. Survey — the first group to make the survey will drive stakes at each corner of the plot. (a) Measure each angle with the transit or plane table (b) Check using the formula for the sum of the angles of a polygon (c) Make a scale drawing. 2. There are many combinations — of regular polygons that will fill the space around a point in a plane. Find as many such combinations as possible and make drawings of those you think most interesting. 3. Cut out a number of congruent quadrilaterals and number or color each of the corresponding angles. Try to make a tilework of the quadrilaterals. Note the results and give proof for your conclusion. 4. Cut out some regular polygons and make them fit without keeping the poly¬ gons in the same plane. This should produce some of the regular polyhedrons (solid geometry figures). You may be interested in seeing some of the patterns for making some of these. 5. A cross-section of the tower at the main entrance is a regular polygon. Find the angle at which two of the walls meet and check your solution by measure¬ ments. 6. The bay window in your classroom is a segment of a regular polygon. Measure the angle at which the windows meet and solve for the number of sides. One easily recognizes that there is much material here that is not strictly plane geometry. It is questionable whether some of it has any value at all in the strictest sense. However, it does indicate how an interest, if encour¬ aged, may develop. For several pupils who were interested in mineral col¬ lection, geometry took on new life. Two of them made a collection of about two dozen geometric models of crystals in which they were interested. They even went so far as to stimulate the teacher who has since purchased a book, Getting Acquainted With Minerals. The real value of experiences of this kind is more fundamental than a description indicates. To the pupils the theorems being studied were not mere verbalized rules or abstract formulas to be evaluated. I am unwilling to have pupils learn a theorem, get the right answers to several textbook problems, and then assume that the learning process has taken place. So far as possible mathematics should take on meaning; it should require initiative and originality, as well as memory. FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS AND THEIR IMPLICATION FOR CURRICULUM-BUILDING ROBERT G. FOSTER, MERRILL-PALMER SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH. Worthy home membership is still the forgotten objective in secondary education in many, if not most, parts of the United States, altho one can discern progress being made each year in this phase of educational effort. Like many other new developments in education, present interest in per¬ sonality adjustment and the study of family relationship has grown largely 402 National Education Association out of the crises of the World War and the post-war depression. Altho the American family has been having an increasingly difficult time main¬ taining its integrity since the Civil War, a recognition of the need for the study of and education for marriage and family life has come only in rela¬ tively recent years. There is still very little known scientifically about most aspects of marriage and family relationships with which to form the basis for a fundamentally comprehensive curriculum, but so much more is known than is applied in the curriculum that in this paper it seems wise to confine most of my remarks to the basic importance of the family as an object of study and educational consideration and give relatively little attention to the educa¬ tional problems involved. The implications for curriculum construction be¬ come obvious as one comes to see the scope of the field. The family is important in every culture from the simplest primitive group to the most complex industrial civilization. The need for its study and an understanding of the factors which affect its function and relationship seems evident when the following facts are given our consideration : Family experience is a universal human experience. In America 312,000, or only about 1 percent of those under ten years of age, are being cared for in homes or institutions apart from their normal parents. Or, putting the matter another way,’ one finds that about 61 percent of the 130,000,000 of our population spend most of their time in the home: 27 percent are homemakers; 19 percent are young people; 11 percent are under school age; and 4 percent are feeble or aged. Looking at the situation from the viewpoint of those who marry, two sets of figures are illuminating. The Metropolitan Life Insurance Company tells us that of every 100,000 infants born, 78 percent marry and 85 percent of those who marry become parents. From census data we find that by the age of forty-five approximately 80 percent of all females are married and by the age of sixty-five about 90 percent are or have been married. The foregoing figures are presented to establish the fact that there is no more universally common experience for young people than their home and family relationships, and that they will marry and become parents is as predictable for 75 percent or more as any social phenomena can be predicted. In terms of our philosophy of education in a democratic society, it would seem that these figures alone would indicate something for those concerned with curriculum-building. The requirements for adequate functioning as a husband, wife, and parent are more varied in scope than those for most vocations for which young people prepare themselves in school. George Warren, in his book Farm Management, sets this problem admirably with respect to the qualifications for success in farming. He says, “A good farmer must be ( 1 ) a good business man; (2) a good mechanic; (3) a biologist and naturalist; (4) a skilled laborer.” He then emphasizes the fact that the farm is a home enterprise; that experience is important for success; and that the farm is not a place for the inefficient. It has always seemed to me that these criteria were applicable to the criteria of fitness for marriage partners. I wonder if the home does not de¬ mand business ability and if the homemakers (men and women alike) do not, to a degree, have to be good mechanics, skilled laborers, teachers, biologists, Department of Secondary Education 403 psychologists, educators, physicians, nurses, and business managers. These and other personal qualifications are expected of those who marry, and yet there is not a vocation of any consequence into which one can find employ¬ ment with as little prerequisite training as marriage. All one needs in most states is maleness, femaleness, the urge, and the price of a license. Again I raise the question as to curriculum implications. If our curriculum is to be based upon life needs of its students, it would seem that long ago this phase of education would have had much more consideration. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Detroit, Michigan First Session, Monday Afternoon, June 28, 1937 “Extracurriculum Activities in the Junior and Senior High Schools” was the theme of the three general meetings and the fifteen conferences held by the Depart¬ ment of Secondary Education. The first of the three general meetings was held in the auditorium of Cass Technical High School. Ernest D. Lewis, president of the Department, presided. The papers read wyere of much value and made an excellent introduction to further consideration of the general theme. C. R. Van Nice, managing editor of School Activities, presented a paper on “The Contributions of Extracurric¬ ulum Activities to the Social Adjustment of Secondary Education,” and Ralph C. Chamberlain, principal of the Rufus King High School, Detroit, discussed “The Contributions of Extracurriculum Activities to the Social Adjustment of Secondary Youth.” In the absence of Paul W. Terry, professor of education of the University of Alabama, Professor Sims, of the same institution, read his paper on, “The Con¬ tribution of Extracurriculum Activities to the Development of Altruistic Citizenship.” Lengthy abstracts of these three papers, as well as other material presented at De¬ troit, will appear in the October and succeeding issues of Secondary Education, the official organ of the Department. The complete papers can be secured in mimeo¬ graph form from the editor of S econdary Education, 800 East Gunhill Road, New York, New York. A charge of ten cents for each paper will be made to cover postage. At the conclusion of the addresses, the meeting adjourned to break up into sub¬ groups of fifteen joint conferences, most of which assembled in Cass Technical High School. In these conferences, talks were given by a speaker or speakers, or panel dis¬ cussions were arranged dealing with those extracurriculum activities which have proved especially valuable in each of the high-school departments. Thru the coopera¬ tion of the conference chairmen, the different speakers, and the local committee on arrangements, material presented at each of these conferences has been collected, a part of which appears in the preceding pages. The fifteen joint conferences arranged by the Department were as follows: Ancient Languages, in cooperation with the American Classical League; Art, in cooperation with the Department of Art; Business Education, in cooperation with the Depart¬ ment of Business Education; English, in cooperation with the National Council of Teachers of English; Geography, in cooperation with the National Council of Geography Teachers; School Health and Physical Education, in cooperation with the Department of School Health and Physical Education; Home Economics, in co¬ operation with the Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics; Library Service, in cooperation with the N.E.A.-A.L.A. Joint Committee on School Libraries; Mathematics, in cooperation with the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics; Modern Languages, in cooperation with the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers; Music, in cooperation with the Department of Music Education; Parenthood Training, in cooperation with die American Association of University Women; Science Instruction, in cooperation with the Department of Sci¬ ence Instruction; Social Studies, in cooperation with the Department of Social Studies; and Vocational Education, in cooperation with the Department of Voca¬ tional Education. 404 National Education Association Second Session, Tuesday Afternoon, June 29, 1937 A luncheon, at which high-school librarians joined the members of the Department, was held in the Administration Building of the Ford Motor Company thru the courtesy of the company. The president of the Department presented H. L. Harring¬ ton, assistant superintendent of the Detroit public schools, who introduced invited guests and speakers. Music was furnished by the Dixie Eight of the Ford Motor Com¬ pany. The scheduled address of the afternoon was delivered by Gertrude Mallory of the Benjamin Franklin High School of Los Angeles, California, on the topic, ‘‘The Function of the Library in the Secondary School.” Following the luncheon, courtesy cars provided by the local committee on arrange¬ ments transported those attending the luncheon to the Greenfield Village for a tour of that interesting educational project. Third Session, Wednesday Afternoon, June 30, 1937 The final meeting was held in the Cass Technical High School. George R. Rankin, vicepresident of the Department, presided. A fifteen-minute program of music was furnished by the school band under the direction of Howard Rosser. This was fol¬ lowed by a student program depicting in dramatic fashion “Some Extracurriculum Activities of the Detroit Intermediate and High Schools.” This attractive part of the program was carried out under the direction of Mary F. Farnsworth, assistant prin¬ cipal of the Cooley High School. The concluding feature of the program consisted of a talk by Walter C. Eells, coordinator of the Cooperative Study of Secondary School Standards, Washington, D. C. It dealt with a study made in 200 cooperating schools of periodicals available for use in secondary schools. Upon the adjournment of this session, the annual business meeting was called to order by the president, Ernest D. Lewis. Hazel M. Healy of the Washington High School, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, was appointed secretary pro tem in the absence of Nettie R. Bolland, secretary. The minutes of the annual meeting held in Portland, Oregon, were approved after a correction was made to include the names of all officers elected at the business meeting. The treasurer’s report was read and ap¬ proved. The president briefly reviewed the work of the past year. He called attention to the interesting meetings held in February at New Orleans — to the largely attended dinner, arranged by the High School Association of New Orleans, at which addresses were delivered by Thomas H. Briggs of Columbia University, Harl Douglass of the University of Wisconsin, and the president; and to other meetings which considered the visualization needs of high schools, especially in regard to the use of motion pictures and the radio. Mr. Lewis also told of the work of the various committees of the Department: the Committee on the Integration of High-School Studies; the Committee on Citizen¬ ship Training in the Secondary Schools; the Committee To Promote Better Inter¬ national Understanding thru Education at the Secondary Level; and the Committee on Motion Pictures. Two committees were partly organized during the year; the Committee on Trends in Instruction and New Curriculum Materials, and the Com¬ mittee on the Use of the Radio in Junior and Senior High Schools. All these com¬ mittees are in need of financial support. Several suggestions were made during the meeting for developing more interest in the work of the Department and for increasing membership. New officers were elected for the year 1937-38. (See Historical Note, p. 388.) Upon motion of Martin Wilson, James Monroe High School, New York City, the president-elect was authorized to appoint the regional directors. Upon motion of the outgoing president, four issues of Secondary Education were authorized for the year 1937-38. Mi ss Healy spoke in appreciation of the splendid service rendered by Mr. Lewis for a number of years. The meeting was adjourned. DEPARTMENT OF Secondary School ‘Principals HISTORICAL NOTE The department of secondary school principals was organized in T opeka, Kansas, in 1886, under the name of the Department of Secondary Instruction. Anticipating the proposed merger of the National Association of Secondary Principals with the National Education Association, the name of the Department zvas changed to the Department of Secondary School Principals. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-38 are: president, McClellan G. Jones, Principal, Union High School, Huntington Beach, Calif.; first vicepresident, Paul E. Elicker, Principal, Newton High School, Newtonville, Mass.; second vicepresident, H. V. Kcpner, Principal, West Side High School, Denver, Colo.; executive secretary, H. V. Church, 5835 Kimbark, Avenue, Chicago, III.; executive com¬ mittee, Willard N. Van Slyck, Topeka, Kans. (term expires 1938); K. J. Clark, Principal, Murphy High School, Mobile, Ala. (term expires 1938); John E. W ellwood, Principal, Central High School, Flint, Mich, (term expires 1939); H. M. Hardin, Principal, Reed Junior High School, Springfield, Mo. (term expires 1940). The publications of the Department consist of a Bulletin — issued five times a year — and a Yearbook. The annual dues for the Department are $2, payable to the Executive Secretary. Facts relating to the estab¬ lishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1887 -.393-442 1888 -.401-433 1889 -.497-533 1890 -.61 3-655 1891 -.615-687 1892 -.333-373 1893 -.177-242 1894 -.743-794 1895 -.579-635 189 6:557-619 189 7:644-699 1898 -.664-700 1899 -.601-817 1900 -.428-453 1901 -.565-604 1902 -.455-492 1903:429-486 1904 -.473-536 1905 -.423-479 1906:633-636 1907 -.521-710 1908 -.577-667 1909 -.479-522 1910 -.443-533 1911 :555-657 1912 -.663-765 191 3:469-499 1914 -.445-488 1915 -.723-753 1916 -.517-574 1917: 253- 284 1918: 177- 189 1919: 195- 204 1920: 209- 230 1921: 667- 678 1922 -.1267-1293 1923 : 861- 880 1924: 775- 802 1925 : 450- 477 1926: 637- 652 19 27:599-677 1928 :591-650 1929 :579-632 1930 -.543-595 1931 -.577-620 1932 -.493-524 1933 -.507-530 1934:493-512 1935 -.461-470 1936:361-371 l 406 ] The Functions of Secondary Education FUNCTION I JOSEPH H. BUTTERWECK, TEMPLE UNIVERSITY, PHILADELPHIA, PA. This address is concerned with a critical analysis of Function I, Inte¬ gration, of the report of the Committee on Orientation of the National Association of Secondary-School Principals. Any statement of the integra¬ tive function of secondary education must concern itself with the following four factors : 1. What are the essential elements of a dynamic democracy? Until these are clearly stated it is impossible to indicate the nature of the integration which any school program should undertake. The Committee has not been quite clear in its statement of these essential elements. 2. What should be the chief concern of an educational program designed for a dynamic democracy? Should it be that of teaching individuals to accept truth, or to guide them in ways and means of searching for truth? The Com¬ mittee’s report is not entirely clear on this point, probably due to the fact that it has evaded the more difficult responsibility of stating the characteristics of successful citizenship in a democracy. 3. What type of product should the secondary school expect from the elementary school since its success is conditioned by the type of individual who enters its doors? It has a right to suggest the type of product which it would like to receive, and to give a general prescription for the creation of such a product. The conventional elementary school has done an effective job in teaching truth, but has this prepared effective citizens in a social order where change of values constantly takes place? Can the secondary school build an effective program in preparation for a democracy if those who enter its doors have already been conditioned to accept rather than to seek truth ? 4. It is impossible to select, with a high degree of accuracy, the integrative elements of a curriculum at this time. We have as yet no scientific measures for their selection. If the Committee’s report is to become a foundation for the erection of future programs, it should set down criteria to be used in selecting the integrative elements for a secondary-education program and should state these criteria in terms which are so general and yet so clear that they can be applied as the conditions in society change. FUNCTION II EDGAR G. JOHNSTON, PRINCIPAL, UNIVERSITY HIGH SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. The failure of secondary schools generally to meet the obligations implied in the issue is convincingly demonstrated. A brief historical survey of the development of American secondary education shows clearly those threads [ 407 ] 408 National Education Association which have served to give continuity to the pattern. The cultural tradition has emphasized information. It has focused attention on the distant past as a source of materials worthy of attention and on the future as providing those goals toward which the pupils’ efforts are to be directed. The satisfaction of immediate needs has been opposed by those forces of tradition which have in large measure controlled the development of the secondary school. In approaching the question as to what the immediate and probable future needs are, the author makes clear that the definition of needs includes the “development of intellectual possibilities’’ and takes into account the maturity of the learner. The clarity of the presentation is enhanced by practical illus¬ trations from the fields of health, the utilization of machines, the development of social intelligence and efficiency, and the command of a foreign language. A comprehensive list of systematic studies which have been made to determine needs in particular fields will serve as a helpful reference to the secondary- school teacher or curriculum-maker. Following an analysis of various at¬ tempts to classify needs, the author presents a convincing argument for the satisfaction of needs as a prime function of the public secondary school and shows what the school must do to discharge this function. It is clear that an acceptance of this function demands a modification of our conventional approach to the curriculum. The satisfaction of needs must be primary and not subsidiary to the logic of departmentalized subjectmatter. Fulfilment of this obligation is something which cannot be approached hur¬ riedly or performed adequately by the untrained teacher. It will place exact¬ ing demands on the resources of the teaching profession. Heber H. Ryan points out, however, that contributions can be made to an ultimate solution by the individual teacher who can survey his field for contribution to pupil needs and modify his teaching to serve them more effectively, by groups of teachers working together, and by a body of experts commissioned to make a comprehensive and exhaustive study of human needs as a basis for curricu¬ lum development. As Dr. Ryan has so clearly pointed out, the difficulty in achieving realiza¬ tion of this function has not been in getting theoretical acceptance of the needs of pupils as the purpose of education — the difficulty has come in the selection of needs for the school’s attention and in getting them into concrete and practical form. Dr. Ryan would have us do an about-face and turn our attention from those logically organized bodies of subjectmatter which are somehow or other to serve human needs eventually, to a consideration of those needs themselves and a direct attack upon them now. With the issue itself and with proposals for its implementation we can have no quarrel. It remains, perhaps, to point out those tendencies in the current educational scene which give promise of meeting the challenge set up by the Committee in its discussion of this function. First of all, we may see a differ¬ ent approach to the educational process. The psychologist of today concerns himself less with piecing together minute elements of experience and focuses our attention more on the total situation in which the learner finds himself. The recognition that the organism functions as a unit and that the teacher must consider the whole child and the entire situation which affects him, Department of Secondary School Principals 409 tends to break down barriers between subjects, between the curriculum and extracurriculum activities, between the school on the one hand and the home and community on the other. Broadly conceived the growing emphasis on guidance is another encour¬ aging sign. We are coming to realize that the increased opportunities for choice in the modern school and the recognition of the great differences among individuals in their various capacities, place on the school an unes- capable obligation for wise guidance of the pupil among the options pre¬ sented. At its best, guidance is made a function to which every teacher in the school contributes. Among the projects undertaken with the specific purpose of improving the instructional program of the secondary school, the eight-year experiment of the Progressive Education Association deserves special recognition. Pre¬ liminary reports would indicate a wide variety of programs among the thirty schools included in the experiment and a variation in the extent to which pupil needs have occupied the center of the stage. There is certainly reason to hope that from some of the experimental programs undertaken will come leads which will point the direction toward more adequate and functional organization of instruction in the secondary school. The Cooperative Study of Secondary School Standards conducted by sev¬ eral of the great regional associations of colleges and secondary schools is another of the hopeful experiments. One of the most painstaking and ex¬ haustive of the current studies in the secondary field, this movement should be influential in centering upon the pupil the attention of high-school leaders over a wide area. The Regents’ Inquiry into the Character and Cost of Public Education in the State of New York is an investigation of far-reaching import. That portion of it which deals with secondary education has made a significant approach to this problem in its attempt to discover what has happened to those pupils who left the school either thru graduation or before completion of the school course, and how well equipped these pupils were to meet the demands which would be placed upon them. The Inquiry is comprehensive in scope and touches on many phases of school organization. At the present time a majority of the states have curriculum revision pro¬ grams under way. In a number of these state programs — of which Virginia and Mississippi are illustrative — there has been emphasis on that concept of the curriculum which makes it inclusive of all the educational experiences of the child under the sponsorship of the school. Moreover, they have in¬ cluded an analysis of personal and social needs as the basis from which the curriculum takes its orientation. In California a group of cooperating schools has been freed from formal college entrance requirements and given encour¬ agement to experiment with promising innovations in the secondary-school program. Michigan has just embarked upon a study of the secondary-school curriculum which will involve the selection of typical schools and the pro¬ vision of assistance to them in making a study of pupil needs and adapting the curriculum to meet them. 410 National Education Association H ere and there individual schools are making tentative departures from tradition in providing special courses which are designed to meet some specific pupil needs or in organizing the staff for a thorogoing attack on the program of pupil education which may be more functional in its community. Finally, mention should be made of the increased activity of the national Department of Secondary-School Principals. All serious-minded leaders of secondary education will take encouragement in the advance which has been made within the past year. The subsidy from the General Education Board for the implementation of a professional program, the development of a pro¬ fessional staff in Washington, the expanded publications policy, and the recent appointment of a committee to promote discussion of the reports of the Committee on Orientation all give hope of a professional program which will exert a profound influence in secondary education in the next decade. Not the least significant of the plans which the Executive Committee has put in operation is that which provides for the encouragement of discussion groups in the various states and the appointment of regional discussion group coordinators. The Committee in its discussion of this function has pointed the way. It remains for professional groups and individual principals to take up the challenge presented and to make pupil needs central in the program of their schools. FUNCTION III KENNETH L. HEATON, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF CURRICULUM RESEARCH, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, LANSING, MICH. Function III is stated in the following words: To reveal higher activities of an increasingly differentiated type in the major fields of the racial heritage of experience and culture, their significant values for social living, the problems in them of contemporary life, the privileges and duties of each person as an individual and as a member of social groups; to make these fields satisfying and desired by those gifted for successful achievement and to give infor¬ mation as to requirements for success in these fields and information as to where further training may be secured. Perhaps no statement regarding education has been repeated more often than the first of Briggs’ “Golden Rules” of education : “The first duty of the school is to teach pupils to do better the desirable things that they are likely to do anyway.” The corollary statement has not been quoted as often: “An¬ other duty of the school is to reveal higher activities and to make them both desired and to a maximum extent, possible.” It is this second ideal that was in the thought of John A. Lester as he drafted the discussion of Function III. The importance of this ideal is universally recognized. It is difficult to achieve it, however, in these days when high schools are filled with students of all ranges of ability and past experience. It is difficult to stimulate those of low ability and those of high ability, those of rich cultural background and those of mediocre background, thru a common educational experience. Furthermore, the pattern of educational objectives has tended in the past to Department of Secondary School Principals 411 concentrate attention upon the “pouring-in” of facts and upon the develop¬ ment of vocational skills rather than upon the stimulation of new and higher interests of personal and social significance to students. According to Dr. Lester, there is still a “persistent notion that schools are places which enable us to advance our personal fortunes without regard for others, that we go to school to make money, or to escape boredom when money cannot be made.” It is proposed that there should be a readjustment of emphasis in secondary education ; that students should become more conscious of the personal and social importance of all their activities and plans, that there should be an adjustment of learning activities to the differentiated abilities and needs of individual boys and girls; and that the success of the school should be judged in proportion to the number of its graduates who are interested in “an individual, self-motivated, active, continuation of the processes of edu¬ cation set in motion by the school.” Future progress in the realization of this ideal must depend upon several changes in the condition of education. We must have a generation of teachers who themselves have felt the satisfactions in higher activities and who are conscious of the personal and social importance of their own activities. As in all efforts for educational progress, teacher education is the first essential for success. In the second place, fixed steps of learning must be replaced by some plan which will be based upon the concept of differentiated needs, and provision be made for increased diversity of activities. Alternation of courses, enlarging of the faculty by the setting up of a six-year school, the use of circuit or part-time teachers, correspondence courses, and a horizontal division of teaching responsibility — all these are good but as solutions they hardly seem adequate to meet the wide range of existing differences among high-school students. This problem of providing differentiated learning experiences to meet the needs of all students remains as perhaps the most difficult problem of the secondary school. We are able to greet with enthusiasm other suggestions made for the improvement of the school situation. Chief among these are the recommenda¬ tion of wider use of cumulative records, the instruction of students in the art of learning, and the extension of the junior college curriculum. The feel¬ ing that cumulative records are necessary to facilitate a program of individ¬ ualized learning is spreading rapidly. Altho very few schools are giving students an opportunity to study the art of learning, including a knowledge of the principles and psychological factors which affect learning, that which stresses intelligent self-guidance for the student seems to be a logical and essential part of any curriculum. It also seems logical that the awakening of new interests among high-school students may increase the enrolment in junior colleges. No one will want to disagree with this third function or with the analysis which has been so carefully written for it, but to achieve the ideal in its full meaning will require additional planning and effort. 412 National Education Association FUNCTION IV BERTIE BACKUS, PRINCIPAL, ALICE DEAL JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, WASHINGTON, D. C. When teachers and principals meet together to examine our common goals and to check our practise in the light of these goals, there is a chance for progress in education. I was quite surprised to discover that Function IV was the only place in the Committee’s discussion in which the junior high school is mentioned. One might draw several conclusions from this omission. I hope we may conclude that the junior high school has so successfully estab¬ lished itself as an integral part of secondary education, that the functions of secondary education and the functions of the junior high school are identical. However, some recent criticisms of the junior high school, together with the treatment of Function IV in the Committee’s report, cast some doubt upon the validity of this conclusion. My own criticism of the Com¬ mittee’s discussion of Function IV is to be found in Bulletin 64 of the Department of Secondary-School Principals. My experience as a junior high-school principal extends back twelve years — long enough that the singling out of exploration as the chief function of the junior high school by the Committee came to me as a shock, so completely has exploration disappeared from practise and from the discussion of junior high-school problems. Exploratory courses in language, in shops, in mathe¬ matics, have all but disappeared. Shorthand has been given up ; bookkeeping has become general business; typewriting has become a tool subject that takes the place of penmanship ; general science alone remains. That, however, has become a course of study in its own right and is seldom thought of as explora¬ tory of science. As for basing educational plans for the individual child upon the discoveries made in exploratory courses — well, it just has never been done. Mary fails in Latin and takes German or Spanish instead. Johnny, I. Q. 89, works well in shop, but he plans to go to the Naval Academy or to study medicine. Shall we conclude, then, that exploration as a function of education is impractical? Should we not rather reconsider our definition of exploration? It seems to me that we have regarded exploration in too narrow and too practical a sense. All education should be exploration : exploration that leads to a better understanding of the everyday world and its problems; exploration that gives insight into the continuity and one-ness of life ; explora¬ tion that results in an appraisal of one’s own powers, one’s own abilities and interests. If we accept this view of the exploratory function of education, let us ask and answer three questions with respect to our practise. 1. Does school in Grades I-XII, as it is now organized, perform this function? 2. Can it perform this function? 3. From the psychological point of view, is the junior high school the unit in which to emphasize the exploratory function of education? In answering these questions we shall have to say sometimes “ yes ,” some¬ times “no.” Undoubtedly the school of today gives more meaning, to more Department of Secondary School Principals 413 things, to more children than ever before ; unquestionably children are dis¬ covering interests and abilities thru school experience ; certainly early adoles¬ cence is the age of exploration. On the other hand, it is equally true that much of the subjectmatter of the curriculum is an end in itself; that marks and credits are still the badges of education ; that many children still gradu¬ ate from our schools with no idea of what life is all about, with no depend¬ able knowledge of their own powers, and bewildered as to where and how to take hold of the management of their own lives. If we agree that exploration is a proper function of education and that the junior high school is the psychological time and place for emphasis upon this function, if we recognize the fact that it is not being adequately per¬ formed, two questions present themselves: (1) Why has exploration dis¬ appeared from practise and from the literature of the junior high school? (2) What are the conditions necessary for the performance of this function? To answer the first question we will have to examine the effects of com- partmentalization in education. The statement of the functions of education has been the work of the philosopher in education; the selection of subject- matter has been made by professional textbook writers; the organization and administration of the school has been in the hands of the administrative staff ; the teacher and the pupil have come into the picture after everything else has been done, with the result that what was conceived as a resultant attitude has been translated into a sampling process in many schools. When parent and pupil refused to fit the high-school program into the mold suggested by this junior high-school procedure, junior high-school principals quietly chucked the whole program of exploration. In doing so we have not thrown the baby out with the bath, as many of our critics seem to think. Nor can we claim to have re-made our program in the light of a saner interpretation of the exploratory function. However, I hazard the guess that a scientific evalu¬ ation of the work of the junior high school today would reveal more explora¬ tion in the sense in which I am using the term in this paper than in the period of sampling which has been so generally abandoned. If exploration is the peculiar function of the junior high school, what are the conditions necessary for the performance of this function? To serve the exploratory function every subject must leave each pupil with : 1. Some definite ideas about the subject: what it is all about and where it leads 2. Some command of the technics and methods of study necessary for proficient mastery of the subject 3. Some thoughtout conclusions about himself in relation to the subject. In order to achieve these results, courses of study must be rewritten. They must be written with the purpose of giving an overview of the subject, in¬ sight into its essential contribution to the cultural heritage ; main ideas must take the place of detail. Teachers themselves cannot write such courses. They do not have the time, nor in many cases the broad view of the subject. Philos¬ opher and subjectmatter specialist must combine forces to do the work, criticized and checked by the teacher in the classroom. The work must be done on a wider scale than is commonly practised in writing courses of study. 414 National Education Association Courses of study must not only be rewritten but there must be fewer units of work in the junior high school. Some time, now devoted to the acquisition of facts, must be devoted to training in methods of study and in reflection upon meanings. Such a program demands a new type of training for the teacher not only in subjectmatter but in methods of teaching. It presupposes also a new interpretation of the guidance function of the junior high school. If the pupil is to receive from every course some definite ideas as to what it is all about, and to conclude some things about his own powers and interests with respect to that course, then every teacher must become a guidance teacher. Guidance can no longer be either a department or a course of study. It becomes the responsibility of each teacher, and must be regarded as her major function. We shall need a functional testing program and expert assistance in analyzing special problems. Finally, we shall need a school morale that makes it fashionable for each to do his best — an atmosphere in which no one is ashamed to give expression to the emotions and aspirations which his explora¬ tion of new worlds has aroused in him. Exploration is a threefold process: the stimulation of curiosity and the awakening of interest, experience, and transmutation of experience and interest into a planned program for oneself. Our present program halts be¬ cause our courses of study, which are designed to awaken curiosity and direct interests, and our methods of teaching and plans for guidance, which alone can transmute experience into guiding purpose, limp far behind the rich ex¬ periences which the junior high school provides. FUNCTION V i JOHN R. BARNES, DIRECTOR OF CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION, GROSSE POINTE, MICH. The Committee on Orientation of Secondary Education states Function V in the following words: To systematize knowledge previously acquired or being acquired in courses in such ways as to show the significance both of this knowledge and especially of laws and principles, with understanding of wider ranges of application than would other¬ wise be perceived. If I interpret this statement correctly, it asserts two things: 1. Effective teaching and learning demand system on the part of both the teacher and pupil. 2. Systems of knowledge must stand the test of demonstrated contributions to the development of meanings for the learner, and to his ability and inclination to apply the details to new situations. This function is discussed at considerable length in Bulletin No. 64 of the Department of Secondary-School Principals over the signature of Francis L. Bacon. A thoughtful reading and re-reading of that discussion will yield rich dividends of mental stimulation and understandings. Department of Secondary School Principals 415 These statements of Functions of secondary education must be interpreted in the light of the earlier report of the Committee on Orientation on Issues which appeared in January 1936 ( Bulletin No. 59 of the Department of Secondary-School Principals). Issue VII bears most directly upon the prob¬ lems growing out of Function V. The Committee states this issue as follows: Shall secondary education accept conventional school subjects as fundamental categories under which school experiences shall be classified and presented to students ? or Shall it arrange and present experiences in fundamental categories directly related to the performance of such functions of secondary schools in a democracy as increas¬ ing the ability and desire better to meet socio-civic, economic, health, leisure-time, vocational, and preprofessional problems and situations? This issue is discussed fairly and thoughtfully by the Committee, which, after considering the many implications of the issue, states its conclusions in these words: It is the opinion of this committee that the conventional subject organization of the curriculum will have to be abandoned in favor of the categories which are more fundamental to the task imposed upon the school by these functions. The Committee followed this statement with an indication of what it considered “more fundamental” categories, naming two: I. That part of the curriculum devoted to making the individual more able and more willing to contribute to the improvement of human relationships. II. That part concerned with society’s need for the growth of ability and inclina¬ tion on the part of the individual to manage and utilize the potentialities of our natural physical environment so that it may make its maximum contribution to the general welfare. The discussion of these categories and of some of the details of a program consistent with the point of view maintained by the Committee are well worth the thoughtful study of all secondary-school teachers and adminis¬ trators. This review of the thinking of the Committee on Orientation should help us to focus our own thinking on the heart of the problem before us in Function V. I. Instruction must be systematized — The Committee in its discussion of both Issues and Functions consistently maintains the imperative necessity for organization of the content of instruction both as a means of economy of pupil and teacher time and energy and as an essential step in the develop¬ ment of meaning in what is learned. We may break with systems of learning which persist today largely because of the sanctions of antiquity or tradition, but we must not too nonchalantly burn the old guide books until we are sure our compass is accurate and our goal clearly determined. To quote the Committee: “The essential is to determine which way progress is to go. Mere change is not enough !’ 416 National Education Association II. Systems of knowledge are means to an end, not ends in themselves — The objective is the organization and systematization of knowledge in the mind of the learner, so that evaluation, generalization, and application will follow. As the Committee says, “This is the final measure of the school’s success” in fulfilling Function V. It is unfortunate that many of us have associated ourselves with one or the other of two contending camps of educators. On the one hand we see the hosts of professional “progressivism,” whose banners proclaim the divine right of the child to determine his own curriculum. On the hill-tops across the valley of decision stand the old guard, faithful to the death. There are many of us who cannot accept either of these points of view; who are increasingly aware of the dilemma which faces the secondary school in this confusion of contending philosophies. We recognize the great con¬ tribution which John Dewey and William H. Kilpatrick have made to rediscovery of the child as the central fact in education, but we turn pale as we watch some of their followers burn down the house because the windows are not properly spaced. We agree with the Committee on Orientation that there are “more fundamental categories” around which to systematize our children’s learning, but we also agree with the Committee when it describes the chaos of much of presentday curriculum “reform” in these words: Undoubtedly the breakdown of continuity in the old courses and laxity of organiza¬ tion in the newer ones result largely from the urge for reform, which has under¬ mined confidence in the traditional organization of knowledge and, as yet, has not fully demonstrated a certainty of values or of methods of organization in the new proposals. While clinging with decreasing certainty to the values of the old forms, the school is at the same time fumbling in perplexed efforts to adopt the new designs. The secondary school of the more traditional type finds itself confronted with certain facts which are so confusing and contradictory as to leave both teachers and administrators baffled as to any reasonable hope of reconciling the differences in a program which will meet all of the challenges. Let me state some of these challenges. 1. The challenge of an elementary school which is increasingly child-centered and activity-minded, and which is decreasingly sympathetic to fixed curriculums, sub- jectmatter as such, fixed minimum standards of achievement, discipline maintained by the teacher, and marking systems which involve pupil-to-pupil comparisons. 2. The challenge of the “progressive” movement in the secondary school itself. This movement is largely confined to certain private schools and a few public schools in wealthy suburban communities, but it is a really potent force because of the sup¬ port of many of our colleges of education and the publicity which the movement is skilful enough to secure. 3. The challenge of business and industry, which is today demanding more in the way of skills, knowledge, and self-discipline of high-school graduates than ever before. Business executives still have old-fashioned ideas about the spelling of their letters and the computations in their account books. Their offices are not “man- centered” but are efficiency-demanding as never before. 4. The challenge of the college, which has made many concessions to the demand of the secondary schools for greater freedom in the preparation of college entrants, but which shows no signs of giving ground on matters of quality, of basic skills in language, and of inclination and ability on the part of the student to attack hard work, not of his own choosing, and see it thru. Department of Secondary School Principals 41 7 5. The challenge of an increasing body of laymen and of such pariahs among educators as Bagley, who attack our secondary-school program as “mushy,” lacking in substance and cohesion, and indict a considerable proportion of our graduates as self-centered, “half-baked,” and basically uneducated. Some unkind souls main¬ tain that there is a connection between current social unrest and criminal conduct on the part of our youth and the theories of non-repression and self-realization which have conditioned discipline in many homes and schools in the last twenty years. It is my contention that the secondary school is “on the spot” ; that it cannot proceed in the future without being increasingly conscious of its defiance of certain of the challenges which I have named with consequent loss of support from some quarters. The high-school principal who attends a conference of business men and hears our schools assailed as playhouses with no proper attention to the “fundamentals,” and who then attends a “pro¬ gressive” convention and is belabored by college professors of education (on life tenure) as spineless servants of tradition comes home a sadder if not a wiser man. The work of the Committee on the Orientation of Secondary Education is one of the most important steps which has been taken toward clarifying the thinking of both schoolmen and laymen and resolving some of the per¬ plexities of the practical secondary-school situation of our day. FUNCTION VI EARL HUDELSON, DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY, MORGANTOWN, W. VA. As I try to visualize Function VI and dramatize effective procedures for realizing its possibilities, I am conscious of a certain amount of danger. The Committee has advocated this function so plausibly and convincingly that one who tries to live with it for a while is apt to assume a kind of common-law relationship with it and to acquire such an admiration and respect for it that he is tempted to espouse it even at the expense of the other functions of secondary education. This would be unfortunate, in that it would tend to unbalance the whole integrated functional pattern. Yet if any of these ten functions needs deliberately to be magnified before laymen, it is probably Function VI; for, as the Committee itself has cau¬ tioned us, this service of the schools is not likely to be eagerly embraced and supported by society. Zest-engendering, soul-satisfying, possibility-revealing, leisure-time opportunities are not popularly associated with tax-supported institutions. Parents tend to think of what schooling will do to and for their child, and not of what their child will do to and for society. Yet laymen must be brought to see that whether or not they owe a child a liberating education for his own sake, they at least owe it to him for the sake of those with whom he must live. No interest can be wholly individual and exclusive. Every wholesome interest that is explored and pursued helps to resolve the mystery of life, and this makes everybody better adjusted and happier. Several of the authors of the Bulletin seem to think there is not enough discrimination between several of the various functions. While it is essential 418 National Education Association to differentiate jealously the justifications for the vocational and non-voca- tional functions of secondary education, overlapping of the results need not cause concern ; for the surest way of arriving at a wise vocational choice may well be thru the plumbing of leisure-time possibilities. Many a person has discovered his bent thru seemingly aimless exploration. But, even if this does not lead to a vocational choice, the exploration and the pursuit will not have been in vain, for the human race is doomed to leisure as well as to toil. If these functions are to continue — if they are to affect educational prac¬ tises rather than to gather dust in a bulletin — administrators and teachers must devise improved means of implementing each function. If, as the Com¬ mittee reiterates, worthy leisure-time interests are acquired rather than inborn, it behooves school administrators to see to it that opportunities for indulging these acquired interests do not have to compete with child activities which are instinctively satisfying. If children in school are to have the opportunity which they deserve of discovering themselves and their fields of highest and happiest service, they will have to be able to sit longer and more frequently at the feet of some alert and sympathetic teacher than our conventional highly departmentalized school program permits them to do. Some master teacher must have the child enough of the time to recognize the oncoming of wholesome interests and to foster them. There is promise in the integrated program which permits a pupil to remain with the same teacher for several periods a day, provided the teacher is catholic in his own knowledge and interests and universal in his sympathies for children, and provided that he sees beyond a mere inte¬ grated curriculum and visions integrated lives. It hardly need be said that such Gamaliels are as rare as they are priceless; but I believe they will have to be found and given opportunity if Function VI is to be made to realize its full possibilities. Let a generation receive the careful but kindly ministrations of such teachers, and in adulthood that generation will sing with the shepherd in the tent of his disconsolate king: How good is man’s life, the mere living! How fit to employ All the heart and the soul and the senses forever in joy! America has this year commemorated the services of a great educator who gave this farewell message to youth: “Be ashamed to die till you have won some victory for humanity.” I believe that the inspiration for such victories will come not from training for the sweaty toil of earning one’s bread but from the idealistic interests engendered by the schools in the exercise of Function VI. FUNCTION VII OLIVER R. FLOYD, PRINCIPAL, UNIVERSITY HIGH SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. The Committee has stated Function VII as follows: I o guide students on the basis of exploratory and revealing courses and of other information gathered from personnel studies, as wisely as possible into wholesome Department of Secondary School Principals 419 and worthwhile social relationships, maximum personality adjustment, and advanced study or vocations in which they are most likely to be successful and happy. In briefly introducing the discussion of this important function, I would call your attention to a single sentence in this section of the report as a point of departure or sort of text upon which to base what I have to say : 0 Sufficient emphasis may have been put upon the value of guidance procedures in directing the development of the pupil, but certainly too little has been put upon their value in directing the development of the school. From our experience in guiding individual pupils, it should become evident that the school should take its part in the effort to improve the social order. What this part should be is, of course, debatable. But this debate should not be permitted to obscure the fact that a contribution to this im¬ provement is a responsibility which the school should not attempt to shed if it is to have a worthwhile program of guidance. Guidance should consist not only in adjusting the individual to society but also in modifying society in terms of the needs of the individual. Guidance should be more than a stop¬ gap for the present social order. Confronted with a society which denies to millions the opportunity for remunerative, socially useful employment, in which economic competition carries us to the verge of war — to cite only a few examples — it follows that until these conditions are modified satis¬ factory adjustment is impossible for many, perhaps for most, individuals. The school must at least be accorded the opportunity for a critical and realistic evaluation of social institutions within the classroom. To summarize, the value of guidance in directing the development of the school lies in the opportunity which it presents for evaluating the program of education in terms of the interests, capacities, abilities, and needs of the individual pupils. Such an evaluation should serve to emphasize : ( 1 ) the need for a greatly diversified program of education; (2) the opportunity to improve the guidance value of all the subjects; (3) the necessity for the development of a democratic theory and practise of administration ; and (4) the social responsibility of the school. FUNCTION VIII H. E. PATRICK, HEADQUARTERS STAFF, DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS, CHICAGO, ILL. Function VIII is stated as follows: To use in all courses as largely as possible methods that demand independent thought, involve the elementary principles of research, and provide intelligent and somewhat self-directed practise, individual and cooperative, in the appropriate desirable activities of the educated person. A definite responsibility and function of the secondary school, as the institution which terminates the education of a large number of people, is to see that those individuals have reached the point where they can continue their education on an independent basis and are capable of intelligent self- direction in the desirable activities of an educated member of society. If the 420 National Education Association school is to function usefully in a democratic society and in the lives of individuals, it must by its spirit and its program provide and encourage oppor¬ tunities for independent thinking and self-directed activity. The aspect of “doing” gives a feeling of reality to learning and provides it with drive or purpose; the aspect of “reflective thinking” gives it enriched meaning as well as a sense of security, achievement, and freedom to the learner. In terms of school organization, this view implies that the life of the school should be built around purposeful activities to give it reality, but that reflective thinking should be included as a necessary element. In terms of teaching, it means that the primary work of the teacher becomes guidance. As the purpose is not to mold the learner into some predetermined form, it is the function of the teacher to help him formulate his purpose in the light of his needs, to reformulate them from time to time, and to choose the most effective activities by which his purposes may be realized. For instance, the child needs and desires: (1) to maintain and improve his health, (2) to develop satisfying recreational activities, (3) to develop his system of moral and esthetic standards, (4) to acquire useful skills, (5) to acquire a per¬ sonally and socially significant body of information about the world, and (6) to live effectively as an accepted and respected member of a group. The construction of the school curriculum around activities selected on the basis of how well they meet the needs and purposes of the learner would mean the abandonment of courses of study as formal, predetermined bodies of facts-to-be-learned, but it would not mean the elimination of subject- matter in every sense of the term. Out of the cooperative search of the pupil and the teacher for a factual background to the activities would emerge bodies of information, some scientific, others mainly historical, or mathe¬ matical, or literary, or social. The fundamental difference is that infor¬ mation would be subordinate to education and placed in the proper relation to it. Of first consideration in such a revision of the curriculum would be not the specific facts or skills or attitudes set out in advance as characteristics of the educated person, but rather the “mode” or manner of the activity itself. An activity, to be educative in the sense here emphasized, should have the following characteristics : ( 1 ) it would take as its point of departure some need or problem or confused situation which the pupil desires, or can be led to desire, to have cleared up; (2) provide for pupil participation in planning the event thru which the difficulty will be removed, the problem solved, the need met, etc.; (3) permit exploration of new and unforseen avenues revealed in the course of study; (4) be democratic; and (5) lead to the acquisition of personally and socially significant skills, information, and attitudes. FUNCTION IX S. H. LYTTLE, PRINCIPAL, SAGINAW HIGH SCHOOL, SAGINAW, MICH. Last week I visited an industrial plant where they manufacture automobile transmissions. I saw a series of related activities organized to produce a Department of Secondary School Principals 421 definite objective. The industrial world is able to do this because the man¬ agement has complete control over the materials it uses, and the processes, from beginning to end. This is far from the picture in the business of education. We make no specifications for the materials we receive. We do not even order them, they just come: raw iron, more and more of it, and of all kinds from blue steel to useless slag. Schools are not only swamped with the raw materials they receive, but they are also just one department in the complete production plant, because the home has its part to perform, as does the church, the press, the cinema, the radio, and all the other factors of our environment. And there is no supermanagement to direct all the departments to produce something definite on the final assembly-line. Yet we flatter ourselves about producing this integrated character as if we ran the whole plant. The Committee working on this report thinks that we should have a settled philosophy, for then we could decide the logical units of administra¬ tion. Then would follow “definite and justified programs of action,'’ after which we would get standardization and a “criteria b)^ which the program of any school may be evaluated.” All this would certainly help the high school do its part better in this production of the ideal character which runs off the final assembly-line, but we must always remember that the other departments contributing to this final product are by no means synchronized with our philosophy, methods, and content. Another thought to keep in mind is the appearance of new models. As the factory must make certain alterations in its production activities, when the master model is changed, so the high school must modify its production activities, its organization and its philosophy, when changing social-economic conditions dictate. Our philosophy should be dynamic, changing as condi¬ tions justify it. At the present time every high school has to some degree modified its offerings and methods, the principal reason being that a constantly increasing multitude of heterogeneous students made it absolutely necessary. A great many in the high schools today are not capable of doing the traditional work satisfactorily. It is a case of fail and repeat, which is an expensive process, or provide new offerings of a type which can be passed. Thus differentiation started, not because we thought it sound, but because conditions forced it upon us. Now we are discussing the problem of how many offerings there should be, and what fields they should cover. According to the report, the high school should increase differentiated education and provide a balanced general education as well. The balanced general education part does not need support as it is almost universally accepted as one of the high school’s jobs. In the 1930 federal census of my home city the greatest opportunity for employment of girls is shown to be in the field of servant work or housemaid. The census also lists about 600 stenographers employed, of whom only about 120 will be replaced annually. This same city’s high schools are producing each year about 300 stenographers and few if any housemaids. It is quite obvious what kind of differentiated education is desirable here, if the school is to cooperate in adjusting the supply and demand of labor. 422 National Education Association I have talked with many men employing people in industry and business. The trend is definitely to more general education and less vocational prepa¬ ration. Men tell me that a high-school graduate can be trained for a great many of the industrial tasks in a few days’ time. They prefer to do the training. Where additional skill is required it is being gained at night school, home study courses, or by apprenticeship. One place where differentiation should be increased is in the field of home economics. They tell me that eighty girls out of every hundred will eventually get married. The most practical training these girls can possibly receive is an education concerning the care of a home and the rearing of a family. Most girls, however, will seek training in the business field. Some interesting work is being done in home relations, and I think the future will see more education in this field. The vocational field is so broad and the number of different needs so great, that the high school finds it impossible to differentiate too much. Possibly the case of salesmanship gives the cue to the answer. The high school may give general training in the principal fields, leaving the special training for the business and industrial world to complete. This would enable young people to take some general training in several fields. This might help, for few high-school students know what they will do until they leave school. Most of them hunt for a job and take the first thing that is offered them. Some general education in several fields might help to orientate them. This education would be on a higher level than the exploratory courses in the junior high school. Last year in discussing these issues with my faculty we resolved this phase of the problem into two questions: Should we eliminate all curriculums and make the adviser directly responsible for the subjects taken and the training received by the students, or should we increase the number of curriculums? The vote was not decided enough to change our policy, but it was in favor of making a student’s training in high school a personal matter, where the student, the parents, and the adviser counsel together before the student is placed in classes. This means that each case is decided independently, and an effort made to select the appropriate general education and also the most suitable differentiated training. In addition the program so planned under guidance carries more meaning and importance than when part of his pro¬ gram is determined by administrative prescription and the rest left to casual unaided selection. Such a program calls for better teachers, and the Commit¬ tee report covers this. Little has been said about the cost of differentiated education. In most cases the cost of education will be increased if the principle of differentiation is carried forward, for most boys enter industry, and industrial training is expensive. Cost will probably be a major factor in limiting differentiation. The modern increase in industrial schools, company trade schools, apprentice¬ ship courses, cooperative schools, home study courses, night classes, employee training work, seems to indicate that in the future the high school will con¬ centrate more on modifying the general education to fit the various levels of the masses, and leave the vocational training and much of the differentiated Department of Secondary School Principals 423 education to the agencies just mentioned. If such a program becomes more general, then the function of the high school will become clearer, and we will be able to machine the rough steel or iron to definite dimensions and send it on its way to be further ground and polished after which it will hil l its place on the final assembly-line. FUNCTION X C. C. HARVEY, HEADQUARTERS STAFF, DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS, CHICAGO, ILL. The Committee on Orientation of Secondary Education states Function X as follows: To retain each student until the law of diminishing returns begins to operate, or until he is ready for more independent study in a higher institution; and when it is manifest that he cannot or will not materially profit from further study of what can be offered, to eliminate him promptly, if possible directing him into some other school or into work for which he seems most fit. The secondary school has a threefold task — selection, retention, and elim¬ ination of pupils. In the ideal sense the function of selection is to bring all normal young people under its influence; the function of retention to keep them in regular attendance while it provides them with the education both individually suitable and socially valuable; and the function of elimination is to discharge them into wholesome employment as soon as they are prepared, or into institutions of higher learning when they can qualify for admission. Secondary schools now approximate the ideal with respect to the first two tasks. More boys and girls are now in our secondary schools than have ever been enrolled by any other country or at any other period in history. The once difficult problem of retaining pupils is now largely solved because the impossibility of securing employment at an early age encourages young people to remain in school. While underlying social conditions have tended to eliminate the problems of selection and retention, the problem of eliminating pupils who are not profiting from school work has become more complicated. The dilemma is a serious one for the educator. He does not wish to direct the failing pupil out into an inhospitable world ; and with the resources at his command, he cannot give the pupil the kind of education suited to his needs. To modify the school program until education becomes profitable for each pupil regardless of his status is clearly impossible unless society is able and willing to provide the funds needed to differentiate the school program to fit the needs of all. Meanwhile the school must frankly face the necessity of either eliminating many pupils prematurely or deceive the public about the effectiveness of education while wasting the taxpayer’s money to keep certain pupils in school. The lesser of the two evils is for the school to eliminate all pupils who are no longer making progress. The ultimate solution of the prob¬ lem may be found in appropriating enough money to differentiate the school program until it serves all pupils, or in establishing entirely new types of schools, or even in social change. These are alternatives on which the public 424 National Education Association must decide. Pending the outcome, the school should promptly eliminate a pupil as soon as it becomes perfectly clear that he can no longer profit materially from the program the school can offer. Difficulties and obstacles will naturally confront those who attempt to eliminate pupils from school under any circumstances. The most common of these are : ( 1 ) accurately estimating the ability and status of the pupil ; (2) reconciling parents to a disposition of their child that differs radically from their own hopes concerning him; (3) lack of knowledge as to how education, especially in the case of smaller secondary schools, can be made more effective for individuals who do not respond to the old method and materials of instruction ; and (4) the tardiness of the public to understand and support what the schools are trying to do. Altho elimination in the ideal sense of directing pupils into constructive employment or into higher institutions of learning must wait until either one or the other of these opportunities is open to all young people, educators ought not to neglect their present duty. The first step is to agree upon the provisional principle of elimination as here stated and to use it courageously and consistently as a guide to their actions. Then as the public comes to see that education is a social investment and not a benevolence, the necessary funds may be appropriated to fit the school to the needs of all. DEPARTMENT OF Social Studies HISTORICAL NOTE The department of social studies was formerly the National Council for the Social Studies and was created as a Department of the National Education Association by the Board of Directors at the Indianapolis meeting of the Association in 1925. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-38 are: president,, Elmer Ellis, Department of History, University of Missouri, Columbus, Mo.; first vicepresident, C. C. Barnes, Head, Social Science Depart¬ ment, Detroit Public Schools, Detroit, Mich.; second vicepresident, Ruth W est, Lewis and Clark High School, Spokane, Wash.; secretary- treasurer, Howard E. Wilson, Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; executive committee, Fremont P. Wirth, Geqrge Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn.; Nelle E. Bowman, Central High School, Tulsa, Okla.; ex-presidents and officers. The publications of the Department consist of social studies and a Yearbook. The annual dues, $3, are payable to the Secretary-Treasurer. Facts relating to the .establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1926 :653-663 1928 -.651-654 1930:597-606 1932:525-532 1934:513-519 19 27:679-695 1929:633-642 1931:621-632 19 33:531-536 1935:471-482 1936 :37 3-382 [ 426 ] TRADITION BE DAMNED! WILLIAM GELLERMANN, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, EVANSTON, ILL. IT is A great deal easier to damn tradition than to escape its power and influence in human affairs. Nevertheless, our attitude toward tradi¬ tion has much to do with its power over our thinking. If we look upon tradition as possessed of peculiar sanctity and respectability because it is tradi¬ tion, our disposition is to conform to it, whereas if we look upon tradition as a source of reference from which we may gain additional insight into the present, we are more likely to use it to serve present needs and less likely to yield to tradition in those cases in which changed conditions make past solu¬ tions inappropriate. Technically, we mean by tradition that body of beliefs and practises which is handed down from generation to generation. In this sense tradition is inescapable ; it is the milieu within which we live. The present has developed out of the past and may be said to be dependent upon tradition. When we use the word “tradition” in this broad sense we simply say in substance that the present is conditioned by the past. There is no intention here to deny the importance of the past as a deter¬ mining factor in current affairs. From the past we derive the present with all of its problems and thru an examination of the past we are able to deter¬ mine at least some of the probable consequences of certain solutions to problems which are essentially recurrent. Tradition, in its broadest sense, supplies us with a great variety of solu¬ tions to these recurrent human problems. In this sense, it is as broad as history and our task in meeting immediate problems is not simplified by an appeal to tradition except so far as the appeal to tradition is intended to add a certain sanctity to the tradition which has been commonly accepted by our own particular culture. An appeal to tradition under these circumstances is not an appeal to the variety of solution which tradition in its entirety affords but is rather an appeal to a selected aspect of tradition intended either to help preserve the status quo or to promote some other preferred solution to a social problem. In that case tradition is no more than a hallowed word indors¬ ing existing arrangements or certain proposed alternatives, and thus employed it excludes more of tradition than it admits. The reference to tradition in that case is a reference intended to promote a particular phase of tradition and the reference serves not only to exclude new solutions which are fun¬ damentally at variance to those in current practise but also to exclude those diverse and divergent solutions which tradition itself affords, except so far as they may be in harmony with the proposal favored by the individual who cites tradition. There is no single tradition; there are many traditions, and these are frequently diametrically opposed to one another. Men refer to tradition in an effort to bolster up the positions which they already favor. They seldom examine tradition as such, in a disinterested [ 427 ] 428 N ation ai. Education Association search for solutions to current problems. For a long time the conservatives had a distinct advantage in the use of tradition as a source of authority be¬ cause they always had available some precedent for existing arrangements, whereas those who favored radical departures from the status quo were fre¬ quently unable to cite instances in which their proposals had worked satis¬ factorily in the past. Thus confounded, radicals have ordinarily had recourse either to a golden age not susceptible to the usual historical documentation or to a utopia which has represented a projection of certain of the more desir¬ able elements in the current situation into more complete and fuller realiza¬ tion at some future time. When radicals refer to tradition they do so because they recognize that the mass mind has a preference for doing things which have been done before. Thru the use of tradition an effort is made to convince the mass mind that the proposed solution is in harmony with the best practise at the present time, or in harmony with practise during some revered period in our national his¬ tory. The reformer, however, in his effort to be effective in influencing his fel¬ lows, is not disposed to admit that his appeal to tradition is motivated by psychological rather than by logical considerations. He is so anxious that his strategy be effective that he becomes an agent in the glorification of tradition per se. In his effort to be truly convincing he becomes dogmatic and authori¬ tative. He helps to develop a state of mind on the part of his converts which he seeks to combat when the same state of mind is fostered by his opponents. It is at this point that I say, “Tradition be damned !" My point is that in the long run, objectives which are gained by means of an appeal to tradition are gained at too great a price because they preclude the open-mindedness and critical attitude toward all tradition which a changing world requires. In other words, I maintain that instead of attempting to release men’s minds from one set of traditions by urging them to worship another more sacred set of traditions we should do what we can to emancipate them from the grip of all tradition and should encourage them to face present problems in terms of present needs unbound by past solutions and as little bound by past beliefs as possible. I maintain that those individuals who have striven to bring about a new social order thru an effort to identify their program with that of the found¬ ing fathers, thru selected quotations and otherwise, have not only missed the point at issue but have wasted a lot of time in the process. If the same amount of energy were devoted to answering the question as to what type of social order would most adequately serve the needs of the common man, and if the common man were approached on this less academic but more pertinent basis, the master of traditional lore might make full use of his erudition in the formulation of such proposals as he might care to suggest without introduc¬ ing a lot of historical data which is utterly irrelevant so far as the average man's thinking is concerned and which, when used as authority, serves to perpetuate his intellectual enslavement rather than to emancipate him. So, I say, “ Tradition be damned ! ' Let us use the past rather than permit it to use us. Let us face the present and the future determined to bend the Department of Social Studies 429 past to the maximum service of human needs and not be bound bv a long tradition of human exploitation. Those who have continually appealed to tradition per se have had little faith in the intelligence of the average man and thru their lack of faith have contributed to making him less intelligent than he might otherwise have been. They have not really believed in democracy. They have sought to en¬ slave the thinking of the masses in behalf of a program which they, a benevo¬ lent intellectual aristocracy, have conceived to be in the interest of the masses. They have not believed that the masses could be educated to the level of criti¬ cal intelligence. Therefore, they have erected their own set of dogmas, with traditional documentation and have sought to use these traditions to alienate the masses from a set of rival traditions championed by an ascendent pluto¬ cratic minority. In both cases an effort has been made to use the weakness of the masses rather than to eliminate that weakness thru a frontal attack on pre¬ vailing prejudices. Aristocrats at both ends of the selfishness scale have at¬ tempted to embrace prevailing prejudices in an effort to use more readily the allegiance of the common man. What we need is more honesty and less indirection. A program that aims to develop critical intelligence in the masses instead of playing upon their lack of critical intelligence may be slower in securing the realization of certain immediate objectives but its effect will be deeper, more far-reaching, and more permanent in its consequences because it will bring about a better way of thinking and not merely a shifting of pre¬ vailing prejudices. THE HOPE FOR SYNTHESIS R. C. MILLER, PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, WAYNE UNIVERSITY, DETROIT, MICH. First in time among the social studies was history. Originally it rested on the philosophy of society then prevalent, and undertook to explain human progress as that of an ordered society with fixed principles and a pattern. Science had its laboratories and its exact experimentation. A science of man would demand the same sort of careful, exact work. Much research and in¬ vestigation has since been devoted to the collection and publication of facts, premised on the assumption that out of the facts will come the generalizations which will have the validity of law in human conduct. As facts accumulated, subdivision for special research began, out of which came the sciences of economics, political science, and sociology. Even in high school as many as five separate fields in the social studies are sometimes offered to students. No wonder thev are confused. M ore recently, as testified by presidential addresses of the American His¬ torical Association, there has been a tendency to abandon all pretense of scientific method or accuracy. History is only contemporary opinion about the past. All our efforts at research cannot recover the past as an actuality. Out of such material can never come the much sought laws of economic be¬ havior. Interpretation of facts in the social studies i< subjective, and in human affairs cannot be scientific. The theoretical assumptions which have 430 National Education Association been the foundations of our work for two hundred years have vanished in the past ten, and with them have vanished all reasons for the walls that sep¬ arate us. There is not yet agreement on which bodies of experience should be the possession of our students. When our students today, or in coming days, face problems that involve decisions for their future, their only equipment is their experience, real or vicarious, and whatever our desire, we can give them no other. That is the task of the social studies, and therein lies the hope of synthesis. NEGLECTED OPPORTUNITIES FOR CITIZENSHIP TRAINING IN THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL VIRGIL STINEBAUGH, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. Education for citizenship has long been accepted as one of the major ob¬ jectives of the public school. There are scores of opportunities each hour of the day for effective training in citizenship. Whether these opportunities are utilized depends upon the extent to which classroom teachers accept indi¬ vidual responsibility for doing so. The organization of new courses of study, or the increase in the required amount of social studies in the curriculum will not produce the results we seek. The school needs to idealize certain desirable objectives and generate enthusiasm and deep feeling about them. The neg¬ lected areas relate particularly to habits. It is not so much how we think, or how we feel, but how we act that really counts. The most definite prepara¬ tion for life in a democracy is life in a democracy. The best opportunity for citizenship training is to make each hour of the pupil’s life in school a labora¬ tory period for citizenship training. The most neglected opportunities for citizenship training in the high school are those which come daily in the usual school routine. A more complete utilization of these opportunities should be a challenge to every teacher and principal. SCIENCE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL AND SOCIAL STUDIES OBJECTIVES RALPH K. WATKINS, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI, COLUMBIA, MO. Traditionally, the members of the social studies group have been classi¬ fied with the humanities ; until recently obvious methods of study were con¬ sidered as inappropriate in application with this group of studies. The scientist is concerned with establishing the truth of obligations and generali¬ zations, not with the social consequences of the findings. The very nature of our present lives has forced a change in the points of view of both groups, especially with those concerned with the education of the young. Educators have become aware of the existence of complex interrelationships among hu¬ man beings. So we have the tendency in both social science and natural science to integrate or fine the previously separated courses. This continued fusing Department of Social Studies 431 of teaching materials tends to complicate and obscure teaching objectives, and to make it difficult for any single teacher to cope with the problem of cover¬ ing such a wide range of material as is demanded. Science, however, has tended to turn in the direction of civic interests and activities, and both titles of and statements of objectives in textbooks indicate the purpose to show how scientific progress has improved human relations. Overlapping of content be¬ tween natural science and social science courses has resulted, tho this is not necessarily undesirable, and sometimes definitely necessary. Science can no longer be taught without pointing out its obligations for human beings. The social studies teacher can no longer teach social studies and ignore the interpretations which science makes of the world in which we live. It is not the business of the teacher of science, however, to be dogmatic in pointing out the best way to control human beings in using the findings of science, and it is not the business of the social studies teacher to help the student in the verification of scientific facts. Additional integration of social and natural sciences may further confuse the objectives for the training of youth. It is the obligation of the teacher of science to try to train pupils to use the methods applicable to the solution of problems in the sciences. Profitable training in methods of problem-solving in either field requires training in a variety of methods and also training in the selection of methods suitable for an attack upon different problems. CITIZENSHIP TRAINING VALUES IN COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS AND THEIR CORRELATION WITH THE SOCIAL STUDIES ALLEN Y. KING, SUPERVISOR OF SOCIAL STUDIES, CLEVELAND, OHIO One aim of commercial subjects is to provide needed skills for vocational efficiency. This has evident citizenship training value, since the ability to earn a living, by participating productively in our economic life, is an elemental requisite for good citizenship. For those who are able to gain proficiency in these skills, and to the extent that society is able to employ these abilities, opportunity for their development should be provided. Certain traits of character such as promptness, accuracy, neatness, depend¬ ability, and resourcefulness are claimed as definite and desirable byproducts of commercial courses. Whether these are achieved will depend not so much upon the subjectmatter of these courses as upon the general atmosphere of the classroom and the relationship between teacher and pupil. The leaders in commercial education have not been satisfied with training in vocational skills only. They know that even the skilled workman may be dangerous to society because of faulty economic ideas, or because of mis¬ directed social attitudes. They recognize that the continuance, improvement, or reconstruction of our democratic way of life requires that general abilities and broad social and economic understandings be developed in youth. In many cases these newer commercial courses have led to duplication of curriculum materials and activities already found in other departments of 432 National Education Association study, notably the social studies. To aid pupils to acquire the basic elements essential to all citizens in a democracy, programs of study and activities should be organized into courses. These may be required of all boys and girls irrespective of whether they are pursuing the academic, commercial, tech¬ nical, or industrial arts course of studies. Cooperation in planning and dif¬ ferentiating the program of subjects for business education and the social studies is more likely to produce desirable curriculums than attempts at mere correlation between courses now in existence. SOCIAL STUDIES SKILLS AND GRADE LEVELS IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL EDNA MC GUIRE, PRIMARY SUPERVISOR, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, EAST CHICAGO, IND. In spite of the readiness of educators to make use of an activity program in the teaching of the social studies, investigations have revealed a shocking lack of mastery of certain skills that should be developed by the social studies. An investigation made by Howard R. Anderson showed conclusively that Iowa pupils, even those completing the eighth grade, had no adequate mas¬ tery of such skills as ability to use a globe, to read maps, to interpret symbols used to present climatic elements, to use an index or appendix, or to read graphs. William B. Brown has said, “The tendency in too many courses of study is to disregard essential skills and abilities as a protest against formal drill and memoriter learning.” He adds, “All of the desirable attitudes in the world will not produce efficiency without accompanying skills.” The activity movement, in which I have long believed, has had some unfortunate outcomes in minimizing the necessity for planned sequential teaching and in leaving too much to incidental teaching. Much of the responsibility for the laxness, we lament, must be placed at the door of curriculum-makers and textbook writers, for the teacher cannot be expected to go far beyond the requirements of the course of study or textbook. The development of those skills that have their origin in the social studies becomes the peculiar responsibility of educators in the social studies field. Such skills should be completely mastered by the end of the junior high-school course. Even as early as Grade I, children may learn to record in permanent form on a chart plans they have made for construction or any other kind of activity. The making of street plans and simple maps can begin in Grades II and III, and as the pupil goes on, he can gradually learn to understand the more difficult symbols in general use. The development of skills that have their origins in phases of subjectmat- ter other than the social studies, tho not the primary responsibility of the social studies department, should be encouraged in cooperation with teachers in other fields. Under this head I include the various forms of language, arts, and such manual skills as developed in drawing, painting, modeling, and other forms of construction. Some of our difficulty has resulted from the failure of teachers in the primary grades to give the pupils anything more Department of Social Studies 433 than material almost wholly narrative. The problem I have discussed opens up a whole new area for educational research and investigation. Expert opin¬ ion can be employed to list skills that probably should be taught ; curriculum- workers may incorporate these into courses of study; but only the slow process of experimental teaching and testing will finally determine the suit¬ ability of the skills included or the most economical grade placement. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Detroit, Michigan June 28, 29, and 30, 1937 The Department of Social Studies held four sessions during the convention period at Detroit. These included one joint session with the Department of Secondary Edu¬ cation, Monday afternoon, June 28, at Cass Technical High School, presided over by Assistant Superintendent Warren E. Bow, of the Detroit public schools; a luncheon on Tuesday, June 29, at Hotel Warded, followed by an afternoon session at the Wayne University Auditorium, and another afternoon session on Wednesday, June 30, at the Wayne University Auditorium. Of these sessions, the luncheon meeting and the session of Wednesday afternoon were the most largely attended. About 300 people were present on Wednesday afternoon. On Monday afternoon, the session followed the meeting of the Department of Secondary Education, which was held in the same room as the meeting of the Depart¬ ment of Social Studies. The speakers on this program were C. C. Barnes, director of social sciences of the public schools of Detroit, who discussed “The Function of the Homeroom in the School”; and a group of five who considered various aspects of the subject, “Social Studies and Extracurriculum Activities.” These included Robert H. Wyatt, of the Central High School, Fort Wayne, Indiana, who spoke on “The Social Science Teacher in the Extracurriculum Program”; Margaret Grant, of Munger Intermediate School of Detroit, whose theme was “The Class as a Whole in Extracurriculum Functions”; Katharine W. Dresden, Riverside High School, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, w7ho gave particular attention to the possibilities of extending social studies education thru forum discussions and teachers’ preparation; and Mrs. Edith Van Winkle, of Thornton Junior Fligh School, Terre Haute, Indiana, who considered the Junior Red Cross as a social studies activity. Following the presentation of the papers, R. O. Hughes, of the department of curriculum study of the public schools of Pittsburgh, led in an open forum discussion of the papers. There was an interesting presentation of views and conclusions based on the ex¬ perience of a number of persons in the audience who took part in this discussion. The luncheon conference on Tuesday, at 12:15 P.M., presented as its speakers William Gellermann, professor of education at Northwestern University, whose sub¬ ject was “Tradition be Damned,” and R. C. Miller, professor of history at Wayne University, who spoke on “The Hope for Synthesis.” Professor Gellermann’s paper was sufficiently striking that it was one of the limited number to receive special attention in the Detroit press. Professor Miller’s paper was also unusual in char¬ acter. Elmer Ellis, of the University of Missouri, president of the Department, pre¬ sided at this luncheon conference. This luncheon was attended by over one hundred and fifty persons. The Tuesday afternoon session had three main speakers under the guidance of Floyd D. Welch, of the Soldan High School, St. Louis, Missouri. These were As¬ sistant Superintendent Virgil Stinebaugh, of the public schools of Indianapolis, who spoke on “Neglected Opportunities for Citizenship Training in the Senior High School”; Ralph K. Watkins, of the University of Missouri, whose subject was “Science in the High School and Social Studies Objective”; and Allen Y. King, supervisor of social studies in the public schools of Cleveland, who considered “Citi- 434 National Education Association zenship Training Values in Commercial Subjects and Their Correlation with the Social Studies.” As on Monday afternoon, R. O. Hughes, of the public schools of Pittsburgh, led in the discussion following the presentation of the three papers. At the concluding session of the Department, C. C. Barnes, of the Detroit public schools, presided. Three speakers presented papers: Edna McGuire, primary super¬ visor of the public schools of East Chicago, Indiana, on “Social Studies Skills and Grade Levels in the Elementary School”; Mabel Snedaker, supervisor of social studies of the Elementary School at the University of Iowa, “The Development of Effective Reading Habits in the Social Studies”; Howard R. Anderson, of Cornell University, “Teaching and Testing the Ability to Outline and Summarize.” A brief paper written by John A. Hockett, lecturer in education at the University of Cali¬ fornia, was read by the chairman on the subject, “Are Social Studies Skill Subjects?” Brief discussion followed the presentation of each of the first three papers. Announcement was made of the next meeting of the Department which is to be held as an independent session at St. Louis on the Friday and Saturday following Thanksgiving Day. Other meetings to be held either in cooperation with or at about the same time are those of the American Historical Association at Philadelphia during the Christmas holidays, the American Association of School Administrators at Atlantic City in February, and the Mississippi Valley Historical Association in the spring. DEPARTMENT OF Special Education HISTORICAL NOTE Application for the establishment of a Department of Special Edu¬ cation was made at the Atlanta convention in 1929. A petition hearing more than 250 names was presented at that time. The creation of the Department was authorized a year later at the convention in Columbus. In Los Angeles the group of teachers and administrators interested in special education met on July 2, and final plans for the creation of the Department were made and a constitution was adopted. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-28 are: president, Lettisha E. Henderson, Director, Special Education, Board of Educa¬ tion, St. Paul, Minn.; vicepresident, Mrs. Nellie C. MacDonald, Teacher of Remedial Reading and Retarded Classes, Franklin Junior High School, Minneapolis, Minn.; secretary-treasurer, Rosemarie Dacey, Oakman Crippled School, Detroit, Mich. The annual dues for the Department, $.50, are payable to the Secretary- Treasurer. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1931 :633-644 1933 -.537-550 1935 -.483-498 1932 -.533-542 1934 -.521-534 1936 -.383-398 L 436 ] DELINQUENCY AND MALADJUSTMENT— THEIR CHALLENGE TO EDUCATION JOHN J. LEE, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION, WAYNE UNIVERSITY, DETROIT, MICH. OUR challenge in dealing with the problem of delinquency and of maladjustment is to use the information and knowledge that science has revealed. We need to recognize that the most effective way of meeting the problem is thru prevention. Prevention of delinquency and of maladjust¬ ment must begin in the home and it must operate thruout every area of community life. It requires intelligent parenthood, a wholesome mental hygiene, happy home and child life, and the conditioning of wholesome atti¬ tudes, emotions, and habits. It requires wholesome community surroundings and opportunities for desirable recreations. Finally it requires teachers who have the insight, knowledge, sincerity, and integrity to guide children in every area of child growth, of child activity and experience, and of child success and adaptation. We may regret the negative character of this next statement, but it seems necessary to say again that the teacher who mechanizes teaching and who routinizes children is as obsolete and as antisocial as was our philosophy centuries ago when children were regarded as naturally depraved and inclined to evil. The schools and teachers cannot solve this problem alone. A real solution to the problems of maladjustment and delinquency must have the united and cooperative efforts of every institution, of every agency, and of every individual in the community. But information and knowledge for dealing with the problems are more readily available to teachers than to most parents and to most citizens. The challenge to teachers is to accept their oppor¬ tunity for leadership and their responsibility for putting that information and knowledge to work in proportion to the opportunities which their profession affords them. * SHOULD THE GIFTED CHILD BE IN A SPECIAL CLASS? HOWARD TAYLOR, DEAN, OKLAHOMA COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, CHICKASHA, OKLA. The gifted child is here considered as one who because of exceptional ability cannot learn most effectively under conditions adequate for normal children. It would be helpful if the “gifted child” were as definable an entity as oxygen or as an onion, but such is not the case. No matter on what basis of giftedness children are grouped, there will still be great variability. Clearly defined homogeneous grouping is practically impossible. If pupils must be grouped there is reason in placing the gifted ones together. But the line between the gifted and normal must never be sharply drawn and must be easily crossed in either direction. I +37 I 438 National Education Association Special classes for gifted children should be tested by the following prin¬ ciples : ( 1 ) education should promote social adaptation ; (2) education should challenge fully the ability of the pupil; (3) education should be within the physical and mental limits of the child; (4) education should have depth and breadth thru enrichment rather than height thru acceleration ; (5) matu¬ ration is important as well as learning ability; (6) education should provide for individual differences. The gifted child must learn to live amicably and helpfully with the un¬ gifted as well as with the gifted. There is a danger that children set apart be¬ cause of special ability may become conceited, but this need not occur. The contacts in the broader school environment will prevent it. There is a foolish exaggeration of the blighting influence of stupidity upon genius; occasionally the opposite effect may actually accrue. While special classes may develop special gifts, the broader social environ¬ ment of the school may inspire the “common touch” — a priceless gift even to the gifted. For the gifted child, intimate contact in special classes with other gifted children is at once the greatest stimulus and the best incentive to excellence of accomplishment. Thru the enrichment possible in special classes, the gifted child may escape becoming wise beyond his years and a social misfit, which so often follows too rapid acceleration. Time is essential to growth. Too rapid maturity generally leads to premature decay. Gifted children must have time to grow out as well as up. Special classes under the direction of wise and truly gifted teachers are the best agency for giving to gifted children that education which is their right. PROGRAM OF THE INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION EDWARD H. STULLKEN, PRINCIPAL, MONTEFIORE SPECIAL SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL. It has long been a custom to bring to the doorstep of the school all the problems that cannot be solved elsewhere in the community, and today schools are called upon to do many things formerly performed by other agencies, such as the home or the church. All teachers and school administrators know that every school system has many individual pupils who, because of their deviations from the normal, test the patience and ingenuity of school workers. Students of special educa¬ tion realize that it is sound public policy and not charity to provide special treatment and training for all types of deviates. The school is more important in the lives of such children than in that of ordinary children as it is not only an educative force, but is also often the only agency giving them an opportunity to acquire habits of adjustment to the world in which they must live in spite of their handicaps. The last White House Conference on Child Health and Protection and other more recent studies have indicated the magnitude of the problem of providing special educational facilities for all types of handicapped children, Department of Special Education 439 and most large school systems make some provision for several different types of handicapped children. Consequently, there are many teachers especially prepared who are teaching such groups as the mentally retarded, the blind, the deaf, the crippled, the delinquent, and the truant. Teachers of special groups may differ in the quality and quantity of special training required but all groups have many problems in common. Organizations such as the Department of Special Education of the X. E. A. and the International Council for Exceptional Children offer an opportunity for all different types of special teachers to exchange ideas and to solve common problems. There is a need for a greater unification and pooling of ideas of all those engaged in special education. It is the hope of the Inter¬ national Council that the divergent groups of teachers of exceptional pupils will find integrating forces to bind them together in the work of the Council and that the Council may be made an instrument for securing unanimity of purpose and effort. The program of the Council includes several research projects. One has just been completed and the results will be published in the near future as a supplement to the Journal of Exceptional Children. This material sum¬ marizes the research studies that have been made in the field of exceptional children under the direction of Carter V. Good of the University of Cin¬ cinnati. The Council has had a committee on standards and practises in teaching the physically handicapped and this committee will continue to func¬ tion. The Council also has a large committee working on the problem of teacher training. In this connection, work is being done to secure more specific recommendations for the training needed in the field of each type of exceptional child. Subcommittees composed of those recognized as leaders will prepare recommendations for the training needed in their respective fields. The chairmen of these subcommittees together with others will act as a general committee and will propose recommendations for training which should be common to all groups of special teachers. The general committee will also recommend courses that should be required of all regular teachers in order to acquaint them with the fields of special education. Preliminary work will be initiated to determine the advisability oJ* attempt¬ ing work in the field of textbooks and text materials for special class groups. Other projects that have been proposed for the International Council in¬ clude: (1) the formulation of a clear statement of aims and objectives and of an adequate philosophy to stabilize the program in special education (this is needed because one of the sources of weakness in the education of handicapped children is an inadequate educational philosophy) ; and (2) the preparation of a recorded history of the early development of special edu¬ cation. Special education is of comparative recent origin and before all of its original leaders have passed on it would seem most timely that a permanent record be inscribed. Students in training centers would welcome such a fundamental document and in libraries it would perpetuate a lasting effort of pioneer achievement. The International Council offers opportunities to all teachers of special education who are vitally interested in their work to join with the members 440 National Education Association of the Council in systematically attacking their problems. The Council has an official publication, the Journal of Exceptional Children, which is pub¬ lished monthly from October to May, and thru its pages all teachers of special education may keep abreast of what is going on in their profession. During the coming year, in addition to the eight regular numbers, the Journal will publish as a special monograph the results of the work of the committee headed by Carter V. Good. THE PROBLEM OF READING DEFICIENCY IN THE MENTALLY HANDICAPPED THORLEIF G. HEGGE, PRINCIPAL, WAYNE COUNTY TRAINING SCHOOL, NORTHVILLE, MICH. ; AND LECTURER, WAYNE UNIVERSITY AND UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN The importance of reading as a problem in the training of mentally handi¬ capped children for life in the community is derived primarily from the facts that the children respond slowly and fail frequently, and also from the undesirable attitudes which are associated with these shortcomings. We cannot, however, lower the standards in any case where the capacity to acquire a useful reading ability is present. Our success in building a general educational and institutional program of the greatest possible appeal and social and vocational usefulness is therefore inextricably tied up with our ability to create a reading program which will permit a higher rate of progress and a reduction in the incidence and seriousness of reading diffi¬ culties and of undesirable behavior patterns. Two main lines of approach are : ( 1 ) a prolonged pre-academic program, gradually shifting the emphasis in reading instruction to higher chronological levels; and (2) clinical treat¬ ment of reading difficulties in the higher moron and the borderline groups. Much research is needed, however, before a truly efficient program shall have been firmly established. We have not discussed the reading difficulties in the lower moron group. A special program may be contemplated for those who are deficient in capacity to acquire a useful reading ability. We are also working with these problems. The present waste of effort is especially tragic in cases where the individuals frequently possess excellent qualities which do not always receive sufficient emphasis because they are overshadowed by failure and maladjust¬ ment. REMEDYING READING DIFFICULTIES IN A TUNIOR ACTIVITIES ROOM BESSIE MUNK, MOORE SCHOOL FOR BOYS, DETROIT, MICH. The purpose of this paper is to show what was done with the reading problem in the junior ungraded room of the Moore School for Boys from September 1936 to January 1937, inclusive. The room was composed of 21 boys in September and increased to 30 before the end of the term in Department of Special Education 441 January. These boys ranged from seven to fourteen years of age, chronolog¬ ically; the average chronological age being ten years. With the average I. Q. ranging from 70 to 79, and the average mental age eight years, we had some idea of the mental abilities of the boys and what could be expected of them. It was next necessary to know what the boys tested in reading. In Septem¬ ber, by means of the Stanford Achievement and the Detroit Reading Tests, we found that the average grade level was Bl-Al. These reading tests were not enough to give the needed information so each boy was tested orally to determine the general character of his difficulties. The individual boys aver¬ aged from eight to ten difficulties each. The possible causes for these unfavor¬ able symptoms were determined by a study of the child’s work and his be¬ havior while reading. After finding the unfavorable symptoms the question was, What are the primary sources of these symptoms? These boys were retarded in reading from one to five years according to their mental ages. It was necessary to investigate their previous records in order to obtain the desired information. Consideration was also given to the physical handicaps. All available infor¬ mation was obtained from the physical examinations and recommendations made when the boys entered the Moore Special. With this information con¬ cerning the C.A.’s, M.A.’s, I.Q.’s, unfavorable reading symptoms and pos¬ sible causes, number of failures in school, the terms spent in school, attend¬ ance, different addresses and schools, and some of their physical deficiencies, it was extremely important to know something definite about the behavior problems of each boy. By keeping a daily written “Behavior Chart” we found many outstanding maladjustments such as: nervousness and restlessness; negativism and antisocial traits ; poor judgment ; idleness or lack of initiative ; jealousy; and lack of cooperation. We first attempted to remove as many causes as possible: 1. By trying to improve the boys’ physical conditions such as poor vision, poor teeth, and glandular disturbances 2. By discussing with each boy his difficulties in reading and behavior and also trying to interest the parent as well 3. By using devices to interest the boys in improving their own attendance 4. By trying to provide correct prescriptions for specific difficulties; in other words, to provide diagnostic teaching. Our first task was to release the tension of each boy thru gaining his con¬ fidence and sympathy. We desired most to have each boy feel that the teacher was a friend and helper. Before each lesson in diagnostic teaching it was necessary to get the boys in a good mood, cheerful and ready to give their best attention. We tried to find the interest of every boy, thus arousing a new desire to read. This was a pleasure, as most of the boys responded quickly and were eager to read orally. One of the most important aims of the teacher thruout each teaching period was to give praise and encouragement when¬ ever deserved and to use material which assured some degree of success and satisfaction to each boy. A correlation between reading and behavior symptoms, such as a feeling of security and lack of confidence, were kept in mind thruout all of the 442 National Education Association diagnostic teaching. The teacher aimed to approach the boy’s problems open- mindedly, trying to help each one to succeed just as soon as possible by aiding him to improve his reading in whatever area he was found to be deficient. Each boy averaged about 30 minutes a day for diagnostic teaching. We pro¬ ceeded with this program until the boys were ready to be grouped and then we worked together in groups of from three to five whenever we could use the same type of instruction. The results from this term’s work on diagnostic teaching are as follows: 1. Most of the boys became interested and had more of a desire to read. This helped to eliminate confusion, insecurity, emotional and attentional instability. 2. Most of the boys found success, recognition, and satisfaction thru reading. 3. The boys seemed much happier and more at ease. 4. The boys read from one to ten books. Those boys who were able to do second- and third-grade work read the larger number. 5. The trips that were taken aided both in reading and general behavior. 6. Many of the boys made more progress than others due to the M.A.’s, I.Q.’s, the seriousness of the difficulties, and length of the problem from the outset. 7. Test scores showed an increase in the average grade level from Bl-Al in Sep¬ tember to B2 in January. In January, four of the boys reached their grade level on a par with their mental age. The first and most difficult task with all of the boys in the junior ungraded room of the Moore School for Boys was to try to get them interested and to create a desire to read. MEASUREMENT OF THE MENTAL AND EDUCATIONAL ABILITY OF THE DEAF CHILD HELEN SCHICK LANE, CENTRAL INSTITUTE FOR THE DEAF, ST. LOUIS, MO. By the selection of individual performance tests, which are non-verbal in directions and response, deaf children ranging in age from two to nineteen years tested at Central Institute for the Deaf show intelligence equal to that of hearing children measured on the same tests and their intelligence quotients follow a normal distribution curve. In testing the deaf, problems arise that are not frequently encountered by the examiner of hearing children. Failure to perform a test may be due to lack of understanding of directions, excessive timidity, negativism, or other behavior maladjustments rather than to lack of ability. The time con¬ cept is a difficult one to express in pantomime and many items of a perform¬ ance scale are scored in terms of speed of performance. Deafness may also involve a loss of the sense of equilibrium and consequently poor motor coordinations, making a test of motor ability as unfair as a linguistic test. Educational achievement tests, standardized for the hearing, should be given annually to the deaf to measure the extent of the educational retarda¬ tion in each school subject. Results of a seven-year testing program using the Stanford Achievement Test show an average retardation of two years. This retardation is not as great as that reported by other investigators and it is believed that it can be further reduced by: (1) starting the education of the deaf child at an earlier age; (2) increasing the amount of reading, and Department of Special Education 443 stimulating the desire for reading; (3) presenting more problems requiring rationalization with much less guidance in solving them; (4) utilizing residual hearing to a maximum extent and preserving all language acquired before the onset of deafness. An annual testing program carried out by an examiner familiar with the deaf child is recommended as an aid in homogeneous grouping and grade placement. This would enable the teacher to plan her material to fit the level of the group and to help the pupils meet the educational requirements of hearing children with whom they will compete after completion of their special education. VISUAL AND KINESTHETIC INSTRUCTION OF THE DEAF MRS. ERMA MCEACHERA, DEAF DEPARTMENT, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, DETROIT, MICH. Miss Alcorn, primary supervisor in the Detroit Day School for the Deaf and originator of the Tadoma or Kinesthetic Method of teaching the deaf, was to have spoken at this meeting but as she is teaching a summer course at Columbia University I will try to tell you as much as possible about her method. From 1910 to 1920 Miss Alcorn had as a pupil a blind-deaf child, Oma Simpson, then attending the Kentucky School for the Deaf. After two years of work with her, Miss Alcorn was able to prove to the school authorities that the oral method of development was practical in Oma’s case. From then on the work was carried on altogether thru the tactile sense ; that is, she understood all speech thru vibration, and learned to speak thru the sense of touch. Her voice was quite good and her lip or speech reading was truly remarkable. She made use of the following means of receiving speech : ( 1 ) by putting her thumb on the lips of the speaker, her fingers on the cheek; (2) by put¬ ting her hand on the cheek; (3) by putting her hand on the back of the neck or on the throat; (4) by putting her fingers on a paper tube while sentences were spoken into it. By putting her thumb on the lips, she could understand a whispered conversation. In January 1921 M iss Alcorn undertook the education of another blind- deaf child, Tad Chapman of Redfield, South Dakota. His instruction was given entirely thru the tactile sense. After a demonstration with Tad in New York in 1927 many educators of the deaf asked why one so thoroly handicapped could accomplish so much more than the usual deaf child. From that time on it has been Miss Alcorn’s conviction that the deaf child given the same opportunity could accomplish as much, if not more, than the blind-deaf. With such an objective in view she conducted some experiments with the deaf during the years 1924 thru 1926. It was not until September 1926 that she had an opportunity to teach a class of small children, whose ages ranged from five to ten years with as great a variation in their mental ages. After two years of work with this class, it was found that better voices — the original objective — was only one of the benefits derived from 444 National Education Association this method, for when the child discovers that voice accompanies the lip movements of the people around him, it seems to give speech reading a new incentive and he is eager to learn the names of people and things. A little deaf child enters school with no conception of articulation, but we notice that when he laughs or cries his tones are much like those of the hearing child. Thus far he has developed naturally. Then why should he not be able to use these same tones in his speaking voice ? The method usually followed is to attempt to get voice from the small five- or six-year-old child soon after he enters school beginning with “oo,” “ar,” and in some instances “ee.” The child’s response is in a most unnatural tone and this tone soon becomes fixed as the voice he will carry with him thru life. Having given the tactile method a thoro trial, with satisfactory results, we have reached the conclusion that if properly presented it can be of great help in developing the child along more normal lines. We do not allow the child to attempt to give voice until he is thoroly familiar with the way the voice of the teacher feels, concentrating for three or four months on vibration lip reading. The child with his eyes closed puts his hand on the cheek of the teacher while she gives the vowel “oo.” When he opens his eyes she points to the blackboard where instead of writing “oo,” she has drawn a diagram of the lip position, lips rounded. As soon as he seems thoroly familiar with the sound she begins to give it at high and at low pitch and to have the child point on the board to the one that is given. After this has been practised for four or five weeks she then gives “ar.” She then draws the mouth position for “ar” on the board and sees if the child can distinguish between the two sounds. As soon as one vowel is mastered another is given, always using the mouth position diagram for each one. In addition to the vowel work several periods a day, we carry on other vibration work in other periods. We begin with two objects in the same way that we begin teaching lip reading. The child, with eyes closed, puts his hand on the teacher’s face while she speaks the words in a natural tone with¬ out undue emphasis. This is very important, for if there is a tendency to talk too loud, with too much emphasis, or too deliberately, it will be reflected in the child’s voice when he begins speech. At first she has him put his hand on the face and watch the lips at the same time ; then as soon as he grasps the idea of lip reading, he shuts his eyes and tries to distinguish between the two words. After two objects are learned, a third is added, but great care must be used not to add the third until the first two are thoroly mastered. The first words we use are “a cow” and “a top,” as these two words are quite different in the way they feel. The secret of the success of the beginning work is in slowness and thoroness. This early work should never be rushed if the most is to be gained from the method. Lip reading proceeds much faster than vibration. We take the class for¬ ward as a whole in lip reading but the children do individual work in vibration. Each new word that is given in lip reading is given in vibration but the child is not held responsible for remembering it. Department of Special Education 445 At first the work is necessarily very slow and the teacher needs to call all her patience and perseverance to her assistance, but in time her efforts will be rewarded. After the first four or five words have been acquired, it becomes much easier for the child to get others and he begins to take delight in adding new words to his individual vibration chart. Commands, calendar, and numbers are given thru vibration in the same way as the objects. During the speech reading period two children are called forward instead of one. One feels the face while the other gets the command or object thru lip reading. In this way the child is becoming thoroly saturated with the feeling of voice. Before the end of the trial period of three months, some children will insist on giving voice. If it is pleasant, we accept it and have him continue to give it. From the first day of school, we give tongue gymnastics, it being absolutely necessary for the child to be able to control the muscles of his tongue. This part of the work is in accordance with the methods used in our best schools for the deaf, tho no combinations of consonants and vowels are given. Thus, every spoken combination and every written combination that a child sees has meaning. By this method the child is several months later beginning speech than by the system of teaching now employed. After speech work is begun he learns new words more rapidly than by other methods and by the end of the year he will have accomplished practically the same amount of work, with a much more pleasing voice and a fluency far beyond the usual first year. After verbs are given the teacher begins using them in sentences for lip reading and vibration. This kind of vibration work is an aid in fluencv and inflection, and is the only fluency drill required. Feeling the face of the speaker soon accustoms the child to muscular movements that accompany speech, so that in a short while, without any special emphasis being given to it, he can quite readily read speech from the side of the face, the mouth of the speaker being entirely concealed. Be¬ cause lip movements of people vary greatly, speech reading is made much easier for deafened people by watching the muscles of the face. Vibration work should not be confined to the primary grades for it can be used most effectively in speech-correction. For such work the children recognize the vowels thru feeling the face. After a month or so they should be able to understand a few words and should readily distinguish between the correct and incorrect way of speaking them. To the conscientious teacher who has given so much of her time and strength in an endeavor to develop the deaf child along more normal lines, vibration should open entirely new avenues of approach, enabling her to secure intelligible speech — language that once had to be dragged from children is now eagerly demanded. . . DEPARTMENT OF £ UPERINTENDENCE By action of the New Orleans convention the name of this Department was changed. Effective March 15, 1937 , the name became : THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL AD¬ MINISTRATORS, a Department of the National Education Association. H ISTORICA L N O T E At the meeting of the Notional Teachers' Association in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, August 1865. the state and city superintendents present decided to form an organization of their own. The new organization was called the National Association of School Superintendents. In 1870 the National Association of School Superintendents became one of the four original departments of the National Educational Asso¬ ciation. Under the act of incorporation passed by Congress in 1907 , it was called the Department of Superintendents of the National Education Association. In 1921 the Department was reorganized with a full-time executive secretary at Washington headquarters. At the New Orleans convention in February 1937, the Department adopted a revised constitution and bylaws changing the name to the Amer¬ ican Association of School Administrators, a Department of the National Education Association. It meets annually during the last week in Feb¬ ruary. A yearbook and an official report of its annual convention are its principal publications. The annual dues, $5, are payable to the Executive Secretary. The officers of this Department for the year 1937-38 are: president, Charles B. Glenn. Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham, Ala.; first vicepresident, A. L. Threlkeld, Superintendent of Schools, Montclair, N . J .; second vicepresident, J . 117 Ramsey, Superintendent of Schools, Fort Smith. Ark.; executive secretary, Shenvood D. Shankland, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. JT., Washington, D. C.; executive committee: George C. Bush, Superintendent of Schools, South Pasadena, Calif, (term expires in 1938); Ben G. Graham, Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. (term expires in 1939) ; J. C. Cochran, Superintendent of Schools. San Antonio. Texas (term expires in 1940) ; Jesse H. Mason, Superintendent of Schools, Canton, Ohio (term expires in 1941 ). Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1873 -.244-270 1874:297 1875 -.ISO 1876 -.291 1877 -.253-261 1879 .223 1880 -.235-236 1881 .252 1882 :Pt.II -.1-112 1883 .131 1884 .283-292 1885 -.160-101 1886:333-350 1887:509-538 IS 88:513-543 1889 -.611-613 1S90 -.365-542 1891 -.379-525 1 892:55 -743 1894:252-5 2 1895 :213-429 1896 -.231-392 189 7:195-316 1898 -.303-488 1899 -.251-379 1900 : IS 3 -296 1901 -.189-348 1902 -.151-305 1903 :139-300 1904 -.173-332 1905 -.155-270 1906: 20-214 1907 -.145-327 1908 .129-312 1909 -.159-330 1910:743-3(1(5 1911 -.161-329 1912 -.329-497 1913: 99- 354 1914: 133- 291 1915: 253- 525 1916: 895-1099 1917: 661- 845 1918: 473- 683 1919: 483- 673 1920: 407- 536 1921 : 679- 849 1922:1295-1464 1923: 881-1024 1924: 803- 961 1925 :633-862 1926 -.665-838 1927 -.697-871 1928 -.655-830 1929 -.643-802 1930:607-770 1931 -.645-800 1932 -.543-677 1933 -.551-680 1934 -.535-672 1935 -.499-626 1936 -.399-521 [ 44 S ] GENERAL SESSION— VESPER SERVICE SUNDAY AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 21, 1937 WALKING WITH GOD TODAY ALBERT W. PALMER, PRESIDENT, CHICAGO THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, CHICAGO, ILL. Away back in the dim dawn of history, it says in the book of Genesis that “Enoch walked with God: and he was not; for God took him.” Several centuries rolled by and one of the Hebrew prophets, Micah, in his great definition of religion, said, “What doth the Lord require of thee but to do justly and to love kindness and to walk humbly with thy God.” Other centuries rolled by and one afternoon two men, discouraged, dis¬ heartened, and disconsolate, walked along the road outside Jerusalem going to their village home, and, as they walked in their despair and dishearten- ment, a strange figure joined them and afterward, they said to one another, “Were not our hearts burning within us as we walked with Him in the way r Against the background of these three passages of Scripture, I would like to ask you to think a little while about the theme of “Walking with God Today.” First of all, what did it mean for Enoch to walk with God? We know very little about Enoch. About all we know is that he was the son of Jared and was the father of Methuselah, that Methuselah lived to be a thousand years old and that Jared lived to a fairly ripe old age of 960 years. Compared with them, Enoch only lived a paltry 365 years. There are scholars who believe that what has been interpreted as years should be months, and with that interpretation, Methuselah lived to be about eighty- one and Jared eighty, but Enoch belonged to that wonderful group of men that burned themselves out at forty, like Drummond and Robert Louis Stevenson and Saint Francis of Assisi. Beyond that we have very little infor¬ mation about Enoch except that he lived so long ago, and yet, because the life of the East is so unchanging, generation after generation, anybody who has visited Palestine and has a little imagination can easily realize what it may have meant for Enoch to walk with God. As he plowed the field with his camel and bullock yoked together, we can well believe that he had some of the same feelings and experiences as came to that plowman of Ayrshire centuries later, and that when he went home at night and put away his animals and his plow, and thought over the day and its labor, he began to philosophize and say, “I may plow and somebody else may plant but it is God that giveth the early and later rain, it is God that giveth the increase. I have walked with God today along the furrows as I plowed !” Or, it may have been another day when the great drought had dried up the lowlands and Enoch drove his flock of sheep out of the parched and dusty valleys up to some mountain region with a lovely meadow and a stream running thru it, and in that upland region gave his sheep an oppor- [ 449 ] 450 National Education Association tunity for food and drink. And when night came, he put them in a sheep- fold and, lacking a door, laid himself down on his homespun shepherd’s cloak across the gateway. Before he went to sleep, as he looked up to the clear blue of the Syrian sky, he said, “While I led my sheep today, I, too, have been led. I have been guided and directed by God and He has led me by still waters and into pastures green.” And, I think there may have come another day when in the council of the tribe, men who had been out on a scouting expedition came back with a thrilling proposition. “We climbed the mountain and went down the other side and discovered villages that have lived in peace for generations. They have cattle. Their women have bracelets of gold. All we need to do is to climb up that pass some moonlight night and then in the morning when they are least suspecting it, we can go down that canyon the way we went a day or two ago, pounce on the village, kill the men, load all the spoils into their own carts and wagons, make the women slaves and prisoners, and then make our way around the plain and reach our own villages once more.” Then Enoch stood up and said, “I believe there is something in the uni¬ verse that is against robbery and cruelty and violence. I will not give my vote to this. I believe our tribe, in the end, would suffer irreparable damage if this proposition would go thru.” He stood against them and won his point. And then at last one day when he wandered over into the mountains he loved so well, an accident befell him. They never found his body. His sheep came trailing down the mountain without their shepherd. His people began to think of the things he had said. They finally wrote down : “Enoch walked with God : and he was not ; for God took him.” We have a good deal clearer idea what it meant to walk with God when Micah lived because Micah lived in a time when great issues confronted the Hebrew people. One of these issues was that of child sacrifice. There were manjr people who believed that if you would have the favor of God, you must sacrifice the thing dearest to you. What is dearer than your child ? Therefore child sacrifice is acceptable to God ! Over against that, Micah, in mighty indignation of prophetic utterance, in words that are memorable and that the human race can never forget, said, “How shall I come before the Lord or bow myself before the high God? Shall I come with thousands of rams or with ten thousands of rivers of oil? Shall I give my first-born for my transgression, the fruit of my body for the sin of my soul? He hath shewed thee, O man, what is good, and what doth the Lord require of thee but to do justly and to love kindness and to walk humbly with thy God.” And, another question which vexed Micah’s day, as it vexes ours, was the age-old problem of peace and war. Micah, looking out on a war-torn world and realizing the devastation which war had created, sat down and wrote, with a prophetic vision which reaches across the centuries and which will not die, his glorious vision of the last days when it shall come to pass that the house of the Lord shall be established in the top of the mountains and people shall flow unto it; and many nations shall come and say, “Come, and let us go up to the house of the Lord, and there in the presence of the Lord Jehovah, nations shall beat their swords into plowshares and their spears Department of Superintendence 451 into pruninghooks ; nation shall not lift up a sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more.” That was what it meant to Micah to walk with God. It meant still something different for those two on the Emmaus Road. They came out of three years of marvelous experience. For three years they had followed the Lord. They had heard the matchless parables. They had caught something of the matchless glory of the Jesus of Nazareth. They had seen Him heal the sick. They had seen Him bring the demented back to sanity and go His way. They had felt surely the Kingdom of Heaven was at hand. It seemed only a little while now and all the glory of that age which the prophets had seen from afar might come. And then, in those last days at Jerusalem, they had seen gathering about the head of the one they had loved and trusted, the enmity of Pharisees and Sadducees until at last it eventuated in that trial in Pilate’s court. Afar off they had stood witness¬ ing the cross against the darkened sky on a wind-swept hill and they realized their hopes dashed to pieces, their dreams frustrated — nothing left except to go back to the old village home, to the deadly routine, to the narrow lives out of which they thought they had been emancipated. And so, as they walked along the road, being sad, talking with one another in disconsolate tones, suddenly a presence seemed to be walking with them and they were sud¬ denly aware of One who asked them what they talked about. They said, “Are you only a stranger in Jerusalem that you don’t know what happened there?” And they told Plim the story of their hopes and anticipations, and the frustration of their dreams. They told Him the story of the crucifixion. Then He unfolded to them a new understanding of what the prophets had told. He reminded them of Isaiah’s prophecy of One who should be wounded for our transgressions. And, he said, “Behooved it not the Christ to suffer these things?” So they came to their homes and He made as tho He would have gone farther. They said, “Come, abide with us. It is toward eventide.” He entered in and sat down at table with them and as He took the bread and before He broke it, blessed it, their eyes were opened and they realized who it was, and He vanished from their sight. They went back to Jerusalem with new courage in their hearts and new understanding of things hidden from them before. They went on as long as they lived to carry the messages and spirit of the Master they loved over land and sea. And many another man or woman down across the centuries has had that experience, too, has found that not amid success and victory, not among the cheering multitude, not in the hour when men spoke well of him, but oftentimes in apparent defeat, when dreams seemed broken, that a new and finer life and deeper interpretation came, and even in the shadowed way, in the valley of shadows, he had walked with God. I walked a mile with Pleasure — She chattered all the way, But left me none the wiser For all she had to say. 452 National Education Association I walked a mile with Sorrow — Never a word said she; But, oh, the things I learned that day When Sorrow walked with me! All that was over nineteen hundred years ago. What might it mean for anyone to walk with God today? Well, first of all, someone will say, “Is there any God to walk with today?” And perhaps that is the previous question. For, after all, our religion must be contemporary. We cannot walk with a God who died nineteen hundred years ago. We cannot walk with a God who lived in Palestine and never emigrated to America. David Starr Jordan said he thought the trouble with most religious meet¬ ings was they spent too much time reading the minutes of the last meeting. Having read the minutes of the last meeting, let us turn to today, let us assume that to walk with God has a living and vital meaning to us today just as it had to Enoch or Micah or those two on the Emmaus Road. So, we ask, first of all, is there any God to walk with? I think the most encouraging basic fact in all this troubled and difficult world in which we live today is that there is growing up, quite unconsciously, I fear, but never¬ theless there is growing up, a sense of the reality and contemporariness of God. Professor Schneider in his great book, The Turitan Mind , calls attention to the fact that the Puritans were not seeking something for themselves but were seeking to build the Commonwealth of God. They believed they had been divinely commissioned by God to build a better social order. “To be sure,” he said, “all they succeeded in obtaining was the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, which is somewhat different, but they wouldn’t have gotten Massachusetts founded if they hadn’t believed they were commissioned by God.” We today face problems far more staggering than they faced. Their dif¬ ficulties of carving out homes in the wilderness were relatively simple prob¬ lems compared with the problems we face as we stand before the tremendous threat of war and race prejudice which plague mankind, and the terrible menace of economic strife and struggle and possibly bloodshed. And as we look out on this troubled world, I think we realize that if we get anything founded that shall be remotely like the Commonwealth of God, we shall have to have a sense of righteousness and a sense that we labor not alone in separate futility but in cooperation with God for a better social order and juster human relationships. And so, the hopeful thing I see in the world today is that there is a growing sense (albeit quite unconsciously) in people’s minds of the reality of God as a contemporary. We discover God, I think, first of all in the cosmic process. We are dis¬ covering that it is a universe that is orderly, that it does not move in a harum- scarum fashion, that it is not a tale told by an idiot full of sound and fury, signifying nothing. But, on the other hand, as far as we can go out in the heavens with the telescope and farther than we can go down into the in- Department of Superintendence 453 terior of things with a microscope, wherever we go, we find a great orderly process of integration has gone before us. There is a cosmic order. There is something invisible and something unseen, but ever present and ever reli¬ able and dependable, that moves thru this universe in which we live, keeps it upon its appointed way, and makes it indeed a place of order and of meaning. This God of the cosmic process is not only a power that makes for in¬ tegration out yonder in the outer world but we are coming to realize that H e is also present in that inner, warmer world of human relationships, that there are not only laws of physics and chemistry and biology which we can learn and abide by, and, in proportion as we adjust ourselves to them, we can develop power and peace and comfort, but also that there are laws of economic relations that are just as inexorable as the laws of gravitation, that there are laws of social justice which cannot be disregarded or contro¬ verted. Booker T. Washington said a long time ago that he learned early in life that you could not keep somebody down in the ditch without staying down in the ditch with him ! We in our great cities are learning that you cannot keep people in slums, keep people subjected to any kind of social deprivation without the best part of your community staying down with those deprived people. There are laws of social relationships which are inexorable and which, as we come to learn to know them, we shall understand are the laws of God. So, also there are laws of the inner world. I believe there is a law of courage, a law of goodwill, a law of faith, a law of prayer, and he who brings his life into harmony with these laws of the inner life, finds peace and power and spiritual joy rising up within him, and life is filled with new and deeper meaning because he has laid hold of God, the living God, the God who is a contemporary, who is present beside us in all the ways we walk in life. Two little poems have exemplified this growing faith in the presence of God today. One of them is by Harry Kemp. Who Thou art I know not, But this much I know ; Thou hast set the Pleiades In a silver row ; Thou hast sent the trackless winds Loose upon their way; Thou hast reared a colored wall ’Twixt the night and day; Thou hast made the flowers to bloom And the stars to shine; Hid rare gems of richest ore In the tunneled mine; But chief of all Thy wondrous works Supreme of all Thy plan, Thou hast put an upward reach Into the heart of man. 454 National Education Association And the other is a less known little poem of the inner personal life. I sought the Lord, and afterward I knew He moved my soul to seek him, seeking me. It was not I that found, O Saviour true, No, I was found of Thee! How do we walk with this God who is a contemporary? I think we walk with Him, first of all, in our comradeship with nature. We who are city dwellers need to have that sense of fellowship with the God of the open air and we who live in this century which has discovered God in the cosmic process need to walk with the God of that cosmic process not only in the laboratory of scientific research but also in the experience of spiritual joy with the mystic fellowship of nature. You know those lovely lines: A haze on the far horizon, The infinite, tender sky, The ripe, rich tint of the cornfields, And the wild geese sailing high; And all over upland and lowland The charm of the golden-rod, Some of us call it Autumn, And others call it God. We live in our man-made world. We walk our hard pavements. We hear the jangle of the street cars, the honk of our automobiles. We live so close to the things that our hands have fashioned. We city folks need to get out under the stars, out in the presence of the great hills where the mountains may speak to us and “over against our fallen traitor lives the great winds utter prophecies,” in order that amid the mystery and beauty of nature we may come to know God. I think of John Muir who came to know God. The story of his thousand- mile walk to the Gulf has come to me as I have not walked but ridden down here to the Gulf. I think how he came from Wisconsin and made his way over Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, and Florida until he came out on the Gulf, and the wonderful story he has told of his new communion and understanding of nature’s God. We need more men who in the spirit of John Muir shall feel God in the great throbbing presence of natural beauty, a Sense sublime Of something far more deeply interfused, Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns, And the round ocean and the living air, And the blue sky, and in the mind of man . . . I think we walk with God when we walk in the fellowship of art. The great artists have been great priests of God. Rodin walked with God when he sculptured that marvelous thing, “The Hand of God.” Many a poet and many a musician have walked with God and helped other people to do so. Perhaps the most spiritual of all the forms of art is music. Music has been sung here that has come down across the centuries thru which men have walked in communion with the unseen. Department of Superintendence 455 I read a novel recently. The flu cut me down for three days. 1 had nothing else to do, so my wife put into my hands a novel with so true an insight into the tensions of human life that it revealed what happens to people who put oft making moral decisions until tomorrow. When I got thru, I marveled that anyone could know so much about life and its moral issues. I felt I had walked with God and the author across the pages of a book which saw down into great realities of life. One may walk with God today in many ways. In fact, I think no art is great unless in some beautiful way he who experiences that art and shares in its meaning, gets deeper insight into the love and beauty, purity and truth at the heart of the universe. But most of all, I believe that we walk with God when we work with Him in the workshop where He is hammering out new things for human betterment and social welfare. We live in an age when the growing edge of human life is in the area of social relations. He who walks with God must walk with Him in the great social, constructive tasks of the day. You have upon your program the picture of Horace Mann who said, “Be ashamed to die before you have won some victory for humanity.” It has been my privilege in recent months to come to know one of the great successors of Horace Mann, a man who was not able to go to college but who started out as a boy to earn his living, resolving, “I shall earn my living by no means not socially constructive. So far as I can see to it, I shall never accept a dollar that isn’t earned by contributing to human welfare.” He said, “It has cost me a lot of money. I have gone hungry and have slept in a haystack and turned down contracts but I have tried to live up to that.” Pie became a great engineer. A few years ago the city of Dayton called upon him to save it. I asked him how the plan of flood control of Dayton had worked out and he replied that it had never been tried. But, it was tried a month ago! And when other cities suffered inundation, the flood control system of Dayton stood firm. This man took Antioch College on the verge of collapse, almost ready to give up, the college associated with Horace Mann, and he developed there a study and new technic in vocational guidance. I asked him where he got his ideas. He said, “When I was ready to go to college, I needed such a college and there was none. So I made up my mind that was one of the things I wanted to do in my life.” His supreme opportunity came at last in the TVA and in the town of Norris you have the reality of the man’s dream. You know whom I mean. I say of a man like Arthur Morgan who lives on the social frontier of life, who tries to do something new and better than ever before that he shows what it means to walk with God today. He has really walked with God just as truly as Enoch or Micah or those two on the Emmaus Road. I believe that some day some man will rise up and say to labor, “You ought not to make of your labor a thing that is hateful to you. You ought not to make it something by which you sabotage the industrial organiza¬ tion of America. You ought not to be obstructing the great industrial proc- 456 National Education Association esses of life. You ought to find in labor a mystical comradeship with God, remembering God is the great workman of the universe.” I also think that same person will likewise have the courage and insight to stand up and say to capital and management, “You ought to have as much human engineering skill as you have mechanical engineering. You ought to understand the human material you deal with as well as you understand the steel and cotton and wood you handle with such facility and wonderful results, and until your human engineering comes up to your civil and mechanical engineering, you fail. You ought to make friends of your work¬ ing people. You ought to make them partners. It is a disgrace that there have to be strikes when men of goodwill and reason and balanced judgment could sit around a table and work out a plan of cooperation between capital and labor which would be so fair and just that all fair and just men would recognize it and would follow it.” The man who says that in such a way that labor and capital will listen and hear and obey, the man who says that to the conscience of the American people so that we, the people, who are the victims of those struggles between labor and management, will say, “You must both hear and heed such sane and reasonable counsel” — whoever does that will be walking with God in one of the great creative tasks of the age in which we live. Perhaps some day some man or some woman will make a speech or write a book or a play or a poem or construct a great piece of music that shall reveal to the world the sinfulness of war, its terrible cruelty, its waste of precious human life, and its destruction of free speech, for truth is the first casualty when any war breaks out! Its destruction of democracy and liberty! Its setting back of the wheels of progress! Its turning into blood and suffering and pain the energy and money that ought to go into education and art and religion and the ampler life of man ! Some day someone is going to say that to the world, say it with such imagination and such vigor, with such insight into the human heart, with such stinging rebuke against the prof¬ iteers and the munition makers, against the selfish men of greed, against the people who are obsessed with prejudice, that the world is going to re¬ spond and say, “Yes, it is true. We are all brethren. Our only enemies are poverty, disease, ignorance, and crime.” Surely some day we are going to stop the terrible waste of all this money and energy going to worship the god of Mars. We shall reach out our hands across land and sea to all the other races and nations and say, “Come, join us in a great, wise, sane, constructive effort to build here in the world a civilization of brotherly men.” And, the man or woman whose book or play or music, or maybe whose sacrificial death, shall bring that idea home to the consciousness of the human race, that man or woman will have walked with God today! If you want to walk with God, find out where the growing edge of civi¬ lization is! Find out where the unsolved problems are! Find out where God is trying to get something done for the welfare of humanity. And there, at that point, plunge in and you will know God as Enoch and Micah knew him and as the two on the Emmaus Road knew Him. Department of Superintendence 457 My friends, you are teachers, you are the men and women of education in this country. It is your high privilege to bring to youth the raw materials out of which a real and genuine experience of religion may come. By your search and quest for truth, by your fair, unfettered teaching of the truth, by the high quality of your personal lives and your exemplification of all that is ideal and honest and true, you are helping to give to youth today the material out of which may at last be built a world in which we shall be able to walk with God as men have never walked with Him before! GENERAL SESSION MONDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 22, 1937 OPENING CEREMONIES (Thousands of camellias, furnished by parish superintendents of Louis¬ iana, were distributed at the opening of the session by gay-costumed girl students of the parochial, private, and public high schools of New Orleans. During the distribution there was community singing led by H. W. Stopher, dean, School of Music, Louisiana State University, accompanied by the Symphony Orchestra of Louisiana State University.) President Threlkeld: I know that most of you must have been in this room last evening. I believe you would want me at the beginning of this wonderful meeting to state a word of appreciation to the boys' and the girls and the teachers who worked with them so long, and to the people of New Orleans, for the beautiful pageant we had here last evening. Without casting aspersions or making unfavorable comparisons, it was the only pageant I was ever willing to stand up for two hours to look at. I am sorry that so many could not get in to see it. We appreciate the flower girls of this morning and the wonderful recep¬ tion which they gave us. Now we are going to hear from one who is more responsible than any other individual for the reception that we are getting in this wonderful city. I know that he has lived for many, many years in anticipation of this event. I also know that members of the Department of Superintendence have looked forward for many, many years to the time when we could come to New Orleans for this meeting. The one who is our genial host, most responsible for this reception, is the superintendent of the New Orleans schools, Nicholas Bauer. A more genial host and a finer artist in entertaining, no convention ever had. It is my pleasure to present him to you at this time. 458 National Education Association ADDRESS OF WELCOME NICHOLAS BAUER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW ORLEANS, LA. I am rather embarrassed at the thought that we failed so singularly in that we made our distinguished president stand for two hours! Mr. President, to speak our welcome is not our plan; we are going to show vou that you are welcome by our deeds. W e have already tried by the beauty of these charming young women, by the gorgeousness of those blooms which you are wearing, and by music and pageantry and song, to show you that you are welcome. But, that is only the beginning. W e have other things in store for you and we cannot carry them out unless we have your coopera¬ tion. In the first place, we have organized — and that is our educational con¬ tribution to this gathering — planned trips thru our Yieux Carre. We have at our disposal two hundred teacher-guides (some teachers in the ranks; some embryo teachers) and we want to take you on walks thru the Yieux Carre, showing you the things that are worthwhile in that great section of our city. We ask that you take the cards accompanying the invitation, which you will find in your official envelopes, fill them out, make such selection of the trips as you desire, and deposit those cards at the bureaus of information in the eight major hotels of New Orleans. Then, for our second scheme, we want to breakfast you under the great oaks of our City Park on Wednesday morning. We like to call it what they called it in olden times (and I love to say it because a Bauer always loves to parade his French) — I like to call it a Rendezvous aux Chenes Verts , a rendezvous under the green oaks of City Park. We are prepared to break¬ fast thousands and you will displease us very much if you do not give us the opportunity of feeding you grillards and calla tout chaud and yellow grits and Creole drip coffee and oranges that have been specially grown for you. Now, that is a rather gigantic task. We cannot do the job in the way we would like to do it unless you aid us. You will find in your official envelope an invitation to this Creole breakfast carrying a card. We ask you to fill out that card, indicating you will follow the directions given in the invi¬ tation. W e are going to transport you from the lobbies of the various hotels to this rendezvous. And, come rain, come snow, come sleet, come anything, there is no danger of any Mississippi River water coming — at any event, we are going to hold the rendezvous. Should a most unusual weather condition obtain, we shall hold the rendezvous in the Delgado Trades School nearby. Then we have a Carnival Ball in store for you. You know the element that makes the Carnival Ball worthwhile is the secrecy about everything and I am not going to divulge who is going to be signally honored but he is a big official and not so far away from me and he is to my left — he is going to be King of that Carnival Ball. We are going to reverse conditions rather popular right now where the women are going to be the maskers and the men the call-outs. Those who are visiting and have not brought your dress suits — I understand there has been Department of Superintendence 459 some perturbation about this — need not worry about that but the local people will be in costume. And, all of you will secure your cards which will be necessary in order to be admitted to the Concert Hall where the ball will be given. You will secure your cards for that ball, if you are so disposed, by applying at the registration desk in the Exhibit Hall. We also call attention to the opportunity of hearing the great Louisiana State University Concert Band. This morning you heard the great Louisiana State University Symphony Orchestra under H. W. Stopher. Wednesday afternoon you will hear the Concert Band on the plaza of the Auditorium under the direction of Castro Carazo, and it will be worthwhile hearing. Then we climax our plan for your entertainment with a repetition of our children’s carnival parade, the great Krewe of NOR, which has grown in five short years to become one of the great features of the New Orleans Mardi Gras. There will be fifty-eight floats in line. It will begin at 12:30 o’clock at Lee Circle, wending its way down the streets and culminating here in front of the Auditorium where King NOR receives his queen and they in turn review the parade. We trust you will not fail to see it. It is a parade that lasts an hour. It will all be over by 2 o’clock so that you who are planning to catch trains will not be delayed. I do not believe I have overlooked anything. I do want to say something on the practical side. All this may appeal to the sentiment, you may say, and so we are going to talk dollars just a minute to the distinguished officers. I want to tell President Threlkeld and all of you that every teacher in the New Orleans school system, every administrator, and all the members of the schoolboard are members of the National Education Association. And, I am proud to announce that Director Martin of the Membership Department has told me I am privileged to say that that is a record for one of the large metropolitan centers of this nation, and we are extremely proud of that fact. At this time I should like to pay tribute to the Parish superintendents of Louisiana and to the school officials for the cooperation given to the local committee. And now, following the beaten track, because we in New Orleans are ultra-conservative (we love to live in the past) I have the very great honor and privilege of presenting to the distinguished President of this Department a gavel which is typical of old and of new New Orleans in that it is fashioned in the charming fleur-de-lis design of France. It is made from a piece of cypress, the wood eternal, from a rafter in the old Spanish Cabildo and it has been made by modern American youth in the manual training department of the New Orleans public school system. (President Threlkeld accepted the gavel.) Then, knowing that that gavel probably will repose for years in some corner or other of President Threlkeld’s home, rarely seen, we thought we would like to give President Threlkeld a more personal gift — a de luxe edition of Alcee Fortier’s A History of Louisiana. (President Threlkeld accepted the volumes of history.) Now I bid you that which I should have said at the beginning — you are twice welcome ! 460 National Education Association President Threlkeld: Superintendent Bauer and the committee on ar¬ rangements, I want to thank you most sincerely for the gavel and the wonder¬ ful histories which you have presented to me. I do not know to what extent I shall use this gavel during the meeting. If I do use it, it will be in the spirit of friendliness and democracy which you so well exemplify. If it is used in my home, it will be used by my wife. Thus a very modern adaptation may be made of the use to which this ancient gavel can be put ! No one can be in this fascinating region without wishing to learn more about it and as I look upon these several volumes, it seems to me that I am to have the opportunity of learning more about this great region and I assure you I shall do that with a great deal of interest and pleasure. With regard to the kingship on Wednesday night with which I have been honored (I rather gathered by the time Superintendent Bauer was thru that the secret was out), I want to say, constitution or no constitution, and notwithstanding the fact it has been announced that the women are to call the men out, I have no intention of abdicating. We are peculiarly fortunate in having with us on this occasion a man who was for many years superintendent of schools in New Orleans; was, in fact, Mr. Bauer’s predecessor; and who is also a past president of this Department; as the one who is to respond to this eloquent and warm address of welcome which Superintendent Bauer has given us. I have the pleasure of calling upon our old friend, Joe Gwinn of Cali¬ fornia. RESPONSE TO ADDRESS OF WELCOME JOSEPH MARR GWINN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, SAN JOSE STATE COLLEGE, SAN JOSE, CALIF. ; PAST PRESIDENT, DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE A welcome is much more than a mere ceremony. A welcome such as we have experienced from the first moment of our arrival in New Orleans and which is now voiced so eloquently and beautifully by Superintendent Bauer and which welcome will continue with us to the end of our stay here serves an important purpose in the program of achievements of this convention. This welcome gives us all a feeling of belonging. It creates an environment of friendliness and security, of encouragement and support, and banishes fear and strangeness — those arch enemies of concentrated effort and happy living. Now we are at home and among sympathetic and cooperating friends, with a physical environment that inspires to high and happy endeavor and in a historic setting that gives a sense of solidarity and at the same time the thrill of the drama of acts and scenes of bygone years. With such a welcome and in such a setting this convention now can give itself fully to the con¬ sideration of the important problems before it. Representing the membership of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association and the many others who are here in connection with this convention, I am privileged to express for them to you, Department of Superintendence 461 Superintendent Bauer, and to the many others cooperating with you, deep and sincere thanks for this welcome. It is for me a great privilege to represent the Department of Superintend¬ ence in responding to the address of welcome to New Orleans. New Orleans has had a large place in my life. For nearly sixteen years I lived here — a part of the time I was a member of the faculty of Tulane University — and for almost thirteen years I was superintendent of the public schools. I had all the types of experiences a superintendent of schools has, many pleasant and successful, others not so pleasant and not so successful ; I have drunk the water of the Mississippi; I have seen the carnival parades and attended balls in the Old French Opera House; I have enjoyed the delicious Creole cook¬ ing and the black coffee ; I have fished in the bays and bayous ; I have met and worked with many of the leaders in this community in various fields ; I have belonged to the Louisiana Historical Society and learned something of the past of New Orleans. I feel that I know New Orleans. This I do know, that we of the East, North, and West have much to learn from New Orleans. Meekness and modesty made it impossible for Superintendent Bauer to mention these things which we should learn from New Orleans. I was like¬ wise meek and modest when I lived here, but for the past fourteen years I have lived in California, and now I am a changed man and can speak with knowledge, conviction, and feeling and yet truthfully about New Orleans and of what I believe we should learn from this great and interesting city. We have been so enamored of the new that we have often destroyed the old and forgotten the past, and now find ourselves poor in traditions, lack¬ ing sometimes in faith in the principles and ideals of our history, empty of emotions that cluster around these traditions and ideals, more or less color¬ less, unromantic, and matter-of-fact persons. To all such persons, New Orleans has much to give for their improvement. New Orleans has had the courage and also the good sense to hold and to cherish the best of the old and at the same time to welcome and make use of the best of the new. The new, in proper proportion and integrated with the best of the old, is New Orleans’ special contribution. We of other sections of the country should take time and opportunity to learn from this con¬ tribution. Knowledge of the historical facts and principles, of the people, of the tra¬ ditions, and of the romance of the past of New Orleans is taught the chil¬ dren and kept alive by very real participation in many celebrations and cere¬ monies. “. . . In de lan’ ob cotton, old times dere is not forgotten.” On a day in May each year public school children by the thousands come with their flowers, songs, and ceremonies to the John McDonogh Monu¬ ment in the square in front of the City Hall to do honor to the memory of this man who nearly a century ago gave half of his then great fortune to N ew Orleans. The memory of John McDonogh and other benefactors of the schools of New Orleans is kept alive. January 8 is observed as a school holiday in honor of the memory of Andrew Jackson, whose valorous deeds saved New Orleans from capture in 1815. ' 462 National Education Association On November 1, thousands go to the veritable cities of the dead, to the splendid tombs and to the humble mounds which mark the resting places of ancestors and of the men and women who made the history of New Orleans, and there place flowers in great profusion and beauty. New Orleans does not forget. The Old French Quarter is preserved as nearly as possible in its condi¬ tion of a century and more ago to keep alive the scenes and situations of early history. Each Mardi Gras the King comes from the ancient land of make-believe with his dukes, earls, knights, and pages dressed and behaving in a manner that once graced the courts of real kings two hundred years ago. The carni¬ val pageants and parades preserve the old and the mysterious. The mule- drawn floats and the torch illuminated way continue as characteristic fea¬ tures of the Mardi Gras. Kendall says, “The pageants emerge from mys¬ tery, wend their brilliant way through the streets, and are received back into the impenetrable darkness and obscurity from which they emerged.” The moon, the southern and romantic moon, plays quite a part in life in New Orleans. Before Superintendent Bauer could extend an invitation to the Department of Superintendence to meet here at this time, he had to con¬ sult thfe moon. He found it was a friendly moon this year; thus, we are here because of the moon. This year the first full moon after the vernal equinox comes early — on March 26. This fact makes Mardi Gras come unusually early — on February 9 — so the thousands of visitors who come to the annual carnival have come and gone, leaving the space in the hotels and on the streets for school superintendents. Usually the date of Mardi Gras conflicts with the date of this convention. History, tradition, and romance are remembered and kept alive in New Orleans in a manner to emotionalize the lives of the children, the adults, and the aged, and thru the contagium of emotions to give color and force to facts, science, logic, and ideals and so make life more free and happy and no less efficient. Education has been weak in the development, direction, and proper use of emotions. It seems also to have forgotten the admonition of Saint Paul to prove all things and to hold fast that which is good. It has read but the first lines of the poem, “Ring out the old, ring in the new.” It should read on to find what of the old to ring out and what of the new to ring in. Education has been overinfluenced by the propaganda of obsolescence of the business world. Some of those who speak for and many who act for the business world proclaim and follow this propaganda of obsolescence. Keep the customer dissatisfied with what he has; prosperity and progress depend upon obsolescence, upon a constant replacement of the old just because it is old by the new. One must now be driving a 1937 model, tho one has a perfectly good 1934 car. Our trunks and attics are filled with perfectly good suits and dresses while some wear, and pay while they wear, their new spring clothes. Things do grow old and when they have served their day should be replaced, but the ideas and purposes of these things live on. The new things Department of Superintendence 463 are but slightly changed expressions of old ideas and purposes, yet the selling propaganda would have the public believe that what is offered is entirely new. Education also has its professional discoverers of the new and high- powered salesmen of the new. The professional propagandists of the new lift the faces of our old educa¬ tional ideas, pluck their eyebrows, rouge them up a bit, put some new bobs in their ears and curls on their crowns, divorce them from their old names, wed them to new titles, parade them across our platforms and into our classrooms, where soon the faces fall again and the operation has to be done all over again — once in seven or seventeen years. Whether concentration or integration; whether method wholes, projects, or units of work; whether discussions, panels, or conversations — it matters not what dresses, what jewelry, what eyebrows, what names they wear. They are, beneath the veneer of the new, the same old fundamental ideas; like the music, they go round and round and come out here. They will always come out here for they spring from human nature and race history. There can be no serious objections to their being repainted, redirected, and read¬ justed to changed conditions and really new ideas added — in fact, they need all this for the improvement of education. But why this fear of giving due place and credit to the old? It is time education recognized a little more fully with President Roosevelt that we are rediscovering some old ideas and need not so much new foundations as to build new superstructures upon old foundations. The best of our modern physicians, after a thoro examination, calls atten¬ tion to the many organs and processes that are functioning properly. He tells us that there is nothing much the matter with us — just a little more exercise and a little less food and we will be all right. No need to replace our brain or our liver by a new one. Education is said to have been in a bad way for a long time, and the professional propagandists of the new on one side of the diagnostic table, with proponents of particular propaganda on the other, find education in such a serious condition that it should be replaced by new education or should have many new organs and parts. Why may not these diagnosticians learn from the good physician to find education largely sound — as it really is? Education does not need to have its liver removed; thru long association in the past it has grown quite attached to it. Also, why may not these diagnosticians find that with a little change here and a little change there these educational models of 1910, 1920, or 1930 may yet hit the high hills on the highway at high speed on high? If the new to some seems so to overshadow the old, it is time that they, like New Orleans, give more time to the great men, great principles, great movements, and even to the traditions and romance of the past. This is no plea to keep the outmoded old or to be unfriendly to the new. It is merely a plea for progress thru evolution instead of thru a succession of pseudo-revolutions, for due recognition of the worthwhile contributions of the past, together with the need for keeping alive and for emotionalizing some of those things which will enable us to say, “How dear to this heart 464 National Education Association are the scenes of my childhood," and to sing of the land where our fathers died. Let us join with New Orleans in keeping these ideas, ideals, practises, and traditions alive, and life will be fuller and better for our having been here, and the memory of this welcome will abide with us. THE MEANING OF THE EXHIBITS HOMER W. ANDERSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OMAHA, NEBR. \v e are now assembled in the largest educational convention of the year. It is divided into three parts — speaking, listening, and seeing. From the plat¬ form will be heard the nation’s leading thinkers and spellbinders on the peda¬ gogical, biological, psychological, philosophical, sociological, economical, and comical problems of the day. New ideas will be expressed in the same old terminology we have used for generations ; old ideas will be presented in a new and almost unfamiliar language. We will be entertained ; we will be thrilled ; our thinking will be stimulated. As a result we will return to our respective school systems with new ideas and inspired confidence in the belief that the education of the youth of the land is, after all, “the nation’s most important business." Not all of us will take part in the speaking activities of the program, but nearly all of us will take part in the major role — listening. Just as we have the nation’s leading speakers may I say that we have here the nation's leading listeners. Each community in the ETited States has sent its leading citizen who has had more real practise in patient listening than anyone else. Listen¬ ing to parents, to self-appointed spokesmen for the down-trodden taxpayer, and to the army of citizens who try to appropriate the schools to their own ends has been marvelous training for the major role in this convention. The success of the programs will certainly depend upon the listeners at the con¬ vention. There will be expounded a countless number of worthwhile theories and practises, and if the listener does his job well, he will select those which will move education in the E nited States forward another long step. Too often we come to this convention thinking that those two parts are to be the whole convention. It is my purpose to emphasize today that there is a third part which, if neglected, will render this convention less effective than it should be. I am speaking of the seeing, or visual side of the convention — the commercial exhibits of classroom and school building materials. Just as we have learned the value of utilizing the eye in the learning process, so we have learned its value in this convention. The exhibit pre¬ sented under this roof is undoubtedly 1937’s largest, most expensive, and most complete display of books, classroom and laboratory supplies, school furniture and equipment, mechanical installations, and school building ma¬ terials. May I urge that you do not fail to take advantage of this unusual opportunity. Make room for it in your program. Ma)r I just hurriedly call your attention to the significance of a few Tings which are presented by publishers and manufacturers this week. If you inspect the book exhibits you will see immediately that the publishers Department of Superintendence 465 have taken Thorndike’s first law of learning literally. You will notice that the books are so attractive and inviting in their exterior appearance that you are impelled to look inside, and one glimpse there sets up a strong felt need and you cannot help but read. As you look further you will discover that they have applied almost all that is known about the psychology of individual dif¬ ferences. You will find that there are books on many subjects which would appeal to the diversified interests of American youth. You will also find that books on all conceivable subjects are graded to fit the abilities of the poor readers as well as to challenge the more adept. I think you will see that there has been tremendous progress in more attractive books, in the wide selection of titles and subjects, and in the range in the reading difficulty of contents. This progress in the publishing field has taken place in recent years and is due to the intelligent point of view which publishers have toward the writing and editing of school books. This is well illustrated by one publisher who has presented as the theme of his exhibit the following: “The child’s learning is more vital when his textbooks are built in programs by men who under¬ stand his abilities, his interests, and the realities of life as the child lives it today.” Investigate classroom furniture and you will find that the manufacturers have been equally alert and intelligent. They have adapted school furniture to the modern school program. When educators demanded a less formal type of education which required grouping of pupils, socialized recitations, and problems, projects, or activities, the manufacturers of pupil’s desks presented the movable type which is rapidly replacing the fixed desks. You will also learn that they consider most carefully the physiological as¬ pects of school seating; that they have made careful studies of the relations of school seating to good posture, and have incorporated the results of their research in the design of the desks. You will find that they have turned their attention to sight conservation and have studied the relationship of angles of desk tops to the reading position and the distance from the page to the eye. We have long been familiar with the fact that manufacturers of school desks have recognized individual differences in the height of children, but it is only recently that they have come to recognize very clearly that standing height alone is not an accurate criterion on which to design school desks. It has been learned that more important in determining the relation of seat to desk top is the sitting height of the youngster. So you will find that desk tops may be easily raised or lowered as the child’s sitting height demands. The manufacturers of regular classroom desks have certainly made marvelous progress in the design and manufacture of school furniture which fits both the modern school program and the growing child. Next, if you should stroll over among the exhibits of the manufacturers of science furniture and equipment you will find a recent development which is of real significance, particularly to the typical high schools of the nation which have one class in each of the three sciences — biology, physics, and chemistry. Obviously it is uneconomical and wasteful to provide three science laboratories. Manufacturers of this type of equipment have therefore evolved 466 National Education Association science benches or tables which may serve many purposes. One laboratory in such a school equipped with this new type laboratory bench can take care not only of the classes in biology, physics, and chemistry, but the benches are so designed that classes in English, mathematics, or foreign languages can be accommodated in the laboratory when necessary. While visiting the exhibits of scientific equipment and apparatus, look into the many accessory articles which make the science and laboratory programs vital and worth¬ while. It is impossible for me to mention all the interesting developments in the field of educational supplies and equipment, but as you go thru the exhibit you will realize there have been notable advances in the design of maps and globes, and in the quality and design of many of the supplies used in the schools. Among the most interesting features of the exhibits are the developments which have taken place in visual education equipment. Projectors which are efficient, easy to operate, and inexpensive can now be secured. An unlimited library of films is available. You will note as you look into this part of the exhibits that every year manufacturers show new and greatly improved de¬ velopments in coordinating films and sound. Along with these forward devel¬ opments in these fields have come more economical methods of production, and consequently price reductions. I am sure that it will not be long until sound and film will be an absolute necessity in every modern school program. Another interesting and far-reaching development so far as the educa¬ tional program of the country is concerned is in radio and in public address systems. You will find that this phase of educational equipment is marching forward by leaps and bounds. What the effect of the radio is going to be upon education no one can clearly foresee, but with the cooperation and study of educators and manufacturers there will undoubtedly come great values to education. It will be worth your while to follow this development by means of the annual exhibits at the Department of Superintendence convention. Many of us are interested in the consolidation of schools, and one great factor for carrying out this development in American education is an eco¬ nomical and safe method of transporting pupils. There are a number of inter¬ esting exhibits of school buses. Study these exhibits from the standpoint of initial price and cost of operation. Take a look at the safety features which these manufacturers have so carefully embodied in the modern school buses. I am sure you will conclude that a great contribution to American rural edu¬ cation is and will be made thru the medium of the school bus. In the field of building materials you will find new types of floors includ¬ ing new ways of laying oak and maple flooring, new types of synthetic tile, and linoleum in many designs. In this exhibit there is presented an oppor¬ tunity to learn about and to evaluate many different kinds of insulating ma¬ terials which hold the heat within the building during cold weather and keep the hot weather out during the warm season. A most important and significant development is in the field of acoustical treatments. Magnified noises which are heard in so many of our modern Department of Superintendence 467 buildings are undoubtedly harmful to both health and education. It must therefore be of great importance to control noise so that it does not resound and reverberate thru the classrooms, the auditorium, or the library. By acous¬ tical treatment all parts of school buildings can be made quiet and therefore more effective as environments for the learning program. You will find in this development man)^ products which not only carry properties of sound deadening, but are also quite effective as heat insulators, thus serving two purposes when applied in the building. There are many other interesting developments in building construction materials. You will find in this exhibit relatively new systems of heating, ventilating, and air purification. There are on display greatly improved ma¬ chines for heat control, better methods of lighting, and other facilities which add not only to the effectiveness of the school program, but to the health of children. No superintendent of schools can keep pace with the advances in the mod¬ ern educational program without full knowledge of the materials of instruc¬ tion. Good books, good supplies, and adequate furniture and equipment are necessary if the time of teacher and pupil be not wasted. This convention therefore would be incomplete if it were not for the splendid cooperation of the educational exhibitors of America. We may have come to speak about and listen to educational theories and practises, but let us tarry long enough to take at least one look at the materials of education so well presented at this convention. BUILDING THE PROFESSION OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION GEORGE D. STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The year 1937 marks an important anniversary in the history of school administration. Just one hundred years ago Horace Mann entered upon his duties as secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education. In the same year city superintendents of schools were elected in Buffalo and Louisville. By 1860 there were twenty-six city superintendents and nineteen state superintendents of schools. By 1861 ten states and one territorj^ had established the office of county superintendent of schools. In 1865 at the meeting of the National Teachers Association at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, the state and city superintendents who were present decided to form an organization to be composed exclusively of those engaged in the supervision of schools. This group met in Washington in 1866, at which time the organi¬ zation was completed as the “National Association of School Superintend¬ ents.” Nine states and twenty cities were represented at this meeting. It is not without significance that very rapid development in the profes¬ sional administration of schools followed upon the organization of this association of school superintendents. Within twenty-five years, or by 1890, the necessity for professional supervision and administration was recognized 468 National Education Association in all of the urban communities thruout the United States and considerable progress had been made in the professionalization of the office of state and county superintendents of schools. During the period 1890-1910 a group of able leaders consolidated the gains which had been made by the profession in records of their national meetings and in noteworthy reports concerning the development of public education in the United States. It was during this period as well that uni¬ versities first offered significant courses in the field of school administration. But it is the period since 1910 which has seen the most significant develop¬ ment of the profession of school administration. In the early recognition of the need for full-time service in the adminis¬ tration of schools, there was little expectation of professional service beyond that involved in a very simple type of supervision of teachers. It was pointed out by those who advocated the appointment of city superintendents of schools that the laymen^ who served on the board of education had neither the time nor the qualifications necessary to visit the schools and to examine the children enrolled in them. It was proposed that full-time superintendents of schools wTould see to it that teachers performed their duties more satis¬ factorily, that children would more certainly be organized in classes appro¬ priate for their age and state of development, and that better discipline would be maintained. Attention was also called to the need for someone who would look after the purchase and distribution of supplies and the operation and maintenance of school buildings. There was recognition as well of the necessity of recording facts concerning the school system as a basis for the judgments to be rendered by laymen in the determination of the support and general management of the schools. It was felt that the data collected by the superintendent of schools would always be available for members of the school committee or schoolboard, while under the earlier procedure in wThich board members acted without the services of an executive officer these data were often misplaced or unavailable by virtue of the fact that the layman who had collected them was no longer a member of the board. It is interesting to contrast this earlier conception of school administration with that which prevails today. It is quite common thruout the United States today for the schoolboard to distinguish clearly between the function of the board of education in the determination of policy and the responsibility of the superintendent of schools in carrying the policies adopted by the board of education into effect in the administration of the schools. The board looks to the superintendent of schools for proposals concerning the organization of the school system ; the development of curriculums and courses of study ; the provision of plant and equipment; the selection, assignment, and training in service of the teaching personnel ; the development of the services of attendance, health, and guidance of pupils; and the like. The members of the board of education give consideration to the program as developed by the superintendent of schools and are under obligation to weigh the evidence which he presents in support of his recommendations. Having reached their decisions, they then turn over to the executive the responsibility for carrying the program into effect. Department of Superintendence 469 A competent board of education will insist from time to time upon having brought before it evidence of the progress and of the efficiency of the school system. The members of the board have a right to propose that the schools, if adequately supported, become increasingly efficient from year to year. Measures which indicate the degree in which the school is adjusted to the needs and capacities of individual children, of the successful achievement of children in all aspects of their school work and in their later undertakings in higher education or in the vocations which they enter, should be presented to the board of education as evidence of a good system. In like manner, reports having to do with the development of curriculums and of courses of study in the light of current social needs, together with evidence showing the degree to which the entire staff of the school system is at work on these most important professional problems, should be considered a regular obliga¬ tion of the school executive. It is because the superintendent of schools is today able to meet the re¬ quirement for professional service which his position imposes upon him, that lay recognition of the profession has been forthcoming. As has been suggested above, the most significant growth of the profession of school administration has come during the past twenty-five years. This is due to the fact that the members of this Department and our colleagues of the profession of school administration have been engaged in the development of a profession. A profession may be defined as a calling requiring a command of an organized field of specialized knowledge which is applied skilfully in the service of individuals or of the community. In the first instance the pro¬ fession gains recognition as the body of knowledge which it uses is scien¬ tifically established. In the second place the profession takes on dignity and worth in the minds of the people in proportion to the ethical system which controls the practise of its individual members. The building of our profession will require a still greater devotion of its members to scientific inquiry and to the mastery of the science of education. There must be developed, as well, a sensitiveness to ethical considerations. It may be that there will need to be a more certainly formalized code of ethics for the guidance of the members of the profession. It is heartening to appraise the basis in scientific inquiry for the establish¬ ment of a profession of school administration. If we inquire concerning the pupil personnel, we have as a result of the work of the past quarter of a century fairly complete knowledge concerning the individual differences existing among those who constitute the school population. Much has been done by way of indicating the measures which must be taken to adjust the schools to the needs, capacities, and vocational outlook of the boys and girls who attend them. The relationship of the school to our society, together with the modifications demanded in curriculums and courses of study, has been reported upon in the yearbooks of the Department of Superintendence and by hundreds of students of education thruout the land. The health and physical welfare of children have been made the subjects of special inquiry, 470 National Education Association and much sound practise can be based upon these studies. Certain other inquiries having to do with environmental factors and their effect upon children have acquainted workers in education with the necessary relation¬ ship which exists in the total economic and social structure as related to the work of the schools. The interest of the Department of Superintendence and of the profession of school administration in the curriculum of the schools is evidenced by the fact that five out of fourteen of the yearbooks of the Department of Superin¬ tendence have given attention to this most important consideration in the development of our school system. The members of our profession have not been satisfied with the traditional courses of study or curriculums, and they have not been willing to continue methods of instruction or of the control of children which scientific inquiry has demonstrated to be ineffective. The members of our profession have condemned more certainly than has any other group the persistence of practises in our schools out of adjustment with the needs of children and the demands of society. Just as certain progress has been made by virtue of the inquiries having to do with the teaching personnel, the practise of placing young children under the supervision of teachers with little education has given way to the recogni¬ tion of the necessity for broad education and sound professional training for those who would accept responsibility for the guidance of younger chil¬ dren. It may be assumed that this change in attitude has been brought about by our increased scientific knowledge concerning the learning process, indi¬ vidual differences, and the social psychology of this group in the school population. Like recognition of the need for high professional competence has resulted in recruiting a better prepared group of young men and young women in all divisions of the school service. Possibly an even more significant change in the relationship of administration to teaching has come about in the recognition of the desirability and necessity of utilizing the insight and knowledge of our teachers in the development of curriculums, in the deter¬ mination of classroom procedures, and in the organization of schools. The adoption of a single salary schedule, the acceptance of tenure for those who continue to render efficient service, the provision for retirement for those who have served society well in the profession of teaching — all have been subject to scientific inquiry upon the basis of which current administrative procedure is determined. The profession of school administration no longer ignores its responsi¬ bility in the determination of the provision to be made in plant and equip¬ ment for the conduct of the educational program. Members of our profes¬ sion now work in cooperation with architects and engineers for the solution of this very important educational problem. Modern school buildings no longer consist of banks of uniform classrooms, adapted to the needs of an earlier conception of education, which placed children in the role of listeners and not doers. No longer may the architect figure out how many seats he can fasten to the floor in a given space and so determine the capacity of a Department of Superintendence 471 school building. In line with the changed conception of education and in the light of scientific inquiry, the school plant is being developed today as a place where children live and work and play. The classroom has become a workroom. Those other facilities which were once thought of as of secondary importance — the library, shop, laboratory, gymnasium, auditorium, music room, and cafeteria — take a central place in the planning of school buildings. Out-of-door facilities requiring a minimum of five acres for elementary schools and of twenty acres for high schools have come to be commonly accepted. Even the need for adequate work space for the staff of the school — teachers, as well as principals, supervisors, and directors of guidance — has come to be acknowledged. Surely the layman, whether he be a board member or an architect, will acknowledge the competence of a member of our pro¬ fession who is able to propose the type of accommodations and the arrange¬ ments necessary for the conduct of a modern program of education. It is hardly necessary to stress the advance that has been made during the past quarter of a century in the financing and business management of schools. In no other field has scientific inquiry more certainly made its imprint on our current practise. The profession of school administration has proposed for the consideration of legislative bodies thruout the United States sound methods for the participation of the state and federal govern¬ ments in the financing of public education. In line with the American tradi¬ tion which supports the proposal that education should be provided for all of the children of all of the people and that the burden of support should be equalized among all taxpayers, scientific methods for the distribution of federal and state moneys are available as the result of inquiries conducted during the past fifteen years. In like manner, procedures having to do with the organization of the school budget, accounting, the purchase of insurance, the buying of all supplies, and the maintenance and operation of buildings, have been scientifically determined. Surely we may propose that we have been in the process of developing a profession of school administration. We have a body of knowledge based upon scientific inquiry. We have men and women who show great skill in the application of this knowledge in state, county, and city school systems thruout the nation. These men and women are actuated by a system of ethics which places service to the community, the state, and the nation above all other values. We may claim without fear of contradiction that we have in the develop¬ ment of the office of superintendent of schools the first and most important example of the utilization of the service of a professional executive in American government. The pattern established, in the administration of schools has been followed in the development of other services, notably those of health, public welfare, and public works. More recently the city manager form of government has followed in broad outline the present practise in school administration. The city council has responsibilities com¬ parable to those of the board of education, and the city manager enjoys responsibilities entirely comparable to those of the superintendent of schools. 472 National Education Association We cite with considerable pride the contribution which our profession has made to the development of more efficient government. But much remains to be done in building the profession of school administration. \\ hen a profession has come of age, it enforces rigid requirements upon those who would enter its ranks. It is in this respect that our profession needs to examine itself. It is true that in the years which are past it has been possible to recruit members of our profession by selecting teachers for places as principals of schools, and in turn selecting from among the abler principals of schools those who were to be given general administrative responsibility. Many men and women so recruited for the profession of educational administration have learned by a process of trial and error and have acquired knowledge thru private study and an occasional period of university residence which has fitted them in at least some degree for their professional service. It is also true that in increasing measure the laws of several states make requirements for those who would enter the profession of school administration. In one state one cannot become a county superin¬ tendent without a year of graduate work with major emphasis upon the study of the administration and supervision of schools. In another state, in order to secure a certificate in advance of that offered to secondary-school teachers and principals, an additional year of professional study is required. This actually results in a standard of two years of professional study for those who would become superintendents of schools. Variations of these re¬ quirements will be found thruout the country. But it is still true that in many of our states one may be selected for the position of superintendent of schools without any sound training in the science of education and without any established skill in the application of the scientific knowledge available to the field of school administration. Is it not time that the profession as represented by the Department of Superin¬ tendence recognize the desirability of setting up qualifications for entrance to the profession ? Could there not be common agreement with respect to the minimum of professional study necessary for one who would engage in the practise of our profession ? Surely no one would hesitate to require that all who would engage in the profession of school administration be thoroly grounded in educational psychology. How can one hope to work with teach¬ ers, in the development of curriculums, in the organization of schools and classes, in the determination of the educational program in its relation to children of varying abilities, except as he is thoroly well acquainted with the science of educational psycholog}*? Who will lead in the development of a program of guidance, in the adaptation of schools to the needs of atypical children, if the superintendent of schools does not command the knowledge now available in these fields ! The administration of schools must be definitely related to the other gov¬ ernmental agencies and to other social services. Surely any man or woman who would serve our profession must be thoroly grounded in his knowledge and appreciation of our government and our social institutions. Social theory and the philosophy of education must have their places in providing the Department of Superintendence 473 administrator with his scale of values. The objectives of education will be satisfactorily stated only by those who have devoted themselves to the study of educational sociology and the philosophy of education. One who would lead in the development of a democratic system of education must himself be thoroly acquainted with the philosophies which are today fighting for dominance in our society. He must be able to interpret his social theory for his board of education and for his community and for the teachers and other professional workers for whom he is the acknowledged leader. Many of the problems with which the school administrator must deal fall in the field of economics. One who would serve adequately in the field of school administration must have a wide knowledge of finance and taxa¬ tion. He should be able to read critically the current discussions having to do with our general economic structure. He must, particularly in the years which lie just ahead, be able to stimulate members of the board of education and leaders in the community to a study of the relationship of education to the current economic scene. He will have to work in cooperation with specialists in this field for the sake of maintaining public education. As has already been indicated above, one who would practise in the field of school administration must have a command of the knowledge which has been organized and the technics which have been developed dealing with pupil personnel ; teacher selection, training, and leadership ; curriculum development ; the planning of adequate buildings and equipment ; the im¬ provement of methods of finance and business management ; and other phases of administration. The scope of the service of the superintendent of schools and the qualities of insight and scholarship which may reasonably be associated with the office are nowhere better stated than in the report of the Educational Policies Com¬ mission, entitled The Unique Function of Education in American Democ¬ racy. . . . the school superintendent . . . has duties not imposed on any other administra¬ tive officer. Records and accounts he must keep or scrutinize; estimates and reports he must prepare; and other functions of administrative routine he must perform. In these respects his responsibilities resemble those of administrative officers in general ; although his statistical statements represent distinct aspects of human life and aspirations, as well as money, materials, buildings, and supplies. But the super¬ intendent’s obligations are more extensive. Those of the health commissioner, the superintendent of public works, the director of public welfare, and other administrative officers are not to be underestimated; but their duties and contacts with society are limited and specialized. As head of a system in which all arts and sciences are taught, the school administrator is called upon to possess knowledge and intellectual interests that are broader than those of any one profession. Without this knowledge and these interests he cannot act effectively as the channel of communication between the school board and the teachers who organize curricula and carry on instruction, to say nothing of taking the leadership expected of him in such matters. As head of the schools he is subject to impacts from nearly all the interests, good and bad, that operate in the community; not merely to those touching health, or public works, or the relief of dependents. Under his jurisdiction are children from practically all sections of the communin'; not merely those affected by specific regulations of a police, sanitary or industrial 474 National Education Association character. Literally nothing that goes on in the community is alien to him. The very nature of his office imposes peculiar duties upon him. It is not by speeches at political rallies or by public appearances that he discharges them; his work is in the domain of knowledge and aspiration; and often the less that is heard about it, the better it is done. If, legally speaking, the school superintendent is one administrator among many, the term is meaningless until the primary functions of education are brought into consideration. It is then that the unique characteristics of educational administration become evident and present the case for a special administrative relation to the general structure of government. It is in the light of the need for the very highest type of professional qualifications for the superintendent of schools that I would like to propose that this body consider its obligations to the profession and to the public. It is not my purpose to propose any definite period of time or sequence of courses as necessary for a person who would prepare himself to serve in the profession of school administration. It is rather my duty to propose that the time has arrived for the Department of Superintendence, thru such committee or committees as it may decide to set up, to determine the re¬ quirements for admission to the profession. Having done this, the Depart¬ ment should proceed to secure the acceptance by boards of education and by state legislatures of the requirements which it considers a minimum for entrance to the profession. But even before such favorable action is taken, the Department should be willing to set up standards for the admission of men and women into membership of this body. The Department should scrutinize each new applicant for membership and should inquire concern¬ ing his qualifications for membership, denying membership to all who do not meet the minimum requirements set up by the Department. The day should be past when a political appointment and a five dollar bill are all that are necessary to become a member of the Department of Superintendence ! If we are to build a profession of school administration, we of the pro¬ fession will have to set the standard, we of the profession will have to determine our code of ethics, we of the profession will have to distinguish, among all those who would enter the profession, those who are qualified. And, finally, we shall have to accept responsibility for expelling from the profession those who violate its professional code. We have rested too long on the assumption that these matters would all be taken care of for us by laymen. On the basis of a sound achievement already made, the time has come to notify our public that we are competent to judge the qualifications of our own members. If the Department of Superintendence will take such action, the time will rapidly come when laymen will more certainly recog¬ nize the place of the school executive in the administration of schools. But most of all, by taking such action the Department of Superintendence may hasten the time when this most important public service will in every case be placed only in the hands of those who are professionally qualified to serve our society. Department of Superintendence 475 THE COST OF CHANCE A. J. STODDARD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PROVIDENCE, R. I.; AND CHAIRMAN, EDUCATIONAL POLICIES COMMISSION There are at least three points of view concerning that which takes place or happens in the world. Many people believe that there are an infinite number and kind of forces at work, some supplementing, others in conflict with one another. All that occurs is but the result of the play of these forces, as they weave the haphazard patterns of life and things on the looms of chance. Even man is but one of these forces, or a capricious combination of them, happening for a period of time to be lucky enough to withstand the eternal onslaught of destruction. A second attitude is the antithesis of this one. The world is governed ac¬ cording to the whim of some deity, absolute in power, who as a dictator determines the destiny of the universe, making and changing the relation of cause and effect according to the exigencies of divine and unrevealed will. Under this concept, man lives in fear of every seeming manifestation of this supreme power and spends his time and energy in frantic attempts to curry divine favor and special consideration. Those who hold the third point of view do not deny both of these other philosophies in their entirety or under all circumstances, but they consider the world as a cosmos in which it is possible to reduce chance thru the dis¬ covery of eternal laws and obedience to them. While there are always many uncertainties in life, their effect can be mitigated somewhat thru the use of intelligence, and while a divine will may be recognized, it is one that leaves place and function for human choice and plan. Under this philosophy man may proceed according to the caprice of chance and face the heavy odds of those who trust their course to the goddess of luck. Or, he may chart his course according to the known laws of the universe and take every pre¬ caution dictated by intelligence to insure the desired outcome. In either case, he may win or lose, but by and large and on the whole, he wins most who plans best. There are some areas of life in which it may be desirable to adopt the first of these three attitudes. Certainly we ought not spend our lives in me¬ ticulous precautions, worrying ourselves away in painful dilemmas over trivialities. There are also times and occasions when mankind, weary and heavy laden, may derive profound and sustaining comfort from the oppor¬ tunity7' to rest his cares on a divine will. Tho recognizing the play of fate and the power of faith in shaping the destiny of men and of nations, our success and happiness depend in the long run on the wisdom and ingenuity with which we control those many variables of life, which taken together we call chance. We may never fully remove the element of chance from life. In fact, it may be more interesting that we cannot do so. However, many of the conditions that determine outcomes are subject to our control and direction. By controlling or directing these conditions, the outcomes them¬ selves may be determined. It is thru this process that man may become the master of his fate and the captain of his soul. 476 National Education Association Innate in the make-up of every human being is his tendency to take a chance — and we would not have it otherwise. Progress comes from trying some new course of action, and whenever the new is attempted, failure is one of the alternatives. A sales manager writes in the February Rotarian, "I believe that money is made in the same way it is lost — by taking chances.” Those intrepid pioneers who have been pushing back frontiers since the world began have all been dare-devils to some extent. We would have no America if someone had not been willing to take a chance. Those who made that first compact in the dingy hold of a little vessel, or those who affixed their signatures to that great charter of human rights were not afraid to take a chance. Man has always been willing to run a risk for a prize, and always will do so. In discussing the subject, “The Cost of Chance,” it is not contended that we should attempt to avoid taking chances. We could not altogether if we would. But rather, the thesis is that we should learn to count the cost of failure, and that we reduce the chance of failure as far as possible thru careful planning. The way he takes a chance is one of the supreme tests of an educated man. A fool or an ignorant man may stumble onto a discovery of value, and not know that he has found it. He may even throw it away, and never know its value. The wise man makes his discoveries deliberately. He has a definite end in view. He proceeds in accordance with a carefully chosen hypothesis. He toils logically and scientifically, he works patiently and tirelessly, until that hypothesis is either proved true or false. If it is proved to be true, he knows what to do then and does it. If the hypothesis is found to be false, he rejects it, selects another, and starts over again. We are willing to trust the quarterback to try another play in the game of life, provided the play is selected judiciously from a carefully planned repertoire and not made up on the spur of the moment by a confused leader to be executed by a sur¬ prised and disorganized team. Under some circumstances, it may be very commendable actually to be afraid to take a chance. In Sourdough Gold , the lonely traveler down the Yukon says: Fear isn’t cowardice. They aren’t at all the same. A man must know the uses and the nature of right fear. Not to be scared, may mean a plain dumb-foolishness. . . . I got mad with myself for being scared, and so came out the better, possibly, than if I had not been so very anxious. On the other hand, there are often times and conditions under which the individual or society might be justified in proceeding somewhat carelessly, or at least in running a risk. In our earlier years we are all more radical than later when time presses more heavily and responsibilities sober judgment. So it has been with our country. In its younger years, the people acted as if they thought that the honeymoon of progress and plenty would go on forever. Why take thought of the morrow when today held all that heart could desire, and tomorrow might never come anyhow? So they squandered the richest natural resources any nation ever had in all the world’s history. In a few short years, they denuded the lands of the priceless forests that Department of Superintendence 477 should have been a blessing down thru the centuries; they dug the coal and tapped the oil and gas, with little concern for the future, wasting much of it, as if they thought the supply an eternal one; they skimmed the cream from the richest soil ever turned by a plow, and postponed for three hun¬ dred years the planning of any real program of conservation. Instead of re¬ turning the life-giving elements to the earth as they gathered their harvests, they burned the remains of the crops and left the rich soil exposed to the winds and the rain. The wealth of the land was gathered up by the countless fingers of the rivers and carried away to the sea. Why think of the future in a land where even gold could be washed from the sands ! We who live in America today are the heirs of this extravagance. We may or may not understand why they did it, but have we learned the cost of their failure to plan, to conserve, to economize? Our staggering debt of ugly cities, barren hills, flooding rivers, eroded soil, and exhausted natural resources will be amortized only thru a constant and persistent program of planning as a policy of our national life. It is encouraging that the public has become aroused to the situation and that the garage may be locked before the car is finally stolen. One thing that helps in the situation is that the car has a flat tire, so that there is likely to be some delay in stealing it ! Just as our country has developed on an opportunistic rather than a care¬ fully planned basis, so has been the history of many other phases of our life. The hinterland that should have been the common heritage of the people was developed as our natural resources were exploited, often for the benefit of powerful selfish interests or the doubtful welfare of the few. No one can be very proud of the haphazard manner in which our western lands were opened, or of the lack of careful and scientific planning that has characterized our treatment of the problems of rural life. Most of our cities and towns are even better illustrations of chance run riot. We are coming to realize that vast numbers of human beings cannot be assembled in small areas on a trial and error basis without the social indigestion that is bound to follow such careless gorging. But it is heartening to observe the awakening interest in planning on a national scale, and to witness the establishment all over the country of local and state planning boards and commissions; to know of the great in¬ crease in parks, playgrounds, and other recreational facilities in both our city and rural areas; to note the growth of a consciousness on the part of our people generally that our country can be restored to its beauty, that our cities can be made lovely places in which to live, that we can bring order out of chaos and capitalize our unlimited resources for abundant liv¬ ing if we are willing to pay the price of careful planning and join hands with beneficent nature. Altho greatly concerned with these tragic evidences of the cost of care¬ lessness and neglect in relation to our material resources, as educators we are even more interested in the cost of the chances that are taken in areas that lie closer to the doors of the schools. Consider, for instance, the general attitude of society towards training in the arts and science of homemaking. 478 National Education Association Only in recent years has there been any serious attempt on the part of the schools and other institutions to provide a carefully planned program of prep¬ aration for this one most common of all human endeavors. In earlier years, the simplicity of the activities of the home made it possible to give the necessary training in knowledge and skills after the individual assumed his part in the responsibilities of life in the home. There was so much of drudgery in the nature and multiplicity of duties that there was little time for the formation of wrong attitudes. The press of the commonplace kept the mind too closely applied to afford much opportunity for nervous breakdowns, altho the inadequacy of preparation even for this simpler home life often re¬ sulted in tragedy. Today, science has wrought many changes in the labor of the home and removed much of its drudgery. Of even greater significance is the change in the role of the mother and the function of the home in relation to the children. Society recognized the problems of this age-old institution and de¬ manded that the schools include in their program plans for education in at least the fundamentals of homemaking. Xo longer are some of these most intricate problems of life left to chance. And yet, the statistical as well as the human story of the millions of homes either broken or operating on a bare existence level furnishes abundant evidence that our society is still paying an enormous price for leaving so much to chance in this area. Not only are the direct results on home life itself so tragic, but equally significant are the resulting implications with their costly effects in numerous related fields. It is not difficult for us to recall those catastrophic years from 1929 to 1935. The history of this period will record the strange paradox of the human race staggering blindly because of its ignorance in a day of almost universal education. In a nation where the people were busily engaged in producing and squandering wealth beyond the dreams of man a century before, the whole machinery of life bogged down in the morass of economic illiteracy. Again we had trusted to fickle chance, to the old law of supply and demand. We assumed that somehow people would manage to acquire a sufficient working knowledge of economics to manage their own financial affairs and participate intelligently as citizens in helping to solve the economic problems of society. But we have discovered to our sorrow that people do not just pick up enough economic education. "We now know that illiteracy in this field, as in any other, can be reduced only thru a carefully planned program of edu¬ cation, including the dissemination of knowledge as the basis for right conduct, the equipment of the individual with a background of facts with which to combat prejudice, and the development within him of proper atti¬ tudes and ideals that will cause him to make his choices and decisions, not only for his own interests, but also with due regard for the common good. Something must be done to reconstruct the shattered ideals and to straighten the warped attitudes of the millions of our youth, as well as adults, who have borne the brunt of this catastrophe. But even more im¬ portant than these remedial measures is a positive program of prevention. Department of Superintendence 479 Both those of the present and those of oncoming generations must be better trained to manage their own personal economic affairs so that they can meet more successfully the periods of stress and strain that probably will continue to come periodically. Even if society succeeds in eliminating these vast dis¬ turbances of our economic scheme, some individuals will have to meet those crises that always follow in the wake of ignorance. It is not only that our careless and riotous living is so disappointing in itself, but even more significantly do some of the byproducts affect our happi¬ ness. Consider for a moment this problem of crime. Who would have dreamed a hundred years ago that the annual crime bill for our nation would ever exceed twelve billion dollars! Our forefathers bequeathed us a most beneficent form of government; we established schools and colleges, libraries, churches, and numerous other agencies to help people lead the good life. But what do we curtail in times of stress and strain? Or, have we expanded our welfare and educative agencies as the conditions that foster crime have multiplied ? Who could have predicted a century ago the growth of our great centers of population, the coming of the automobile, the invention of the machine gun, the development of the gangster psychology, and the perfection of the technics of the criminal lawyer? It is not suggested that even intelligent planning will eliminate our crime problem entirely; but it is proposed that it might be worth trying. And further, it may be questioned whether a nation which spends five times as much for crime as it does for schools and welfare agencies may not be taking rather foolish chances! Reference has been made to the coming of the automobile as a factor in crime. Let us consider it for a moment from another angle — as a factor in safety. The development of the machine itself is one of the finest examples in history of the effectiveness of meticulous planning and exhaustive research ; but the story of its use presents a different picture of, dare we say, a hit- and-miss policy on a gigantic scale! Thirty-six thousand deaths last year from automobile accidents, to say nothing of the hundreds of thousands of injured, are the tragic toll of turning loose on our streets and highways twenty-five million powerful machines, in the hands of vast numbers of uneducated drivers all the way from the moron and the inebriate on the one hand to the reckless youth and the absent-minded genius on the other. Why worry about killing a few thousand people when we have so many millions! Sounds like the ghost of the policy under which we developed our natural resources. The hope in the situation lies, at least partially, in an awakening public consciousness towards the problem, and the demand that the schools and other educative agencies deal with the knowledge and skill phases of the situation. And then there is war! With what care do we plan for it. If half the thought that is expended in competitive preparations for waging war so efficiently could be applied to planning for the preservation of peace, it is possible that this greatest gamble in the history of the world could be ended. But easy as it would be to do so, why multiply illustrations of the cost of chance when any of you can supply a host of them? However, there are 480 National Education Association two other areas that should be considered here because they are so specially fundamental for us in America, our democracy and its schools. The Educa¬ tional Policies Commission, appointed jointly by the National Education Association and this Department a year ago, has recently issued an important and significant pronouncement on the subject, “The Unique Function of Education in American Democracy." While this book presents a declaration of independence of our schools from political or partisan manipulation or con¬ trol, its contribution is even more far reaching. The democracy itself is analyzed and the function of the schools in relation to the life of the democ¬ racy is charted. In Chapter VI appears a paragraph so significant as to justify its quotation in full, because it sets forth in such clear terms the philosophy upon which this address is predicated : In any realistic definition of education for the United States, therefore, must appear the whole philosophy and practice of democracy. Education cherishes and in¬ culcates its moral values, disseminates knowledge necessary to its functioning, spreads information relevant to its institutions and economy, keeps alive the creative and sustaining spirit without which the letter is dead. The solution of specific prob¬ lems of democracy devolves upon society. Education does not arrogate that function to itself. It does not claim either the competence or the sole power — legal or spiritual. But education does preserve and spread knowledge appropriate to the solution of specific problems, instills the disciplines essential to the acquisition of knowledge, describes the points of view from which problems are discussed, sets forth the assumptions and imperatives on which solutions depend, and in the classroom illustrates the spirit and procedure in which knowledge and reason are applied in coping with the adjustments of society. Whether these issues are related to political institutions, to finance and taxation, to industry, commerce, and agriculture, to public health, to the conservation and use of natural resources, to international relations and national defense, education is concerned with them. It presents knowledge relevant to them. It sets forth theories and values, from which they are approached. It illustrates in miniature, apart from the tempers and distempers of the political arena, the processes of enlightenment and discussion by which matured decisions are reached. Such is the obligation imposed on education by the democratic society in which it functions and which it serves. It cannot do less than assume the obliga¬ tion, if loyal to its commitments. In so doing it acts not as a mere branch of govern¬ ment, as one profession among many engaged by government. It stands behind, exemplifies, and aids in sustaining all the processes of government and society. But it should be realized that even with the development of our democracy much has often been left to chance. Many times in its history this democracy has been close to the thin edge of disaster. It seems sometimes that, believing ours to be the ideal form of government, we have assumed that it would prevail forever on the noble start given to it by the forefathers who wrought its form so wisely and well. We took a chance that problems and differences could always be composed within this framework and that our government would always prevail against any storms that might assail it. The marvel is that it has, with so little cherishing and care on our part. It is the result of good luck, rather than any great social program designed to produce the result, that the leadership upon which the democracy must depend for its existence has appeared in times of national crisis. Should we take the chance that it will always do so ? Should not our educational scheme make effective provisions for discovering and training its citizens of unusual ability and Department of Superintendence 481 enlisting them in the public service? The answer is that we are consciously beginning to do so. Another phase of the life of our country causes even greater concern. It has to do with the democratic ideal itself. Our national, state, and local political patterns are essentially democratic in form ; yet these neither make a democracy nor will they guarantee its endurance. Our democracy will be safe over the reaches of time, only as its philosophy becomes the way of life for at least a majority of its people. Our homes must become centers of democracy; our institutions, private as well as public, must reflect its principles; man must learn to conduct his ordinary as well as his extraor¬ dinary affairs and relationships in accordance with the democratic ideal. In the long run, our form of government will reflect what we are, indi¬ vidually as well as collectively. Either dictatorship or democracy, each a way of life as well as of government, will depend thru the acid test of time on what lies within the hearts of the people themselves. The test will be the extent to which true tolerance, based upon mutual respect for one another’s rights, can become imbedded in the fabric of the character of our citizens. If this be true, is not one of the most important objectives of the schools the inculcation of the democratic ideal ? The alternative is the chance that the individual will be regimented to fit a pattern, with the attendant loss of all of those precious freedoms that make life worth the living. It was natural that there should be established and fostered in this democracy, dedicated to the realization of certain inalienable rights in the lives of all, and not alone of any particular part of the people, a vast system of schools and other educational agencies thru which these rights might be attained in the life of every individual, each according to his ability. Those great thinkers who founded our nation did not regard education as one of the incidental functions of the democracy. Time and time again they spoke of the schools as the primary means thru which the blessings of democracy were to become the common inheritance of all. We who have been in most intimate contact with these schools for a generation are well aware of the many phases of the educational program that have developed thru the operation of chance. For a century or more a succession of great and inspired leaders guided the course of the schools when they were passing thru the cruder pioneer stage. In the later years much refinement of the program has taken place thru the addition of experimenta¬ tion and research. But we know that much remains yet to be done. We have not learned to adapt the educative process to meet individual needs; coun¬ seling and guidance are still in their infant stages; the traditional attitude toward the size of the instructional unit still prevails; school buildings are largely architectural adaptations of those of a generation ago and still are responsible for much of the rigidity of the school program instead of promot¬ ing its adaptability and flexibility; the curriculum still retains too much formality to be fully effective as a functional instrument for promoting child growth on an experimental basis ; methods still reflect the old philosophy of education as a pouring into process rather than of growth from within; 482 National Education Association while the objectives of the educational program itself still place a dispro¬ portionate emphasis on acquiring facts, knowledge, and skills as over against the development of initiative, critical judgment, worthy habits of conduct, desirable attitudes, and worthwhile appreciations. But it is very likely that these phases of the educational program will receive increasing attention in the years to come. There is another area where too many chances must not be taken. Along with the inculcation of the demo¬ cratic philosophy as a motivating force in both the social and individual life, the schools exist primarily to help make real in the lives of our people their right to the pursuit of happiness. The realization of this objective must not be left to chance. The ability to claim and live the abundant life is not innate in the human being but must be acquired thru long and patient study. Therefore, the curriculum of the modern school gives a large place to those subjects and those types of experiences that mankind has long found to include the eternal verities of life, to satisfy the deeper longings of the soul, and to inspire to noblest achievement. Many phases of the curriculum are planned to help the individual to supply his needs in relation to his physical existence ; other phases include the skill subjects which enable one to use his environment and deal with his fellow beings; still another phase has to do with the expressions of human beings in one way or another that constitute the culture of mankind. It is the experience of the race that it is this last form of learning that has most to do with true happiness. It includes our religion, art, litera¬ ture, architecture, music, games, drama, and all other forms thru which the noblest thought and emotions of each generation have been added to the social inheritance of the past and handed down thru the centuries as man’s tribute to his Creator and as his gift to posterity. It is the function of the schools to give to every person, as far as it is practicable to do so, the key to unlock and claim the riches that are the common possession of all who are willing to pay the price. Unlike some other inheritances, this one can be claimed only by those who will prepare themselves to be worthy of it. Merely dotting our land with buildings that point their spires heavenward, or hanging the masterpieces of art on our walls, or making countless books available thru a thousand libraries, or bringing the drama of the ages into every city, village, and hamlet, or making the great music available to even the humblest man, does not mean that all will be able to claim the messages that these and a myriad other sources of happiness have for them. Only those who have acquired the technics of interpreting, who have learned the meanings of the various languages thru which the messages are spoken, who have attuned their thoughts and their emotions to catch the messages that are all about us like the unsensed and uncaught radio waves which in the dead of night flood the world, only those can expect to succeed in this age-old quest for happiness. The future is elusive at best. The zest of life comes from attempting to bend it to our will and to shape it to our service. The philosophy of planning is as old as human intelligence. The purpose of this address has been to Department of Superintendence 483 popularize this philosophy, to establish it more generally and definitely as a part of educational procedure, all the way from the local school system to the profession as a whole. The extent to which this can be done will deter¬ mine the science of education, as well as the effectiveness of the art of its application. What is planning and what are its processes? Of course, planning begins with an awareness or realization of an issue to be met, a problem to be solved, a situation to be changed. The great difficulty is to differentiate the important from the trivial, to recognize first things. There is a danger lest we who administer schools may develop a professional myopia which prevents our seeing the fundamental in its true perspective. When the problem has been defined as one needing consideration, what is the next step? Weeping and wailing never solved any problem, im¬ portant first steps tho they may be in the process. This second step consists of the testing of one or more hypotheses. We use our own experiences and those of others, we assemble pertinent investigations or conduct new ones, we carry on research, we apply individual and group judgment, we marshal hard, intelligent, persistent thinking. This is not altogether the dry, statis¬ tical process that some would have us believe it to be. There is place here for the imagination, for the long view, for the thrill that comes to those who dare join hands with destiny. There can be romance in planning. But, after all, the greatest and costliest chance of all is the one we take so often with our plans in assuming that they will implement themselves. True planning must eventuate in action. If all the studies and reports pro¬ duced in the last generation by the educational profession were placed end to end they would reach only a small part of the way from theory to practise ! Tradition blinds us to our problems; complacency breeds satisfaction with conditions as they are; but inaction kills not only the progress that might have been, but also in time destroys the spirit that inspires the desire for progress. In this philosophy of planning is there place also for the opportunist and the dreamer? Yes, for both. The opportunist is the opposite of the arm-chair day-dreamer who fritters life away in endless speculation. Planning needs the virility and versatility of the man of action. But no great plan was ever made and carried into action unless it was first conceived by a man of vision. The dreams of men are too precious to be left to chance. Planning endeavors, thru the application of the individual and corporate intelligence of mankind, to salvage the noble aspirations of human beings, so that the funded knowl¬ edge and wisdom of the race may become increasingly the possession of all who, knowing the chances to be taken on the high road, are yet willing to meet the cost. 484 National Education Association GENERAL SESSION TUESDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 23, 1937 “ The Improvement of Education : Its Interpretation for Democracy The 1937 Yearbook THE PRESENT SOCIAL SCENE HARRY ELMER BARNES, EDITORIAL WRITER, NEW YORK, N. Y. It is quite impossible to understand the current social scene in the United States unless we view it in relation to the general pattern of contemporary world history. We are living in one of the four major transitional periods in the entire history of man on the planet. Only the so-called dawn of history, the break¬ up of ancient society with the decline of the Roman Empire, and the rise of the modern age after Columbus can compare with our period in the sweeping and thoro transformations to which we are being subjected or which stand immediately ahead of us. Our age is one, moreover, in which the transition is bound to be accom¬ plished, for better or worse, with far greater speed than was characteristic of any previous era of transition. The complicated and delicately articulated character of our urban, industrial world civilization makes it necessary that it shall all work fairly well if it works at all. If there is any serious break¬ down in an indispensable part of our social machinery, the collapse of the whole system is inevitable. We shall probably pass on to something much better or much worse than conditions of 1937 within less than a quarter of a century. Further, the alternatives which face us are far more striking than those which existed in any previous transition. For the first time in the history of man, we actually have available economic abundance and the foundations for peace and justice, both at home and abroad. Utopia is veritably within our grasp. If we do not seize it, if we allow our unmatched industrial machinery to get out of hand, and if we use our advanced technic for killing each other off in devastating wars, we shall revert to barbarism instead of moving on into a utopian condition. Never before has society faced such sharply con¬ trasting possibilities. The most outstanding characteristic of our present civilization is the amaz¬ ing contrast between its two major elements. On the one hand we have an up-to-date technology for production, transportation, and communication, utterly unmatched in the previous history of mankind. We already have 1937 model automobiles, bathtubs, and radios. We demand that we shall be absolutely up to date in all material things. Yet, the ideas and institu¬ tions with which we seek to control our 1937 model material civilization is a strange and archaic mosaic constituted of accretions and contributions made all the way from the Stone Age to about the year 1800. Very little in our social thinking and institutional life dates from a period more recent than the year 1800. George Washington would be utterly be- Department of Superintendence 485 wildered in the New Orleans of today, but he would have no difficulty what¬ ever in understanding and interpreting the debates going on under the dome of the Capitol in Washington. The speakers use terms he would understand. Indeed, he would probably be rather impatient with the conservatism of the debaters, and he would certainly be astonished to find that we are still going on under the Constitution which he helped to make one hundred and fifty years ago this coming summer. The legal philosophy which governs the con¬ servative majority of the Supreme Court comes mainly from two political philosophers — one of the seventeenth and one of the eighteenth centuries. To turn to economic ideas, Herbert Hoover and John W. Davis, for example, mirror the economic philosophy of Adam Smith, who wrote his famous book in the same year that our Declaration of Independence ap¬ peared. Moreover, Smith was far better informed in this brand of economic doctrine than either Mr. Hoover or Mr. Davis. Not only does this tremendous gulf exist between our material life and our social institutions, but we seem to pride ourselves upon its existence, even tho it threatens the very future of civilization and the security of us all. We are proud of our material equipment in proportion to its being thoroly up to the last minute in model and performance. But we seem to take pride in our thinking and institutions in proportion to the degree to which they are out of date and inadequate to meet the emergencies of the present. Many a great mogul who insists upon a de luxe 1937 model Cadillac V-16 motor car will cling with the utmost fervor to a Constitution, model 1787. Only when we come to be as much ashamed of an out-of-date idea or institution as we are of an outmoded bathtub or radio will there be much prospect of our taking steps to build a civilized social order. Even further, we tend to encourage this fatal discrepancy between our material life and our social thinking. We give every conceivable reward and encouragement to those who seek to invent new machines. On the other hand, in an age in which we are in desperate need of a new social machinery, we persecute, threaten, or even cast into jail, those who would invent the new social system which we must have if civilization is to be maintained. We honor inventors like Edison in the material field, but laugh to scorn our “brain trusts” and others who seek to provide new and better social ma¬ chinery. All of our contemporary problems are simply subordinate and secondary manifestations of this gulf between the two aspects of our civilization. Be¬ cause we have failed to modify our political institutions in keeping with the changes in the last century, we find ourselves faced by the desperate situa¬ tions arising out of the bellicosity of great national states and the inadequa¬ cies of democracy in meeting the complicated problems of our industrial age. The answer to this is “crisis government,” which means some form of dic¬ tatorship. In the economic field our failure to provide for a fair distribution of the social income and to check the speculative manipulations of finance have so undermined the capitalistic system as to call for the intervention of force 486 National Education Association and fascism in the majority of the important states of the world. In the eco¬ nomic field, fascism is the answer to the crisis in capitalism, as in its po¬ litical expression it is the answer to the crisis in democracy. It is often asserted that the only solution of our economic problems is edu¬ cation. This is probably true, but it will require a different system of educa¬ tion from that which is now in operation. The men who made the World War, who threw us into it, and those who engineered the great depression of 1929 were all highly educated men by conventional standards of educa¬ tion. They were literally the best that our present educational system could produce, and their works are as much as we can reasonably expect of our existing educational methods. The only safe and sane solution of our problems is to be found in educa¬ tion, but it will need to be a type of education which will courageously come to grips with the realities of the second third of the twentieth century. It will have to recognize that its major function is to lead in the building of a new and better social order, instead of serving as the temporary buttress of a decadent system, the downfall of which would inevitably involve educa¬ tion in the general ruin. We are in no danger of revolution in the United States. There are too few revolutionaries and they hate each other worse than they hate the re¬ actionaries. Moreover, our modern death-dealing agencies are in the hands of their enemies and there is no possibility of an effective appeal to force by radicalism in this country. Our real danger lies in the reactionaries who seem, consciously or un¬ consciously, to have adopted the “after us the deluge” policy. They appear determined to oppose such reasonable concessions to social decency as might enable us to steer our way between the extremes of fascism and communism. If they are successful in this organized opposition to rational social change, fascism and subsequent collapse are inevitable within another quarter of a century at the most. And anyone who imagines that fascism could not come to the United States is truly living in a fool’s paradise. Those conditions which favor the rise of fascism are far more prevalent and well developed in the United States of America in 1937 than they were in Italy in 1920 or in Germany in 1925. THE PRESENT EDUCATIONAL SCENE HOLLIS L. CASWELL, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENN. Social conditions and issues of such grave import as those described by Dr. Barnes have led during recent years to a highly critical consideration of the functions, aims, procedures, and scope of organized education in Amer¬ ican life. Voices have been raised to question the value and significance of almost every phase of the educational program. At the same time that the questioning has been going forward, educational shortages have been Department of Superintendence 487 brought to the fore. Marked currents of thought and practise have emerged and come into conflict — conflict which upon occasion has been character¬ ized by a lack of tolerance and respect for opposed views. The result of this situation has been an educational situation of unparalleled uncertainty and great confusion. Gradually, however, extraneous and less important considerations arc falling into proper relationships to major issues and problems, and more clearly defined and recognizable points of view are emerging. Out of this clarification of positions arises recognition that American education faces the necessity of defining more clearly than ever before a fundamental direction of movement and development. An effort to arrive at such a definition is, I believe, one of the most significant characteristics of the present educational scene. The work of the Educational Policies Commis¬ sion, reports of state groups such as the Committee on Goals of Education in Michigan, and the activities of national committees in the preparation of statements such as a Charter for the Social Sciences, are indicative of a recognition of the need to develop a more adequate basis upon which to project America’s program of organized education. Adequate definition of the desirable direction of educational development in American democracy was held by the Yearbook Commission to be the foundation of a sound program of educational improvement and interpreta¬ tion. The Commission, therefore, took a position on the relation of educa¬ tion to social change. Consideration was given to the argument that schools should provide social stability by staying back from the frontier of social development and conserving that which has proved good and valuable. Recognition was given to the rising emphasis upon intellectualism in Amer¬ ican life and education, with the suggested withdrawal of organized educa¬ tion from the current social scene. Neither of these positions was con¬ sidered adequate in view of the inevitable dependence of democracy on education. There seem to be only two possible methods of social change, the one orderly and gradual, dominated by information and directed intelligence, and the other violent and sudden, based upon exasperation, desperation, and hatred. So far, it is admitted by the Commission, the powers in control of society have rarely surrendered to change without either violence or collapse. But the ideal of democracy envisions the solution of social problems, how¬ ever difficult and complex they may be, by the application of intelligence and information. Thus, democracy by its very nature depends upon education for guidance of social change. “If we are to have social change achieved thru orderly and informed direction,” says the Commission, “its guidance must be a function of education.” While the school is only one of many agencies which affect the education of a people, the fact that it provides the pro¬ gram of organized education places on it the responsibility of assuming major leadership toward the accomplishment of this all important social goal. The function that any public agency is able to perform depends upon the adequacy of its personnel, the enlightenment of the public, and the condi- 488 National Education Association tions under which work must be prosecuted. These factors provide a basis for the further evaluation of the current situation in education. It must be admitted that the personnel of American public schools as now trained is inadequate to the task which a revolutionizing technology has set for education. The education of teachers, even according to traditional academic standards, is woefully inadequate. One fourth of all the teachers in the nation must pass in review before there is seen one individual who has more than two years of training beyond the high school. And this train¬ ing, sad to relate, was probably taken in piecemeal sections, lacking relation¬ ship and sequence. In all types of training programs, however extended, little concern as a rule is given to the general social education of teachers. Preparation is often in narrow fields of specialization suitable for training in research but not for developing a socially significant program of public education. The result all too frequently is teachers with narrow interests; teachers who know little about the problems faced by the people of their communities and by the nation ; teachers who conceive their function largely as teaching certain prescribed subjectmatter and who remain aloof from the current of social life about them. The lack of general understanding by teachers of the social responsi¬ bility of education frequently exerts a devastating influence on the program of the school. Competing interest groups often struggle for larger and larger portions of the time of the pupil; essential interrelationships of subject- matter from various fields are accomplished only with great difficulty; much of the content of school experience is unrelated to significant aspects of life ; and large areas of social life in which education is greatly needed are not given consideration in the educational program. Gloomy as this picture may appear, there are certain very encouraging phases of the current situation in teacher education. In a number of states and cities, educational leaders have recognized the need for enlarged teacher vision and understanding of fundamental social and educational problems, and are taking action to improve conditions. In at least a dozen states, under the direction of state departments of education, teachers are pursuing or¬ ganized study programs which give major consideration to the responsibility of schools in a democracy, and new and encouraging efforts are being made in a number of cities to provide for continuous teacher education. The way in which teachers generally take advantage of these opportunities for in- service training is a most encouraging indication that teachers stand ready and willing to move forward. The Yearbook Commission recognized that an adequate teaching per¬ sonnel is basic to a sound program of educational improvement and inter¬ pretation. For organized education to contribute significantly to the clari¬ fication and realization of democratic ideals, teachers must have deeply grounded appreciation and understanding of those ideals, they must have an intimate knowledge of social conditions as they actually exist, they must see their specialized fields of competency in relation to the larger social re¬ sponsibility of organized education, and they must have that maturity and judgment which make them respected leaders in community life. Department of Superintendence 489 Now, turning to the second basis of evaluation, a public so imbued with the ideals and methods of democracy that it will insist for all institutions and individuals the full exercise of democratic rights and procedures is both a means and an end for education in a democracy. Without these rights and procedures, education is impeded and to the greater and greater extension of them, education is dedicated. One of the most alarming and disturbing characteristics of the present educational scene is found in the general ignorance and apathy of the American people regarding the function of education in democratic life. Proposals for significant modifications in the educational program usually encounter the objection that the public will not tolerate change. On every hand, a struggle must be waged against the persistent belief that schools must do only those things they have always done. Tireless efforts have been required to provide opportunities of recognized value, such as those in music and art. Much greater vision, determination, and fearlessness are required to move in the direction of a more socially significant education which under¬ takes directly to relate the democratic ideal and method to the conditions and problems of contemporary life. At the same time, the public is apathetic to the use of the schools as an agency of propaganda for selfish business interest and frequently condones the actions of minority groups in enforcing restrictions upon freedom of thought and inquiry, in denying the right and obligation of teachers to present all the facts on problems regardless of what the facts may show, and in hampering the use by the school of the fundamental democratic pro¬ cedure of considering at all times all methods available for the solution of problems. Thus, in the large, the American public is not encouraging the school to assume a larger burden in providing that education which is abso¬ lutely essential for gradual and beneficial social change; rather it is tending to look upon the school as a static institution of limited function, which should respond largely without question to whatever influences other aspects of our social organization bring to bear upon it. In this situation are mirrored inadequacies of the educational offering itself. The importance of an educational program which provides oppor¬ tunity for the continuous study and analysis by adults of social conditions and needs has been realized only recently. Consequently, organized educa¬ tion has not been used to develop public understanding and support of a socially significant school program. At the same time, programs of educa¬ tional interpretation of the advertising and selling type have been employed all too often to the exclusion of more fundamental types of interpretation. Frequently in these programs, basic problems and issues have been evaded or concealed, with the tendency to lull the public into complacent and unthinking acceptance of the educational program as it is. The inevitable result in such cases has been fear of change and an unthinking tendency to hold to traditional practise. It is the position of the Yearbook Commission that such programs of educational interpretation have seldom made significant gains and fre¬ quently have been harmful to the cause of public education. Adequate edu- 490 National Education Association cational interpretation should be based upon a broad social philosophy; it should encourage and guide the public in consideration of basic problems relating to the place of education in democratic life and the adequacy of current practises; it should be a continuous process rather than a sporadic one which is concerned only with the accomplishment of immediate ends. And, we now turn to the third consideration, the third basis of evalua¬ tion. Conditions of work in public school systems are affected by many factors. Adequacy of salary, size of teaching load, quality of supervision, available instructional materials and tenure are but a few of these influences. In most of these matters there is almost unbelievably wide variation in schools thruout the nation. Administrators generally are making determined efforts to improve such conditions and thereby to increase the effectiveness of educa¬ tion. In the current educational scene, a factor of major significance in affect¬ ing conditions of work is the basis of teacher-administrator relationship. The administration of schools many times has tended to be mechanical, inflexible, and authoritarian. This condition has arisen largely because industrial man¬ agerial concepts have been carried over sometimes almost intact to school organization. This has contributed to efficient business management in schools and in that regard has been a significant development in education but has, at the same time, exerted an unfortunate influence on the relation of administrators and teachers. Instead of developing and enlarging the col¬ league or cooperative concept, the executive in education, whether principal or superintendent, has often become in fact a manager. As a result there has crept into organized education the labor-manager idea to the detriment of teaching. Conflicts between administration and instruction are not unusual and a unified professional front frequently is lacking. This repressive in¬ fluence on teacher intelligence and initiative is most unfortunate. Significant efforts are being made, however, to interpret the implications of democracy for school administration. Now, the Yearbook Commission recognized fully the significance of the American educational system in our national life ; it was well aware of the difficulties wffiich have been surmounted in organizing a program of uni¬ versal public education ; it was cognizant of the vision and effort required to develop the present program of education. But, in evaluating the present educational program, it seemed necessary to the Commission to reach this conclusion : “The chief obstacle to the functioning of education as a means of directing social change lies in the fact that organized education has thus far tended to inculcate information and attitudes which resist social change. . .” The time may well be ripe for a period of highly significant educational advance. The present search for a generally acceptable direction of educa¬ tional development, the widespread concern for enlarging the social under¬ standing and vision of teachers, and efforts to organize the school so as to liberate the intelligence of teachers, provide a stimulus that will inevitably lead far beyond the existing program. Department of Superintendence 491 The American school may now be confronted with possibilities such as have never been faced before of becoming an effective instrument for inter¬ preting, perpetuating, and improving in actual living conditions in Amer¬ ican life, the highest ideals and practises of democracy. THE FUTURE OF EDUCATION FREDERICK H. BAIR, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BRONXVILLE, N. Y. The kind of education we shall have in the future depends upon the kind of society we shall have. The nature of the society of the future is in very sharp issue. Two opposed ways of life are vigorously operative upon a world stage, and that way to which we were born seems to be in general retreat. A shallow view, apparently accepted by much that is current even in our own press, would persuade us that the alternative lies between fascism and communism. Here is no true choice; so far as both fascism and communism rest on the imposition of the will of minorities by force, they are equally alien and abhorrent. The bedrock division ought to be plain to any man or woman reared in the American tradition ; it is between the principles of authoritarianism and democracy — between compulsion and liberty — as ways of life for mankind. It must be equally plain that the whole future of education hangs upon which of these two principles shall prevail. The makers of the 1937 Yearbook believe that, on this issue, there can be no question where the people of the United States will take their stand. They will stand for raising the dignity and significance of human life by the exercise of responsible freedom. The Yearbook Commission believes that it is the business of this Department, to the fullest extent of its power, to dedicate and direct the processes of edu¬ cation, as never before, to informed faith in, and effective implementation of, a democracy that justifies itself by its works, at home and abroad. Only as we succeed in this crucial task can there be any future for education. If democracy, as we know it, fails, all hope for education, as we know it, will fail as well. If we have the will to so dedicate the processes of education, our procedure would appear to be sufficiently clear. We must first of all make certain that we are agreed, for working purposes, upon the essential elements of the democratic principle. We must then search out, beginning with our own country, the incidence of strength and weakness in the application of that principle to our society, and we must study how to deal with conditions as we find them, practically and consistently, in the light of that principle. In doing so, the Commission is persuaded that we shall become convinced, in our international relations, that the principle is of universal application, and that the only enduring basis of world peace and welfare is to treat our neighboring peoples (as we have not always done in the past — notably in the Versailles Treaty) as we would wish to be treated as a people. “We must first of all make certain that we are agreed upon the essential nature and elements of the democratic principle.” Edmund Day, the new president of Cornell University, says that the essence of democracy is a broad 492 National Education Association and inclusive humanitarianism, which commits itself to the rule of the major¬ ity and to the methods of peaceful persuasion, and abjures the use of force or violence except against those who would employ violence or murder to destroy or subjugate it. The essence of democracy — let me repeat Dr. Day’s formulation — is a broad and inclusive humanitarianism which commits itself to the rule of the majority and the methods of peaceful persuasion, and abjures the use of force except in a single case — against those who would use force or violence to destroy. The President’s Committee on Administrative Management, composed of Louis Brownlow, Luther Gulick, and Charles E. Merriam, in its report dated January 8, 1937, a report, by the way, which every superintendent of schools in the United States should get, defines the principle in different words : Our American government rests upon the truth that the general interest is superior to and has priority over any special or private interest, and that the final decision in matters of common interest to the Nation should be made by free choice of the people of the Nation, expressed in such manner as they shall from time to time provide, and enforced by such agencies as they shall from time to time set up. Our goal is the constant raising of the level of the happiness and dignity of human life, the steady sharing of the gains of our Nation, whether material or spiritual, among those who make the Nation what it is. This, then, is the essential nature of the democratic principle — a principle which represents at once the highest faith of our fathers and the guarantee of liberty for our children and our children’s education. It is incomparably the first business of education to see that this principle shall be understood — understood, incorporated, and applied with informed, considered, and relent¬ less consistency by the whole body of our citizenship. The first business of education is to look to it “that this country, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, and for the people shall not perish from the earth.” “We must then search out, beginning with our own country, the incidence of strength and weakness in the application of the democratic principle to our society, and we must study to deal with conditions as we find them by the consistent application of that principle.” At this point, a great many people in America raise the questions: Is this any business of the schools? Are school teachers equipped to deal with such matters? The fact that so many persons and so many interests can raise these questions in itself is immensely revealing of the lack of integrity, of wholeheartedness, which helps to paralyze the democratic principle in its candid and consistent application. What more important business have the schools of a democracy than to promote, defend, and improve democracy? And if indeed teachers are ill-equipped to deal with the application of the democratic principle to our contemporary society, what shall we say of the patriotism, of the motives and sincerity of citizens who tolerate and cite with complacency any such condition; who, arguing that the schools are undermanned and undermined, can propose nothing more constructive than that they be mute in dealing with what, for this Republic, are the very issues of life ? Department of Superintendence 493 On this point, the 1937 Yearbook has the following to say: Many voices oppose public education today. Especially pronounced is the opposi¬ tion to school studies which tend to throw light upon the causes of depression and resulting unemployment and low standards of living. ... If the schools are not to become a propaganda machine to teach the economic and political science of special interests, it is essential that they adhere to the ideals of American democracy . . . [practising] the right and duty of the school to discuss community and national affairs fully and frankly. The text then quotes Dean William F. Russell of Teachers College, Columbia University, in his report for the year ending June 30, 1935, thus: It will be necessary to change the popular attitude toward what is taught in the American school. For many years past it has been our custom to exclude from the public school any consideration of such questions as may reflect a common division of opinion. ... In some communities where there are two or more powerful camps holding conflicting opinions about the cause of disease, the courses in hygiene are emasculated. This policy, carried to its logical conclusion, would reduce the course of study to mathematics, dead languages, and archeology. Further, the Yearbook states: Of the voices opposing public education, many are almost forthright in their repudiation of the democratic ideal, especially that phase of it stressing freedom of speech and press. ... If we believe in democracy as our forefathers believed in it, we must take stock of the part the school must play in its regeneration and preserva¬ tion. We do not know what the schools of the future will produce, but it is evident that if democracy is to be preserved they must effect a juncture of superior knowl¬ edge and experience in the solution of pressing economic and political problems. The profound issue in America is whether the vast economic and social forces which the science and technology of the century have brought into the world can be democratically controlled in the interest of all the people, or whether that control must rest in the hands of a few to serve the special interests of a few. Thus modern conditions create the period of crisis for democracy in America as in Europe. Whether our democracy will continue and whether it can effectively control the far-reaching economic and social forces depend in large measure upon the character of American education. The public schools of the past in this country grew up in a society of agrarian democracy. The schools of the present are struggling in a society which has developed, within its framework of political democracy, immense forms of economic oligarchy so influential as to constitute a new force in history. Experience shows that these social forces, in their present juxta¬ position, are incompatible. Either political government must serve the ends of industrial organization, or industrial organization and finance must serve the ends of government. If democratic government is to justify itself, if indeed it is to survive, it must subordinate these immense corporate forms, by just, reasoned, and constitutional processes, more truly to the common wel¬ fare. We believe that this will be done. In the doing, the public schools should play a conservative part, heading off a lurch into fascism on the one hand and a violent and wasteful revolu¬ tion on the other. They should play this part not by preaching a particular utopia of which they have the inspired blueprint, but by steady and effective adherence to the democratic principle which depends upon the will of the 494 National Education Association majority, expressed within the constitutional framework and consistently practising persuasion as against force and violence. It is the business of the schools to see that the will of the majority is disciplined by sound training, illuminated by historical and correct knowledge, and enlarged and human¬ ized by saturation in the democratic principle. The public schools were born of democracy; they are the best instrument and truest hope of democracy in the world today. We believe that the education of tomorrow must serve a democracy, industrial, financial, political, and social, more consistent, better trained and disciplined, more generally prosperous and happy, and consequently more stable and indestructible, than has yet been realized upon this continent. We schoolmen, if we are honest and worthy in the face of this world- crisis for humanity, must admit that we need most of all to be born again into the best of the American tradition. Education for effective democracy, in the face of conditions at home and abroad, is more than a job; it is more than a profession; it is a crusade. It is a race against catastrophe too immi¬ nent and too abysmal to be countenanced for the children we teach. What are the social weaknesses with which we have to deal? Why do we have a split philosophy, unemployment, imminent war, industrial dictatorships, maldistribution of wealth, child labor, industrial strife, occupational mis¬ fits, preventable accidents, sickness and death, tragic and dependent old age? Are the schools doing and have they done in the past all that they can to combat these diseases? We know that they are not, that they have not, and our task is to go out in our own communities to lead them in the great work which is inescapable if we are to be worthy of the challenge that is upon us. “Every high-school boy and girl should be informed,” says the Yearbook, “of the facts about business cycles, unemployment, inequalities in the distribution of wealth, the extent and causes of industrial strife, the prevalence and reasons for child labor, the disgraceful housing conditions of the poor, the hardships wrought by sickness and accident, the possibilities and actualities of protection thru insurance, and a host of allied facts which, taken all together, give a complete picture of American economic life. And just as important, if not even more so, is the teaching of what could be. Not nebulous notions of a millennium so far distant in time and space as to fall into the never-to-be-realized category of wishful thinking, but ‘here and now’ possibilities stated in terms of existing facilities and conservative esti¬ mates of what could be practically and easily achieved by real economic cooperation.” And not only every high-school boy and girl, but every mature citizen should, thru education, have put at his hand the means of informing himself and acting accordingly in the great battle of democracy to realize itself in enduring terms upon the earth. The education of the future, for America, must be as never before, educa¬ tion for democracy, education in the essential faith and principle of democ¬ racy, and education in its day-by-day operation as applied with advancingly trained competence and integrity to the general welfare. Department of Superintendence 495 THE IMPORTANCE OF A POINT OF VIEW IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION JESSE H. NEWLON, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. We have but to look around us to see how crucial is the control and administration of education in the world today. The decisions of a school superintendent or a university president are influenced quite as much by his social and educational point of view as are the decisions of a court by the point of view of the judge. If the social outlook of the justices of the Supreme Court is of vital importance in the development of democracy in the United States, the point of view of the educational administrator is of greater importance, for education is the very life-giving principle of democ¬ racy. If education is perverted, democracy is poisoned at its source. One of the most important social facts of the modern world is the great national systems of popular education created in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. This is particularly true in the United States where education is universal at the elementary and secondary level, where over a million youth are attending institutions of higher education, where a million persons are engaged in teaching, where the expenditures for education are nearly three billion dollars. It wTould be difficult to exaggerate the importance of this system of education in molding the minds of the people. Every individual is touched and influenced by these schools. In what direction shall this influence be exerted ? This is a question of grave national import, for we can see that popular education is today employed for widely different social purposes in the countries of the Western world. Russia is developing a vast system of schools as one of the most effective instruments in building Socialism. In Italy and Germany and the other authoritarian states of Europe the educational systems have been bent to the will of the dictators. The purposes and methods of education in these authoritarian states differ widely from the purposes and methods of educa¬ tion in the democratic countries. If we should examine education in the authoritarian states, we would find that in every instance the method of administration is an exact corollary of the purpose to be achieved, and that method of administration could not be changed without affecting purpose and results. How should democracy’s schools be administered? What should be the point of view and the methods of administration and of the administrator? Of education it is peculiarly true that ends and means cannot be separated. Method should be chosen in the light of the ends to be achieved, for out¬ comes are affected, often entirely controlled, by method. It is obvious that the kind of education that will serve the purposes of the ruling oligarchy in an authoritarian state is not the kind of education that will serve the purposes of a democracy. Indeed, we who believe in democracy hold that blind acceptance of absolutes, the inculcation of unquestioning obedience 496 National Education Association to authority is not, in the true sense of the word, education. We regard such teaching as only conditioning, training in the worst sense of those words. Such education does not seek to develop a rational thinking individual who will judge institutions and social policies solely by the extent to which they serve the needs of individuals. For in a democracy institutions are regarded as instruments, not sacred, but to be altered in accordance with human needs. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that educational administration is always instrumental. Its sole purpose should be to facilitate the educative process. If administration is to facilitate the educative process, it must har¬ monize with the educative process which it serves. If schools are to serve the purposes of democracy, they must be administered so that these purposes will be served ; for it is possible so to operate a school as to defeat the purposes of democracy. Democracy’s school must be controlled by the people in the interests of the people. Its internal administration must likewise harmonize with the purposes and principles of democracy. In the critical period upon which the Western world is now entering, democracv itself is on trial. Powerful voices and influences have been raised against democracy. We are told that parliamentary government is not efficient, that it cannot function in a crisis ; and that there has been some truth in these criticisms cannot be denied. Since the World War, parlia¬ mentary government has been overthrown in a majority of the countries of Europe. It is the economic problem that is most critical. E-nless democracy can solve this economic problem, of which the depression is only a phase, unless it can bring economic security and justice to all the people of our country, its days on this continent are numbered. Desirable economic and social changes can be effected with sufficient rapidity to avert violence or ruthless oppression only if all the people have access at all times to all the facts concerning economic and social conditions. The only salvation of democracy is to keep pure and undefiled the springs of knowledge and the agencies of communication — the school, the press, the radio, the theater. Never was free public education so essential as today. An educational system that was not intellectually free and that did not in all its practises embody the ideals of democracy would be worse than useless. It would be a menace to the American people. National systems of education can be employed and are today being em¬ ployed to keep peoples in ignorance, to condition them to accept their fate by withholding and distorting information, by the clever use of symbols, and by the manipulation of stereotypes. It would be dangerous to assume that what has happened in some of the most advanced European countries could not happen here. It must be perfectly obvious, even to the casual observer, that American schools could be so controlled and administered as to defeat the very purposes for which they were created. For example, a school so much under the dominance of one class or group in the community that teachers and students are not permitted to study objectively issues affecting the relation of this class to the whole community, cannot serve the whole community. Such a school serves only to protect private and vested interests. Such a school is under authoritarian control, just as much as any Department of Superintendence 497 school in any fascist state. Again, a school in which all of the fundamental thinking and planning are done by a board representing a privileged group or class, or by one person, whether principal, superintendent, dean, or presi¬ dent, or by a small group surrounding the board and the chief executive officer, while teachers have but little share in the formulation of policies, cannot serve democracy. It is fantastic to believe that teachers who have no share in the development of policies, who are not permitted to think for themselves, can teach others to think for themselves. Some will say, and some do say, that no school can be efficient where every teacher is an administrator. Apparently some can think of democracy in administration only in terms of a town meeting procedure. The problem of efficiency is one that must be squarely met, but there is much confused think¬ ing about this problem. Efficiency has been a passion of the American people, and it is an ideal that is not lightly to be despised ; but we have not been equally efficient in all departments of life. Our social engineering has by no means attained to the level of the efficiency of our technological and in¬ dustrial processes. In our passion for educational efficiency we have pat¬ terned the administration of schools too largely after the administration of industry. Educational administration undoubtedly has much to learn from business. But the efficiency of an enterprise can be judged only in the light of its purposes. Methods of administration that make for efficiency in one enterprise may, in another of different character, be disastrous. We do not solve our problem by taking over bodily the practises of business and applying them uncritically to education. For, after all, a school is some¬ thing different from a factory. This borrowing from business no doubt ex¬ plains much of the authoritarianism and opportunism that so often charac¬ terize educational administration in this country. The administration of business and industry has been autocratic — often to the disadvantage of those concerned, it now appears. Vaguely aware of the vital issues at stake, we in education have frequently given lip service to democracy, while our practises have not squared with our professed ideals. More often, I think, we have in a period of prosperity and rapid educational expansion simply been indifferent to the basic problems of educational administration. More specifically, then, what does the democratic ideal demand with respect to the administration of education? Three controlling factors must be briefly considered — lay control, internal administration, and the distinc¬ tion between policy-making and administration. Public control of American schools is exercised by lay boards usually elected at large by the community, sometimes appointed by mayors or other governmental authorities. Privately endowed institutions are generally con¬ trolled by self-perpetuating boards of trustees. In many ways American education has been fortunate in its lay boards of control. Our schools are in large measure a monument to the unrequited service of the host of citizens who, thru over a century, have served so devotedly on these boards. How¬ ever, as various studies have shown, the members of these boards are today drawn almost entirely from the more favored classes of the community. The boards of trustees of privately endowed schools are drawn largely from 498 National Education Association the ranks of wealth. There is much to give us pause here. It is inevitable that consciously or otherwise each of us is deeply affected by his environment, by his life experiences, by his own interests; and when an individual takes his place on a board of trustees of a university or of a school system, he takes with him his way of looking at life. It is not surprising, then, in view of these facts, that many members of boards of control are prone to look with distrust upon a school that attempts an objective and critical examina¬ tion of the economic and social status quo, and an evaluation of economic conditions in the light of the democratic ideal. This state of affairs explains, in considerable measure, the failure of so many schools to include in their curriculums adequate study of many of the vital problems of American democracy, the fear of teachers to enter the realm of controversial social issues. Teachers have even been driven out of schools and universities be¬ cause of their social views, or because their investigations led them to call in question some aspects of the social status quo. If American schools are to serve the purposes of democracy, they must be free, and to that end it is essential that boards of control know the value of freedom of teaching. The interests of democracy demand that these lay governing boards be representative of the interests of the entire community, sensitive to the needs and welfare of the masses of the people and not merely representative of the more favored group in our society. This is the first basic principle. The second basic principle is that all who are concerned with carrying out a policy or are directly affected by a policy should participate to the extent of their respective abilities in the formulation of that policy. This involves, of course, more than teachers and teacher participation ; but it is primarily with teachers that I am concerned. Why do the interests of democracy demand that teachers participate in the formulation of policies? First, because it is in the public interest that every important source of experience and knowledge be tapped in developing the program and pro¬ cedures of the school. Teachers who must carry out policies have, out of their study and extensive first-hand experience, invaluable contributions to make to the formulation of those policies. Teacher participation results in better policies. Teacher participation also results in better teachers. Where teachers attack fundamental problems, where genuine responsibilities are placed upon them, they grow in understanding, in capacity to stimulate others to intellectual activity. What are the limits of teacher participation? At the moment I can think of no function or service with which this participation should not be con¬ cerned. Teachers have contributions to make, not only in the development of policies with reference to curriculums and methods, but with reference to budgets, personnel, salaries, buildings, equipment, types of schools, home and community relationships, every aspect of the operation of the schools. It is impossible here to go into a discussion of the machinery of participation, but I would insist that it must be genuine, and that in the future it must be regularized. If necessary, the principles of teacher participation must be written into the statutes of the state, certainly into the rules of boards of Department of Superintendence 499 education. It should be impossible for any executive officer to recommend important policies to a governing board or to the public without having first consulted those in the system who have any contribution to make in the formulation of that policy, or are seriously affected by it. We have been tending definitely in the direction of teacher participation for three decades and we have learned much about the technics of this participation. It is sadly true, however, that many schools have been but little affected by this point of view in administration. And this state of affairs is a serious threat to democracy. This brings us to the third basic principle. It is obvious that there is a difference between the function of administration and the function of policy¬ making and that there must be a separation of the two functions. This is the key to the whole problem of efficiency. Those who say that democracy in administration is anarchic and inefficient, that no school can be effective in. which every teacher is an administrator, have failed to understand the nature of the democratic process in the formulation of policies. In the formu¬ lation of policy, opportunity should be given to everyone to contribute. This process of participation can be planned, delegated, and even divided so that it will not be unduly time-consuming or burdensome. Once a policy is deter¬ mined upon, it should be the responsibility of the administrator to carry out this policy, and the authority of the administrator should equal the responsibility imposed upon him. The principle of democracy in administration, then, does not do away with the responsible executive. But when this principle is applied, the task of the administrator becomes of immeasurably greater importance. The administrator becomes something more than a business manager or a plant superintendent working under the orders of a board of directors. The democratic principle lifts the task of administration to the plane of states¬ manship. It must be pointed out that the administrator, under this point of view, continues to be a policy-maker. It is his peculiar responsibility to make recommendations to governing boards and to the public. He will contribute to the extent of his ability in the development of these policies. If he is able, his contribution may outweigh that of all others. But the process of develop¬ ment is, just the same, a cooperative process. It must be noted, too, that the teacher is also an administrator, just as the administrator is a policy-maker and a teacher. The teacher is charged with the administration of policies as these affect the students for whose guidance he is responsible. It is impossible to draw a hard and fast line between administrator and teacher. But it is possible and essential to separate the function of policy-making from the function of administration. There is a corollary to these principles which is so important as to require mention here. The principle of delegation is also fundamental. In this country authority is delegated by the people to the board of control and by the board of control to the executive. The inefficiency of schools can often be traced to failure of the board to delegate to the executive authority com¬ mensurate with his responsibility. But this delegation must also extend to 500 National Education Association other administrative and supervisory officers, and to teachers. Democracy cannot function where there is mutual distrust between administrators and teachers. It is just as important that the teacher have authority commensurate with his responsibility as it is that the superintendent have such authority. This means, for example, that the teacher should have wide discretion in deciding what materials of instruction and what methods he is to employ. Rigidly prescribed detailed courses of study and meticulous supervision were long ago outmoded and should be banished from American public schools. Such procedures make of teachers little more than robots. The teacher must be set free if he is to work as a truly professional person. The teacher should in turn accept the responsibilities of his post wholeheartedly, recognizing that while policies are to be cooperatively made, once made it is his respon¬ sibility to carry them out wholeheartedly. At the same time, policies should always be subject to revision in the light of experience and of new knowledge. Wh at I have been saying has been concerned primarily with internal administration, but there is another side of the picture. The million teachers of the United States have a collective social responsibility in addition to their responsibilities within the various school systems in which they work, for they constitute one of the great functional groups of American society. The public is looking more and more to teachers for advice and counsel with reference to the development of educational policies. This counsel can be made effective only thru teachers organizations. Since educational policy cannot be separated from general social policy, this means that teachers have the responsibility of sharing collectively in the development of broad social and economic policies for our country. Organized teachers have as much right and as great a responsibility to participate in the development of these policies as have organized farmers, organized lawyers, organized labor, or organized business. All signs, including the 1936 presidential election, seem to indicate that the people are becoming more sensitive to the impor¬ tance of education and that political parties and political leaders are begin¬ ning to take serious account of the views of the organized teaching profession. If teachers have responsibilities which can be discharged only thru organization, it follows that administration should recognize the place and function of teachers organizations in the development of policies. Teachers should be free to form their own organizations, and the individual teacher should be free to affiliate with the organization of his own choice. These organizations have a tremendous part to play in the educational and social reconstruction which is impending in this country. If teachers really accept the democratic ideal, they will find themselves compelled to cooperate collec¬ tively with those groups, occupational and political, in our society that are struggling to uphold and to achieve this ideal in our economic, political, and social life. This is a responsibility that must be squarely met by the National Education Association, and by all of its great departments, and by every other educational association in the country. I have said that adminis¬ tration must recognize this collective function of the profession. The admin¬ istrator should welcome the opportunity to work cooperatively with or¬ ganized teachers. The administrator will, of course, as teacher, participate Department of Superintendence 501 in this function. And, may I add in passing, that he will find his own greatest professional security in such constructive cooperation and leadership. There is, of course, nothing sacred about the machinery which the people have set up for the control of schools. There is no reason why the actual control and administration of education should not be reposed more largely in the hands of the profession itself, and it is my prediction that we shall move definitely in that direction. If English universities can be controlled and administered without lay boards of business men, is it not pertinent to ask, why American universities cannot be similarly controlled and ad¬ ministered? I will grant without argument that the lay board of control has an important contribution to make in this country, but it must also be obvious that the proper functions of a lay board are limited. The pur¬ poses of democracy will be better served if the educational profession is given a larger share in the actual control of schools. And the teachers of the country may be trusted by the public to do all in their power to preserve and make a reality the ideals of democracy. We live at a critical time in the history of our country. That far-reaching economic, political, and social changes are impending is patent to all students of social affairs and is, I think, rather clearly sensed by the masses of the people. Will the L nited States travel the road of violence and of tyranny, or will those economic and political changes essential to the preserva¬ tion and fulfilment of democracy be effected in an orderly fashion thru our democratic machinery of government? This is the problem, no less, that confronts the educational administrator, for a particular kind of education is indispensable to orderly change in the direction of democracy. I believe there is much in our recent history to give us hope that the democratic way, which is the American way, can prevail. I make bold to say that the forces of democracy have triumphed over the forces of reaction in these depression years. But the battle has not yet been won. Education, adequate education for all, old and young, can be the only guarantee of victory for the forces of democracy. The conclusion of all this is that point of view makes all the difference in the world in the administration of schools. Even* school is administered from some point of view. Even* administrator operates from some point of view. In an authoritarian state both policy-making and administration proceed from the top down. Obedience and submission are exalted. In a democracy the procedure is reversed. In a democracy the values of the free play of intelligence and of cooperation are exalted. Upon educational administrators, then, more than upon any other group, rests the ultimate decision as to whether our schools will, in the uncertain years ahead, actually serve the purposes for which they were established. * There are many signs that educational administrators are responding to this challenge. The program of this convention is evidence of this spirit. While the dangers ahead are great, the outlook for American education is today more encouraging than for a long time, because its leaders are more sensitive to these dangers and have a deeper understanding of the function of social intelligence in a democracy. 502 National Education Association THE PROSPECT OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY GEORGE S. COUNTS, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. I selected this topic last summer. As I traveled thru Europe during these past six months, I had it continually in mind. I was interested in seeing whether I could get any light on our problems from the European situation. Anyone traveling in Europe today is, of necessity, greatly impressed by the extreme tension of life on that continent, and that continent reaches from the Atlantic to the Pacific. I am convinced that American democracy, as well as democracy in other parts of the world, faces very difficult times, a very difficult period in the years ahead, and I think we are going to be forced to go back and examine our history and find out in our generation more clearly perhaps than we see it today, what democracy is, that is, what American democracy is, what its chances are. I do not mean to suggest that I have found a solution here or that I am going to give you the answer to all the questions. The New York Times for February 12 of this year, the day on which the present paper was begun, carried a dispatch from its special correspondent in Warsaw reporting the launching of a program for the establishment of “an authoritarian one-party State” on the Fascist model. This program, according to the correspondent, “provides for the creation of one totalitarian, authoritarian, and apparently self-perpetuating political organization that will ultimately supplant the political parties of the moribund Polish democracy.” Those are the words of the correspondent and they are words heard very often in Europe. Reference is made to this news from Poland, not because it is important in itself, but rather because the reported development in that distressed country is symptomatic of a world tendency. Everywhere democracy seems to be on the defensive or in retreat. You go to Europe and you will see that that is the situation. Anyone who wants to defend democracy in Europe has a hard time of it. During the past six months the democratically elected government of Spain — and Americans ought not to forget that government was demo¬ cratically elected — has been fighting for its life against the aggressive designs and even invading armies of two Fascist states, officially supported and blessed by the most powerful authoritarian ecclesiastical organization in the contemporary world. That this aggression is neither known, understood, nor sanctioned by the vast majority of German .and Italian citizens and by members of the church, makes it the more terrifying. And the remaining democracies, torn by internal doubts and class conflicts, stand idly by watch¬ ing the rape of a heroic people by foreign adventurers and mercenaries, hoping against hope that the spirit of aggression will perish of overfeeding. One is reminded of the paradoxical observation of H. N. Brailsford in his Property or Peace that the democratic governments of Western Europe, had they not been democracies, “might have saved democracy in Germany with Department of Superintendence 503 comparative ease.” And today in a guide to history teaching in German schools, it is categorically stated that : “The experience of history and the findings of racial science teach us that democracy has always been the polit¬ ical form of the racial decline of a creative people.” But the purpose of this paper is not to consider the prospect of democracy in the world at large. The concern here is with the situation in the United States. Yet it must be remembered that America is an integral part of world and particularly of Western civilization. This means that the American people, sheltered tho they are by the waters of the Atlantic and the Pacific, cannot be indifferent to undemocratic tendencies elsewhere. Sooner or later such tendencies are likely to affect them. Indeed, little discernment is re¬ quired to detect the beginnings of an attack upon democracy in the United States. During recent years, and particularly in the course of the last presidential election, un-democratic forces were peculiarly blatant. Now, I am not giving a blanket endorsement at all to Roosevelt and the Roosevelt Administration. I have been very critical of that Administration. But I think anyone looking at the record, is forced to come to that conclusion. The fact that they commonly spoke about the defense of “the American system” should confuse no one. However, that they did succeed in confusing great numbers of citizens, shows how urgent is the necessity of conducting a nationwide and intensive program of education respecting the meaning, the conditions, the history, and the prospects of American democracy. I am not criticizing here those who opposed the Roosevelt Administration. I am raising the question as to the methods that were used in that opposition. It is no exaggeration to say that in all probability the generation im¬ mediately ahead will be called upon to decide whether American democracy is to survive and if so, in what form. To teach blind loyalty to its traditional machinery, without giving insight into its character and spirit, is doubtless the surest way to destroy it. The authenticity of American democracy, whatever may have been its defects and limitations, cannot be successfully disputed. For generations the North American continent has been the scene of a bold and humane experi¬ ment in the field of human relationships. At any rate, such has been the conviction of the American people themselves and of ordinary men and women thruout the world. The fact that during the single century from 1820 to 1920 more than thirty million persons crossed the Atlantic, often in the face of great hardships, is sufficient testimony to the reality of this con¬ viction. To be sure, the unbounded economic opportunities of the country played a most significant role in this greatest migration of history, but those opportunities were the product of economic and political institutions, of prevailing conceptions of society and of human worth, no less than of geography. At the heart of American democracy is a great ethical conception, a con¬ ception that can be traced back to the beginnings of recorded history (how¬ ever faint those traces may be) that has grown out of the deepest experiences 504 National Education Association of common men and women ; that has found expression in the lives and thoughts of the greatest prophets of the race, and has constituted the central ethical tradition of Christianity and other great religious movements; that has expressed, motivated, and rendered significant innumerable struggles against tyranny and oppression ; that in fond belief distinguishes civilization from barbarism and humankind from the brute — the conception of the fundamental equality, fraternity, and moral worth of all men. This conception, present in that culture which the emigrants of the Old World brought to the New, found conditions in America peculiarly favor¬ able for its development and flowering. In imperishable form it was ex¬ pressed in that greatest of all American moral documents — the Declaration of Independence. That document was not only a political document ; it was, first of all, in my estimation a great moral and ethical document. Altho, in the case of various racial and class elements in the population, the doctrine has been grossly violated again and again, even those who have profaned it in deed have generally hesitated to denounce it in word. They have had to pay some service to it, even tho it may be lip service, because it is so deeply rooted among us. Today it is one of the most deeply cherished elements in the spiritual heritage of the American people. It is true, of course, that the conception of human equality has been attacked in recent years in the name of science. Persons engaged in the measurement of human traits, impressed by the great variability within the race, have contended that Thomas Jefferson did not know what he was talking about and have pressed for a repeal of the Declaration. But these gentlemen miss the point completely. The sage of Monticello was by no means unaware of the physical and psychological differences among men. He was merely asserting that the experience of the race has shown that the principle of equality in human relationships is the only safe guide to the decent and civilized ordering of life — as necessary, paradoxically, to the full moral development of the strong as of the weak. He was but giving practical expression to the imperative of Immanuel Kant: “So act as to treat humanity, whether in thine own person or in that of any other, as an end withal, never as a means only.” And who, glancing about the world today, can take serious issue with this position? Let the principle of inequality be accepted and the way is wide open for the moral justification of the most grievous forms of exploitation — the shooting down of strikers, the driving of the Jews back into the Ghetto, the showering of poison gas on the Ethiopians, and the deification of dictators. American democracy, however, was not merely a conception of equality. If it had been no more than that, it would have had no substance; it would have been a pure abstraction. To the extent that American democracy was real, it was expressed in the customs, the institutions, the modes of life of the American people. And for those who are concerned about the future of democracy in this country, who desire to help guide democracy thru the difficult years ahead, the beginning of wisdom lies in the recognition of the fact that historically American democracy assumed three forms: economic, social, and political. To identify democracy wholly with its political mani- Department of Superintendence 505 festation, important as that is, would be to play into the hands of those who would destroy it. The most fundamental form of early American democracy was economic. Altho an effort was made in the Colonial settlements along the Atlantic during the seventeenth century to introduce feudal arrangements, the effort was not successful. The impact of conditions of life on the new continent — the distance from the mother country, the abundance of land and natural resources, the primitive forms of transportation and communication, the almost universal necessity of manual labor, and the absence of both the material and spiritual manifestations of an old and settled community — resulted in the development of an economy that, strictly speaking, was neither feudal nor capitalistic. In the days of the founding fathers and until the rise of the present industrial order, America, for the most part, was a land of freehold farmers living a life of relative self-sufficiency and independence. In the Consti¬ tutional Convention, Gouverneur Morris stated that nine-tenths of the population belonged to this category. There were, to be sure, slave-owners in the South, money lenders in the North, land speculators everywhere, and a budding commercial class in the towns. But for the period and in com¬ parison with other countries, the American economy was characterized by an extraordinary measure of equality. Just over a hundred years ago there came to America a brilliant young Frenchman by the name of Alexis de Tocqueville. This young man traveled widely thru the states, observed closely institutions and modes of life, and returned to France to write his Democracy in America which remains, in my judgment, to this day the most penetrating study of civilization in the United States ever made by a foreign student. De Tocqueville begins his great work with a reference not to politics, but to economics, quoting his initial paragraph, and, remember, this was a hundred years ago: Amongst the novel objects that attracted my attention during my stay in the United States, nothing struck me more forcibly than the general equality of condi¬ tion among the people. I readily discovered the prodigious influence which this primary fact exercises on the whole course of society; it gives a peculiar direction to public opinion, and a peculiar tenor to the laws; it imparts new maxims to the governing authorities, and peculiar habits to the governed. Careful studies of the economy of the period tend to support the con¬ clusions of De Tocqueville, even tho it is conceded that he was inclined to view the young democracy thru somewhat romantic spectacles. A condition of relative economic equality, independence, and dignity, founded, to be sure, on hard labor and not a little privation, was the basic fact in the life of the country. And out of this condition the second form or expression of American democracy naturally arose — democracy in the ordinary social re¬ lationships. On the frontier where the past was forgotten ; on the freehold farms, where all men engaged in similar activities ; in the hard struggle with the raw forces of nature, where false pretensions were quickly exposed ; the last vestiges of the feudal mentality were destroyed and there emerged a 506 National Education Association feeling of social equality which has been recorded in that very characteristic American expression, a kind of expression I think you will not find anywhere else in the world: “One man is just as good as another, if not a little better.” Thus did the commoner pay his respects to all who would claim superiority because of family, class, or rank. Nowhere is this sense of social equality expressed more succinctly than in a letter which Benjamin Franklin gave to the English press shortly after the Revolution in response to inquiries from persons interested in migrating to the United States. This letter, entitled “To Those Who Would Remove to America,” contains the following pas¬ sage which could have been written by the citizen of no other country. This is a rather long quotation but I think you will be interested in it. I know of no document which expresses better the American conception of social equality: It cannot be worth any man’s while, who has a means of living at home, to ex¬ patriate himself, in hopes of obtaining a profitable civil office in America; and, as to military offices, they are at an end with the war, the armies being disbanded. Much less is it advisable for a person to go thither, who has no other quality to recommend him but his birth. In Europe it has indeed its value; but it is a com¬ modity that cannot be carried to a worse market than that of America, where people do not inquire concerning a stranger, “What is he?” but “What can he do?” If he has any useful art, he is welcome; and if he exercises it, and behaves well, he will be respected by all that know him; but a mere man of quality, who on that account, wants to live upon the public, by some office or salary, will be despised and dis¬ regarded. The husbandman is an honor there, and even the mechanic, because their employments are useful. The people have a saying — [This is a saying I had never heard until I read Benjamin Franklin.] that God Almighty is himself a mechanic, the greatest in the universe; and he is respected and admired more for the variety, ingenuity, and utility of his handi¬ works, than for the antiquity of his family. They are pleased with the observa¬ tion of a Negro, and frequently mention it, [This also had dropped out of the picture when I was born.] that “Boccarora (meaning the white man) make de black man workee, make de horse workee, make de ox workee, make eberyting workee; only de hog. He, de hog, no workee; he eat, he drink, he walk about, he go to sleep when he please, he live like a gempleman.” [Franklin goes on to say:] According to these opinions of the Americans, [And I just wonder whether Benjamin Franklin would feel at home among us today.] one of them would think himself more obliged to a genealogist who could prove for him that his ancestors and relations for ten generations had been ploughmen, smiths, carpenters, turners, weavers, tanners, or even shoemakers, and conse¬ quently that they were useful members of society; than if he could only prove that they were gentlemen, doing nothing of value, but living idly on the labor of others, mere “fruges consumers nati” [Born merely to eat up the corn.] Department of Superintendence 507 and otherwise “good for nothing,” till by their death their estates, like the carcass of the Negro’s gentleman-hog, come to be “cut up.” There is a very authentic American document. The third manifestation of the principle of equality appeared in the political sphere. Thru the generations, from the da3rs of the early settlements down to the present, the American people, building on traditions brought from the old country, have fought for control over the institutions of government. This struggle, culminating during the epoch of the Revolution and the generation or two immediately following in the rise of Jeffersonian and then Jacksonian democracy, led to the adoption of the Bill of Rights, to universal white man¬ hood suffrage, to the liberation of the Negro, to the civic enfranchisement of women, to the direct control over the executive and legislative branches of the federal government, and today to the effort to make the federal judiciary responsive to popular will and needs. This has been a glorious struggle for human freedom, but the educational profession could render no greater disservice to the American people than to continue to identify democracy exclusively with its political forms. The dependence of political on economic democracy has been clearly stated by Professor J. Franklin Jameson in his The American Revolution Considered as a Social Movement . Just two sentences from his lecture at Princeton: The doctrine which underlies the present lecture is that political democracy came to the United States as a result of economic democracy, that this nation came to be marked by political institutions of a democratic type because it had, still earlier, come to be characterized in its economic life by democratic arrangements and practices. We do not look to see effects precede causes, and certainly political de¬ mocracy came among us somewhat late, certainly long after the Revolution in most states. Why is it that the American people have customarily thought of democracy primarily in political terms? The answer is that they had to fight long and bitterly for the suffrage and generally for popular control over the insti¬ tutions of government, whereas economic and social democracy developed without conscious design in response to the conditions of the settlement and conquest of a fabulously rich continent. The one was the result of their own efforts; the other a gift from the gods. How stands American democracy in its threefold aspect today? Economic democracy, according to the overwhelming testimony of scientific inquiry, is largely a thing of the past. Certainly, if De Tocqueville were to return to the United States today and write a two-volume work on American insti¬ tutions, he would hardly begin his account with a discourse on “the general equality of conditions among the people.” The chances are rather that he might start with some such statement as the following, taken from the study by the Brookings Institution of America's Capacity To Consume: The 11,653,000 families with incomes of less than $1,500 received a total of about 10 billion dollars. At the other extreme, the 36,000 families having incomes in excess of $75,000 possessed an aggregate income of 9.8 billion dollars. Thus it appears that 0.1 percent [not 1 percent but one-tenth of 1 percent] of the families at the top received practically as much as 42 percent of the families at the bottom of the scale. 508 National Education Association And, I think a student of utopia would notice that ! Economic democracy began to decline long before political democracy had fully developed. This decline, moreover, was foreseen in the Constitutional Convention in 1787. “The time is not distant,” said Gouverneur Morris, “when this country will abound with mechanics and manufacturers [using “manufacturer” there in the old sense] who will receive their bread from their employers.” And James Madison predicted that “in future times a great majority of the people will not only be without land, but any sort of property.” A gen¬ eration later De Tocqueville made the following remarkable forecast — it was over a hundred years ago when he wrote as follows : I am of opinion, upon the whole, that the manufacturing aristocracy which is growing up under our eyes is one of the harshest which ever existed in the world; but, at the same time, it is one of the most confined and least dangerous. Neverthe¬ less, the friends of democracy should keep their eyes anxiously fixed in this direc¬ tion; for if ever a permanent inequality of conditions and aristocracy again penetrate into the world, it may be predicted that this is the gate by which they will enter. Not a bad forecast for over a hundred years ago! If economic democracy is largely gone, what may be said of social and political democracy? The former, not being institutionalized, is an extremely tender plant and can scarcely be expected to long survive the disappearance of its economic foun¬ dations. Indeed it is scarcely more than a reflection in the sphere of social relationships of a widespread freehold agriculture in which the young farm¬ hand advanced almost automatically to farm ownership. Political democracy, on the other hand, at least in its outward forms, has continued its forward march down to the present time. It is very doubtful, however, if even this manifestation of democracy can be preserved long after the disappearance of its economic foundations. This brings the analysis to the heart of the social problem now facing the American people. “Is it possible to employ the institutions of political democracy to rebuild the economic substructure along democratic lines?” That is a big question we face and it looks pretty obvious from the other side of the Atlantic! Not, of course, by endeavoring to restore the simple rural economy of a hundred and fifty years ago, manifestly impossible, but by moving ahead to some form of social control of a farflung, complex, and miraculously productive economic mechanism. Clearly the fate of Ameri¬ can democracy hangs on the answer to this question. Thus the task of the present age, tho resembling that of the period of Jefferson and Jackson, is yet fundamentally different. Then an economic democracy conquered political power and placed its stamp on the institutions of government ; today a political democracy is grappling with a financial, commercial, and industrial aristocracy and seeking to fashion the economy in its own image. Can the terms of the democratic equation be thus reversed? It seems highly probable that the generation now in school will decide this issue. That the struggle would be one of great intensity and difficulty was clearly foreseen by John Taylor of Caroline County, Virginia — officer in the Revolutionary armies, member of the United States Senate, friend of Jeffer- Department of Superintendence 509 son, and the most systematic thinker of the old agrarian democracy — a man who should be studied in American schools today. It is amazing how John Taylor has fallen out of the historical picture! In a powerful essay on aristocracy, written in the early years of the nine¬ teenth century, he took the founding fathers to task for giving so much attention to the outlawing of obsolete forms of aristocracy based upon the sword and the oracle, and opening wide the gate to the only threat to democracy of the current epoch — “the aristocracy of paper and patronage,” as he styled it, the aristocracy derived from the manipulation of economic devices and institutions. In pointed epigram he outlined the hazards attend¬ ing any effort to bring this modern aristocracy under control. Let me tell you that if you should introduce into your schools this essay on aristocracy published by John Taylor in 1814, I imagine any of you would lose your jobs. It is one of the most radical documents my eyes have ever come across. When he finished it, he sent it to Jefferson and Jefferson said, “You have certainly pulverized John Adams’ natural aristocracy.” He was writing particularly for John Adams. “The aristocracies of ancient and feudal times,” he said — now, get the acumen of this man — . . . being substantially dead, their bodies may be cut up, the articulation of their bones exposed, and the convolution of their fibers unraveled; but whenever the intricate structure of the system of paper and patronage is attempted to be dis¬ sected, we moderns surrender our intellects to yells uttered by the living monster, similar to those with which its predecessors astonished, deluded, and oppressed the world for three thousand years. The aristocracy of superstition defended itself by exclaiming, the Gods! the temples! the sacred oracles! divine vengeance! and Ely- sian fields! — and that of paper and patronage exclaims, national faith! sacred char¬ ters! disorganization! and security of property! The close relation between economics and politics was well understood by the founding fathers and was debated not only in the Constitutional Con¬ vention of 1787 but also in the state conventions of the period. Nowhere perhaps has the matter been put more concisely and clearly than in the following passage from Daniel Webster’s address before the Massachusetts convention in 1820: The freest government, if it could exist, would not be long acceptable if the tendency of the laws were to create a rapid accumulation of property in few hands, and to render the great mass of the population dependent and penniless. In such a case, the popular power must break in upon the rights of property, or else the in¬ fluence of property must limit and control the exercise of popular power. Universal suffrage, for example, could not long exist in a community where there was great inequality of property. The holders of estates would be obliged in such case, either in some way to restrain the right of suffrage, or else such right of suffrage would ere long divide the property. Of course, I think Webster did not quite foresee the way in which economic power can be transcribed over into instruments of propaganda. He should also have said here, “by a great newspaper.” In the struggle now being waged over the control of economic power, the aristocracy of commerce, finance, and industry will employ every device 510 National Education Association known to demagogy and political manipulation to confuse the issue, to divide the forces of democracy, to set aside the expressed will of the people. And, it is at that point in particular that the schools and all educational agencies have a particular responsibility. They will appeal to and exploit every popular prejudice and sentiment. They will say that the dearest possessions of the American people are in danger of defilement — the Constitution, “the American system,” liberty, democracy, the home, female virtue, the church, and even God Himself ! They will say that the apostles of change are arousing class hatred, turning neighbor against neighbor. That is exactly the line they have followed. They will say that all proposals for fundamental economic and political change are importations from abroad. (That is not a new one at all.) And since thru their title to economic power they will be able to exercise fairly effec¬ tive control over the organs of news and opinion, their strength will be wholly out of proportion to their numbers. For illumination, the American people should go back to the struggle for political democracy at the beginning of the nineteenth century, back to the time of Jefferson as President. The domestic and world situation then was roughly similar to that of today. A great revolution had occurred in Europe, the people were demanding basic reforms, a liberal President had just been inaugurated, and the conservative elements were badly frightened. To the defense of the privileges of aristocracy came Theodore Dwight, a member of the so-called “ruling family” of Connecticut and brother of Timothy Dwight, famous president of Yale College. Theodore Dwight was a man of talent and learning and of unquestioned respectability. Speaking at New Haven on July 7, 1801, before the Society of the Cincinnati, an organization open to officers of the Revolutionary armies and designed to form the beginnings of an American nobility — and remember he had gath¬ ered before him the crowd that was going to be the hereditary nobility of the American states — he struck a note that sounds strangely familiar today. Listen to this. This is not 1937 but 1801 : Yes, my fellow citizens, the outlaws of Europe, the fugitives from the pillory, and the gallows, [The very scum of the world, you see] have undertaken to assist our own abandoned citizens, in the pleasing work of de¬ stroying Connecticut. Scarcely an Aurora appears, without an attempt to accom¬ plish this desirable end. Every Republican Watch-Tower [Another radical paper] bears on its profligate pages, an effort towards the downfall of Connecticut. In the drunken revelings of the fourth of March, over the infuriated cup of Democratic intoxication, has been hiccoughed out the ruin of this devoted state. After developing the theme that “the great object of Jacobinism [a term used about as loosely then as the term Communism is used today, and merely as an epithet], both in its political and moral revolutions, is to destroy every trace of civilization in the world and to force mankind hack into a savage Department of Superintendence 511 state,” he passes from one extravagance to another and finally paints the following picture of the future: We have now reached the consummation of democratic blessedness. We have a country governed by blockheads, and knaves; the ties of marriage, with all its felicities, are severed, and destroyed; our wives, and our daughters are thrown into the stews; [Houses of prostitution] our children are cast into the world from the breast, and forgotten ; [And, remember this was an intelligent man, educated at Yale College] filial piety is extinguished; and our surnames, the only mark of distinction among families, are abolished. Can the imagination paint anything more dreadful on this side of hell ? [Well, he goes on and does it.] Some parts of the subject are, indeed fit only for horrid contemplation. But let me point out to you, the progress of a being through this dreadful society. The offer¬ ing of — he knows not whom; instead of feeding on the nectar of his mother’s bosom, cast out a vagabond among cosmopolites, with hearts harder than adamant, and colder than the frosts of Greenland, to pick a miserable support in a world where charity lets not a crumb fall from her table; trained up without a filial, or a frater¬ nal, sentiment; loving, and beloved by, no human being; ignorant of himself and ignorant of his God; in sickness friendless; in death deserted. What can such a state of society breed but vice; what can it end in but misery? I see nothing in our own period that quite surpasses that. Today American political democracy faces its supreme test. Is it capable of effecting funda¬ mental economic reform and thus of fulfilling the promise of American life in the age of industrialism? The conflicts generated by social change and deep class differences in economic interest may become so bitter that men will abandon democratic political processes rather than surrender their privileges — privileges which they sanctify under the name of “rights” guar¬ anteed by law charters, the order of nature, or the will of God. Their loyalty to their class interests may transcend their loyalty to the democracy. Many students of history and the contemporary world contend that this is inevitable and that as a consequence the processes of political democracy always break down when issues of the kind now facing the American people are to be decided. It may be that the course of events will prove these students correct, but to assume such a conclusion in advance would make certain the appeal to the sword, the establishment of a dictatorship, and the end of American democracy in all its forms. That the teachers of the country are peculiarly loyal to democracy is heyond question. Their disinterested position in the social order, their free¬ dom from the ties of large properties, their devotion to the spread of knowledge and their whole outlook on life, tend to identify them over¬ whelmingly with the guarding of the democratic process. Moreover, the experience of the Old World demonstrates conclusively — and teachers need to get this — that teachers are among the greatest sufferers from the rule of dictators ! 512 National Edltcation Association It is, therefore, obligatory on the profession, in their own interests as well as in the interests of the people as a whole, to consider in the light of the recent history of Europe how the institutions of political democracy can be maintained and made to function effectively in the solution of the grave economic problems which confront the nation. The following five propo¬ sitions would seem to be supported by the evidence. First , government must carry out popular mandates quickly and effec¬ tively. Since, owing to the increasing integration of American life and economy, the major problems of the age are national in scope, not capable of being confined within state boundaries, this proportion is particularly applicable to the federal authority. If elections won at the polls are lost in the machinery of government, if the will of the people is frustrated by checks and balances or by inefficiency in administration, popular faith in political democracy will be destroyed. That certainly is what happened both in Italy and Germany. This is one lesson that the experience of post-War Europe teaches unequivocally. Where democratic institutions have been forsaken, they first proved themselves impotent to deal with distress and to provide honest, effective, and enlightened leadership. Second, the distinction between dictatorship and democracy must be clearly understood. On this point there seems to be much confusion in the public mind. At any rate, the charges of dictatorship which are being hurled at the President of the United States today because of his proposals to make the federal government efficient and sensitive to the popular will, either reflect confusion or are calculated to create confusion. Whether those who make the charges are lacking in political knowledge or are engaged in de¬ liberate misrepresentation, the problem remains much the same. In either event, there are doubtless vast numbers of citizens who really believe that the President is pursuing the course of a European dictator. This, of course, is utter nonsense ! One does not have to live long in a land of autocratic rule in order to detect the falsehood of these charges — charges which contain about as much truth as the charges of Theodore Dwight that the ultimate object of the advance of political democracy under Jefferson was “to destroy every trace of civilization in the world and to force mankind back into a savage state.” The essence of dictatorship is the suspension of all civil liberties and rule by police power. Of this the President has displayed not the slightest trace. In fact, he has been far less guilty than many of his predecessors. Let me make it clear again. I am not an apologist for Franklin D. Roose¬ velt, but I am interested in the social analysis. Third, civil liberties — the rights of free speech, press, assemblage, peti¬ tion, and security of person — must be guarded as the most precious heritage of the democracy. Indeed these liberties, guaranteed in state and federal constitutions, must be more than guarded — they must be achieved ! Unfortunately, today there are important elements of the population to whom these rights are practically denied. This is especially true in the case of freedom of the press. Due to the concentration of economic power Department of Superintendence 513 and the direct or indirect influence of business, the American press, tho in a sense free and admittedly superior in this respect to the press of any other country, can scarcely be said to represent the whole people. The daily news¬ paper, in particular, has tended to become the spokesman and the apologist of a small but powerful minority. This was amply demonstrated in the last presidential election. And, one of the most frequent questions asked me in Europe (after the election), in three or four of the capitals of Europe was, “How was it pos¬ sible for Roosevelt to be elected when 80 or 85 percent of the papers were opposed to him?” And, it is a very interesting question. I told them I wished I might answer that question by saying that we had a great public school system in this country that had taught the American citizens how to read the newspapers. Where are the “Auroras” and “Republican Watch-Towers” which fought the battles of political democracy in the days of Jefferson? The answer, of course, is that with honorable exceptions they have grown fat and become the bulwarks of reaction. Fourth , the police and military power must be a monopoly of government. And, we must watch this point with the clearest of vision. The organization of private armed forces and bands (and this kind of thing has already budded in this country) , the employ of private police in the settlement of civil dis¬ putes (the La Follette investigation has already disclosed some very disturb¬ ing things there), the promotion of military discipline and mentality by political parties and movements, must be nipped in the bud. 'Wherever such tendencies appear, dictatorship may be seen in embryo. This is certainly the experience of the countries of Europe, and America should profit by their example. If government cannot govern, then the forces possessing the will to govern will become the government. A government that permits the police power (even the smallest part of it) to slip from its grasp, has already lost its ability to govern and its right to respect. Fifth , the system of public education must become a more effective positive force in the development of the democracy. It must remain loyal to the great ethical ideal of human equality; organize its own life in harmony with this ideal ; acquaint the rising generation with the full meaning of democracy in American history (one of our great historians has written a volume on the march of democracy; somebody ought to write a great volume on the retreat of American democracy), its changing fortunes not only in politics, but also in economics and social relationships; explore and examine objectively and fearlessly an5r and all proposals for the improvement of American life and institutions; and test every such proposal by the democratic ideal. It is, of course, understood that this entire burden cannot be borne by the school. There must be cooperation with many institutions of adult education which should be much more fully developed. In conclusion, the point should be emphasized that in dealing with the problem of the democratization of economic power, the American people possess certain great assets. And, as I studied that European situation on this journey, I was more and more impressed by the differences between our so- 514 National Education Association ciety and any society on the other side of the Atlantic, not excluding the United Kingdom. Well, here are the great assets we have that make it pos¬ sible to steer the course thru the years ahead without resorting to violence. There will be sporadic violence yet but that is not serious. 1. There is the democratic heritage itself which has taken form thru the gen¬ erations and even the centuries, and which has shaped habits, dispositions, and loyalties. 2. There is the comparative absence of the feudal tradition (and I do not believe you will find a country in Europe without that feudal tradition) with its master and servant relationships, its distinct and mutually exclusive orders, and its attitudes of servility and arrogance which, if disputes arise, drive the ensuing conflict to ex¬ tremes of bitterness and hatred. 3. There is the happy combination of adequate material riches and the most advanced technology which makes easily possible a relative economic abundance and the general moderation of the struggle over economic goods. 4. There is the high cultural and technical level of the population which pro¬ vides a foundation for swift and effective social action if we only care to use it. 5. There is the unrivaled power of the nation which, combined with its isolation from possible enemies, renders its boundaries practically inviolate and frees its people from that fear of aggression which tends to paralyze democratic institutions in many parts of the world. While there are numerous liabilities in the situation, liabilities which have often been enumerated, these positive assets are unquestionably of great sig¬ nificance and give solid ground for the hope of the successful operation of the democratic process on this continent. This, at any rate, is the only hypoth¬ esis on which the American people and American teachers can work at this juncture in their history. And, a final personal note. I have been charged by the head of the institu¬ tion in which I work, a man whom I respect highly, a man who has been under severe fire, and I know it, because he has had in his institution a man like myself who has made some statements in public that are embarrassing. Let me take this opportunity to tell the heads of our great state and city educational systems, the persons who are responsible particularly for the shaping of policies of administration, I think I realize fully the difficulties of your job and I know the great pressures that are brought to bear upon you, and I say that with respect to William F. Russell. But, I have been charged by the head of the institution in which I work, of building utopias. I gladly admit the charge. A map of the world that does not contain the land of Utopia is not worthy of mankind. A world that does not contain this land — a land which from earliest times has given men hope and energy for the endless struggle for life and justice — is not fit for human habitation. An education that would deport the citizens of Utopia would be alien to the his¬ toric spirit of America — a land that thru the generations opened wide its gates to the oppressed and downtrodden of earth — a land which we trust will in the course of time rise to the challenge of her own tradition and re¬ move every cause of oppression from within her borders, even for the least among us ! Department of Superintendence 515 WHAT SECONDARY SCHOOLS SHOULD DO THOMAS H. BRIGGS, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. ; CHAIRMAN, COMMITTEE ON THE ORIENTATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Criticizing secondary education is one of the commonest of indoor sports. Anyone can play, for the sport requires little information, and the high schools have been hammered so much that, conscious of their own deficien¬ cies, they seldom fight back so as to embarrass their critics. One peculiarity of this sport is that the player confines himself to criticism, seldom feeling an obligation to propose with any degree of practical definite¬ ness what the secondary schools ought to do. Ideals of vague generalization — like preparation for citizenship, the inculcation of culture, and teaching youth how to think — are stated as if they were original and novel, whereas high-school teachers have from time immemorial professed those same ideals and have with varying degrees of skill attempted to achieve them. Another peculiarity of this sport is that it is apparently enjoyed even by the teachers who are indirectly criticized. They applaud the eloquence of those who condemn the practises of high schools, attributing blame for con¬ ditions to the public, to requirements of state departments and of colleges, to the students themselves, and to other teachers. They may at times feel a certain sense of personal responsibility and of resentment ; but they have heard the criticism many times before and they know that they do not need to do anything about it. Everybody criticizes, but nobody follows up the criticism with insistent and effective pressure that radical changes in the program be made. It is only fair to recognize that thousands of principals and teachers have been and still are continuously trying to improve the practises of really edu¬ cating American youth. Their efforts have borne fruit, too, as anyone can see who will visit modern schools and observe the work that is being done. There is an immense amount, of course, that is conventionally wooden, mani¬ festing nowhere evidence that anyone — teacher or student — is aware even of the original justification of what is being presented. But this prosaic drudgery is lightened in innumerable instances by skill in instruction, by concreteness, and by illuminating application to current life that justifies a belief that even the teaching of conventional topics is better than it was one or more generations ago and that progress is on the way. Secondary educa¬ tion today may be less thoro than in the past for the few, but it has other virtues that the old teaching seldom ever sought. There are also other commendable evidences of effort to improve the effi¬ ciency of secondary education thru plans for reorganization, provisions for students of differing interests and abilities, and enrichment of the curricu¬ lum, to say nothing of the supplementary activities that have been introduced without the lure of formal credit. All of these efforts we should recognize and give generous credit. The more ingenious they are, the more likely they are to contribute to progress. The more numerous they are, the more readiness is evidenced to participate 516 National Education Association in preparing the new program and to work intelligently toward making it practically effective. The weakness in the attempts to improve the practises of secondary edu¬ cation lies in the fact that there exists no generally known and generally approved outline of a program that should be developed. When every man does what is right in his own sight, often skilfully overcoming the obstacles of tradition, he is feeling his way in a fog rather than intelligently contrib¬ uting to the erection of a structure for which comprehensive plans have been made. In Sea Lore Stanley Rogers writes: “When a ship is rolling down to her scuppers in a heavy gale her passengers grow nervous and begin to regret their past sins, but when the same ship is groping her way slowly thru a thick fog the passengers go to bed and sleep soundly. Yet, paradoxically enough, the greatest peril at sea is the fog. It has been the cause of more disasters than all the storms that ever blew.” “The greatest peril at sea is the fog.” And the greatest peril in education is the fog of uncertainty in which we move. In it destinations cannot be seen ; activities must be largely uncoordinated ; progress can be only guessed at rather than known. However uncomfortable it might be for administrators and teachers alike, far better would be a storm of criticism that blew away the fog and forced every member of the crew to put forth his best efforts toward developing cooperatively a comprehensive program for the care and the education of youth. It is a plan that is needed, based fundamentally on the soundest of prin¬ ciples of society as well as of education, and sufficiently comprehensive to provide for the care of all youth as well as for their education. A program for seconda^r education can never be satisfactorily developed unless it in¬ cludes provisions for boys and girls who are outside the formal schools and unless it articulates harmoniously with the programs for the care and edu¬ cation of children, on the one hand, and on the other, of the young men and women who have advanced beyond the provinces of the secondary schools. Such a plan must provide for every individual. In a democrac)^ there is no one who is not educable. The main foundation stones of the new program already exist in current ideals of education. There have been three obstacles to the effectiveness of our philosophy of education. One is that seldom has it been stated so simply that all who are expected to apply it to practise can understand what it means. There is nothing important in education that cannot be stated in words of one syllable. Turgid and mystifying language usually evidences a lack of clarity and completeness in thinking; it certainly evidences a failure to realize an obligation to influence others. A second obstacle is that much of our philosophy is presented in isolated units with the result that few practi¬ tioners acquire understanding of and devotion to a comprehensive and har¬ monious set of ideals that together must constitute the foundation for any sound building. And the third obstacle, probably the consequence of the first two, is that there has never been developed among American educators a conviction that they should constantly and consistently build on such foun¬ dations as they understand and of which they have professed approval. Much Department of Superintendence 517 of the blame for this negative attitude must be attributed to teachers of edu¬ cation, who have confined their efforts mainly to exposition and abstract evangelism and have neglected to work out cooperatively with prospective administrators and teachers, ways in which the principles can be applied in practise. It would be unfortunate if the proposed fundamental and comprehensive program were considered final and restrictive in nature. We shall never be ready to approve a program that cannot be amended and extended so as to provide for changes in civilization and also for changes in social ideals. But a tentative program developed in outline would indicate the directions in wdiich we should go and would give significance to any unit of procedure, which could then be seen in relation to the whole and thus be evaluated. Nothing has meaning in isolation. Significance is indicated only when a pro¬ posal is seen in relation to other means of achieving a clearly perceived ob¬ jective. The Committee on the Orientation of Secondary Education of the De¬ partment of Secondary School Principals has in its reports presented no comprehensive, well-rounded, and fundamentally justified program for the care and education of youth, but it has attempted to make two contributions of materials out of which such a program can eventually be built. A year ago it presented in its report, Issues of Secondary Education (Bulletin 59), the ten unresolved conflicts between theory and theory or between theory and practise — a report that has been widely read and discussed. The hope is that as a result there will be not only a greater unity of professional opin¬ ion regarding the desirable alternative of each issue but also that there will emerge consciousness of an obligation to develop practises that are indicated by the several positions taken. The Committee this year is presenting in Bulletin 64 of the Department of Secondary School Principals another contribution. The Functions of Secondary Education. Briefly stated, the ten functions are as follows: 1. To continue by definite program, tho in a diminishing degree, the integration of students on an increasingly intellectual level until the desired common knowledge, appreciations, ideals, attitudes, and abilities are firmly fixed. 2. To satisfy the important immediate and probable future needs of the students so far as adolescent maturity permits, guiding the behavior of youth in the light of increasingly remote, but always clearly perceived and appreciated, social and per¬ sonal values. 3. To reveal higher activities of an increasingly specialized type in the major fields of the racial heritage of experience and culture, their significant values for social living, the problems in them of contemporary life, the privileges and duties of each person as an individual and as a member of social groups; to make these fields satisfying and desired by those naturally gifted for success in them, and to give in¬ formation as to the requirements for success in these fields and information as to where further training may be secured. 4. To explore higher and increasingly specialized levels of interests, aptitudes, and capacities, looking toward the direction of students into avenues of study or of work for which they have manifested peculiar fitness. 5. To systematize knowledge previously acquired or being acquired in courses in such ways as to show the significance both of this knowledge and especially of laws 518 National Education Association and principles, with understanding of wider ranges of application than would otherwise be perceived. 6. To establish and to develop interests in the major fields of human activity as means to happiness, to social progress, and to continued growth. 7. To guide students on the basis of exploratory and revealing courses and of other information gathered from personnel studies, as wisely as possible into whole¬ some and worthwhile social relationships, maximum personality adjustment, and advanced study or vocations in which they are most likely to be successful and happy. 8. To use in all courses as largely as possible methods that demand independent thought, involve the elementary principles of research, and provide intelligent and somewhat self-directed practise, individual and cooperative, in the appropriate de¬ sirable activities of the educated person. 9. To begin and gradually to increase differentiated education on the evidence of capacities, aptitudes, and interests demonstrated in earlier years. Care must be taken to provide previous to and along with differentiation as balanced and extended a general education as is possible and profitable. 10. To retain each student until the law of diminishing returns begins to operate, or until he is ready for more independent study in a higher institution; and when it is manifest that he cannot or will not materially profit from further study of what can be offered, to eliminate him promptly, if possible directing him into some other school or into work for which he seems most fit. Some of these functions as stated will seem controversial, and others will seem obvious. That is quite as it should be. But it is not sufficient to say that this or that stated function is open to question ; the challenge after recog¬ nizing the need of the formulation of statements of functions of special em¬ phasis is to decide what each function ideally ought to be. The arguments for the recommendation may not convince you, but they should at least be thoroly considered. Only then will a reader be in a position to propose an amended or a substitute statement that he thinks sound by his educational philosophy. Nor is it sufficient to agree with the functions as presented. Merely to under¬ stand or to restate the functions is not enough. They must be used. The several more important uses to which they may be put will now be stated. These ten functions are not all peculiar to secondary education. Several may in varying degrees begin in the elementary school and continue beyond the junior college. Each one, however, the Committee believes, is important, one of the most important, for the school that has responsibility for the edu¬ cation which normally begins about the age of twelve and continues for some six or eight years. Reiterating its belief that education should be “a gradual, continuous, unitary process,” as argued in its discussion of Issue Ten, the Committee recognizes that for practical purposes of administration an educational system will be divided into units of organization, and it main¬ tains that such units can be logically determined and effectively planned only when there is recognition of the functions that are peculiar or at least of peculiar emphasis in each division. Decision as to the groups that should be taught together should be made in terms of the special educational respon¬ sibilities rather than of administrative convenience. One value, then, of agreement on the special functions of a period of education is to enable us to decide logically what the administrative units ought to be. A second value of agreement on the functions of special emphasis in any administrative unit is that it makes possible the preparation of a real Department of Superintendence 519 program of articulation. Everyone familiar with educational practises is aware that many inarticulations at present exist, and that the efforts to remove them by the various proposed devices have been only in part suc¬ cessful. Most of the inarticulations that have caused misunderstandings, duplications, conflicts, and uneconomical practise have been caused chiefly by a failure to agree on the peculiar responsibilities of each administrative unit. On the one hand, secondary schools have suffered from demands that they adjust themselves to the work of the elementary school below and to that of the college above ; and on the other, they have often been arrogant in demanding that all adjustments should be made to their conventional practises. Obviously, both demands are bad in that they neglect con¬ sideration of education as a gradual, continuous, unitary process toward which each administrative unit should be planned to contribute. It is impossible satisfactorily to articulate units that are independent in pur¬ poses, or indefinite and variable. Ideally a program for the whole of the educative process should be worked out first. But that has not yet been done with any degree of practical satisfaction. Pending achievement of the ideal and contributing to it, this report proposes the special responsibilities of secondary schools. Similar proposals should be made of functions for special emphasis in the lower and in the more advanced schools. Only when there is agreement on the distribution of educational responsibilities can an articulated program for the entire educational process be presented as separate administrative units. A third value of the proposed functions is that they will stimulate the profession to clarify its philosophy of secondary education. That every teacher, to say nothing of principals and other leaders, should have a philosophy — that is, an organized and consistent body of principles funda¬ mental to clearly formulated social ideals — is a truism. It is impossible for me to go far toward the development of such a philosophy without con¬ sidering such matters as the proposed functions. The Committee in its report has given some reasons why the definitions and ideals that it advocates should be accepted, but it has all the time consistently recognized that other points of view, other ideals, and other philosophies may cogently lead to somewhat different conclusions. The most important professional desideratum is not agreement, especially thoughtless agreement with an “official” recommendation, but a stimulus to each worker to recognize his individual responsibility thoroly to consider these fundamental matters and thus to come to such conclusions as will result in a more nearly com¬ plete and better rounded philosophy, which, in turn, should stimulate and direct the development of definite and justifiable programs of action. A fourth value of the proposed functions is that when they are understood and approved, with such modifications as may seem wise, they will furnish criteria by which the practises of any secondary school may be evaluated. We are altogether too prone to judge details of practise without con¬ sideration of the entire program and of the principles underlying it. “How,” asks H. G. Wells in The Anatomy of Frustration , “can we know whether a part of a living body is functioning properly or needs treatment 520 National Education Association or correction until we have something like an idea of the general physio¬ logical process?” The value of any detail of practise is found only in its contribution to one or more functions of the institution. If the detail cannot be justified by its direct or indirect contribution to the proposed functions, either it should be eliminated or the functions should be revised. The fifth and final value of the special functions of secondary educa¬ tion is that they will give direction to the formulation of new programs of organization, administration, curriculum reconstruction, and methods of learning. The important phases of the new program of secondary educa¬ tion cannot be formulated and soundly based without reference to some such functions as we have stated as directive of the roads to desired goals. Great waste and disappointing proposals have resulted from the failure to begin reconstruction by clarifying the special functions of the period of education for which a program was to be made. Untold economies and more assuredly sound programs are probable only if the functions to be emphasized are soundly established and convincingly popularized before detailed programs are attempted. If the functions stated are not satisfactory, they should be modified or replaced by those that seem better. These ten functions are proposed by a representative committee which devoted itself assiduously to its responsibility thru three years. In addition to attending six meetings each of approximately a week in length, the members have contributed much time generously granted by their employers or unselfishly drawn from their own leisure. The Committee has profited from the advice of many others whom it has consulted, and especially from two expert representatives of the field of elementary education. Several members adequately represented higher education. But the Committee wishes to emphasize that the report has no official sanction. It is not desired that it should have. It presents an ideal that should be worked toward, not a series of proposals that should receive legislation before the pro¬ fession first and then the laity understand and are ready to support them. The purpose of the report is to arouse a consciousness of the need of the formulation of statements of the functions that should receive special emphasis, to stimulate discussion that leads to agreement, and finally to furnish some degree of direction for the preparation of a more compre¬ hensive and soundly based program of secondary education than now exists. You leaders of public education are urged first of all to familiarize yourself with the reports on both the Issues and the Functions. The con¬ stant pressure of problems of administration and of public relations is recog¬ nized, but they can never be so important as to absolve you from the more fundamental responsibility of leadership in education. It is your responsibility not merely to take care of the machinery and thus to make the running of the schools possible, but also to lead your subordinates to the understanding and approval of fundamental principles and to the building on them of soundly based programs of procedure. These reports furnish you material for educational leadership. You should initiate con¬ sideration of both reports by the staffs of your secondary schools and chal¬ lenge them first to evaluate their present practises by the conclusions reached Department of Superintendence 521 and then to propose a well-rounded new program that will look toward making the secondar)^ schools the effective social agency that everyone recognizes they should be. Out of local discussions and proposals will eventually come pressure for a statewide or even a national program. The reports of the Committee on the Orientation of Secondary Edu¬ cation are, as previously stated, only a contribution to the comprehensive and fundamental program that should be prepared for the care and edu¬ cation of all youth. This program will be a part of the larger program for the care and education of all individuals in our society, whatever their age, abilities, maturity, or environment. The formulation of such programs is a challenge to this most powerful organization of educators in the last great democracy. Unless you accept this challenge there is no assurance that even this democracy will endure. The laying of foundations is not spec¬ tacular ; it offers no opportunities for oratory ; not leading to immediate direction for detailed changes in practise, it is not popular; and it is exceedingly difficult and tedious. But what prospect for an effective edu¬ cational structure can there be without it? Leaders are far-sighted and must envisage the whole from the foundation upward. You have been en¬ trusted with leadership, and I have faith that sooner or later the Depart¬ ment of Superintendence will provide committees of its ablest minds furnished with all necessary resources to undertake this most important responsibility, the foundation of the outlines of a comprehensive and funda¬ mental program for education in our nation. GENERAL SESSION WEDNESDAY EVENING, FEBRUARY 24, 1937 THE OUNCE VERSUS THE POUND SANFORD BATES, EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, BOYS’ CLUBS OF AMERICA, INCORPORATED, NEW YORK, N. Y. I was introduced to a boys club audience a few days ago as the greatest expert on crime prevention that the world had ever known, or something of that kind, and to prove it, the chairman noted the fact that when I started in as director of the Federal Bureau of Prisons, there were only six federal prisons and when I left, there were twenty-two! Well, I do not know whether it is just that kind of crime prevention it will be my privilege to suggest to you tonight. A friend of mine came home the other evening and his wife met him at the door and you know, you people who have children of your own to handle, that they are much harder to handle than other people’s children — you know that when anybody refers to a member of your family as your daughter or your son, there is trouble in the air. So, when he came home, his wife said, “I have just been having a little talk with your daughter about the facts of life.” “That’s good. Did you learn anything new?” 522 National Education Association Now, I doubt very much if you learn anything new about how to prevent crime from anything that I might say. These two gentlemen behind me are not to make speeches and I am to be the only speaker. That is a tremen¬ dous responsibility devolving upon me — to suggest some ways in which we may think out this modern and rather baffling problem about how to prevent crime. I might tell the story of the doctor in one of the outlying provinces of the United States — I think it was Vermont or one of the northern colonies. This doctor ran a little private insane asylum, a “lunatic asylum,” as it was called in those days. He was not much of a psychiatrist and did not know much about different tests that are so popular these days. But, he had one test for the insane, and it was this: He filled up the sink with water and he left the faucet, the tap, running, and he gave to the applicant a cup and told the applicant to bail out the sink, and if the applicant turned off the faucet first, he was denied admission to the insane asylum. It has been said over and over again that America is the most criminal nation on earth. Well, I am not prepared to admit that my fellow citizens are more cruel or more vicious or more selfish than the people of those very countries from whence they came to this shore. What, then, is the difficulty? Is there something about the air in America that makes people rush to commit. crimes when they get to this shore? Is there something about our mechanics which is faultily adjusted? I think I ought to say that the most recent statistics show that the situation is improving but it has a long, long way to go. The figures show that in the last three or four years, most of the more important crimes have decreased in intensity and frequency and to some extent the juvenile situation is not so bad as it was three or four years ago. One of the favorite indoor sports at the present time is to take a pencil and paper, and figure out the cost of crime. I cannot think of anything more futile than to be told crime costs so many billions of dollars a year! All the money I steal from you and all the money we pay the policeman and all the money the policeman could have earned if he were not a policeman and all the money the criminals could have earned, provided they could have earned money, added to the money they take from one another! The Wickersham Commission says it is a billion dollars and others say it is a couple of billion. The latest figure is $15,000,000,000. That is quite a lot of money. I warn you if you do not do something about it this year or next year, it is going to cost us $20,000,000,000 — and then what are you going to do about it? When we hear these computations made, very few follow with an analysis of the crime situation. The cost of crime cannot be reckoned in dollars and cents, and is only a tribute to our habit of stating everything in dollars and cents. Then we hear a lot about the decreasing age of criminals and somebody has discovered, suddenly, that half of the criminals are less than thirty years of age and half of the boys in Sing Sing are less than twenty-five. When do you expect men to be criminals, when they are in the cradle, when they are under their mother’s control, or when they are able to run Department of Superintendence 523 away from a policeman? What would be the time in a boy’s life when he would be a criminal? If somebody said the average age of criminals was sixty-five, I would think it was something remarkable. From what we have been told, you would suppose the age of criminals is getting less. No such thing! The median age of criminals has gone up slightly. Now, the median age of the whole population in 1933, I think it was, was slightly over twenty-six. Now, I am not a statistician and I am not sure I know what median age is and how it differs from average but I think it means there are just as many people over 26 years as under. Well, the median in 1926 was 26.6 and in 1933 it was 27.1. But, after all, your bulletin (referring to that splendid bulletin, the September 1932 Research Bulletin , which I perused very carefully before I came down) says the percent of those convicted of crime before thirty is less than the percent of the population under thirty years of age. Whatever the figures are, it is a serious problem we have to contend with that so many of our young people take to crime rather than that form of activity more generally approved by us older folks. The question of what we are going to do about it is much more difficult. I suppose the reason there are more people in crime is because there are more young people doing everything else than there were twenty-five, fifty, or a hundred years ago. I have seen these swarms of young people descend on Washington in the last few weeks. They were not doing that twenty-five or fifty years ago. They were not making demands upon the government twenty-five or fifty years ago. They were not having sit-down strikes in the schools twenty-five or fifty years ago. They were not saying that five hours is too long to keep a poor child in school. I almost cried the other day in Buffalo because I heard a child doctor in Buffalo who said we were ruining our young people, that they got fatigued because they were kept in school five hours every day, that they should be let out in the sunlight about 12 or 1 o’clock and then play for the rest of the day. That may be the modern idea but the only time I ever got tired in school was when I had a teacher that made me tired. Yet, we cannot help but be a little bit alarmed when we see the figures. The Howard League on Penal Reform of Great Britain told us last sum¬ mer that we put more men in prison per hundred thousand of population than any of the countries of Western Europe, and six times as many as Great Britain. The number of men we send to prison annually has exactly doubled in twenty years. Now, do not gather for a moment that I am opposed to punishment so far as it is constructive. I have no objection to putting men in prison when they have demonstrated that they cannot live in conformity with the laws of society outside. But, here we are in America faced with this situation. We are putting more men in prison every year and the more that we put in prison, the fewer we succeed in reforming — the more we put in prison, the more we have to put in prison, and the more we put in prison, the fewer we reform. How many businesses could stand up against that kind of trial balance? I subscribe to the doctrine that swift and sure punishment is a cure for crime. 524 National Education Association Perhaps if our punishment were a little swifter and surer, we could depend on it more. But, when we talk about crime, wTe talk about stamping out crime. Well, it is mostly children and neurotics that do the stamping, and they do it when they get mad, and I am patient. We talk about stamping out a grass fire when we should not have let it get such a start. It is quite possible we may be overdoing this notion of punishment and have placed too much reliance on the power of punishment to make men better. After all, there are some very peculiar things about the history of punish¬ ment in this country. There have been some constructive prisons. There have been some prisons and reformatories in which intelligent, loyal people have tried to turn men out better than when they went in. How can you protect society by making men worse? How can you keep men idle year after year, and turn them out expecting them to do an honest day’s work? There are prisons that have made an honest attempt to reform or rehabili¬ tate the men sent there and the curious thing is that whenever punishment has lost much of its value as punishment, it has succeeded as reformation. That is why the women’s institutions of this country have made the splendid figures they have, with lowered figures in recidivism. W e have about eleven or twelve male criminals in this country to one of the so-called more danger¬ ous species and so we find, to our great surprise, that those states which practise to the fullest extent the theories of probation and parole and what we might call humanitarian policies, are the states today in which the crime rates are the lowest. Now, there again let me not be misunderstood that if you emptied all the men out of prison in a given state, that the crime rate would go down. What I say is those states that have relied upon other things than punish¬ ment are, by the official records today, holding crime at a lower level than those states that blindly rely upon the notion of punishment. So, when we say our prisons have failed to check crime, we ought to be very careful to define in what respects they have failed and what we have expected of them. I sometimes wonder if it is reasonable in the people of this country to expect a prison to succeed if you mean by success turning men out better and stronger and nobler than when they went in. If all you mean is they should be gotten off the street or be made miserable for a cer¬ tain length of time, that is very easy. But, if you mean we should make men at one and the same time sorry they committed the crime and happy while they are in prison, I say you are asking something impossible of the prisons. I say again when we expect success of a prison, we forget we are placing in the way of prison treatment three almost insuperable obstacles. One is the refusal of our legislatures and society to permit prisoners to work and support themselves, and keep their support off the backs of the taxpayers. Second is the failure to teach something of value in future life and the subordination of everything to discipline, control, repression, and terroriza¬ tion. Now, how many of you could manage a school if looking thru each window there was a machine gun, and between you and the pupils were bars, and located all around a high school was a wall fifty feet high with guards Department of Superintendence 525 tramping around. It seems impossible to carry those two ideas of punishment and education together. And, the third obstacle in the success of the prisons is the necessary cor¬ ollary which must come from a long, continuous term in prison — the stifling or the suppression of normal emotional outlets in prisoners. Now, we do not talk so much about that. And, it is easy to sit in court and hear a sentence of twenty years pronounced on a man of twenty or twenty-five years of age who has all the normal emotions of man. Are there not other more prompt and effective types of punishment which will have an equally deterrent effect upon the potential lawbreaker? We are entitled to protection, yes, but we are not entitled to revenge. But, whatever our attitude is — and perhaps I have dwelt too long on this phase — however we feel as to the present crop of criminals, those men who have so far grooved their lives in the way of crime, we can have no doubt whatever as to our duty to the future generation that will come after us. I do not quarrel with the G-men or the policemen of our cities in saving the lives of our citizens at the expense of the criminal. I do not believe there is a prison warden or criminologist who would back away from the present sit¬ uation that there are certain men who have demonstrated that they are not fit to live in society. But, as we shoot down the Dillingers, what are we doing to see that in 1946 some of these very boys we have in school today do not have to stand up against the machine guns of that generation? It is a trite and unnecessary thing to say that prevention is better than cure. Why have we waited so long to do something about it ? Where would the medical men be today if they had not realized the value of preventive medicine? How would the doctor be treating malaria? With swamp root or some homely remedy instead of getting out into the swamps and digging out some of the mosquitoes that caused the malaria. W ould we have such a healthy nation unless we looked to the future? And, some of our cities would be blackened ruins if we followed the same policy in fire prevention as we have with reference to crime in the last few generations. The alienist and psychiatrist have discovered the practical hopelessness of trying to cure insanity but they have gone at the problem of mental hygiene and pre¬ vention of the disease with all their power. I would say that our attitude in reaping down the major criminals is just as futile as the farmer who attempts to rid the weeds from his potato patch by cutting them with the sickle instead of pulling them up by the roots. Of course, when we speak of prevention, we think of two things — preven¬ tion of repetition of crime and prevention of crime in the first instance. There is not much we can say that has any measure of hope in it about the preven¬ tion of future crime. Many would feel that the parole system, the develop¬ ment of the probation policy, would have more hope in preventing the first offender from repeating his crime than too great a dose of punishment in the first instance. Many a warden knows to his sorrow that a pound of cure is useless, that it takes altogether too much pounding and then you rarely get anywhere. 526 National Education Association Well, what are the causes of crime? We might say ignorance, poverty, broken homes, legal injustice, physical or mental breakdown, the influence of tabloids or movies or what-not. I venture to say there is no single cause. As a matter of fact, the Wickersham investigation, to which I referred before, disposed of this matter of cause by saying they could give nothing to the country which would be of any value as to the cause of the crime. To my mind, the men who are most convincing on this subject are the sociologists. I believe the work of Shaw in Chicago and Glueck in Boston and others is tremendously significant. You know the relation between envir¬ onmental conditions and prevention of crime. Of course, we have demon¬ strated over and over again that education is an antidote to crime. Our federal figures prove that. The figures in the states prove that. The figures printed in your 1932 bulletin showed that only half as many high school and college men got into prison as those that had not attended high school and college. Whether that means they are less guilty or not, I do not attempt to say. It may mean that they are just cleverer at getting away from the law. If the slums in this country are predisposed to crime, why do we tolerate the slums? If disease to mind and body predisposes to criminal activity, what are we setting up in communities to combat that disease and give to the girls and boys of the country healthy bodies? If the lack of sound recreational outlets drives bo5^s to illegal activities, if the perfectly natural desire for leadership leads to criminal activity, what are we doing to supply proper activities ? That is why I left the Bureau of Federal Prisons and went into boys club work — because I was satisfied that the challenge of the great city to do something for the underprivileged youth, to give him the normal recrea¬ tional outlets and opportunities, was even more important than taking care of the adult prisoner. I do not share the opinion of some one or two I recall that have been be¬ fore this audience in laying all the blame for this crime situation on the schools of the country. I believe that many of our people fail to realize the extent to which the schools of this generation have tied themselves into the life of the communities about them. The traditional school, I suppose, has taught children the ordinary subjects of reading, writing, and arithmetic but the schools of today are branching out into health, mental hygiene, rec¬ reation, social work, character formation, and vocational training for a trade. 1 believe that I am not exaggerating when I say in the lives of hundreds of thousands of young people in America today the only decent regenerating in¬ fluence that manifests itself in their lives is the schools of America ! And I think the time has gone by when we lay members of the community can heap the blame for the crime situation in America on the schools of America. The pity of it is that so many of our young people in this day and generation do not have the opportunity to come in contact with these influences. I have seen these hill-billies at the Chillicothe Reformatory who at the age of twenty-one have never been inside of a schoolhouse but the na¬ tive intelligence is there and when offered in the reformatory the opportunity of schooling, our records show they progress four times as fast as the aver- Department of Superintendence 527 age school child. What a pity we had to go to the expense of sending these boys to jail in order that they might get ordinary schooling! I do think a little too much reliance is placed on the duty of the school to train men to take a job. Now, you might be interested in a survey we made in one of our prisons on the matter of vocational training. People think voca¬ tional training is the answer to all of the crimes. When we had analyzed that population, we found there were just exactly 11 percent of those criminals to whom vocational training would be of benefit. Some were too old. Some never would learn a trade. Some were not fitted for a trade. I believe that one of the additions to school activity which we may have to give some very careful attention to in the coming years is the exact place and limitation of trade training in school children. I think in our own busi¬ ness in the Department of Justice how difficult it was for us to take a spe¬ cially trained person and fit him into the kind of a job that he was trained for and while he was waiting for that job to appear, he very likely took some other job he was not trained for and possibly made just as good a success at it. Well, what is the opportunity of the schools in the program for the pre¬ vention of crime? I frankly cannot state it any better than it was stated by Frank W. Hubbard in this Research Bulletin. First , thru the visiting teachers to cooperate with the home. Second , for the extended use of school buildings supplying some of the recreational needs of the community. Third, not to be afraid in your own way and the best way you can devise to handle the maladjusted child who is referred to you from the juvenile court or police officer. Fourth, to educate the adult in the meaning of character building for his children. Fifth, this much abused term of character education. I suppose that must almost drive some of you men mad from time to time when people talk about the duty of schools in character education. My limited experience in this is you cannot reach boys by sitting down and saving to bovs, “Come on, bovs, let’s educate our characters a little bit.” I feel the same way about this much disputed problem as I do about crime prevention. We are never going to prevent crime in this community or any community by saying, “Come on, let’s prevent a little crime this week.” The crime prevention, when it is done, will be done by a positive approach to the problem of living and that is the way character education will be taught. There was a delightful old fellow who used to live next to me in Chevy Chase and he had discovered a method of character education. It was very simple, had some high sounding names and wonderful attributes. You and I know that some boys might be respectful enough to listen to him while expounding this thing, but laugh behind his back. The kind of character education he lacked and they will profit by is the kind you men give off every time you do a good example and every time you do justice among your teachers or students or any group of people. 528 National Education Association I feel the same way when people say, “Aren’t these boys clubs fine? They are crime prevention units. They are character building units. They are environment shaping influences.” I do not believe we have any right to say that the boys that come into our boys clubs, altho they do come from the slums, are any more to be considered potential criminals than those that come from the best families ! Well, it has been said so many times that crime will be prevented in two ways — by the official approach to the problem by the government and by the community or unconscious approach to the problem by the people them¬ selves. I do not see how the prisoner is ever going to solve the crime problem. I do not see how the police and criminal law are ever going to scare people into good habits and into that kind of conduct which will bring peace and com¬ fort and enjoyment to our community. What will do it? Well, I still have some time left. I have a friend in Boston who says that it does not bother him if people in the audience look at their watches occasionally provided they do not shake the watch and hold it up to their ear. So, I am now about to launch upon an explanation of what a community must give its attention to if it proposes a coordinated program for crime pre¬ vention — call it that, if you must. I believe, first , that we have to have a press that is more devoted to leading the people than to giving them what they want. Now, I said that a while ago and one of the newspapers asked, “What did you have in mind?” I said, “Many of the papers in this country are honestly striving to do that but are being dragged down by other newspapers that have no such high ideal and whose sole purpose is to make money, no matter what the effect on their community.” And, even that very paper that sent the man around to see me, played up this statement with a headline. The newspapers in this town, from what I have seen, have been doing a splendid piece of work in reporting these meetings. Well, what about a tabloid that I saw in New York a little while ago? The headline read: “Squealer testifies in court.” What incentive is that to honest, decent people to assist the communities in apprehension and convic¬ tion of criminals? These newspapers as well as the movies and other organs of public information depend on us for support. Are they going to help us eliminate crime or make it popular? In the second place, we have to have an educational system that holds in¬ struction in character to be paramount. Third , we need a modernized judicial procedure which seeks only to deter¬ mine the truth. Fourth, the community must have an organized and neighborhood move¬ ment to coordinate social betterment projects. I think unless you look into the subject, you do not realize the competition, the overlapping, the unnec¬ essary duplication there is in the field of social work and among the char¬ acter building agencies. Why is it with all the tools we have — the doctors, \ . M. C. A., settlement houses, men’s clubs, women’s clubs, and all of these Department of Superintendence 529 multiform activities — all of them with good purpose at heart, why do they not get somewhere ? Because there is no movement in the community, spring¬ ing from the community, that brings those people together and applies com¬ bined force at the proper point. So, over this country there are springing up, in one form or another, coordinating councils or community councils, and in some places the schools themselves have stimulated that. Perhaps some of )T>u have heard of Harry A. Wann, superintendent of schools of Madison, New Jersey, and how the schools have taken up the activity and coordinated all the agencies for good in that little town. Fifth , we need an economic order which affords equal opportunity for all but does not remove incentive to work. Well, that is awfully easy to say. What are we going to do with the many unemployed ? What are we going to do with the 400,000 school children that are being paid for going to school? I have talked with the National Youth Administration. What is their future to be? How can we get back to the situation where it was fash¬ ionable and pecessary for people to work for their daily bread? Well, somehow or other, it has got to be done. My daughter has just gone to work and has brought home her social security card. Where is it going to lead us? Well, we are in a changed age and we will have to expect that these government agencies that have got us into this habit will be wise enough to get us out of it and back on the road of industry and reward for honest effort. Sixth , we must have a wise application of the truly altruistic attitude — not the pseudo-scientific attitude, not the attitude of certain men whom we all know who are simply trying to write their own theories or ride their own hobby, but a wise application of the truly altruistic attitude toward social problems which is motivated by altruism rather than self-aggrandizement. Which means merely a willingness to follow signs to the truth, wherever it leads us. Seventh, there should be a spirit of sportsmanship. Somehow or other, with our young people, I believe that is the answer — a spirit of sportsman¬ ship which regards the game as more worthy than the prize. In a meeting I attended in Buffalo in one of the afternoon sessions, they had sixty young people who came from different parts of the city, and they stood on their feet and told us how crime could be prevented and the3^ did a very good job. The first young man, as I remember, said in about two minutes all I had taken a half hour to say at the noon meeting. But, none of them seemed to touch upon that point. Young people can set fashions. Young people do set fashions. We all set fashions. At least, we all follow them. I remember one occasion where the youngsters of our home high school decided they would not thumb rides and within one week they stopped it when nobody else could have stopped it. It is a question of sportsmanship, of what is fashionable, of what is done or not done. Finally, it seems we need — and you will recognize this missing element — a reincarnated religion which relates itself to the daily life of the people of this generation. 530 National Education Association I hope we will not have any more surveys. I think we have an awful job to catch up to the surveys we have already made. We know what to do. We know that there is only one democratic method whereby we can stop crime and that is to make law obedience popular and lawlessness unpopular and in their effort, a pound of formation is worth a ton of re-formation. We can say that prisons have failed, the old methods have failed. We are going to get away from the orthodox method of punishment. Punishment and revenge look back to what has happened ; prevention and reformation look forward to what may happen in the future. We are going to keep our faces to the front on this problem of the cure of crime. Swift and sure pun¬ ishment is altogether too simple a formula. The reason our prisons are bulging is because it has been too easy a solution to our problems. Some of our cities did not become breeding places of crime overnight and will not be cleared up overnight, and it will not be by the police or prisons or courts but by the united action of the people that live in and around them. And so we find crime receding, partly, I am frank to admit, because of the example set by some of our government departments and the demands of the people but largely because our communities are beginning to be aroused at the expense and the danger of the crime problem. But, our people want to be led out of this mess and they cannot be driven out. It is a long hard fight. There is nothing easy about prevention and perhaps again that is why we have postponed it so long. But, there is a rather thrilling story when you look back at the history of so many public efforts. First we were satisfied to care for people — those peo¬ ple that are broken down, insane, or poor. At first the notion of care was the only one. Then somebody said, “Why don’t we cure them?” So the notion of reformation became dominant. Then sometime back people said, “Th is is rather silly to have to cure all these people. How did they get that way? By all means, let us prevent insanity and sickness and poverty.” There is a more constructive notion than that, however, which will be the idea which will govern our future activities — so to shape our communi¬ ties, so to shape the influences which play on our fellow citizens that we will not have to think of preventing because they will be the kind of persons in the kind of environment that they will be immune to crime’s temptation. I suppose the penologist I like to quote more than any, is our old friend Charles Dickens. You remember when the Spirit produced the two children out from his robes. “When graceful youth should have filled their features out, and touched them with its freshest tints, a stale and shriveled hand, like that of age, had pinched and twisted them, and pulled them into shreds.” Scrooge “tried to say they were fine children, but the words choked them¬ selves, rather than be parties to a lie of such enormous magnitude.” He said, “Are they ours?” And, the Spirit replied, “They are man’s. And they cling to me, appealing from their fathers. This boy is Ignorance. This girl is Want. Beware them both, and all of their degree, but most of all beware this boy, for on his brow I see that written which is Doom, unless the writ¬ ing be erased.” Scrooge said, “Have they no refuge or resource?” Department of Superintendence 531 And the Spirit, once more and for the last time turning Scrooge’s words on himself, “Are there no prisons?” And, “the bell struck twelve.” And the bell, my friends, has just about struck twelve with us. Your great leader in Washington, Dr. Studebaker, came to the Prison Conference in Chicago and I have come here representing the prisons to you. He, by the calling of a conference in Washington last June and the offer not only to put education in the prisons but to help educate people to stay out of prisons, has put the schools definitely in the crime business and it is too late to with¬ draw. The schools are in the fight to stop crime in our communities! And, if the writing is to be erased from this boy’s forehead, I am afraid 37ou are the people that will have to do it. I like this poem. That other was not a poem and I am entitled to one poem before I go. The quick and courageous night The keen vibration of the stars Call me from morbid peace to fight The world’s forlorn and desperate wars. The air throbs like a rolling drum, The brave hills and the singing sea ; Unrest and people’s faces come Like Battle Trumpets rousing me. And while Life’s lusty banner flies I shall assail with raging mirth The scornful and tempestuous skies The cold complacency of earth. And so, wi'th the help of the schools — and I know of no group of men in the world (I suppose this has been said to you a hundred times) faced by a graver responsibility or challenged by a more tremendous opportunity than the schoolmen of America — with your help and with your backing, and with the message which we can spread, we shall all “assail with raging mirth .... the cold complacency of earth!” GENERAL SESSION THURSDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 25, 1937 VIEWING OUR WORK IN PERSPECTIVE ORVILLE C. PRATT, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SPOKANE, WASH.; PRESIDENT, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION One of the values of our national meetings, perhaps the chief one, is the opportunity it gives us to back away from our immediate tasks for a little while and view our work in perspective. The value would be greater if we did not have presented so many seemingly contradictory and irrec¬ oncilable points of view concerning education and its mission. Because of the prevailing confusion and babel of voices in education, the Depart¬ ment of Superintendence and the National Education Association jointly set 532 National Education Association up the Educational Policies Commission for the purpose of bringing unity and clarity into educational thinking. I do not, of course, presume to speak for the Commission; its members are amply able to do that. I speak only for myself. I selected this topic of ‘‘viewing our work in perspective” because it seems to me that there is great need for doing just that. As school executives we are constantly confronted by the necessity of bringing such order as we can into our work in the educational field. I have long felt that what we especially need in education is a reconciliation of divergent viewpoints. What we urgently need is a sjmthesis which will put each educational theory into proper relationship and mutual dependence with such theories. I was strengthened in this conviction by reading recently a new book by the eminent historian, Charles A. Beard. In this book, The Discussion of Human Affairs , it seems to me that Dr. Beard gives a cue to the pro¬ cedure which educators must utilize if conflicting conceptions of educa¬ tion are to be reconciled. In speaking of apparent opposites in human think¬ ing, Dr. Beard asserts that there must be a “kind of synthesis of the two which treats them as things related, not as independent particulars.” From his vantage point as a historian, he says: The victory of a class, an interest, or a nation, over another seldom, if ever, makes a tabula rasa, completely extinguishes the ideas and interests of the vanquished. As a general rule some compromises are reached, either in fundamentals or details, even though one set of ideas and interests wears the label of triumph. A part of the past survives and is incorporated in the new. This adjustment, compromise, or merging of survivals with victories is in substance neither the one nor the other of the con¬ flicting sets of ideas and interests. It is in some measure a reconciliation of contra¬ dictions, a synthesis embracing both. When we give consideration to this conception of Dr. Beard’s we observe that an equilibrium of opposing forces seems to be God’s method of controlling the universe and all its parts, spiritual as well as material. The earth, for instance, is held in balanced position in its orbit around the sun by two opposing forces centripetal and centrifugal : the one, work¬ ing alone, would pull the earth into the sun; the other, by itself, would hurl it off into space. Worked on by both forces, the earth does not vary greatly in distance from the sun. There are similar centripetal and centri¬ fugal forces observable in human affairs. In government, for instance, there is the centripetal trend toward centralization of power and the centri¬ fugal trend toward its diffusion. Some place along this scale of government, depending upon internal and external conditions, each nation must strive to find an appropriate and balanced position. Even the tiny atom, as the modern physicist describes it to us, consists of positive and negative elec¬ tricity in equilibrium. What is true of the universe with opposing forces in balanced relation¬ ship to each other, and what Dr. Beard finds historically true, that opposing viewpoints eventually coalesce into a synthesis including both, is doubtless true of education. In educational discussion we have alto¬ gether too emphatic and too exclusive advocacy of some particular theory Department of Superintendence 533 « with the complete ignoring or denial of the equally important truth of its opposite. Every educator, from whose Jovian brow some educational Minerva has sprung full grown, seems impelled thenceforth to press the claims of his Minerva to all wisdom and to deny that the Minervas of other educators have any wisdom at all. What education imperatively needs now is less stress upon specific nostrums and panaceas, and more search for an all-embracing synthesis which will provide a properly sub¬ ordinated place for every worthy educational theory. An article by F. S. Breed in the May, 1936, issue of Educational Administration and Supervision is an illustration of the type of study which educators ought to be making. In this article he attempts to give a balanced statement of the strength and the weakness of what is commonly known as the “old” and the “new” education. He reconciles them as follows : Education must not lose sight either of the activity of thought or of the important generalizations in which the activity eventuates. ... At some stage in learning lan¬ guage offers a satisfactory substitute for perception. ... In the process of develop¬ ment, the concept is the end; in the process of later application it becomes a means. . . . What we need is both the conceptual type of organization of older curricula and the activity type of the newer. The progressive deserves great credit for insisting on the perceptual enrichment of instruction. . . . But precautions must be taken against the ill-balanced reformer who, in his violent reaction from extreme formalism, dis¬ regards an important type of conceptual development, ignores essential values in the region of generalization and abstraction, neglects vital elements in the cultural tra¬ dition, and belittles indispensable instruments of thought. He is equally opposed to “the traditionalist who rattles the dry bones of generalizations all day long and to the radical activist who spends his time throughout the day feverishly going nowhere.” As practical school people who have to take some stand in our admin¬ istration of schools, we ought to go back always to our basic philosophy of education, whenever we are confronted by the necessity of appraising two opposing theories of education. The basic problem of education, because it is the basic problem of life, is to arrive as nearly as may be at a harmonious working relationship with the environment. Such a relationship, if attain¬ able at all, must be arrived at in one or both of two ways: by changing the environment better to suit the self, or by adapting the self better to fit inflexible aspects of the environment. In the ever recurring problem of adjustment, action is the imperative factor, but action with the inspira¬ tion of the emotions and with the illumination of the intellect. This illuminating function of the intellect, the giving of the informa¬ tion and understanding essential to right reaction, is of two kinds: ex¬ tensive, to enable the individual to see all his problems in perspective; and intensive , to enable him to arrive at the solution of the particular problem which must be met at the moment. It is in the matter of giving perspective that general education of the type described by R. M. Hutchins in his recent book, The Higher Education in America, and in several magazine articles, finds its rightful place in the educational scheme. It furnishes the cultural element which enriches life I 534 National Education Association and makes it more worthwhile. It gives a background of comparison, a setting, for current happenings. It throws upon the path of the present the mellow afterglow of past occurrences. It explains how things of all kinds came to be as they are. It tends to create breadth of comprehension. Such a classical education, however, has little to do with enabling its possessor to solve the immediate and pressing problems of existence. This fact is recognized by Dr. Hutchins who says: “It may not assist him to make money or to get ahead. It may not in any obvious fashion adjust him to his environment or fit him for the contemporary scene.” The function of classical education is to enrich life and give it perspective. Nothing more than that should be expected of it, for more it cannot deliver. Intensive thinking is the desirable approach to the perplexing problems of everyday life. By intensive thinking I mean the scientific technic of thinking, or the method used in research. It is to this method that the unprecedented scientific discoveries and the astounding material advances of recent centuries are due. To the ancient chain of thinking, devised by the Greeks, modern scientific thinking has added the link of experimentation — a link indispensable in accurate thinking. Experimentation has a technic all its own and there is nothing in classical education that throws any light on the application of this technic. On the other hand, there is nothing in the scientific technic of thinking as such that enriches life beyond the narrow confines of immediate problems. The point I wish to make here is that neither extensive thinking nor intensive thinking alone constitutes thinking at its best. Each ought to he regarded as a complement to the other. Both are essential to a well-rounded development of the intellect and should be developed together. In every life situation encountered, breadth of comprehension and depth of under¬ standing both are desirable. Thinking at its best encompasses both. Thought always starts from the immediate situation in which the individual finds himself and no matter how wide or intricate its range, the individual is always the center of reference to which it returns. In the human mind is the synthesis we seek, for its thinking is both extensive and intensive. Take by way of illustration a very practical problem now confronting the teachers of Latin — the problem of what to do about the rapidly de¬ creasing enrolments in Latin in the secondary schools. Teachers of Latin have long seen the handwriting on the wall but, as Mark Twain said about the weather, nothing much has been done about it. To be sure, many interesting teaching devices and much illustrative collateral material have been made available to alert teachers of Latin. However, Caesar, Cicero, and Virgil continue to be the sine qua non of secondary Latin instruction, as has been true for centuries. The fundamental difficulty is that Latin as taught does not conform to presentday conceptions of what its real function is. Notwithstanding the sugar-coating which competent teachers give it, Latin as taught can be justified only as mental discipline. As such it is on a par with the memoriza¬ tion of nonsense syllables. The potential value of Latin is to be realized, not in strengthening the mind, but in enriching it. Its function is extensive, not Department of Superintendence 535 intensive. Its teaching could and should have great cultural value. But this value can be had only as the teaching of Latin is used to reveal the past still living in the present. More than half of our English words are of Latin origin and the derivation of words which students use is always keenly interesting to them. Many of our laws and customs go back to Rome for their explanation. Our calendar would be different from what it is except for the influence of the two Caesars, Julius and Augustus. Latin has its real value in the perspective which it can so amply give to modern life. In one of our high schools with an enrolment of 2,400 students, only eleven wanted Latin beyond the second year. Unless the chief purpose for teaching Latin is speedily shifted from mental discipline which it cannot give, to culture which it might give if taught therefor, Latin is doomed to dis¬ appear, as did Greek, from the secondary field. Mention has previously been made that the adaptation of an individual to his environment could only be attained in one or both of two ways : by changing the environment or by changing the self. If the environment does not admit of change in any given particular, the individual must either adjust himself to it or suffer the consequences of non-conformity. Since the child cannot change them, he must conform to the language, customs, and mores of the nation into which he is born. The mechanics of reading, the lack of logic in spelling, and the many arithmetic combinations are stubborn facts to which the individual can adjust himself adequately only by automatic mastery. There are almost countless unyielding and inflexible facts and skills which efficiency in modern living demands be instantly available. How is the requisite mastery of any facility with such facts and skills to be attained ? Again we have two answers, both partly right and partly wrong. One answer is: Let the learning be done incidentally in the process of rich current living. The other answer is: Prolonged drill is the method essential for requisite mastery. A proper synthesis says: Let all facts and skills be approached and taught, so far as conditions make practicable, thru rich current living; but supplement such living by highly motivated drill wherever necessary to assure requisite mastery. Here, as elsewhere, the proportion of the opposing procedures will vary with individual pupils. Bright children learn with less drill while dull ones require more. The competent teacher varies his procedure in accordance with the needs of particular pupils and the extent to which automatic mas¬ tery is desirable. Instead of there being a battle between incidentalism and drill, they ought to constitute the right and left sides of a scale of learning the essential but unyielding phases of the environment. Among the most important adjustments for youth to make is to our dis¬ tinctively American way of life. School children should be indoctrinated with democratic ideals and initiated into democratic procedures as speedily and completely as possible. As a form of government, our democracy means the right of a majority to decide an issue under whatever constitutional checks and balances there may be, and the equal right of a minority to become a majority thru the exercise of the rights guaranteed by the Constitution' — 536 National Education Association freedom of speech, of conscience, of press, of assemblage, and of action. Ours is government by law rather than government thru the exercise of arbitrary and irresponsible power. But democracy in America is far more than a form of government. It is faith in the ability of the common man, thru education, to decide wisely the issues which shape his destiny. It depends upon the development of individual initiative, self-control, responsibility, and character. It means equality of opportunity in order that each citizen, by making the utmost possible of himself, may thereby be of the greatest possible service to others. Democracy is not a gift handed down by the founding fathers. So far as it exists, it is a day-by-day attainment in the living present. As the poet, Goethe, said: “What we have inherited from our fathers, we must earn in order to possess.” In this situation appears the social obligation and func¬ tion of the schools. As to the social mission of education, we again have two diametrically opposed viewpoints. The ultra-conservatives would like to see education exclusively used as an instrument for keeping everything just as it is in this — for them — “best of all possible worlds.” The radicals, impatient with the snail-like pace of social change, would like to use the schools to hasten change in the direction in which they think it should take place. Both of these antagonistic groups are off the educational highway. It is not the function of the schools either to hamper or enhance social change. Change, of course, there will be. It is not either possible or desirable for society to stand still. Wherever there is life there is growth, development, adaptation, change. But, on the other hand, no person now alive has the wisdom or foresight to know what social problems will be most pressing in fifty — or even ten — years from the present. It is the business of the schools to be of the utmost possible aid to children in solving the problems which properly belong to them now. Citizenship is not primarily a matter of learning about the past in order to deal ade¬ quately with the future. Rather it consists in bringing to bear every avail¬ able resource in order that children may here and now be good citizens in all their home, neighborhood, and school relationships. The best and prac¬ tically the only assurance we can have of future good citizenship is the high quality of such citizenship shown in present living. We have heard much of “academic freedom” in recent years and again we find here two conflicting viewpoints. On the one side are those who hold that the teacher should deal only with innocuous, non-controversial topics. On the other side are those who maintain that the teacher should be free to reveal to his charges his own unique interpretation of life and its prob¬ lems. Again, both extremes are wrong. Matters of controversy in com¬ munity and nation are the growing points of social life. To omit them from consideration in school would be to lose the very essence of current living. But the approach to such topics should not be in the spirit of a propagandist intent on securing converts. It should be in the spirit of research, im¬ partially, without any injection of personal bias, prejudice or opinion. The teacher is a citizen and has exactly the same rights, no less and no more, Department of Superintendence 537 as other citizens. But no citizen, whether teacher or not, has any right to use the schools to spread his particular brand of propaganda. The proper synthesis, then, is by all means to deal with controversial issues in school, but to deal with them as a scientific investigator approaches a problem, with preconceived notions kept wholly in the background and with only one desire — to arrive as nearly as may be at the whole truth. If teachers adhered strictly to such scientific procedure, there would be no justification for objecting to discussing Communism or anything else. To teach the whole truth about Communism as it is in Russia or elsewhere, is to condemn it as one-sided, visionary, and impractical as compared to our American ideals of the good life. We, of course, do not have the final answer as to how the good communal life is to be attained for the very good reason that there is no final answer. Life has to be answered by man or nation as its problems, one by one, emerge above the horizon. As conditions change and new factors appear, the answer must also change. The best we can do is to make it the best answer pos¬ sible under existing conditions. As Walter Lippmann said in his article, “The Providential State,” in the October Atlantic Monthly : The road whereby mankind has advanced in knowledge, in the mastery of nature, in unity, and in personal security, lies through progressive emancipation from the bondage of authority, monopoly, and special privilege. It has been through the re¬ lease of human energy that men have lifted themselves above the primeval struggle for the bare necessities of existence; it has been by the removal of constraints that they have been able to adapt themselves to the life of great societies; it has been by the disestablishment of privilege that men have risen from the status of slaves, serfs, and subjects, to that of free men inviolate in the ways of the spirit. . . . Only by in¬ creasing freedom to think, to argue, to debate, to make mistakes, to explore and occasionally to discover, to be adventurous and enterprising, can change be more than the routine of a recurrent pattern. Our two basic ideals of liberty and equality, as too commonly under¬ stood, are antithetical. Liberty does not mean freedom from any restraint nor does equality mean more than equality of opportunity and equality before the law. The liberty of the individual ends where infringement of the liberties of other people begins. Equality can fairly ask no more than ample opportunity to develop and use native capacities. The reconciling synthesis is: full opportunity to make the utmost possible of the self thru the widest possible service to other people. I have attempted only to present the need for a harmonizing synthesis of opposing conceptions in education and to illustrate some possibilities in this direction. On the scale extending from one extreme viewpoint to its opposite extreme, each teacher will have a position which is best for him to take but which might not be the best position for any other teacher in the corps. Moreover, in his teaching each teacher needs to shift first in one direction and then in another in accordance with the needs and abilities of individual pupils. For instance, in the matter of drill versus incidental teaching, some pupils will need little or possibly no drill; others will need much. In the whole field of education, it is not a question ordinarily of either this or that. Rather the question is about the proper admixture of both. 538 National Education Association ADMINISTRATIVE OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS CARROLL R. REED, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Those of us who are responsible to the people for the teaching of thousands of children have cultivated a friendly skepticism and a willingness to scrutinize each new theory. At the same time, our honest doubts have brought about a determination to weigh its possible chances of permanently influencing educational practise. The real problem is to make educational theory effective in classroom practise. Good teaching is a fine art which cannot be effective if it is en¬ shrouded in a haze of theoretical vaporings. Nor can it be a mechanical process by which a robot merely follows a blueprint or specification handed down by authority. In spite of the advances which have been made in educational thinking, there are still many teachers who are teaching just as they did twenty-five years ago. In this confusion of theories, these teach¬ ers prefer to be old-fashioned rather than muddled. While the leaders wage verbal warfare upon each other, the teacher carries on in the classroom influenced only little by the newer developments in educational philosophy. This gap which exists between theory and practise is probably due to some extent to our democratic way of life. Democracy is a way of thought and life which gives us the freedom for which our ancestors fought and which we hope will bring us to an era of peace and common welfare. But the way of democracy is slow. Results are not achieved by decree as in a dictatorship. The same gulf between theory and practise in American life occurs in other fields today — government, jurisprudence, medicine, business, and even religion. The great mass of public opinion has been re¬ luctant to support practises with which it is not familiar. Administration of education is so complex that changes are serious and must be brought about slowly because they often entail great expense of time and money. The great task of the school administrator is to do some¬ thing about the inconsistencies which exist in every school system. He must examine critically and seek to coordinate and reconcile conflicting points of view relative to educational objectives; curriculums ; training, selection, and improvement of teachers; classification of students; methods of teach¬ ing; and the corresponding problems of school finance. Every thoughtful school administrator desires to keep abreast of sound educational progress, but there is no short cut to a workable educational philosophy. Each new development serves as a useful means of formulating one’s own point of view. The philosophy of education must be a sort of clearing-house where the relative values and the soundness of different claims upon the school are weighed. We can all agree that the school must create in the young a more dynamic intelligence, a surer initiative, a broader, more social outlook, and a well-rounded and well-disciplined character. The elementary schools have made great progress in recent years in the application of a new philosophy. Not only are the elementary schools doing a better job in teaching children Department of Superintendence 539 to read, write, and do problems in arithmetic, but in addition to this they are acquainting children with the relationship between these skills and life situations, which makes it possible for them to live and to work with other people effectively. • For some years we have been attempting to educate all the children of all the people, to increase the holding power of the school, and to make the school more effective in enabling each child to meet life situations and problems. We have been saying that the whole child goes to school, that it is the job of the school to educate him socially, physically, morally, as well as intellectually. The attempt to achieve these aims has brought about many practical problems which must be solved. It is apparent that we must have a broader and richer school curriculum, that we must have a better system of recording facts about the individual child, that we must have different standards of promotion and of reporting pupil achievement. School Marks In spite of these needs, most school systems are still basing promotion on the amount of subjectmatter covered or on the degree of perfection with which a child can memorize certain facts or so many pages from a textbook. School records have changed very little in the last twenty-five years. Parents still demand report cards which measure academic achieve¬ ment and set up keen competition for grades. The high-school principal still dreads the semiannual battle for valedictorian and salutatorian, which often is decided by a fraction of a point and becomes the basis of a neighborhood feud. Grade Levels and Grade Designations We accept the theory that a child’s education should be continuous from the kindergarten thru the university, with as little waste motion and as few breaks as possible. And yet we base promotion from the first grade upon ability to read. A large percent of children who thru lack of maturity have difficulty in mastering this, the most difficult task they will meet in their lives, are failed and kept back to repeat the work. The habit of failure is established at the beginning of school life, and we agree this is the worst thing which can happen to any child. Studies have shown us that repeating a grade seldom helps and the repetition of many grades awakens a resent¬ ment which may lead to delinquency. Size of Class Long ago we accepted the principle that education should be adjusted to meet the needs and interests of the individual child. Nevertheless, teaching continues to be quite generally a matter of mass production. We have suc¬ ceeded in rationalizing to some extent by studies which seem to prove that large classes are just as effective in getting educational results as small classes. However, these tests were based on factual learning and proved nothing. We all realize that a child can get more individual attention and better educational opportunity in a class of thirty than in a class of forty, but on account of reduced school revenues we have continued to increase the 540 National Education Association size of classes. The standard high-school building which used to have classrooms accommodating twenty-five, is now built to accommodate forty and forty-five in order to protect the teachers’ salary schedule and keep the pay roll within the bounds of the dwindling income. The Curriculum We have come to regard the curriculum as the sum total of the actual experiences which children should have under the guidance of the school. We consider that the fundamental aim of the school is the development of the personality of the individual child. While we are saying this, our prac¬ tise indicates that the curriculum is still regarded as so many subjects which are largely unrelated to the lives of the children. Less than a score of cities are attempting to solve this curriculum problem in the light of the newer philosophy of education. In most of these cities, the greatest obstacle to success in building a new curriculum is the old curriculum itself, with its rigid subjectmatter requirements. We cannot make up our minds to part with the old and to turn our attention to the child. For the last fifty years we have been moving away from a subject- centered curriculum toward a society-centered program. More adequate information about how learning takes place and more scientific knowledge about child development and maturation are available. All signs seem to indicate that we shall continue to travel toward a program based on the social and individual needs of the child. The school administrator should center his attention on moving in this direction rather than upon a smoothly running administrative machine. We need philosophers because they chal¬ lenge and stimulate us to our best efforts, but we must invite the teachers to the council table for cooperative thinking concerning these problems. We must give to our schools the kind of leadership which will stimulate free¬ dom, self-confidence, and self-respect in the minds and hearts of teachers. KEEPING HUMAN JAMES M. SPINNING, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ROCHESTER, N. Y. The subject which I have chosen, reduced to simple terms, is: How can we encourage in teachers such an attitude as will develop efficient control and at the same time not provide autocratic patterns for children to emulate as they grow up? For that matter, how can we avoid a spirit of domination in principals and superintendents? Let us consider it first in the teacher-pupil relationship. Everyone knows that the first thing to do is to choose teachers carefully. And everyone should also know that no matter how carefully they are chosen, time and the profession itself do things to them. What things? Let me stop right here to sav that I have not addressed myself to this sub¬ ject because I think the problem is particularly acute in Rochester. Any such implication or inference would be unfair to Rochester teachers. I think they constitute as fine a group as any in the land. They were selected by far wiser men than I. They are as a group loyal to all the fine things in the pro¬ fession and I am loyal to them. Department of Superintendence 541 When I said time and the profession do things to teachers, I meant that on the one hand their high purpose and their rich experience with growing children make teachers the most understanding and the finest people in the world; and I meant that on the other, they were subject to certain limita¬ tions produced by the narrow range of that experience and the very earnest¬ ness of their attitude toward life. Realizing that the balance is strong in their favor, we should not be afraid to examine some of the inherent limitations which grow out of the teaching career and to inquire whether they are, after all, necessarily inherent. The teaching profession is naturally attractive to those who seek securin'. I do not mean security of job, but security of soul. Teaching is a profession whose exercise is essentially non-competitive, where the ego is relatively un¬ challenged, where one is surrounded by something like a family group, with a principal for pater familias and protector, to whom one may turn for advice and on whom one may rely for decisions. It is a profession which provides a dependent group for whom one in turn makes decisions and from whom one may derive the sense of importance which is lacking when one deals with his chronological peers. In this sense teaching is less adventurous than medicine, law, salesmanship, or newswriting. It has temptations toward the authori¬ tarian pattern found only in minor executive positions and in politics. Within the classroom one’s word is too often law; outside, too seldom. In the extreme case there is produced just as definite an influence on young people when in later life they are similarly placed, as is produced by the vio¬ lent and arbitrary parent. This is not good for democracy. Control is nec¬ essary, but that which takes overt form as autocracy can hardly produce a democratic pattern. The satisfaction of the teacher in being obeyed is less important than the growth of the child in self-discipline. His self-discipline may not be so good as that which the teacher can impose and for a time he must accept the teacher’s, but always the direction must be toward such autonomy as adults when they are truly adult can achieve. Good teachers have always worked in this direction. Those who come now from our teacher-training institutions have been thru a selective process which has put a premium on this attitude. But they must be stout of soul if as the years go by they do not lean too heavily on the approbation of their principals and too exclusively set up an ideal of teacher approbation for their pupils. The pressure of their duties, the necessity to be law-givers, the being always on view, bring tensions which make taut nerves and the worn7 habit almost an occupational disease. This tension needs release and it cannot find expression in the classroom. It should find expression in after-school hours in walking, dancing, games, and movies. But nine times out of ten a teacher will apologize for seeking relaxation, feeling that the community thinks he should be above fun and high spirits. If communities were wise they would prefer to have their teachers get lots of fun out of life in the hope that they would put more in. Teachers should seek the companionship of people in other fields of endeavor — not get themselves involved in all sorts of committees and causes but should learn 542 National Education Association what life is like to others, to discover how other people look on the world. At the same time they have great need for periods of solitude. Nothing is so wearing as a vast number of personal contacts. If not solitude, then the teacher should seek the company of those with whom he can relax, provided that does not mean courting dismissal by the schoolboard. The great thing is to keep perspective on the job. Perspective never comes without growth, nor growth without perspective. Few chances of so-called promotion are open. There must be variety within the job — new study, new approaches. Summer courses, alertness courses are useful. Boards of educa¬ tion should and do encourage them. But too often credit-winning becomes the central motive. I am just wondering whether there is some way of bringing teachers to realize the dangers of their profession without scaring them or assuming an attitude of criticism which is paralyzing to all accom¬ plishment. The good principal or supervisor works as skilfully with teachers as the good teacher does with children — commending achievement, increas¬ ing responsibility, bestowing confidence, assuming and at the same time re¬ creating professional attitudes. One of my most illuminating experiences came a few weeks ago when I sat in a teacher conference on a problem child. The director of the child study department, a supervisor from the visiting teacher department, the director of guidance, the director of attendance, the coordinator of these services, the principal, and the faculty of elementary school No. 600 took tea together; and then the kindergarten teacher, the first-, second-, third-, and fourth-grade teachers, and the visiting teacher, told the story of Leo and his problems in the effort to draw some conclusions as to how the school and the home should deal with a highly combative youngster whose chief satisfaction lay in beating up Joseph or anybody else who would be as de¬ fenseless against his blows as Leo was against his father’s. The satisfying thing was the unerring way with which the teachers sought causes, the ab¬ sence of all feeling that when Leo misbehaved their authority had been impugned or their dignity attacked. Twenty years ago such a clinic simply could not have been held. It is possible now because of a changing philosophy on the part of teachers, an objective and professional approach to problems which has caught the spirit of the trained social case worker at her best. I was not so much concerned about Leo’s growth and development as I was impressed by the growth and development of these teachers as they laid aside all egocentric thinking and widened their perspective thru pooling their in¬ formation and experiences. At another such session the head of our visiting teacher department led a small group of classroom teachers in reviewing some of their own childhood experiences and resentments, resentments often still burning. Out of it all came a renewed appreciation of the intensity with which children feel and some very practical guideposts for teacher practise. What I am driving at is the desirability of having within the system trained psychologists and psychiatric case workers not only for analysis and assistance with problem cases but as workers with teachers to foster the spirit which seeks first to understand ; which does not expect the child who has been Department of Superintendence 543 spoiled or neglected for five years to change his whole behavior scheme in one week in response to threats or punishment ; which knows the value of home cooperation when it can be secured and the part which other agencies of the community can play in administering good school adjustments. This spirit and this wisdom are just as important for the principal in his relations with children. Sometimes in the elementary school by the tradition of childhood rather than by any threat of the teacher or any rightful repu¬ tation of his own, the principal plays the role of bogyman. Said one prin¬ cipal to a first-grader, “Do you want to see me?” “No,” was the answer, “I’m a good boy.” Such reactions are growing rarer. In most schools the principal is no longer a figure to inspire awe but a friend to inspire con¬ fidence. If he is still the repressor rather than the leader, it may be that he is at heart fearful for his authority. He may be seeking to justify himself in his own mind as a competent person by a great show of busyness, steering the vessel by rapid whirls of the wheel instead of by quiet controlled move¬ ments. His concern for the appearance and the order of his school may tempt him to keep house violently. His feeling of obligation to the central office and his fear of criticism may be so strong that he inspires in his teach¬ ers the same attitude which the central office inspires in him. If this is the case, his first reaction to every suggestion is apt to be no; to every slight criticism, an elaborate defense. If there should anywhere be such a case, the fault lies squarely with the superintendent, either for his selection in the first place or for a central office attitude which permits itself to be so misunderstood. The principal is subject to many of the tensions which operate on the teacher as well as to several others. He has great need to find security in himself if he is to keep free of dogmatism and the power-complex. And how well he does it! No other job calls for the skilful management of so many and varied problems in the realm of human relationships. Parents, pupils, teachers, supervisors, superintendents, each demands a different technic. The administrator must make decisions. He must take counsel up to a cer¬ tain point and then he must act. Where is that point? Do what he will, his decisions must often seem arbitrary to those whom they affect. Inevitably he will make mistakes. Only a high batting average and the feeling of con¬ fidence it inspires in his associates can save him. When a thing must be done, he is the man to do it — for better or for worse, for praise or blame. An execu¬ tive must execute — frequently on too short notice to win all the support he needs. Then where shall he find the line between leadership and domination ? No school and no school system, I suppose, can operate without some centralization of authority. But neither can it operate in any true and pro¬ gressive sense without plenty of initiative and free motion at the periphery. Shall we abolish centrifugal or centripetal force? Both, I take it, are neces¬ sary for satisfactory rotation. But the problem is not solved by a metaphor. The center must know and understand the periphery — must indeed not think of itself as the center at all. The principal and the supervisor must have an¬ tennae highly sensitive to all the human feelings around them. Knowing how easy it is to suppose one’s acts are just acts because they are accepted, he must 544 National Education Association constantly correct for this type of error. At the same time he must not be deterred because of every possible breath of criticism, or suppose that it is either possible or right to please everyone. But human nature is of such a cast that nine times out of ten when there is criticism it attaches not so much to what is done as to the way in which it is done. The danger and the injustice come when there is such impatience or despair of having measures accepted without displeasing someone, that the administrator lays aside consideration for the human feelings and weaknesses of others, and with their counsel surrenders also their support. I suspect that not even courses in administration or in any set machinery for getting group judgments and group action will altogether solve a problem so bound up with the intricate pattern of human growth and development. I suspect that there is no complete answer, and that the partial ones we find will include some self-analysis which employs as largely as any self-survey can an objective approach. That would mean dispensing even for ourselves with expectation of perfection and thoughts of crime and punishment, but perhaps it would mean also a little better orienting and a profounder re¬ spect for personality in our colleagues and our pupils. PROBLEMS OF A SUPERINTENDENT WILLIS A. SUTTON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ATLANTA, GA. Sometime ago I characterized the superintendent of a large city school as the greatest diplomat of his age. I think I was not amiss. Each of us is prone to think of his job as being the hardest to fill; but I have had the privilege in my time of teaching in a one-room rural school, of being superintendent of a small town’s schools, principal of a high school, president of a college, and superintendent of a city school system, and I can truthfully say that the qualities of a diplomat are needed in him who would successfully guide the ship of education thru the tortuous streams, over the rapids, and in the storm of public opinion. If I were asked to name the problems of a superin¬ tendent my task would not be difficult, and I could fill these few minutes allotted to me with simply naming those problems. The memorandum book of the average city superintendent for a single day would give sufficient problems for discussion for a period of a month, and as I recall these things I am sure that hundreds in my audience are saying with that cynical smile of the street and that upper trend of the voice, “You’re telling me!” You know what these problems are and it is almost superfluous for me to mention them. One of the most delicate problems confronting the average superintendent results from his connection and his working with his board of education. People elect the board, and people do not always make the right choice. It is not the business of the superintendent to elect a board of education ; it is his business to deal with the board which the people have elected, and as far as his professional ethics will allow, to carry out the policies which they set up. Here often the school superintendent is mistaken. It is his business Department of Superintendence 545 to guide the members of the board of education ; it is his privilege to advise them — to make the proper recommendations and if humanly possible to con¬ vert them to his wa}^ of thinking with reference to the great educational public. Often this is impossible. This problem arises sometimes from the prejudice of a community in favor of or against certain types of projects and that prejudice has been transmitted to the board member by his con¬ stituency when he is elected. This problem of the superintendent’s connection with his board is often accentuated by factionalism within the board itself, some of which he may be responsible for, but much of which has arisen thru previous difficulties between board members themselves, each faction striving to gain the sup¬ port of the superintendent in order to carry a particular point. There are two remedies that I would suggest concerning the relation¬ ship of the superintendent and his board of education : First of all, is a long-term remedy — a remedy that will require years to correct. He must educate not only the children who are within the four walls of the school¬ room, but their parents and their friends and the constituency in general toward a better understanding of progressive education and the problems which confront a superintendent. It may take a long time, but thru parent- teacher association meetings, bulletins and newspaper articles, public speeches, educational conferences of school leaders, open house meetings, and thru a thousand other ways the superintendent will be able to develop a constitu¬ ency which believes in progressive educational movements, and this constitu¬ ency, instead of becoming a serious problem, will become a veritable staff of support to him in dealing with his board. The second remedy for this problem is that the superintendent must care¬ fully study all of the items concerning which there is a difference of opinion and over which factionalism may have arisen in the board in order that he might have an impartial and thoro understanding of each item and settle it squarely upon its merits. He should give the results of his thought and his action to his board without prejudice to one or the other side, and then solidly maintain his position with reference to this particular matter until the problem is settled by the board. But when the problem has once been settled by the board his enthusiastic support must be given to its decision regardless of whether or not his recommendation has been followed. He must either do this or resign. I believe that these two answers to this problem of the superintendent with his board will solve most of the difficulties with which we may become en¬ tangled. Possibly the greatest problem of any superintendent of schools is the matter of continuity of office and that of continuity of principles and of program. Someone has described the superintendency of schools of a large city as the most treacherous position that a man could hold in the entire American public life. This explains why there are so few superintendents of long continued service in the cities of the United States, but that this con¬ tinuity may be maintained without failure of principle and without relin¬ quishing of honor is shown by the fact that E. C. Glass of Lynchburg, Vir- 546 National Education Association ginia; Lawton Evans of Augusta, Georgia; Frank Cody of Detroit; Milton Potter of Milwaukee ; and a half dozen other shining examples testify that a man may have a continuous term as superintendent of schools, may carry out a progressive policy, and at the same time may retain his credit and his honor. But the problem of maintaining a progressive program and at the same time continuing in office constitutes one of the gravest dangers that surround a superintendent of schools. The displacement of men in high positions at the great strategic centers of our country has been the shame of education in the past decade. Are we as superintendents able to give an answer as to how this problem may be faced? Certainly we would not say that a superintendent must bow to the prejudices and the ill wills and the evils of his particular city and community and connive with politicians in order that he may retain his job. I think the first answer to this problem is continued and better training for the superintendency. I believe that that man who has been trained for his job and who understands the difficulties which may beset him is best armed to overcome the obstacles. Continued training while in service thru study, reading, college courses and attendance at institutes of administra¬ tion, and thru a hundred other ways and means that have been provided for the enlargement of his capabilities and his powers is the surest guarantee that he may permanently retain his position. As the next remedy, I would suggest an ever progressive program as a means of continuity in office. Revolutions always occur because the governing power does not grow at the same rate at which the constituency grows. One fault of a school superintendent is that he may allow himself to crystallize and to fossilize around some pet idea of his and to become so imbued with his own power and self-importance that he does not grow with his people, his teachers, and his principals, tn other words, the administrative office is not growing as rapidly as the teaching profession. On this account many jeal¬ ousies of his principals and his teachers are aroused in his own mind ; many comparisons are brought about in the minds of the members of his board between the superintendent and those who are working under him; and he is discredited in his own mind and in the minds of his board members, as well as in the minds of his confreres in the profession itself. A superintendent who has reached the point where he is ever growing, ever expanding, ever developing in his position has found the best road to continuity in office. The third answer to this all-perplexing problem of continuous term is the right relationship with his teachers, in his ability to realize that they too are growing, that they have many ideas, that they should be allowed to express these ideas and given the freedom to carry them out if they are worthwhile. In this way the superintendent grows in favor with his teachers, and his teachers come to have a profound respect for his tolerance and his broad-mindedness; thus he and they are cemented together in a great bond of union. Another great problem is that of business management — one of the most difficult things that a superintendent has to face. After all, the business in- Department of Superintendence 547 terests of any city have their eyes upon the school superintendent. They know that the schools demand many things. The number of articles that are required to run a progressive school system is amazing. In the catalog of articles used in the Atlanta public schools there are more than 12,000 dif¬ ferent classifications. Business realizes this. Whether it be paint for the old building, brick for the new, cement or boilers or stokers, or books or papers or magazines; wffiether it be library material, chemicals, and thousands of other things used in a public school, business has its eye upon this particular phase of school management, and every competing firm honestly believes that it has the best material and each is greatly disappointed unless the contract is given thru the business office to its particular concern. In regard to this great problem there is but one way and that is the strict and narrow way — to send out bids to all ; to have a scientific test applied to the materials by burning and testing the coal and by trying the paint or by getting an ex¬ pert’s opinion upon the furniture, and buying that which is best suited to the needs even regardless of the price. If this policy is once established and rigidly adhered to, good business really arrives at the conclusion that the superintendent and the school administration are trying honestly to do their best to secure the finest service for the children of the city. I have found another means of helping to solve this problem, and that is on every possible occasion to let business know that education is the part¬ ner of business. Some years ago I had sixty of the teachers in Atlanta to serve in parts; one an elementary teacher and one a high-school teacher, to sur¬ vey the whole situation of the relation of education to business. We selected the thirty main businesses upon which Atlanta depends for its trade, and these two teachers made some research into the relationship of education to these thirty types of business. These articles we had published. They gave assurance to the business man that education was thinking of his interest, was trying to promote good business. May I suggest as the fourth problem of the superintendent his relation¬ ship with his teachers individually and with the professional organizations which represent them. It is hard in an organization of two or three to ten thousand people to be personally acquainted with each one and to recog¬ nize them on sight. It is an impossibility if one does one’s other duties well. There arises, therefore, in the minds of some teachers the idea that the superintendent does not know them, that he knows nothing of their prob¬ lems, and that he does not care. It is easy for this idea to be disseminated to others in the group and either there are partisan groups thinking along the same line or the teachers professional organization gets to thinking in terms of the superintendent as someone far away and not interested in their problems. This creates a breach, and the breach in time grows and trouble ensues. This, I consider one of the gravest problems that confronts any superintendent. How shall wTe answer that problem? In the first place the superintendent should give assurance as often as possible and by actually proving it, of his interest in, devotion to, and care for each and every individual employee in the entire school system. 548 National Education Association In the second place, I think this problem may be overcome by meeting with representatives of the teachers organization and explaining to them the attitude of the entire teaching staff and the staff of employees. I think it may also be overcome by constantly conferring and giving the teachers an opportunity to participate in the affairs of the school administration. Practically every teacher in the Atlanta public schools has served on some branch of our curriculum revision which is a continual process, because a curriculum must be an ever growing thing. More than 500 of the teachers in Atlanta have served on the committee to help us in selecting textbooks. They have been invited to participate in trying to work out economies in our school system. They have been consulted with reference to all the major problems which confront the administration. In this way we are able, at least in a fair degree, to work out the difficulties between the school ad¬ ministration and the employees of that administration. A fifth great problem to the superintendent may be named under the general head of pressure groups — people who are wanting something done thru the public schools; people who want things sold or distributed, an¬ nouncements made, or certain things taught. I do not believe that you could deal with all of these things by some rule of thumb ; each one of these problems must be taken up and properly directed. We have overcome this difficulty by having what we call a “Steering Committee” of the Atlanta public schools. Again, this is largely made up of teachers, while members of the administration, advisory, and supervisory staff work with this group. But anyone who wishes to have any type of work done in the schools, such as the writing of an essay or presenting of some particular phase of history, must get that problem before the Steering Committee at least six months before the particular occasion arises. Notice is sent to such clubs as the U.D.C., D.A.R., W.C.T.U., and other organizations that would like to have something done in the schools, that the Steering Committee for the year 1936-37 is meeting; that if their organization has any particular work which it desires the schools to do in connection with its program for the year 1936-37, that work must be presented to the Steering Committee. The program for 1936-37 is completed by April of 1936. This notification informs these organizations that there is a given time at which their particular need may be presented to the school administration and gives sufficient time for investigation of the merits of the request so that the school calendar may be adopted a year in advance. If these people are invited before the Steering Committee, the Steering Committee may of itself dissuade them from the objective which they have in mind or may modify their request in such a way that it can be brought into the program without disturbing the school work. In closing, may I call attention to the great problem of personnel, and especially to the matter of getting rid of weak and inefficient teachers who may be fairly satisfactory. In those school systems that have tenure, this often constitutes a real problem. In solving this problem we have approached it from several angles. In the first place, we have said that nothing is so important as the maintaining of the highest efficiency in our teaching staff. Department of Superintendence 549 If teachers are weak we should let it be known far enough in advance that they can correct their weaknesses, if they are capable of correction. We have attempted to get a unified front on the part of the head of the department, the principal, the supervisor, and the superintendent in charge. We have called the Executive Committee of our teachers association together and informed them of the situation and asked them in advance to see if there was anything they could do to make these teachers more efficient. In dealing with inefficient teachers, notice should be given them that their work is not satisfactory. A period in which there is strict supervision and careful cooperation should be allowed and every help afforded in order to make the teacher an efficient and useful person. We have adopted the policy that it is better to make a good teacher out of a poor teacher than to risk getting a new teacher. When we have found that it is impossible, or seem¬ ingly impossible, to reach the desired results thru the old teacher we have given notice in time for that teacher to retire gracefully. In ninety out of a hundred cases this has been done. When the teacher refuses to resign we must steadfastly prefer the charges, and in almost every case we find that the board of education will sustain the decision of the superintendent. These are only a few of the great problems facing the superintendent of schools, and I may add that to be a successful city superintendent requires the technical knowledge of Strayer, the philosophy of a judge, the under¬ standing of his public of Dean Russell, the wisdom of Dewey, and the diplomacy of John Hay. EDUCATION IN 1937— OUR IDEALS AND THE COMMON SENSE OF THE SITUATION HENDRIK WILLEM VAN LOON, AUTHOR AND JOURNALIST, NEW YORK, N. Y. I shall, for the moment, make the experiment (if it can be done) of talking to you without this tin can here. (Laughter). I have no objection to making radio speeches but when I have the pleasure of addressing an audience I can see, instead of the audience having to listen to a speaker they cannot see, this always comes between us. I am going away again almost as soon as I deliver this speech and whether I burst my vocal cords will make no difference to the porters on the train. (Laughter). I shall do the best I can to make myself heard but if you cannot hear, will you wave your hand or throw something or say, “Rotten!” — any charming little remark thrown in — and I will go right back to the microphone! I have been asked to talk to your very tired ears for about thirty minutes. You have had a long session. You know it all now. (Laughter). That is to say, you know just as much as when you came because that is the way it goes in the world. Perhaps you know a little more! Waves go up and down. The waves of civilization go up and down but forever they go forward, and while I was asked to speak before you and sort of gather things together by explaining to you how at least one contemplator of the contemporary scene looks at 550 National Education Association the world around him, I think it is eminently fitting that you should import somebody from the New Netherlands to come to the New Orleans to speak to you in the common language of the common country, and about the one country which at the present moment, ruled by minorities, dictatorship, and little fellows in big books, still maintains, and as we contend, shall continue to maintain, the ideal that a country still can be run, and intelligently run, with respect for the integrity of the individual. Now, before I proceed in the language of our common country, with your kind permission I deliver les remarques suivants dans la langue orig- niale de la Louisiana pour ainsi rendre honneur a la memoire de vos ancetres qui nous ont donne ce beau pays. In other words — (Laughter) — somebody has taken freshman French! I am glad to say this because the city of New Orleans has done something for us in a general way. It has added a little more of the spirit of gaiety and cheerfulness and, above all things, excellent restaurants, to the other¬ wise perhaps slightly monotonousness of our country. But, after these outbursts of eloquence, I shall get down to what I have to say. I think it was Leibnitz, the famous German philosopher (who spoke and could speak in a day before the world was divided between Aryans and human beings), who had the privilege of saying that no idea was any good unless it could be written down on one small sheet of paper; In order to make you happy, that [Indicating] is all the paper I have. (Laughter). Public speech making is like tipping — or rather the other way — if you give the waiter five cents more than he expects, he is very happy, and if you give an audience five minutes less than they feared, they also are your friends for life ! I would remind you of an old French proverb: pour faire une omelette il vous faut casser des oeufs. In order to make an omelet one has got to break a few eggs. I may have to break a few eggs, neatly and without dribbling any more than necessary over myself, but politely. But, I think the time might just as well come for us who are school teachers — you teach them directly; I humbly try to teach them indirectly — to give up the meek and mild attitude that seems to have inspired us for so long, and when they hit us on the cheek, well, even tho we are true Christians, suppose before we turn the other cheek, we kick them on the shins ! We have been taking everything so charmingly and pleasantly and saying, “Well, after all, what do you expect!” Poor little school marms! Poor little school teachers! We are doing the very best we can under very adverse circumstances and if you do not like it — the rest of the sentence (there being gentlemen present), I leave to you. There is one thing — having given manifestation of rather un-Christian spirit, I would also like to show that sometimes I can be full of Christian charity. We have heard a lot of criticism of William Hearst for the things he has said of teachers and schools and universities. If I may play the role of avocat du diable, to be the devil’s advocate, to show the other side, I would like to do what God knows I have never done before in all my life. But, as a good Boy Scout, I should like to say a few words on behalf of Mr. Hearst. Department of Superintendence 551 1 beg your indulgence, gentlemen. You know we ought to be very fair to him. He has been very cruel in his condemnation of our universities. That was not malice — it was sheer ignorance — because poor Willie did the best he could ! He did what papa and mamma told him. He went to Harvard to study and see what the university was and if at the present time he is not always very nice to us, it is not his fault ; it is the fault of Harvard University because before Willie had been there one year, they threw him out on his ear and bade him never come back. And so it is due to the ignorance enforced on him by Harvard University and not by his own malicious intent! Now, having mentioned his name, I shall not refer to it again — because I want this to be a pleasant day. I did not see when that watch started. How much longer have I ? I think I can do it in about fifteen minutes. I beg your pardon if there are some¬ times manifestations of sneezing or unseemingly blowings of the nose. I carry part of the roadbed of the Southern Railway in my lungs — but that will come out all right. And now, I would like to say, and if I have any sort of — what, you cannot hear me there? You missed all that? Well, 1 will go down here. [Moving toward the microphone.] Will this be any better? Lord, you have missed the best part of it all ! I cannot do it again ! I suppose I have to refer to the Constitution, too, since everybody is very much interested in it at the present time. I have been making a great deal of money, and being sort of between friends, I think I ought to tell you how you can make a lot of money. Of course, everybody is excited about it but I find the number willing to be killed for it is in inverse ratio to the number of people willing to read this Constitution ! And so I, being a citizen by preference, felt that when I joined the organization, I ought to know something about the laws and bylaws. I believe you can buy it for fifty cents and they even give it away. But, if you want to make some money, get into a debate with some of your friends who still have hope a recount will get Alf Landon in. I hasten to say, however, that if I mention the name of Mr. Landon, I do so with really sincere and genuine and deep respect. Because if it be true, as I accept it to be true, that our system of government depends not only on the way in which the winner accepts his victory but also upon the way in which the loser accepts his defeat, then I should like to say that Alfred Landon by his gracious and dignified acceptance of defeat has contributed quite as much to the continued existence of the American form of govern¬ ment as the victor has done ! If, out of all this, you have drawn the conclusion that in a time when everybody tells me we either have to go to the right or we have to go to the left, I firmly insist on remaining right where I am, then you have the case correctly. I think we have accepted a sort of philosophy of defeat and I, for one, am getting sick and tired of it. When people come to me and cheerfully remark, do I want a glass of bichloride of mercury or cyanide of potassium, 1 answer for the moment I prefer a glass of water — and I intend to stick 552 National Education Association to the water! (Laughter and applause as Mr. Van Loon poured a glass of water and drank it.) And, with all this defeatist conversation going on, that we will soon have to decide to go either to the right or to the left, I can only answer, is there anything the matter with right where we are? I can say, “No.” And, at the same time — and I have only ten minutes more and this is what I think I ought to tell you — we ought not accept the fact that we live in a land blessed beyond the resources of any other land, which we have wasted. The good Lord must love us indeed to let us go on ! We should not accept our blessings as something the Lord is going to give us forever! We have to do something about it! And now, talking to you as schoolmen, using that old and excellent word, let me say what I feel we should do here in the United States in 1937 when on all sides we see the fabric of ancient civilization going to pieces, and when we ourselves may well and soon be called upon to carry on a civiliza¬ tion which Europe and its unutterable folly seem to be intent upon de¬ stroying. We know that things are not right. You have heard that before during the last week! (Laughter). That has been the sort of general hors d’oeuvres of everything people say. And, what happens? When things are not right, society comes to us and says, “It is too terrible. The schools have betrayed society.” And here, to get up in meeting and turn the other way around and say, “Society has betrayed the schools, for it is not the business of the school to prepare people for life; it is the business of the home.” Why were the schools ever founded? In order to do certain definite jobs which the home could not do. The home was there for the main purpose of education, which is the education of character. But, since papa was busy with the plow and mother was busy milking the cow and too much occupied to teach reading, writing, and arithmetic, they took somebody who was not so good at milking the cow and doing the plowing, and said, “You do that, and every year we’ll give you a new suit of clothes and fifty dollars.” Then, by and by, society got too busy, not with living but with making a living, which is something entirely different, and society thereupon turned around to the school, dumped the whole kaboodle in our laps, and said, “You take care of it,” and then society walked away and wondered that the results were not always those they had expected. Those of us who have ever had anything to do with the unfortunate children of the rich — I mean unfortunate because they are really very much handicapped — will know that papa and mamma do something out on the farm or somewhere so as to “give you a nice governess for a hundred dollars, and she makes ladies and gentlemen of you.” You do not make ladies and gentlemen for a hundred dollars ! And, papa and mamma do not back you up and society does not back you up. I will say as a mass of people, we have darned more intelligence than most of the parents whose children we get, so when society left us in the lurch and dumped its kids in our laps, under the circumstances we have indeed done by far the best we could but if we have failed, it is due to the fact that society has betrayed the school by refusing to accept the responsi- Department of Superintendence 553 bility it has towards its own children. Let George do it — and this hall is filled with Georges and Georgettes! And now, what can we do about it? There is no use merely saying all this is very bad and very wrong. It is like going to the station ; there is no train and nobody can tell you when the next train goes! As far as it is within our power, we intend to continue to do our best with those children entrusted to our care but here in the year of 1937 and in the agreeable month of Febru¬ ary in the lovely city of New Orleans — what has gone wrong? Now, I am merely a sort of a mild philosopher, and I only know what I dont read in the newspapers. I have to go back to history to find a solution to my problems, which are also your problems. I would like to say that judging by the errors of the past, we have made one cardinal mistake as a people, and we did it out of the kindness of our hearts — we did not understand how we can get the interest of somebody, which is merely another expression of how you can get their love. You will never get the love of anybody for what you give unto them but rather for what you let the others give unto you. I repeat that: you do not get a person’s interest, affection, and loyalty for what you give to them but for what ymu allow them to give unto you. The fathers of all religions have known that. The wise men ask that you give and give and give — and perhaps they will give something in return. But, it seems to be an elementary urge in all of us to want to have some cause outside of ours toward which we can give our deepest affection and profoundest and most devoted loyalty. Let me mention this, which all of you know better than I because you are dealing with those kids yourself. Those boys and girls come to you with that, oh, so eager look in their eyes! You say, “What are you going to do?” They want to go to Russia or they want to go to see how it works out in Germany or Italy. Why do they not want to stay here? Well — why! How many of you have seen it? It happens every day. They want to see all that, and there is no use arguing because to them it has almost become a religion ! Why not stay here? They want to go to Russia or Italy or Germany. They want to see how it works out. What is that “it” except a vague feeling that in those countries, millions of people can give their devotion without getting anything in return. I need not make a definite point of explaining that that is exactly what I do not 'want to happen. But, let me warn you that no children can live without heroes and if you give them the wrong heroes, they are very polite, very long-suffering, will be very agreeable about it, but they will sneak right out into the back-yards and get a few heroes of their own ! You may remember the story, more or less appropriate, of a man who wanted to go swimming in the Gulf of Mexico in the neighborhood of Florida and he asked a little boy if there were sharks. The little boy said there were no sharks. The man went swimming and afterwards he said to the little boy, “You were quite right. There are no sharks. But, how did you know?” The little boy said, “Mister, where there are so many crocodiles, there are never any sharks.” 554 National Education Association Now, we have sometimes reached a point of view where we did not want any heroes because we associate heroes with militarism, just as many foolish people associate discipline with militarism. The two have nothing in com¬ mon. Your children cannot live without heroes. They have to have a fairy story. They have to follow an ideal to the vanishing point to get the right perspective and without that point, they are going to be unhappy. There is where we have made our mistake, not only in 1937 but for the last thirty years. A perfectly normal mistake ! People had had a hard time and we had intended that our children should have an easier time, and, therefore, we did the unkindest thing we could do because we gave them something for nothing. We give them something for nothing — and nobody wants it! No¬ body has ever cared for it. Nobody has even respected what you give them under those circumstances. But, once more, under the accepted criterion and principle that you have to make your points, I would like this understood as much as anything else, and let the newspapers proclaim it as far as they want. Then the complaints come: “Here we build a thirty million dollar high school. What have you done to our children?” I say to parents, “As long as you send us thirty cent children, even a thirty million dollar high school won’t do any good.” It is society that has betrayed by teaching a doctrine of “Well, what of it — as long as you can get by!” The most dreary, the most defeatist philos¬ ophy ever offered to children ! “All right, kids, get thru school, no matter how ! Afterwards you can sell bonds to your friends and your wife can have a mink coat!” That philosophy has been the weakest and most pernicious philosophy — the offering of privilege without responsibility! Have an easy time ! What are we going to do? I alone am not bright enough to solve it and the collective wisdom of this hall is not enough to solve it but when we know the general direction in which we are steering and moving, we may all of us come much closer to a fulfilment of the ideal I mentioned a while ago — one country in a fast disappearing civilization that intends to continue handling its own affairs with its own sweet will and with decent respect for integrity of the individual, but we have to have a new ideal ; we have to have new fairy stories; we have to have new heroes; we have to have a new vanishing point by which those kids can draw their picture and get it in the true perspective. They will not be able to do it overnight or in a day but eventually I think that we shall succeed in doing it when we once more stand up on our hind legs and fight back a little. If we should .go back to that society which has left us to do all its dirty work, because it was indifferent and thought we could do that as long as we do the rest — if we should go back to that society and teach it to teach its children perhaps a new slogan, that would not be out of place. There is a monument here, if my memory serves me correctly, on which a certain general whose name shall not be mentioned — by the way, he could have helped himself better in those days in the store selling the spoons — ah, somebody remembers it. (Laughter). Well, on that monument at a most inappropriate moment and in a most tactless way was written the state- Department of Superintendence 555 ment, “The union must and shall be preserved.” We fought that out bravely and settled it. The union is there and the union is in no danger, even if at the present moment we have a little debate in society about certain articles of the Constitution. I do not despair as most people do about our future. The men who gave us this Constitution amid such high adventure and glamorous spirits, built this Republic so well that like a well-constructed skyscraper or lighthouse, it can stand a lot of hurricanes — perhaps feel the wind a little — but stand. I think the philosophy of life we preach to our children has been entirely wrong. We have been telling them wherever we could in a sort of Horatio Alger spirit what fortunate creatures they were because they were born in the land of opportunity. If I had my way and could write just a very few words upon one of your statues where they might be noticed for the rest of the time, I would say unto our children and preach this to them — approach¬ ing it from an entirely different angle: “My children, blessed are you be¬ cause you were privileged to be born in a land of responsibility!” CLOSING CEREMONIES President Threlkeld: Just for your information and not for any other purpose, I might supplement the report of the Board of Tellers. There were 410 votes cast on the matter of changing the constitution and bylaws, and two votes more than the two-thirds required for its adoption. I mention that only for information. That is not a very large percentage of the number in attendance at our meeting. That does not mean it does not reflect the sentiment. Too often we have a small vote even when there is a spirited contest. Ben G. Graham (Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.) : Mr. President and members of the Department, the highest honor which can be bestowed upon anyone in the Department of Superintendence is the honor of being president of this organization, an honor accorded to Superintendent Threlkeld. I believe we have reason to be proud of what he has accomplished in demonstrating our confidence and faith in his ability. It is no easy matter to prepare the program of this convention. He has withstood the gunfire of pressure organizations and prepared a program that is interesting, educa¬ tional, and entertaining. He prepared for this meeting under most difficult circumstances. There is one thing he did for which I think he deserves particular credit. A few weeks ago when the waters were pouring forth on the mid continent, the great question arose whether this meeting should be held but he went ahead with the plans to hold this meeting at this time. Had he deferred, it would have been fatal to the success of this meeting. I think our president deserves much credit. He has presided with im¬ partiality. One thing we like about him is his constant good humor. And, before presenting him with this token of our appreciation of his good work, I would like to say that we from the effete East and the far West express 556 National Education Association our appreciation of the fact that this superintendent who has made a great reputation in the far West, where men are men, is now coming to the effete East. There is one thing he will find there and that is that at least the super¬ intendents do not suffer from any inferiority complex. President Threlkeld, I would like to present you with this token which I hope you will wear as an expression of our high regard for the excellent work you have accomplished. It is a past president’s key. President Threlkeld: Mr. Graham, members of the Executive Com¬ mittee, and members of the Department, I can assure you I shall wear this key with pride as well as pleasure. It has been a great experience to serve as your president during the past year. It was not so time-consuming or energy-consuming as I thought it would be. Perhaps it was because I could not see the things that were to be done. But, I know this to be sure that two things seemed to make the work easy. First was the efficiency of the staff at Washington, headed by Mr. Shank- land. If you could but realize the way that office is organized to handle hundreds of letters and arrange all the details of this meeting, you would have more in mind what I am trying to say. But, time is short this morning and I shall not go into a detailed exposition. I want to express my apprecia¬ tion of the efficiency of Mr. Shankland and his staff in arranging for our meeting. The second is not only the disposition of cooperation of the members of our Department but their competency as administrators. It was not neces¬ sary for me to give any time to the afternoon sessions after the general chair¬ men for them were selected. They were given a free hand and you know the results of their work. So, it is not a hard job at all but one which affords a person a great deal of pleasure, and it is with pleasure I look back upon it. I especially appre¬ ciate being president of the Department during this historic meeting in New Orleans. I feel personally that just coming to New Orleans itself in such numbers justifies the meeting we have had here. Before we leave that thought, may I again present to you our peerless host, Nicholas Bauer, and ask him if he does not want to say a word of farewell to us. (Applause.) Mr. Bauer: Thank you, President Threlkeld, for this great opportunity to express our joy untold that we have had in entertaining you and making your stay pleasant. I say that so positively because we believe that you have been glad that you came to New Orleans. We, in turn, are extremely happy that you came because in addition to the pleasure that has been ours in entertaining you, you have repaid us in a way that means much for this section of our country and, in addition, means much to New Orleans because of those exaggerations concerning flood con¬ ditions that have been made about our city. We know you are informed and, being informed, you will scatter the truth about the wonderful engineering achievement which controls “Old Man River.” Our only request in bidding you goodbye is that you keep in mind the fact that it took fifty-two years to bring you back because that is the time Department of Superintendence 557 President A. L. Threlkeld hands the gavel to President-Elect Charles B. Glenn that has elapsed between this meeting and the meeting that was held during our centennial fifty-two years ago in New Orleans. We hope in bidding you goodbye that you will return very soon and give us the chance of strengthening the weaknesses in our plan of entertainment. (Applause. ) President Threlkeld: I neglected to say on the first morning some¬ thing I intended to say by way of information about Mr. Bauer. Mr. Bauer is a native of New Orleans. He was born in the French Quarter, grew up in the school system, and his entire professional experience has been here. Certainly, he is not only to the manor born; he is to New Orleans born. Now I should like to have the new president, Superintendent Charles B. Glenn of Birmingham, Alabama, step forward. (President-Elect Glenn came forward.) President Threlkeld (continuing) : Superintendent Glenn, as I said the other morning, I have served with you in various capacities in the work of the Department and I have come to know you. It gives me a great deal of personal pleasure to turn this gavel over to you and to express my deep appre¬ ciation for what you have meant to the Department in the past. I predict for the coming year the greatest year in the history of the Department. 558 National Education Association President-Elect Charles B. Glenn (Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham, Ala.) : Thank you, President Threlkeld. In this new era of the Association, under the new constitution, as I understand it, I really do not become president until March 15. Many things have already transpired that are exceptional. First, down here in the Deep South, I was afraid to accept the congratulations of friends, even tho I was the only nominee, until after the ballot was counted. I have understood that down in Louisiana sometimes no matter what goes into the ballot box, you are not sure what is going to come out. At this moment, I am very much relieved that at last this thing is con¬ firmed altho I must wait until March 15 actually to assume the office of president. May I in advance of that ask for one personal privilege at this time. The rather organized applause which I thought I detected over at the right — I remember some years ago an educator was invited to make a series of talks thru Willis Sutton’s state of Georgia, and he took the precaution of taking with him his daughter in order that she might start the applause — the applause over to your right today which you may have detected came from an organized group. I recognize them; they are my own official family. (Laughter and applause.) The Birmingham Board of Education by resolution paid the expenses of all principals and supervisors of our system to attend this meeting. When that was mentioned in the board meeting, it was explained that these prin¬ cipals and supervisors had no vote. One member of the board, well versed in political history of the Deep South, said, “Well, what in the hell are we sending them down there for?” (Laughter.) I am going to ask the privilege at this time to have my associates stand and let’s give them a hand. (Applause). (The Birmingham delegation arose and acknowledged the applause). President-Elect Glenn (continuing) : Now, I could say much but not at this late hour. The first impression is that this job has had a distinguished line of presidents. I have glanced over their names. I wonder if you would not want me to mention them : A. L. Threlkeld, A. J. Stoddard, E. E. Ober- holtzer, Paul C. Stetson, Milton C. Potter, Edwin C. Broome, Norman R. Crozier, Frank Cody, Frank D. Boynton, Joseph M. Gwinn, Randall J. Condon, Frank W. Ballou, William McAndrew, Payson Smith, John H. Beveridge, Robinson G. Jones — and fifty-odd others before them. I appreciate highly your confidence in classing me in that group of fine men who have helped make a reputation for this Department which has fixed for it so firm a place in education in our country. (Applause). President Threlkeld: I also wish to express my appreciation of the fine work of the Executive Committee. It has been a very competent commit¬ tee and one that has given me a free hand. I thank them for their cordial cooperation. If there is nothing further, we will be adjourned. Department of Superintendence 559 RESOLUTIONS Report of the Committee on Resolutions Adopted February 25, 1937 Preamble Education is the greatest necessity to living suitable lives, saving our de¬ mocracy, and providing for the progress of our nation. It provides for the span of generations and outlasts the changes which arise from emergency and short term programs. Education is the result of many agencies and forces of which the school is a very important one. It is concerned with human interests, the most impor¬ tant of which is the government and the complete happiness of every citizen. It enables people to govern themselves, to make unbiased decisions on policies and programs, and to change the order of society as conditions may require. Education will survive the efforts of the partisan and the opportunist when it is truly serving the best interests of a democratic society and protecting its valued institutions. It brings the greatest culture and training possible in our economic, social, civic, and moral living. Education has the purpose of advancing wisdom, knowledge, ideals, and attitudes which will enable one to live with and for people in an unselfish manner. It will function in and from the home, the church, the school, and in every experience we may have thru our lives. In order that public educa¬ tion may continue to hold its unique place in American life, we propose the following program : Federal Aid We feel that the public schools should be free and open to every child and that in the United States equality of opportunity is the right of every citizen ; that to guarantee these rights as such it is the obligation of the federal govern¬ ment to aid the states and the local subdivisions thereof in the equalization of opportunity with the positive assurance of sufficient funds to maintain a suitable program for all. The federal contribution to the states for the support of public education should be extended without any federal control and should be administered thru the state department of education within the states receiving such funds. We respectfully request the Congress and the President of the United States to provide for the passage of the Harrison-Black-Fletcher Bill at the very earliest possible time. We positively recommend that additional aid be given under the above conditions of control for the advancement of vocational, industrial, adult, youth, and pre-school educational programs. There is a very grave necessity for national support of public education and for united action against the enemies of our society which include the selfish partisan, the racketeer, the communist, the fascist, the opportunist, the war lord, and similar influences tending to destroy popular government. 560 National Education Association Mindful of the increasing demands upon our schools for new services, we ask that more consideration be given to the place of public education in the present reorganization of the federal government. The Program We realize the need of clearing out the dead wood from the curriculum, at the same time recognizing the necessity for its continuous change and enrichment. We urge an expansion of the school program to include early childhood and adult levels and to make more adequate provision for the needs of youth. We recommend the restoration of services suspended during the economic crisis, with an improved instructional program supported by a more liberal use of research, guidance, library, modern equipment, and materials. We point to the need of more vital relationships between the public schools and all other educational agencies which deal with community activities and services. We emphasize a wider use of such current instruments and agencies of education as sound pictures, radio, and press. We endorse all legislation for the proper protection of childhood in mat¬ ters of safety, care of health, physical development, and freedom from ex¬ ploitation and the burdens of continuous labor. We regard as basic to the success of our educational program the improve¬ ment of teaching and of the administrative force in charge. This can be accomplished not only thru better intellectual, social, and personal equip¬ ment, but also thru advancement on merit, economic security, and protection against personal and partisan politics, and thru freedom to teach the truth. Horace Mann This year marks a notable milestone in the history of American education. One hundred years ago Horace Mann became secretary of the Board of Education in the State of Massachusetts. Because of his outstanding ability, broad vision, and inspired leadership, America for the first time realized the essential relationship between free public education and a successful democracy. Horace Mann may, without question, be accorded a leading place among the great statesmen who have demonstrated to a skeptical world that a government by a free people is possible of definite accomplishment. The Department of Superintendence recommends that an appropriate observance of this important anniversary be held in every school in the land to the end that we may more fully realize the fundamental necessity of free public education in the building and perpetuation of an enlightened democracy. In view of his distinguished service to public education in this country, we request Congress to authorize a postage stamp in commemoration of this, his one hundredth anniversary. Department of Superintendence 561 Appreciation We desire to express our commendation of, and our faith in, the leadership of President A. L. Threlkeld. We wish also to express our appreciation of the gracious hospitality pro¬ vided for the Department of Superintendence by the New Orleans schools under the guidance of Superintendent Nicholas Bauer and by the entire city of New Orleans. We give sincere thanks to the local and national press, and to radio and other publicity agencies for their intelligent and generous cooperation. The true value of this hospitality and cooperation will be brought about only when it is woven into a continuously improving program of education in the United States. F. L. Schlagle, Chairman Merle J. Abbett Louis P. Benezet E. B. Cauthorn William T. Darling E. A. Elliott W. Karl Hopkins H. H. Kirk Harry W. Langworthy J. A. Lindsay C. R. Maxwell Burr J. Merriam Leon N. Neulen Bertram E. Packard Sue M. Powers J. W. Ramsey Agnes Samuelson J. B. Sears ADDITIONAL RESOLUTIONS RESOLUTION presented from the floor by otto w. haisley, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ANN ARBOR, MICH. Adopted February 25, 1937 Resolved, That the incoming president of this Department shall be author¬ ized to appoint a committee of seven members who shall study the problem of the qualifications of future incoming members of this Department and shall inquire concerning desirable qualifications for admission to the profes¬ sion of school administration and shall make a report, embodying their recommendations, to this Department at its meeting a year hence. RESOLUTION PRESENTED FROM THE FLOOR BY ERNEST M. HANSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW ULM, MINN. Adopted February 25, 1937 Resolved, That the Department of Superintendence of the National Edu¬ cation Association go on record as favoring the immediate passage of a uni¬ versal draft act which will draft all the resources of the United States in case of war. Be it Further Resolved, That legislation which will take the profits out of war be supported. 562 National Education Association RESOLUTION PRESENTED FROM THE FLOOR BY JOHN W. THALMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WAUKEGAN, ILL. Adopted February 25, 1937 Resolved, That we congratulate those members of the United States Senate and House of Representatives who have voted for outright repeal of the so- called “Red Rider” attached to the District of Columbia Appropriation Act for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1936, and that we express the hope that in the very near future this un-American legislation will be wiped completely from the statute books of the nation. REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TELLERS NEW ORLEANS CONVENTION February 24, 1937. To the President, Executive Committee, and Members of the Department of Superintendence : We hereby certify that the election of officers of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association was held this day and conducted in accordance with the provisions of the constitution and bylaws. The following received a majority of the votes cast and were elected: President for one year : Charles B. Glenn, superintendent of schools, Birmingham, Ala. Second vicepresident for one year : J. W. Ramsey, superintendent of schools, Fort Smith, Ark. Member of the Executive Cojnmittee for four years: Jesse H. Mason, superintendent of schools, Canton, Ohio. The retiring president, A. L. Threlkeld, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colorado, by provision of the constitution automatically becomes first vicepresident for the ensuing year. On the question of the adoption of the proposed new constitution and bylaws of the Department of Superintendence, the results were as follows: Total number of votes cast . 410 Number of votes necessary for adoption . 274 Number of votes cast for adoption . 276 Respectfully submitted, W. W. Borden, Chairman B. Frank Brown Harvey O. Hutchinson R. E. Balliette Ira S. Brinser Edmund L. Tink Department of Superintendence 563 SECRETARY’S MINUTES New Orleans Convention February 20 The sixty-seventh annual meeting of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association was held in the Municipal Audi¬ torium, New Orleans, Louisiana. Registration and exhibits opened Saturday morning, February 20. All available space on the two exhibit floors was occupied, and about 50 applications for space had to be rejected. In all, 222 firms and organizations participated in the exhibit, which was visited by over 14,000 people. February 21 The opening Vesper Service was held in the main arena of the Municipal Auditorium on Sunday afternoon, February 21. Inspiring music for the occasion was furnished by the massed church choirs and choral groups of New Orleans. President Albert W. Palmer of Chicago Theological Semi¬ nary summoned those in the vast audience to high endeavor, as he spoke on the theme, “Walking with God Today.” A pageant by pupils of the public schools of New Orleans attracted a capacity audience on Sunday evening. Every seat was occupied, and hundreds stood in the aisles and nearby corridors. “The Glory of Dixie” was the well-chosen topic of the pageant. In four episodes, presented by over a thousand participants, the audience was given glimpses of the social life of the Old South, division and reunion, Dixie’s renaissance after the War was over, and charming echoes of the colorful Mardi Gras fiesta. February 22 « At the opening of the Monday morning session, 10,000 gorgeously colored camellias, furnished by parish superintendents of Louisiana, were dis¬ tributed to members of the audience by gay-costumed girls from the paro¬ chial, private, and public high schools of New Orleans. The symphony orchestra of Louisiana State University, led by Dr. H. W. Stopher, rendered a musical program in connection with the distribution of the camellias. Superintendent Nicholas Bauer of New Orleans, in well-chosen words, brought greetings to the convention and presented to President A. L. Threlkeld a gavel, fashioned in the fleur-de-lis design of France, and made from a piece of cypress from a rafter in the old Spanish Cabildo. The gavel was made by pupils in the manual training department of the New Orleans public schools. Superintendent Bauer also gave to President Threlkeld a four-volume history of Louisiana. On Monday afternoon, twelve group meetings of the Department of Superintendence were held for the discussion of current educational problems. These groups met again on the afternoons of Tuesday and Wednesday. 564 National Education Association At the Monday evening session, an honorary life membership in the Department was presented to Dr. John Dewey in recognition of his dis¬ tinguished service to American education. February 23 The morning session was taken up with a discussion of the 1937 Year¬ book, entitled The Improvement of EdncatioJi — Its Interpretation for Democracy. At the conclusion of the discussion, Acting Chairman Willard S. Elsbree of the Yearbook Commission referred to the untimely death of the Commission’s chairman, Frank G. Pickell, and paid fitting tribute to his devotion to the cause of education. Following his remarks, Dr. Elsbree presented a specially bound volume of the yearbook to Mrs. Pickell who had a place on the platform as the guest of the Department of Superin¬ tendence. At the business meeting which followed, nominations for officers were presented: For president, Charles B. Glenn, superintendent of schools, Birmingham, Alabama; for second vicepresident, J. W. Ramsey, superin¬ tendent of schools, Fort Smith, Arkansas; for member of the executive committee for four years, Everett W. Ireland, superintendent of schools, Somerville, Massachusetts, and Jesse H. Mason, superintendent of schools, Canton, Ohio. Superintendent Worcester Warren of Bridgeport, Connecticut, pre¬ sented the report of the Audit Committee, which was adopted and ordered printed in the Official Report. Superintendent Paul C. Stetson of Indianapolis, Ind., presented the final report of the Committee on a Longer Planned Program for the Department of Superintendence. On motion of Superintendent William A. Walls of Kent, Ohio, the report was received and the committee discharged. Superintendent Leon N. Neulen of Camden, New Jersey, presented the report of the Committee on Financing Educational Research, which was received and ordered printed. On motion of Superintendent Leonard C. Murray of Aitkin, Minnesota, it was voted that consideration be given to plans for bringing the Depart¬ ment of Superintendence closer to those who cannot afford to attend the national conventions, by encouraging regional meetings and organizations. At the discretion of the incoming president, this problem is to be studied either by the Commission on the Smaller School System or by a special com¬ mittee appointed for the purpose. February 24 Six thousand people were early astir on Wednesday morning, when they were the guests of Superintendent Nicholas Bauer and the educational groups of New Orleans at a Creole breakfast under the famous Old Dueling Oaks in City Park. Conveyances of every sort were requisitioned to carry the visitors to the appointed spot, where they are promptly served with a breakfast consisting of orange juice, yellow grits, grillards, hot rolls, and Creole coffee. Make-believe duels, negro spirituals, barn dancing, organ Department of Superintendence 565 grinders with their monkeys, and other characters typical of the Old French Quarter made this breakfast a most colorful affair. At the morning session in the Municipal Auditorium, the past presidents of the Department of Superintendence presented an especially molded watch charm and a hand-tooled humidor to Executive Secretary S. D. Shankland. The presentation was made by Superintendent Milton C. Potter of Mil¬ waukee, a past president of the Department of Superintendence. Assistant Superintendent A. S. Sonntag of New Orleans was called to the platform by President Threlkeld and given a certificate of 100 percent enrolment in the National Education Association for the New Orleans public schools. This is the largest city in the United States to have this distinction. In the afternoon, the Louisiana State University Concert Band, under the direction of Castro Carazo, gave a splendid concert on the plaza of the Municipal Auditorium. In the evening, 300 pupils of the elementary, high, and normal colored public schools of New Orleans presented an unusual program of negro spirituals. Their singing was of a high order of excellence and the applause of the audience was loud and long. Following the Wednesday evening session, the Krewe of Les Savantes, members of the New Orleans Public School Teachers Association, staged a carnival ball in the Concert Hall of the Municipal Auditorium. President A. L. Threlkeld was chosen to reign as king of the ball, and eight well- known members of the Department of Superintendence served as his grand dukes. February 25 The report of the Committee on Resolutions was presented by Chairman F. L. Schlagle, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Kansas. After some discussion, it was adopted without amendment, after which three additional resolutions, presented from the floor, were also adopted. These resolutions are printed in full elsewhere in this report. Superintendent Ben G. Graham of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, presented to President A. L. Threlkeld a past president’s key similar to those awarded to other former presidents of the Department of Superintendence. After the Board of Tellers had reported, the newly elected officers were introduced, and the convention adjourned. In the afternoon, as the closing convention feature, the school children’s organization of the celebrated Mardi Gras, known as the Krewe of NOR — New Orleans Romance — repeated its carnival parade along the streets of New Orleans. Fifty-eight bands, with as many variegated floats, marched thru the streets of the city and passed in review before masses of visitors and citizens who gathered to see the spectacle. Sherwood D. Shankland, Executive Secretary. ■ . DEPARTMENT OF UPERVISORS AND ‘ DIRECTORS O F J NS TR UC TIO N HISTORICAL NOTE The department of supervisors and directors of instruction in its inception was an independent society called the National Conference on Educational Method, organized at Atlantic City in February 1921. The first number of its publication , the journal of educational method, was published in September of the same year. At the Boston meeting , in February 1928, the name of the society was changed to the National Conference of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction, and the Execu¬ tive Committee was instructed to prepare a petition asking for acceptance as a department by the National Education Association. This petition was acted upon favorably at the Minneapolis meeting of the N. E. A. in July 1929 and a regular department zvas thus created. The Department publishes a yearbook and a journal, now called educational method. Annual dues, $4, are payable to the Executive Secretary. Meetings are held tzvice a year, in connection with the conventions of the AC E. A. and of the American Association of School Administrators. The officers for the year 1937-38 are: president, Edith M. Bader, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Ann Arbor, Mich.; first vice- president, Hollis L. Caswell, Director of Surveys and Field Studies, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn.; second vice- president, Lucille Nicol , Assistant Superintendent of Schools, New York, N. Y .; field secretary, James E. Hosic, Professor Emeritus of Education , 50 Rockland Ave., Yonkers, N. Y .; executive secretary, Mary F. Hascll, 1201 Sixteenth Street, AC W ., Washington, D. C.; ex¬ ecutive committee: Mildred English, Superintendent, Peabody Train¬ ing School, Georgia State College for Women, Milledgeville, Ga. (term expires 1938) ; Paul T. Rankin, Supervising Director of Curriculum and Research, Detroit, Mich, (term expires 1939) ; Rudolph D. Lindquist, Director, The University School, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio ( term expires 1940) ; the officers of the Department, ex officio. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of its meetings may be found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1 928 \831-832 1 93 1 -.801-824 1 934 -.673-692 1929 -.803-825 1932 -.679-693 1 935 -.627-644 1930 -.773-800 19 33:681-695 1936:523-541 r 568 1 PLANNING FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PAUL T. RANKIN, SUPERVISING DIRECTOR OF CURRICULUM AND RESEARCH, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, DETROIT, MICH. The necessity for careful planning is generally accepted and needs no discussion. There may be, however, several questions which merit con¬ sideration. Among them are: What is the ideal toward which the planning should be directed? What are the criteria of good planning in curriculum work? What are the elements in effective planning? Planning implies inevitably a purpose to be achieved, an ideal to be at¬ tained. We do not just plan; we plan toward something. What is this some¬ thing? What is the utopia toward which those who plan activities in cur¬ riculum development are seeking to move? Evidently the ideal in curriculum development, like ideal goals in education generally or in government, will differ for different people and will reflect their distinctive philosophies. The attempt here is to describe the characteristics of a program of curriculum development which seems to the committee desirable for adoption as a general ideal. Curriculum development, ideally, is carried on democratically. There is widespread participation in the process by teachers, principals, supervisors, other specialists, and the superintendent. Major decisions as to basic prin¬ ciples, objectives, scope, and organization are made cooperatively. Curricu¬ lum development, ideally, is based on scientific study of world life and of the child as two major determiners of the educational process and objec¬ tives, and on careful analysis of the relative value of alternative experiences for promoting child growth. In short, research into all aspects of the program is essential to thorogoing curriculum development. Curriculum development, ideally, is well articulated as regards the agencies concerned : state school systems, county school systems, city school systems, individual schools, professional organizations, lay groups. Curriculum de¬ velopment, ideally, is a continuous process. As long as change remains the most constant characteristic of the social order, there should be no fixed cur¬ riculum, because a static curriculum cannot aid children to understand and meet intelligently the issues of a changing order. The curriculum must al¬ ways he in the process of becoming. Curriculum development, ideally, is marked by periodic compilations of the best that has been attained up to a particular time. Teachers should have available for their use reports of the pupil experiences found to be most valuable in promoting pupil growth. Curriculum development, ideally, yields products that are flexible and adaptable to the needs of the many different individuals who will use these products. There must be freedom and encouragement to each teacher to adapt the products of group thought and experimentation to the distinctive needs and characteristics of his particular group of pupils. Curriculum de¬ velopment, ideally, is accompanied by continuous appraisal. It provides [ 569 ] 570 National Education Association periodically for evaluation of the curriculum as developed to that point in terms of the effects on pupils, teachers, and the community as a whole. Plans differ greatly in merit. It is desirable that plans be judged as to probable value before they are put into execution. But on what bases should planning for curriculum development be appraised ? Several of the more important criteria are suggested. Good planning implies a rather clearly defined concept of the nature of the result sought. The planners need to have in mind an ideal of the kind of program of curriculum development toward which they are working. Good planning is based on the facts in the situation. The level of educa¬ tional thinking of the community, the philosophy of the teachers, the nature of the professional leadership available, the existing educational program, and the adequacy of financial support are illustrations of the types of facts which a workable plan cannot disregard. Good planning involves at every stage perception of varied possibilities and reasoned choice among them in terms of their probable contribution to the general purpose adopted. Good planning for curriculum development takes into consideration the other plans and activities under way that affect the same pupil or teacher personnel, the same equipment, the same objec¬ tives. Good planning is done in such a way that the plan is accepted under¬ standing^ and wholeheartedly by all those who are to share in working it out. People work best when they believe in the basic purpose and plan. Ordinarily, such acceptance and belief result from participation in choice of the purpose and in the construction of the plan. Good planning provides both for the long-range program and for the immediate, transitional activi¬ ties. The program in broad outlines needs to cover a relatively long period of time. Similarly, the plan should give in much more detail the activities for the period immediately ahead and outline the steps in the direction of the type of curriculum sought ultimately. The long-range plan gives per¬ spective; the transitional plan promotes immediate progress. Good planning is flexible. The planning group cannot anticipate in ad¬ vance the full program of curriculum development in any particular situa¬ tion any more than a teacher can predict precisely what activities will prove to be most appropriate and most educative for a particular class of pupils. The distinction should be made between those aspects that can be planned in advance and those that cannot. Amendment is to be expected and wel¬ comed. Good planning for curriculum development is adapted to the financial resources available. Some program is possible in every school system, but its magnitude and character will depend largely on the amount of money that can be used. Curriculum planners need to be realistic in facing the problem of financial limitations on plans. The final test of good planning is that it shall be workable. The work¬ ability of a plan cannot be foretold with complete assurance and can be demonstrated only after the plan is in effect. Yet much trouble may be Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 571 avoided if plans are reviewed by experienced, sympathetic experts before they are put into operation, and modifications made in the light of the suggestions received. It is much less costly in time and money to make cor¬ rections at the planning stage than at the stage of execution.1 A CASE STUDY IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT EDITH M. BADER, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ANN ARBOR, MICH. I have chosen as case study material the description of the Parker School District curriculum as found in the recent book of James Tippett entitled Schools for a Growing Democracy . I have chosen this material because while it deals with the curriculum process in an entire school district, it devotes itself for the most part to exhaustive and vivid descriptions of classroom situations. It thus, more adequately than many available printed sources, gives a rather comprehensive view of how the curriculum looks in action ; namely, in the day-by-day living of the child in school. In the foreword and in Chapter I the purpose and basic philosophy are clearly stated: “The district was launching a determined effort to make the work of the schools contribute more effectively to the development of all the possibilities in each child and to the harmonizing of school life with the demands of society.” The nature of the reorganized curriculum is best described in the fol¬ lowing statement: In general, the elementary-school curriculum in the Parker School is built upon the assumption that the educational growth of a child is best served if the program in the content field is organized around important centers of interest of varying types, selected from the environment and from experiences of the children, and en¬ riched by organized knowledge. From the field of social science comes most of the centers of interest which form the core of the elementary curriculum. The science implications growing out of the various problems studied are also given much stress. In both of these fields much emphasis is placed upon the development of usable generalizations, and it is on this thread, the author believes, that continuity and orderly development of social under¬ standing are built. Excursions, industrial activities, dramatics, and creative arts bulk large in the program. A camp located in the mountains some six miles away is an important part of the school plant. Many of the tools and skills are learned functionally. However, definite periods are reserved for formal reading instruction and for arithmetic. The organization of the curriculum at the junior and senior high-school level is still departmental and the content follows in general the subject- matter organization. Some effort, however, has been made thru fusion of materials in geography, civics, health, and science to develop at least a part of the experiences of children around the center of interest. 1 Dr. Rankin’s complete statement will appear as Chapter V in the yearbook, The Changing Curriculum. 572 National Education Association So-called collateral activities of the high school, including assemblies, clubs, hobbies, and journalism, are recognized as legitimate curriculum con¬ tent and are provided for in the regular schedule each day. An Appraisal The ultimate test of a curriculum plan is found in the changed conduct of pupils and teachers and likewise in changed community living. No printed statement can adequately describe what takes place in thoughts and attitudes. Furthermore, what is at any one time is likewise no adequate measure, because while quality of the living at each moment is important, the direction in which that living is tending is also important. Implications of present living, therefore, in terms of direction and ultimate goals must be a part of the appraisal. In this appraisal I shall accept at their face value statements of ideals and descriptions of activities and outcomes. By explicit statement this curriculum accepts the social direction of the school. The social pattern with which it is concerned is that of democracy. To quote, “The end is rich and effective membership in a democratic state.” The social direction is apparent also in the nature of the experiences pro¬ vided within the school. In the first place, the curriculum is interpreted broadly to include the total life of the school. In addition, the out-of-school life of the child is taken into account in the program which is provided. The community is constantly explored in order to make learning meaningful. This is done by means of the extensive excursion program and also by the attempt to reproduce in the school in simpler form the industrial processes of the home and the community. The walls of the school are further broken down by the use of a mountain camp which provides a more realistic setting for group living. Finally, the social direction is apparent in certain com¬ munity serviceable activities which are described. The most striking ex¬ ample of this is the development of the museum. This enterprise drew into one cooperative group children, teachers, parents, and other citizens of the community, and the end product became not only a permanent source of realistic living for the children but also a channel for community adult education. Such experiences make contemporary social situations meaningful by relating into one integrated whole, civic, social, and economic phases of community life. In other words, not only does the child use the community to help him understand what the school is offering, but he also finds the means of making his own purposes and needs contribute to the enriched living of the community as a whole. While the social purpose of the school is dominant, the responsibility to the individual is also recognized in the statement of purpose, “To make the work of the school contribute more effectively to the development of all the possibilities in each child.” So far as this curriculum recognizes the social objective of the school and also recognizes that the fulness of life for the individual is found in the democratic process, it is in harmony with the basic assumptions of the year¬ book. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 573 However, among the 29 outcomes listed under science, for example, not one deals with basic contributions which science and invention might make to the comfort and happiness of the worker and to the enrichment of the community life. All of them show only how science improves the efficiency of the industrial processes. One searches in vain both in social science courses and in vocational courses for any indications that the basic causes for malad¬ justment in the home and community are discussed with frankness. There are no evidences that the area of family relations is explored as a basic need of adolescent youth. More fundamentally still, one is forced to conclude that while the orien¬ tation of this course is social, in that democracy is accepted as the cultural pattern to be desired, yet the acceptance of this purpose seems to rest upon the assumption that democracy must be accepted because it is and that the schools should fit the child into the pattern as it is, even tho it includes the prevailing industrial pattern, which is in reality far from democratic. The position of the writers of this yearbook is that democracy is to be accepted as a goal of education, not because it is now the pattern accepted by our cultural group, but because the democratic process is most consistent with the ultimate good of each individual and of the group. This position would imply that the school should be concerned at all levels with the critical appraisal of the democratic process, and with a concern for its improvement and extension to all realms of living. In other words the social function of the school will be attained only when the child is, within the range of his own maturation, led to extend the range of his experiences into the realms of social conflicts and when he is increasingly helped to think critically and experimentally about them. This curriculum attempts to discover a new basis of organization for learning in terms of individual living. This is apparent in the use of the term “center of interest.” Within the limits of these centers of interest much organized information and many skills are taught functionally. Flexibility of the daily schedule and the elimination of fixed standards for promotion and classification are other evidences of the effort of the Parker School to find a sound psychological basis for the organization of curriculum. It is at this point, however, that the transitional character of this curricu¬ lum becomes apparent. Henry Harap has taken the position in his discussion that all present curriculum practises represent merely transitional stages toward the type of curriculum which the philosophy of this yearbook en¬ visions. The new curriculum will, according to this philosophy, be organized in terms of broad areas of social living and not in terms of subjects or areas of organized knowledge. While the Parker School curriculum provides for organization in terms of “centers of interest,” the very categories in which these units are described places them for the most part in the school-subject class. The effectiveness of the curriculum process is further revealed thru the appraisal devices that are used. The authors devote a short chapter to this. For instruments of appraisal they have depended entirely upon standardized tests of tool subjects. The so-called intangibles, by which they mean the 574 National Education Association social values, are left to the ordinary process of subjective appraisal. At this point the new curriculum offers another challenge. New instruments of appraisal must he devised to measure new values, and the appraisal activi¬ ties must themselves become an integral part of the curriculum process. It has been suggested that this curriculum represents a transitional stage when measured against the values of the yearbook. Whether it is actually for the Parker School District a transitional stage depends upon the degree to which the implications of the democratic philosophy are accepted basically. There seem to be indications that unwarranted faith is put in method as the guarantee of achievement of the social goal. The assumption seems to be that if the pattern of democratic living is followed in the school the democratic process will he achieved in life. The philosophy of this yearbook would demand a more vigorous social direction as the basic assumption upon which to build a curriculum. CRITERIA TO BE USED IN EVALUATING PROGRAMS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT CHARLES W. KNUDSEN, GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. A criterion for use in appraising any school practise is a concise statement setting forth a point of view or belief, or a concise description of a practise that follows from accepting a particular point of view. To a striking degree, criteria have the nature of assumptions. The proposal of a list of criteria for appraising curriculum programs is itself based on the assumption that such a list may be used successfully for the purpose indicated. The several criteria imply beliefs or assumptions to be tested by examining the consequences that follow their use. Frequently the test made is clearly a process of reflection — we examine the consequences that follow logically, as we say. In other cases the test of a given assumption or belief is made thru experimentation. There is a wealth of historical evidence to indicate that man has frequently failed to test a belief adequately because of complete reliance on a method of thinking divorced from the necessity of experimental trial. The facts indicated in the foregoing paragraph have a bearing on an ex¬ amination of the list of criteria proposed by the Yearbook Committee. Critical examination involves a consideration of the educational theory underlying the criteria, and in addition, a consideration of the manner in which it is proposed that educational theory should be applied. Because the viewpoint of the Committee is definitely that of the experimentalist, the tentative, hypothetical nature of the criteria should be borne in mind. Persons with yearnings for the fixed, the absolute, and the certain will view the criteria with misgiving. The criteria should not, however, be regarded as entirely theoretical. The fact that the Committee examined numerous programs of curriculum development in which the qualities implied in the several criteria were present to a pronounced extent lends credence to the Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 575 statement that the criteria and the suggested method of their use are not wholly impractical. Checklists relating to the proposed criteria were prepared to facilitate evaluation of three important and complementary phases of curriculum de¬ velopment : ( 1 ) formulation of the basic beliefs underlying the program ; (2) organizing and planning for curriculum development; and (3) develop¬ ing learning units in classrooms. The implications of the criteria for supervisors point to the need for a continuing shift of emphasis in supervisory work. Within the last decade this shift has been away from a consideration of the technics of teaching as a main consideration of the supervisor to a consideration of more funda¬ mental issues. These more fundamental issues affect the establishment of conditions by which pupils more effectively acquire the abilities and dispo¬ sitions necessary for a more intelligent social participation in the affairs of mankind. Use of the checklists will emphasize one important fact, viz., that the quality in a program of curriculum development to which a given criterion refers is not to be considered on an all-or-none basis. Many different attempts to formulate revised curriculum programs possess merit. It should be pos¬ sible to indicate those programs which possess more merit than others. At the very least, use of the proposed checklists in the manner suggested has enabled the Committee to indicate with some definiteness the programs it considers meritorious, as well as the bases on which its judgments were made. PANEL DISCUSSIONS New Orleans, Louisiana, February 22, 1937 The program of the Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruc¬ tion at New Orleans included six group meetings for panel discussion. Two of these meetings were joint sessions with other organizations. Inasmuch as panel discussions cannot always be successfully summarized, the material included in this report is necessarily incomplete. GROUP I — Art Education Chairman: Jane Betsey Welling, Associate Professor of Art Education, Wayne University, Detroit, Mich. The Panel Blanche Cahoon, Director of Art Education, Tampa County Schools, Tampa, Fla. G. Robert Koopman, Associate Director of Curriculum Research, State Department of Public Instruction, Lansing, Mich. Juanita McDougald, State Department of Public Instruction, Raleigh, N. C. Daniel S. Defenbacker, Assistant to Director of Federal Art Projects, Washington, D. C. 576 National Education Association Elizabeth Robertson, Director of Art Education, Public Schools, Chicago, Ill. Ralph W. Tyler, Professor of Education, Ohio State University, Colum¬ bus, Ohio Miss Welling: This group is unusual in that it represents the points of view of general educators as well as art educators who have come to¬ gether here from a widely distributed geographical area with sharply differ¬ entiated experiences in education. Art education at present is at a fork in the road. It is faced with the prob¬ lem either of going on as it has in the past to meet the needs of a specially talented group, small in number, or of expanding its objectives and pro¬ cedures to meet the needs of everyone who has use for art expression. Art education today could function on a wide front. Its activities and opportunities for growth and development are being realized by educators working with all ages, from the preschool up the line of development to adult education. Its possibilities are being explored and adjusted to meet new demands. Art educators are in the thick of the educational reevaluation. Are they meeting the challenge? The wide front evident today spreads not only all along the age line, from the very young child to his grandparents, but also extends on each side to encompass possibilities for growth in art sensitivity and expression and appreciation for everyone, whatever his interests and abilities may be. Psychologists are talking of the “whole child’’ and his development, and are looking toward creative expression and its emotional as well as material satisfactions with renewed expectancy. Adult education in art, sponsored by innumerable community agencies and the Federal Art Projects, is finding that the creative and imaginative phases of each individual’s development have been almost entirely overlooked in our educational programs in spite of the obvious fact that every individual has potentialities along these lines. Educators are beginning to realize that if art expression is so valuable for the physically handicapped, the emotionally unstable, and the mentally re¬ tarded, it may likewise have as yet unknown values for the so-called normal, average, and balanced child and adult in our society. Dr. Koopman — Question 1 : To what extent should the program in art education be differentiated from the other phases of education? Art specialists are not yet alert to the great contributions to education which their field may make. The more specialized art specialists have become, the less they believe in the wide values of their contributions; the more they narrow down to the few, the less they are willing to cooperate with general education and the curriculum as a whole. There is need right now for the artist-teacher and his peculiar slant on personality and educa¬ tional growth. Everyone needs opportunity to see life and to express it, and art expression is one of the most natural forms of expression. Educators are committed to a realistic integrated interpretation of the new educational program. Xo one subject offers more opportunity for a realistic and inte¬ grated view of life than does art. The former graded school with sharply Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 577 defined and unrelated areas of learning must give way to new concepts of learning and doing in a cooperative society. Art has its place. Art educators should make that place. Mr. Defenbacker — Question 2: To what extent are we using avail¬ able community contacts, materials, and equipment for art education in the schools of this country to the best advantage? Two years ago the PWA Art Projects were faced with the problem of spending a large sum of money to revive the cultural and artistic life of various United States communities. Thru surveys of existing agencies, museums, and schools it was soon evident that creative work in the arts was scarcely being emphasized at all. Trained artists were starving. In thirty states there was not even a nucleus about which to center this federal pro¬ gram as a permanent enterprise. There were whole communities in which the art teachers had never seen an original work of art. So the art projects began specifically with the purpose of showing art and artists and artist- teachers at work. It began by putting artists to work in public places, in cir¬ culating exhibits of original work, in starting classes in art expression for children and adults. The response has been phenomenal. The Index of Amer¬ ican Design is an example. Tho no one realizes it, every community has a long tradition of creative activity. The Index of American Design is a compila¬ tion of the work of American craftsmen and designers of the past by artists of the present. There is so much fine material that it cannot readily be put between the covers of a portable book or portfolio. Miss Robertson — Question 3: What constitute adequate qualifications for the so-called special teacher of art ? The tendency has been to overemphasize the highly trained teacher of art, and to ignore art where there has been no highly trained teacher. This is a stifling procedure. Art should be a part of every teacher’s equipment, a part of every activity in school. Teachers of art and of other subjects must recognize creative art expression, child-like art experience and expression, and must work to get them. The new emphasis on a creative approach to education is healthy, but it makes a strenuous demand on the old-tvpe isolated art teacher. She must learn to teach children as well as art. Miss McDougald — Question 4: How can we direct our in-service teacher-training programs so that art education is recognized as “a way of living : Teachers must enjoy teaching. Teaching must become fun. Personalities must be cultivated. Art is a way of living. It is expressive, satisfying, and enlivening. Every teacher needs these qualities, these experiences, if she is not to become a dull rubber stamp. Courses of study must be changed and subordinated to more creative means of organization. North Carolina is ex¬ perimenting with teacher and child contributions toward curriculum build¬ ing. The old-type, carefully planned-in-advance course of study is becoming a record of lively experiences which teachers have developed with children. Community resources are drawn in. Conferences are prevalent. General educators are learning to accept art educators and vice versa. Cooperative activity is basic. 578 National Education Association Professor Tyler — Question 5 : How can we convince college and uni¬ versity authorities of the need for art education and show them how to evaluate its contributions? Art educators need to present to general educators and administrative authorities actual evidence of the significance of art experiences in education. They need to state in clear and forceful and common language what the purposes and benefits of their field are. They need to do away with the jargon of the specialist and come down to earth in common terms; evaluation would then be an easy task. If art educators could agree on four or five obvious and comprehensive objectives for their work, appraisal would be effective. And these objectives must be stated in terms of actual changes in boys and girls. The very real pressure of time in schools makes this necessary if time is to be found for proper emphasis on the creative activities of the school program. Time schedules and size of classes are very real problems to art educators just now. If they are to be controlled, art educators must approach the problem in a realistic way with specific statements of objectives and values. Words are at present the most commonly comprehended medium of expression. Art educators must learn to state their values in these terms. Miss Cahoon — Question 6: How can a community know when it is giving adequate and justifiable support to the art education program of its schools ? Florida educators are trying to break down the tradition which over¬ emphasizes drill or repetition in education and to find time, place, and enthusiasm for the creative phases of the educative process. There is need for all rural teachers to comprehend the values of creative expression. If they did, its inclusion in rural education would be easy. Teacher training is at fault. The teachers must start with a feeling for and experiences in creative work if they are to recognize and foster it in their experiences with children. Summary — Art education, if it is to be creative and functional, must become a part of the general educational process of the schools and the com¬ munity. It must show up in the school and in the community. If it does not, it is failing to meet the demands of the present and its exponents are not living up to its potentialities. GROUP II — The Cooperative Group Plan and Supervision Chairman : James F. Hosic, Professor Emeritus of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. The Panel Danylu Belser, Professor of Elementary Education, University of Alabama, University, Ala. Lawrence S. Chase, Superintendent, Essex County Schools, Newark, N. J. S. A. Courtis, Professor of Education, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Nancy O. Devers, State Department of Public Instruction, Raleigh, N. C. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 579 Arthur S. Gist, President, Humboldt State College, Areata, Calif. H. S. Hemenway, Superintendent, Shorewood Public Schools, Mil¬ waukee, Wis. Lucille Nicol, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, New York, N. Y. F. M. Underwood, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, St. Louis, Mo. Questions : Do you favor a new and modern concept of supervision? If so, what and why? Is the traditional organization of the teachers in a school best fitted to the purposes of a modern school? If not, what newer form of organization do you favor? How is this newer form of organization related to a modern practise of supervision? Should not cooperation as an ideal and as a definite method dominate both organization and supervision? In his opening statement the chairman challenged both the traditional concept of supervision and the ordinary form of school organization as un¬ suited to present needs. Both imply isolation for the teacher. But democratic ideals demand group cooperation. At the same time there must be the expert¬ ness possible only to the specialist. Hence the necessity of shifting the emphasis in supervision from the technic of the recitation to the program of curriculum development and of substituting for the one-teacher-to-a-class pattern of organization not mere departmentalism, but the Cooperative Group Plan. Discussion : Supervision should be democratic (that is, cooperative), scien¬ tific, and creative rather than inspectorial (Underwood). Agreed, but gen¬ eral supervisors do not all by any means wish to change (Chase). Super¬ vision is not an office, it is an educational movement. Teachers, principals, superintendents, consultants, are all in it together (Belser). We want self¬ administration and self-supervision, not a military system. The profession itself should recognize limitations and strive to remove them. Not domi¬ nance nor guidance, but freedom. Purpose and plans should be cooperatively determined but militarily carried out (Courtis). Add self-appraisal (Belser). It is not so simple as it sounds. Not all are equally competent. Leaders must be had; objectives, established (Underwood). There are two schools of thought: one stresses inheritance, the other, experimentation (Hemenway). Proceed upon a scientific basis, if one exists; otherwise, allow freedom and provide for research. We should study children more, try experimental methods, organize our subject groups into larger units with appraisal and refinement, pool our findings, cooperate with other social institutions, and recognize that all education is experimental. The Cooperative Group Plan furthers such efforts. It consists in placing a few groups of children in the hands of a committee of teachers. This enables some specialization, better use of materials and equipment, and much self-supervision. Technicians going from room to room on a regular schedule of visits can be dispensed with (Hosic). At first teachers expect the supervisor to plan, but later teachers and even pupils learn to take the initiative (Nicol). Both teachers and children react favorably. There is better provision for integration and for solving the problems of individual children (Hemenway). The Plan works well in primary grades with two 580 National Education Association or four teachers in a group. Psychiatrists approve it (Chase). It lessens failure in these grades — in fact, grade lines may be ignored (Belser). Newer ideals are easier to state than to put into practise. We have been brought up under a rigid system and we are ignorant of the methods of cooperation. It seems easier and more immediately effective, moreover, for someone to decide and give orders than to consult. We must learn to approxi¬ mate and advance toward the ideal step by step (Courtis). In any event, organization and supervision must both be brought into harmony with the way of life that we are trying to have the children find (Hosic). GROUP III — Evaluation of the Secondary-School Learner’s Development Chairman: Charles C. Weidemann, Professor of Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio The Panel Frederick Archer, Professor of Education, University of Alabama, Universitjq Ala. George Axtell, Associate Professor of Education, Northwestern Uni¬ versity, Evanston, Ill. W. P. Dyer, Teachers College of Connecticut, New Britain, Conn. Charles W. Knudsen, Graduate School of Education, Harvard Univer¬ sity, Cambridge, Mass. Harlan C. Koch, Assistant Director, Bureau of Cooperation with Edu¬ cational Institutions, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. A. K. Loomis, Superintendent, Shaker Heights School District, Cleve¬ land, Ohio W. H. Morton, Professor of Secondary Education and Director of Teacher Training, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. C. A. Phillips, Professor of Education, University of Missouri, Colum¬ bia, Mo. John A. Sexson, Superintendent of Schools, Pasadena, Calif. Florence B. Stratemeyer, Associate Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Willis L. Uhl, Dean, School of Education, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash. Ben D. Wood, Director, Bureau of Collegiate Research, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Clifford Woody, Professor of Education, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. J. Ralph McGaughy, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Colum¬ bia University, New York, N. Y. The discussion was focused around the following questions: 1. In what respects should evaluation procedures in the junior high school differ from those in the senior high school? 2. How evaluate the learner’s powrer to integrate the results of learning activities in the various areas of study? Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 581 3. How evaluate the degree to which the teacher’s subjectmatter objec¬ tives are both comprehensive and validly representative of the learner’s pur¬ poses developing from his valued choices with which to guide his activity? 4. How validly evaluate the learner’s power to do such as apply principles to situations, draw inferences, cooperate with others by using pencil and paper test materials ? What better ways are available ? 5. Who should evaluate the learner’s development — the teacher, the learner, another teacher, an outside agency, or combinations of these? Which are preferable? 6. How evaluate the exceedingly complex process of development within the learner without defining the dynamic factors which influence that devel¬ opment ? 7. How formulate valid instruments to evaluate directly the actual nature, function, and value of the learning activity process within the learner which cannot be inferred from overt action ? 8. To what extent does a valid measurement of overt action represent the total activity within the learner which leads to that overt action as an end point response? Each question assumes that: (a) each learner differs from each other learner; (b) the habitat of the learning process is within the learner; (c) a process of continual change and development functions within the learner; (d) the learner learns thru activity; (e) habits, knowledges, appreciations, interests, values, purposes, conflicting preferences, choices, and the like be¬ come social in quality when commonly experienced by other learners of the group. GROUP IV — Studies of Growth and Development of Children in Labora¬ tory Schools Chairman: A. R. Mead, Director, Bureau of Educational Research, Uni-’ versity of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. The Panel George H. Colebank, Principal, Demonstration High School, West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va. K. J. Hoke, Dean, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. Harry A. Little, Head, Department of Education, Georgia State Col¬ lege, Milledgeville, Ga. L. A. Sharp, Director, Demonstration School, North Texas State Teachers College, Denton, Texas Paul W. Sloan, Assistant Professor of Education, Eastern Illinois State Teachers College, Charleston, Ill. M. R. Trabue, Director, Division of Education, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. The chairman opened the program by stating the theme and making some explanatory remarks. The major questions at issue were: 582 National Education Association 1. Why are such studies needed? 2. Which are needed — long-time studies of the same children, or recurrent studies of different children? Why? 3. What has already been accomplished in this field of study? 4. Which phases of growth should be studied ? 5. How are the data to be secured, especially those data referring to growth in social behavior, personality traits, inventiveness, creativeness? 6. What types of personnel are needed to gather the data? 7. What can the present personnel of such schools do in gathering data? 8. How will different types of programs affect such studies — such as child-cen¬ tered programs, subjectmatter centered, and others? 9. If such studies are made, what will their value be? Mr. Little said that modifications of school programs were needed, that evaluation of teaching procedures and learning activities were needed, and that checking and evaluation of results of programs were needed. He claimed that apparent results may not be the same as actual results, and such studies can help in ascertaining real changes. If such information becomes available, the theory of education and its teaching will take on new life and zest. Now we spend most of the time teaching information, and tho we desire other things we know but little about other phases of growth. One special result would be sought, viz., the facts about the effects of experimentation upon children in such schools. If any schools are to do such work, the experimental schools are the ones to begin it, and it should be done soon. Mr. Hoke called attention to the fact that, with few exceptions, studies have been in terms of subjectmatter mastery, usually learned from a single textbook; that the needs of children are for achievement in other types of growth ; that the best way to ascertain what is achieved is by the long-time study of the same children. Such studies will make possible more careful gathering of data about personality traits and social behavior and give the opportunity to develop new technics of securing data about such changes. All phases of change should be considered as parts of education and as such would be relevant to such investigations. The program of investigation should be made in terms of the whole school, not just a part of it. The speaker stated that he was not decided as to the specific phases which should be studied. He called attention to the rather prevalent practise of schools in attempting to show status of achievement in terms of comparative status of different children rather than the child's own change in terms of his capacity to change, and emphasized the urgent need of eliminating the practise of “failing” children at the end of a school term who had been reported a short time before as satisfactory. In such studies, the gathering of large masses of irrelevant data should be avoided. The types of records to be used will be very important and will have to differ from ordinary school records. The following questions were presented to Mr. Hoke: 1. Is not the use of standardized objective test data often in error? Should the misuse of such a tool be the cause of rejecting the tool for valid uses? 2. How do we know, in advance of making such a study, just which data will be relevant and which will be irrelevant? Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 583 The speaker admitted that he did not know the answer to the second question, but insisted that the standardized objective test had very little value at present in the studies contemplated. Mr. Trabue objected to the collection of large masses of irrelevant data, and the usual emphasis in school programs to make all children alike. There is a need to discover strong points and to use these as the phases of growth to be furthered in our schools rather than be persistent in driving children to overcome weaknesses in some other lines of growth. Children learn or grow under favorable conditions. Emphasis upon weaknesses is not a favorable condition. The tools which are now available are, first, standardized tests of many varieties. Such of these as fit the needs should be used, particularly those concerned with attitudes. Second, evidences of growth in interests are much needed and can be analyzed by interest tests and informal records. Third, cumulative records of observed data about curiosity and ability to find in¬ formation can be kept in the form of anecdotal records. Letter grades such as A, B, C, etc., are quite useless. A fourth means of obtaining data is thru the staff conference of teachers for the serious study of children, the data being derived from the teachers’ knowledge of the pupils. Two questions were proposed: 1. Is it possible to guide children to overcome weaknesses and at the same time retain the factor of satisfaction in learning? 2. Is it possible to develop a scale, or series of scales, like those made by Thorndike for handwriting, for study of changes in such a trait as initiative? To these questions, the speaker replied that both were possible. Sometimes the overcoming of weaknesses is a necessary part of growth, but the em¬ phasis should be upon the phases that are strong. Scales like those referred to, he said, were possible and would constitute very valuable tools if they were developed from a wide sampling of cases. Mr. Sloan discussed the relations of the different types of school programs to such studies. He defined several different types of programs such as child- centered, a program dominated by a particular “ism,” one dominated by textbooks. He said that the evaluation made by a teacher would be deter¬ mined largely by the teacher’s conception of what a school is and what it should do for the children. Such factors in the total situation make necessary the determination of (a) the goals of the school, and (b) the goals of such studies. A questioner referred to the school which analyzes issues of a con¬ troversial nature but reaches no decision, and the speaker was asked how that type of a program would affect such a study. He replied that since the purpose of the school would differ from some other schools, the means of evaluation would have to be different. Mr. Sharp spoke on the values which should be derived from such studies. Such problems as the following would be better understood : 1. Diagnoses of children and use of such diagnoses 2. Conditions under which children develop appropriate attitudes 3. Growth in problem-solving abilities 584 National Education Association 4. Growth in enriched understandings 5. Growth in creative ability 6. Whether all children can develop creative ability 7. New data about the effects of racial and national group differences 8. Artistic and esthetic development 9. Differences of effects of the one-teacher per group versus several teachers per group 10. Effects of different pupil grouping upon learning 11. The causal factors in growth — the conditions most favorable to growth and how they operate 12. Improvements in measuring tools and methods of collecting data. As one result, the speaker stated that it might be possible to distinguish between the effectiveness of different types of school programs, altho that was a complicated problem. As a general result, many factors would operate to improve teaching and we would become more interested in securing better teachers. Many questions were raised by members of the audience, of which no record was kept. The chairman closed the discussion by giving a summary of the main points mentioned above and added the following: 1. If such studies are to be made, the different schools should be described suffi¬ ciently that their important differences are well known. 2. Those cooperating will find it necessary to agree upon certain goals for the study, and methods to be used in it. 3. Limitations will have to be established for the scope of the study. 4. Ways and means will have to be considered in terms of objectives of the schools and objectives of the study. 5. The nature of necessary records will depend upon aims sought and data to be recorded. 6. The discussion has failed to bring to light information about existing or past studies, their methods and results. 7. Interpretation of data will have to be made upon some accepted criteria. Values will have to be interpreted, purposes defined, limits set, technics selected and applied, data collected, organized, recorded, and interpreted. 8. No valuable information was given as to the types of records needed. George H. Colebank, a member of the panel, was unable to be present. GROUP V — Foreign Language Study in the High School of the Future Joint Meeting with National Federation of Modcr?i Language Teachers and the American Classical League Chairman: Lilly Lindquist, Supervisor of Foreign Languages, Public Schools, Detroit, Mich. The meeting opened with the reading of three papers which presented the case for each era on the central topic, ‘‘Foreign Language Study in the High School of the Future.” Since these papers are published elsewhere, only brief headlines need be given here. “The General Language Course in Junior and Senior High School” by Miss Lindquist, described the type of work done, some problems of organization, and some pupil results from the point of view of the author of a textbook that has seen a decade of success in citv- wide use. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 585 “The Adaptation of Objectives in Ancient Language Teaching to Pre¬ sent Educational Practises,” by A. Pelzer Wagener, College of William and M ary, found ample source in recent writings of distinguished men, both lay and professional, for the belief that Latin will gradually find its proper place in school life. Looking both backward and forward, the paper is at once a brilliant defense of past glories and an intelligent response to changing school needs in a democratic society. Proof of the pudding is in the successful set-up in the schools of Virginia, which Mr. W agener has helped to evolve. Walter V. Kaulfers, who tilted as the champion for modern foreign lan¬ guage from his post in teacher training at the School of Education of Stan¬ ford University, entitled his paper, “The Need for a Broader Concept of the Foreign Language Curriculum.” Beginning allegorically, he told how two decades ago only one solid straight highway connected Palo Alto with San Francisco. Now there are three: good old Route 101 ; the Scenic Route; and, for those who have more time, the Sky-Line Route. On all these routes, as circumstances permit, Lincolns, Chevrolets, or Model-T’s purr, buzz, or chug their way to town. The parable, if such it is, tells the whole of his message (with its well-documented references), and teachers, curriculum committees, and administrators with their consequent influence on authors and textbook publishers had better get their best road machinery into oper¬ ation for the construction of more varied and better graded routes before all travel by land gives way to a higher, quicker, safer, surer type of transportation. (In summarizing the panel discussion that followed, the author has used dialog as a reporting device. The words ascribed to each speaker present the gist of his talk, not necessarily actual quotations.) “If we continue to teach foreign languages, we must achieve a persistency in their use which will function in everyday life,” said T. H. Briggs, a cur¬ riculum “expert” (term defined by the chairman as “a plain man 1000 miles from home”) from Teachers College, Columbia University. “After all, why stop at French, German, Spanish, and Latin ? Why not offer also Portuguese, Japanese, and the languages of other dominant peoples of the world?” “We still offer foreign languages in high schools which operate under the banner of progressive education,” said Lester Dix, director of Lincoln School, New York City, “but it gives an administrator a headache to find room in the clamor of other things to be studied. If Latin remains it will be on its own merits and not from force of tradition. Moreover, why not have a renaissance of Greek, which for contribution to world culture can be justi¬ fied before Latin? If pressed I should be willing to reserve all foreign lan¬ guage study for an intelligently balanced, superiorly staffed adult education.” “If you decide what outcomes you want, the psychologist will try to help you isolate the factors which affect learning habits in the types of response needed,” promised M. R. Trabue of the College of Education, University of North Carolina. “But,” warned Ralph W. Tyler, research director of Evaluation in the Eight- Year Study, Commission on the Relation of School and College, “the kind of appraisal of an achievement affects its original purpose. Foreign language teachers, testing for skills only and shying away 586 National Education Association from attitudes and appreciations which they shortsightedly label ‘intangibles,’ are like bad philosophers seeking a good reason for their bad ideas. Avoid the best-seller or box-office urge; find desirable objectives and the proper experiences to achieve them, then institute an intelligent basis of appraisal in those terms. Emulate book publishers who find and publish for a variety of publics.” “We language teachers can cite purposes, at least a score of them, ranging from the traditional classical conceptions of a liberal education to the vital need for an energetic participation in world-citizenship,” rejoined W. L. Carr, who trains Latin teachers at Teachers College, Columbia University. “We could maintain — and with some reason — along with mathematics and the sciences, the educative discipline of a hard job pursued to fruition ; or we could point to our highly valid extension to the outcomes of the social studies ; or we could say we operate as inexpensively as any study in the cur¬ riculum. Right proudly might we boast of a teaching staff that is highly respected for its scholarship and general culture.” “And,” continued R. O. Roseler, who trains modern language teachers at the University of Wiscon¬ sin, “we have studied the needs of language teachers and are rapidly provid¬ ing adequate means to equip them with professional training to a standard as high as any other area affords.” “Well,” said Chairman H. B. Alberty, the “expert” in Secondary Edu¬ cation, from Ohio State University, who, after having dodged all the panel brick-bats, had not lost his gift for a bon mot in the right spot and his keen sense of analysis, “as usual the panel has managed to keep fairly well off the central topic, but having a telepathic mind, I am able to tell you what the speakers really meant : “They want to suggest that foreign language teachers have largely mis¬ taken means for ends and have confused vehicles for destinations. If testing programs could be reexamined and actual contributions identified, we should probably find that such study has helped many children to a sound personal adjustment, to an increased social sensitivity, to an increased ability to co¬ operate effectively, to an increased ability to deal reflectively with situations, to an evaluation of foreign language as a tool of appreciation that operates in some way in life.” GROUP VI — The Progress of Manuscript Writing in First and Second Grades Joint Meeting with National Handwriting Council Chairman : Elmer G. Miller, Director of Commercial Education, Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. Speaker: Edith U. Conard, Instructor in Nursery School and Kinder¬ garten-First Grade Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. An abstract of Miss Conard’s address follows: Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 587 Manuscript writing, frequently known and called by other names, such as print writing, print script, etc., was adopted by schools in England in 1912. It has been taught in some schools in the United States since about 1920. A recent survey points to the fact that it is now used extensively in the first and second grades in many sections of this country. History shows that the basic letter forms of all writing have evolved from the old Roman alphabet. Time, culture, and customs have influenced the written form of letters. Materials and tools have also affected the results of written form. But in all the periods people were making a practical use of the materials at hand in order to communicate with others or to keep records of their thoughts. At the present time, with the changes in living, in communicating, and in recording, it is considered important to teach children those writing skills which they can learn easily and well, which they can use and apply to their immediate needs. Coincident with this is the fact that specialists in child development now consider that teachers should base their guidance and teaching of children on the needs noted at each age level. Manuscript writing has been adopted by many schools because of this need of a suitable type of handwriting to meet the child’s desire for expression — one easy to learn, easy to teach, practical in use, legible in form, quickly and satisfactorily performed. Children’s muscles are immature and lack coordination. It has been found that manuscript writing calls for less tension and strain than other types of writing. The letter forms, based on straight lines and circles, with each letter made separately, can be produced more readily by all children, with legible and satisfactory results. Since the strokes are made from the top down, eliminating extra strokes and joinings, children- can write more quickly, and do not need to drill on movement before writing. Because of the shape of the letters, there is less strain on immature eyes, both in reading and in writing manuscript. Reading and writing may be learned at the same time, since the alphabet is so similar; one learning coincides with and stimulates another. Activities in writing, as well as goals, should relate to children’s abilities, interests, and needs for written expression. Manuscript writing is suitable for many of these needs, as titles for books, notices in the classroom, labels and directions for the class, etc. The goals to strive for should include legible, attractive, readable, distinct, and characteristic strokes in writing. Other factors, such as correct technic, rhythmic movement, and attitude conducive to good writing, influence the result. Research, carried on chiefly in this country, has given valid reasons as to the value of teaching manuscript writing. It also substantiates the opinion and experience of teachers that manuscript writing is wholesome and favor¬ able to children’s physical, mental, and social-emotional development. 588 National Education Association SECRETARY’S MINUTES New Orleans, Louisiana Saturday, February 20, 1937 Two joint meetings with the Society for Curriculum Study were held Saturday morning and evening in the Auditorium of the Public Library. Several speakers par¬ ticipated in a discussion of the 1937 yearbook, The Changing Curriculum , which is in preparation by a committee representing both organizations. Among the points emphasized were: Newr and better materials in the hands of the pupils are needed (Horn). Science must sav what as well as how (Zirbes quoting Dewey). Philosophy, not science, however, must have the last word (Kilpatrick). Definite criteria must be set up to guide in the planning of curriculum revision, such as the nature of the existing situation, the possibilities, alternatives from which to choose, flexibility, and workability (Rankin). Harmonize the ideal and the prac¬ tical, design “units” consistently, have both faith and enthusiasm (Hall). There are two centers of confusion, our social philosophy and our psychology of learning (French). Another center of confusion is the relation of curriculum making to the state (Counts). Curriculum making must be understood to be a communitywfide job (Melby). Experimentation to be tried out in the classroom, must be provided for (Knudsen). Evaluation of results must harmonize with the purposes set up (Cush¬ man). Examples of curriculum making reveal a wide range, from conventional to iconoclastic (Cutright). Children should help to plan and should use the curricu¬ lum (Hahn). Tippett’s Schools for a Growing Democracy is indicative of w'hat we should seek (Bader). Children should be helped to take right attitudes toward the larger social problems, but not attempt to solve them w'hile still children (Simpson). Some of these papers, in abridged form, appear in the preceding pages of this volume. The yearbook itself will be published in the fall. Monday, February 22, 1937 Six panel discussion groups met on Monday. The summaries of their programs are reported elsewhere. Tuesday, February 23, 1937 At the third general session of the Department, Dr. Herbert R. Stolz, Assistant Superintendent of Schools in Oakland, California, gave an illustrated talk on “Ado¬ lescent Maturation — Its Implications for Education,” which was highly informative and interesting. The Oakland school system is far in advance of most systems in studying the physical history of each pupil in order to understand and deal with him wisely in all phases of his growth, both mental and physical. Under the supervision of Wilma Leslie Garnett, chairman of the Department’s Promotion Committee, and Josephine Thomas, principal of the Howard School in New Orleans, the annual luncheon wras most enjoyable. Professor Ernest Horn of Iowa State University w^as the speaker, his theme being “The Importance of Im¬ agination in Learning,” with emphasis on reading. Business Meetings of the Board of Directors and Executive Committee The members of the Board of Directors and Executive Committee of the Depart¬ ment of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction met at luncheon on Sunday, Febru¬ ary 21, at the Hotel Monteleone in New Orleans. The following were present: Direc¬ tors Rudolph D. Lindquist, James F. Hosic, Hollis L. Caswell, Prudence Cutright, Julia Hahn, William T. Melchior, J. Cayce Morrison, Lucille Nicol, Mabel C. O’Don¬ nell, Leonard Power, Paul T. Rankin, and Franklin M. Underwood; also Edith Bader representing Mrs. Dudley of Michigan, Eliza K. Stickley representing Mrs. Davis of Virginia, Nancy O. Devers of the State Department of Public Instruction, Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 589 Raleigh, North Carolina, Wilma Leslie Garnett, chairman of the Promotion Com¬ mittee, and Mary F. Hazell, executive secretary of the Department. President Lindquist presided at the business session which followed the luncheon. After introducing Miss Garnett and Miss Hazell, he called on Secretary Hosic for the minutes of the St. Louis meeting. These were read and approved as printed in Educational Method for April 1936. Mr. Hosic then outlined certain proposed changes in the constitution of the Depart¬ ment made necessary by the transfer of the business office from Teachers College in New York to the headquarters building of the National Education Association in Washington, D. C. These changes are: Article IV, Sections 1, 2, and 3: For “Secretary-Treasurer” substitute “Field Secretary.” Article IV, Section 4: Add “such as the appointment of an Executive Secretary, and like matters.” Bylaws — Credentials: For “president atid secretary” read “president or secre¬ tary.” Bylaws — Publications: Strike out “All publications shall be edited by the Secre¬ tary-Treasurer of the Department.” Bylaws — Expenditures: For “Secretary-Treasurer” substitute “Executive Secre¬ tary.” It was voted to present these suggested amendments to the members of the Depart¬ ment at the business meeting on Tuesday, February 23, for approval. The Executive Secretary presented the financial report of the Department for the period from February 21, 1936 (the date of the last report), to December 31, 1936, inclusive, explaining that hereafter the financial report will cover the calendar year. This report was accepted as read. A budget for the year 1937 was also presented and accepted. The Nominating Committee appointed by President Lindquist, consisting of Direc¬ tors Hahn (chairman), Morrison, and Rankin, made its report and new officers were elected for a term of one year, beginning March 1, 1937 (See Historical Note, p. 568.). Nominations to fill vacancies on the Board of Directors were also read, as fol¬ lows: for reelection, Mary Browning and Franklin M. Underwood; to succeed Elma Neal, Leonard Power, and Paul T. Rankin: Hattie Parrott, Associate, Division of Instructional Service, State Department of Public Instruction, Raleigh, North Caro¬ lina ; John A. Hockett, Lecturer in Education, University of California, Berkeley; Edith Bader, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Ann Arbor, Michigan. These nominations were approved by the Board for presentation at the business meeting of the Department on Tuesday. It was voted that the group known as Directors of Supervised Teaching be invited, in response to their request, to affiliate with the national Department of Su¬ pervisors and Directors of Instruction as a section. It is understood that the Depart¬ ment assumes no financial responsibility for this group, but agrees merely to provide a meeting place and to include an announcement of the section meeting in our annual convention program. All members of the section are expected to be members of the national Department. President Lindquist presented the plan of publication of the Joint Yearbook on the Curriculum thru D. Appleton-Century Company. After discussion, it was voted to proceed with the production of this volume in accordance with the terms of the con¬ tract signed by Henry Harap for the Society for Curriculum Study and by Rudolph D. Lindquist for the Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction. It was made clear that acceptance of this contract in no way obligates the Department to publish future yearbooks in this same manner. Mr. Lindquist, as chairman of the subcommittee on relations between the Depart¬ ment of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction and the Society for Curriculum Study, reported the findings of the committee and recommended that cooperative 590 National Education Association relations in such matters as programs and publications be continued, but that no formal action regarding affiliation of the two organizations be taken at present. After discussion, this recommendation was approved by the Board. Three meetings of the Executive Committee wrere held on February 21, 22, and 23. Discussion of future yearbooks brought out the fact that no definite action had been taken in the matter of the proposed volume on science for 1938, and the advis¬ ability of publishing another yearbook devoted to a special phase of the curriculum so soon after the 1936 yearbook on English was questioned. It was suggested that small, inexpensive pamphlets on topics of particular interest to supervisors might be prepared, with the help of the Research Division of the National Education Associ¬ ation, and sold at a nominal price. Of the various topics suggested for a yearbook to be issued in 1938, the one which met with unanimous and most enthusiastic approval was “The Technic of Coopera¬ tion.” Such a yearbook would consider the problems of supervisors, superintendents, principals, and teachers who are seeking to master the technic of group thinking and of teaching in cooperative groups, and would deal with the most effective procedures to the end of improving instruction. This book would extend the discussion that was touched upon in the Sixth Yearbook, Effective Instructional Leadership, and in the chapter on “Organization” in the Ninth Yearbook, Development of a Modern Pro¬ gram in English. It was agreed that a small steering committee should be formed immediately to begin planning this yearbook. A questionnaire addressed to the mem¬ bers of the Department and a panel discussion on the topic of the yearbook at the summer meeting in Detroit wTere proposed. Another yearbook topic suggested fof early treatment, possibly in 1939, was the general problem of a unified program from the supervisory and curriculum view¬ point rather than from the administrative viewpoint. Annual Business Meeting The annual business session of the Department was held Tuesday afternoon, immediately following the luncheon. Upon motion duly made and seconded, the amendments to the constitution and bylaws recommended by the Board of Directors were approved; likewise the report of the Nominating Committee naming five members of the Board of Directors. DEPARTMENT OP Supervisors and Teachers of 3Tome Economics HISTORICAL NOTE At the Atlanta meeting of the Association in 1929 the necessary peti¬ tion for the formulation of a Department of Supervisors amt Teachers of Home Economics zoos presented to the Representative Assembly and to the Executive Committee. This petition zvas presented by the R ational Conference of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics. In 1930 at the Columbus, Ohio, meeting the Department zvas created by formal vote. The former home economics organization has had a history rich in accomplishments. Its good work will continue as a department of the Association. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-38 are: president, Freda G. Winning, New York University, Nezv York, N. Y vice- president, Lola A. Tomlinson, State Department of Education, Baton Rouge, La.; secretary, Mrs. Natalie S. Diermier, Woodrow Wilson High School, Washington, D. C.; treasurer, Clara Lee Cone, 1041 W. Peachtree Street, Atlanta, Ga. The Department publishes an occasional Bulletin. The annual dues, $1, are payable to the Treasurer. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of its meetings may be found i)i earlier volumes of proceedings as follozvs: 1931 :825-844 19 33:691-408 1935:645-658 1 932 : 695-712 1 934 : 693-704 1 936 :543-553 [ 592 1 A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION IN MODERN TIMES LESTER K. ADE, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, HARRISBURG, PA. The aim of education is to produce a man who is the master of him¬ self, who is capable of initiating his own acts, and who is able to discern and assimilate the ideas which he accepts and professes so that whatever he says, thinks, or does, really comes from him. This calls for action plus reflec¬ tion which constitutes true education. Consequently, the modern trend of education is to assist in enlarging and refining the physical, mental, and spiritual equipment of students, and to create in them a curiosity or appetite for lofty ideals or artistic appreciations. In formulating a working philosophy of education in modern times it seems to me that the general welfare of our American democratic society involves a corporate society in which each member thru cooperative effort builds a social structure in which the following individual objectives may be most adequately realized : 1. The development in each individual of the ability and the poise necessary to maintain his equilibrium physically and mentally in a life when he must make con¬ stant adjustment. This objective calls for a vigorous physical and mental health program. 2. The development in each individual of the ability and the affability to command the respect and affection of his associates and family because of his personal worth. Definite provision for refined and gentle manners is a part of this objective. 3. The development in each individual of the ability to recognize the broad inter¬ ests of society and to hold human values above material values. This objective places a high value on appreciations, attitudes, and emotional reactions. 4. The development in each individual of the ability and determination to further a more rational order of civic life thru participation in cooperative enterprises. This calls for an appreciation and understanding of organized society. 5. The development in each individual of the ability and the interest to study and to work for the growth of a better industrial order. • 6. The development in each individual of the ability and disposition to take care of himself and his family thru the pursuit of some gainful occupation. 7. The development in each individual of the ability and interest to indulge in wholesome recreation so that zest for living may be enhanced. This objective calls for freedom from unnecessary drudgery. 8. The development in each individual of the ability and disposition to consider character building as the highest and ultimate aim of all education. No matter how rapidly we develop in the fields of biology, psychology, and sociology, these things will be of doubtful value unless we keep up an equal spiritual development. We go back 1900 years to the man who repre¬ sents the ideal for all mankind, the perfect spiritual personality — “Man can¬ not live by bread alone.” [ 593 ] 594 National Education Association INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN HOME ECONOMICS AND OTHER AREAS IN THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM JAMES M. SMITH, PRESIDENT, LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE, LA. The interrelationships of home economics with other areas of the educa¬ tional program may be illustrated by a brief consideration of the food prob¬ lem. There is a great opportunity for the enrichment of the home economics curriculum thru the study of the history of cookery, the production of food, the manufacturing or refinement processes calling for a study of the chemistry of foods, food adulteration, packing, cleanliness, purity, and many other phases of the subject. The areas related to the preparation of food for table use and the problem of table service entails a knowledge of the technics and practises in various countries. The subjectmatter of home economics is divided into two groups: that phase dealing with the fundamental knowledge, technics, and skills involved in the more practical aspects of the subject; and second, the basic underlying factors drawn from a wide variety of subjects providing rich intellectual content and a sound scientific background. The latter phase may be so organized as to form the basic core subject for women in the elementary- school, the hrgh-school, and the college curriculum. NEW VENTURES IN HOME ECONOMICS MARIE DRISCOLL, ACTING ADVISER, HOME ECONOMICS PROJECTS, WPA, WASHINGTON, D. C. Three types of programs operating in the Division of Women’s and Pro¬ fessional Projects of the WPA extend directly into the field of home eco- omics. These are the school lunch, the housekeeping aid, and the household worker’s training program. On November 15, 1936, approximately 468 school lunch projects were in operation. The menus were all planned by competent dietitians. The purpose of this project is to provide hot lunches to public schools for needy children. Such a project may be sponsored by a board of education, a depart¬ ment of welfare, or other public agencies. The supervisor must be qualified by training and experience. She is generally chosen by the sponsor while the cooks and assistants who prepare and serve the lunches are selected by the WPA. As a rule, the WPA pays only the wages while the sponsor furnishes food, equipment, and other supplies. The purpose of the housekeeping project is to employ needy women, who are good homemakers but who have no professional skills, to give assistance in housework and care for children in the homes of underprivileged families. This project is sponsored by public welfare agencies in cooperation with public health agencies. A supervisor trained in home economics or nursing is Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 595 selected by the sponsor, in cooperation with the Director of the Division of Women’s and Professional Projects and the public health agency. Under the household worker’s training program, which has been in opera¬ tion for a year, thousands of needy young women have been trained for the occupation of household employees. The young people who have taken these courses have filled a real need in a field in which the demand for competent workers far exceeds the available supply. Under the WPA program, courses have been given during the past year for the general household employee, cook, child’s nurse, and second cook. During this year more than 4200 young women who have indicated their willingness to abide by the standards worked out by the local committee have been certified and placed in positions. The services of a home economics con¬ sultant who examines carefully all applications for projects pertaining to her field are provided. She will give service in connection with the actual organization operation of the project. HOME AND SCHOOL RELATIONSHIPS MRS. B. F. LANGWORTHY, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS, CHICAGO, ILL. There has probably been no entirely understanding relationship between teachers and parents since the day when, in lieu of an adequate salary, the teacher received a major portion of his stipend in room and board in the various homes of the school district. As time advanced and there became a separation of social interests, we both have become so self-conscious in our relations that whatever we do to bridge the gap has a certain artificiality about it which offers difficulties in perfect understanding. In the latest issue of the Parent-T eacher Magazine there are six articles on various phases of home economics while in the latest issue of your Journal , of course, all the articles are related to that subject. You and I have a perfect understanding of what each other is trying to do, but out among the parents we hear of an occasional lack of sympathy. It seems to me that the cause is a very natural one in that we are both doing essentially the same kind of teaching. In other words, you are doing scientifically that which we have been doing pragmatically ever since homes were established. This is not true of mathematics or language or history, but homemaking, has been our job for countless years and we have felt more or less confident of our own ability in it. When our daughters come home filled with the excitement of new and scientific methods of doing what we have done by tradition and experience, and exclaim, not too tactfully, that our ways of doing are all wrong because M rs. Blank says so, we are likely to resent the charge unless we think it thru carefully. You are, I know, transferring the curriculum emphasis from the old cook¬ ing and sewing regime to consumer education, home budgeting, care of the sick, home furnishings, and family relations. The longer this is maintained the more understanding our position will be, for we know that we need more 596 National Education Association education in these branches and we have deep respect for your scientific treatment of them. l'he custom which you have adopted in some places of inviting the mothers of your home economics pupils for conferences, is a happy one, conducive to greater interest. OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROGRESSIVE HOME ECONOMICS IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS MABLE MCBAIN, SUPERVISOR, HOME ECONOMICS, HOUSTON, TEXAS Today in the most progressive schools we find such objectives as these: ( 1 ) to provide opportunities for enriching child experiences and guiding them in the interpretation of these in such a way that happy, wholesome, useful members of a society may result; (2) to help children to see their personal home and family activities in relation to the general social environ¬ ment under which they are now living; and (3) to provide enough practise, under guidance, to enable children to acquire those skills which they need for carrying on effectively the activities of home and family life. To the home economist of twenty years ago, these broad aims would have seemed too visionary for attainment. But today we realize that we no longer have the full burden of responsibility; that by working with the curriculum committees, by helping to choose curriculum materials, and by planning worthwhile activities, we can, in cooperation with other departments, attain these very desirable objectives. Very generally, thruout the country, we find that the work in the elemen¬ tary schools is set up around problems of home and family life in units which, if well taught, offer many opportunities for instilling the values we think are important. In most of these schools, in the primary grades, there are units on home and family life. Thru dramatic play, discussion, and other concrete experi¬ ences, the children learn of the family and its members, their duties and responsibilities; the property rights of individuals; the sharing of duties and pleasures; the necessity for cooperation, consideration, and courtesy; and other factors that contribute to happy family life. Children naturally imitate and live the experiences of the adults of their family. Such experiences are of value in helping them define their own experiences and ideas. To provide for imitative experiences, children in the primary grades are encouraged to build a house, considering health, beauty, and utility. In their house, they carry on home activities such as taking care of the house, sweeping, dusting, learning how to use a dust pan, where dirt should be emptied, and what to do with the brooms when they are not in use. In their improvised home, they set the table and serve a simple meal, clear away the food, and put it in an ice box. In clothing units an almost unlimited number of activities for getting or extending knowledge is offered. In the intermediate grades, units of work are organized in such a way as to enable children to get an understanding of the way in which people in Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 597 other countries secure their food, shelter, clothing, recreation, and manage their communication and transportation problems. In the upper elementary grades, where greater emphasis is placed upon history, there are units in which children learn of the ways people lived in the Middle Ages, com¬ paring and contrasting these with our own civilization and learning how man has used science to raise his standard of living. The materials that help us solve these problems are the ones for which we as home economics specialists are responsible. We must cooperate with other departments in securing these materials. The home economist also needs courses in elementary instruction in order to be of most value to the elementary teacher. There is a tendency toward integrating the work of the elementary school by using broad social problems rather than by setting it up in terms of subject to be taught. To the extent that this is done, the opportunity for contribution from the home economist is increased. OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROGRESSIVE HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS FLORENCE FALGATTER, CHIEF, HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION SERVICE, U. S. OFFICE OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Home economics is progressive to the extent that it is moving in the direc¬ tion of all education toward the goals that are increasingly important in American life. Since family living is a significant experience for nearly every individual and the family is the foundational unit in society, home economics which focuses its attention on education for family life faces a tremendous challenge in planning its program to make maximum contribution to the development of individual family members and, thru them and their family groups, to the general welfare of the larger social group. We know that without good family members we cannot have good families, and that without good families society cannot be good. We need to be more conscious of our work, of the interrelationships between individual development, family life, and general welfare. The teacher must have a sound philosophy of education for home and family life, and a vision of what can be accomplished thru it. She sees the democratic home essential to a democratic society. She understands young people, their drives and dominant interests. She knows the homes and their particular needs in her school community. She recognizes pupils as active dynamic individuals. She guides them in setting up their own goals and in measuring their own progress. She recognizes that homemaking education to boys and girls is for best home life. She realizes the need for more adequate preparation of young men and women for marriage. She herself becomes a part of the community, sharing its activities, gaining the cooperation of parents in her educational program, and providing leadership in various ways. The work of such a teacher is dependent to a great extent upon the 598 National Education Association support of the school administrators and the conditions under which she must develop her program. If home economics education is meeting its opportunities to bring about desirable changes in the way individuals live, and in the way communities live, it can be said that we are moving in the right general direction. Joint Meeting with Department of Secondary Education THE FUNCTION OF EXTRACURRICULUM ACTIVITIES IN HOME ECONOMICS FREDA G. WINNING, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. ; AND PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT, Presiding Participants : Helen Brause, High School, Ann Arbor, Mich. M rs. Roxanna Brannan, Hudson Township High School, Hudson, Ohio Katharine Kiser, Sandusky High School, Sandusky, Ohio Velma Phillips, Director, School of Home Economics, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio Jessie Walton, Supervisor of Home Economics, Kalamazoo, Mich. Charlotte Keen, Southeastern High School, Detroit, Mich. Miss Brause said that extracurriculum activities can be used as valuable teaching problems and as a means to increase interest in the field of home economics. Many teachers are afraid of exploitation. This feeling of being imposed upon has been the result of failure to realize the very aims of home economics. (For a fuller abstract of Miss Brause’s address see page 394.) Mrs. Brannan said that in her school the extracurriculum activities are planned a year in advance. She listed several activities with which the home economics department cooperates, including the school circus which is used in the first unit of clothing, the school operettas, the junior and senior class plays, Girl Reserve activities, the activities of the local chapter of the Na¬ tional Honor Societv, and the athletics association. M iss Kiser described in detail the work of the home economics club in Sandusky High School including their style show, food show, and guest dinners. Then she briefly discussed the value of each of these activities to the girl in improving herself, her home, and her social life. Miss Phillips in a decisive way declared that the term “extracurriculum activities” is an outmoded one. The curriculum consists of all the experiences of pupils under the influence of the school. Formerly, extracurriculum activi¬ ties vitalized the school ; today the new curriculum is organized in a broad field of experience to interpret to all students the culture in which they live. When extracurriculum activities are made a part of the school curriculum there is the unification of pupil and teacher effort for attaining desired objec¬ tives. In home economics, extracurriculum activities often mean interrupted programs, disorganized work, and little pupil growth. If these extracurricu¬ lum activities are incorporated into the new curriculum of home economics, Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 599 teacher and administrator should formulate a school calendar showing when these activities occur so that they can be planned, organized, and developed into worthwhile educational projects. These activities as a part of the school program would mean a more flexible curriculum, integration of various sub¬ jects, and greater emphasis on the social aspects, of course, and on manners, conduct, expression, speech, and orientation of students. Miss Keen said that she believed in spreading the activities and not allow¬ ing a few students to carry the burden. Miss Walton said that she was very receptive to having the term “extra¬ curriculum activities” go into disrepute. She said that her teachers find them¬ selves bewildered with service requests. She read a summarized statement from Dr. Fritwell stating that “extracurriculum activities should grow out of the curriculum and return to them to enrich them.” PROMOTING DEMOCRACY THRU HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION H. W. NISONGER, PROFESSOR OF ADULT EDUCATION, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO It is significant that the home economics group has asked someone outside this field to discuss this topic. It shows a tendency to see education as a whole and not as a separate field. The social scene today is one of confusion. Modern life is complex and we seem to have lost our sense of direction. For example, examine the change in our homes. We no longer live and work together the way we used to do. Today one out of five marriages ends in divorce. Crime in youth is increasing. Economics and social activities baffle us. We have confusion in spite of the fact that our mechanical means have gone so far. We have lost most of our traditional standards of values of the past and we have little to put in their place. We must put our intelligence to work and set up a new standard of values. The most serious charge against education is that it is not concerned with the problems of real life. I am not indicting education, but it is not as effective as it should be. Students should be given some privilege to elect and set up their plans. They should be given the opportunity to set up a standard of values to use in judging what they do. The degree to which we can help young people to think their way thru and get some basis for action on such problems as career, marriage, and family life — to that extent we are promoting citizenship in a democracy. Home eco¬ nomics is a fertile field and right at the heart of the problem. It touches a variety of areas of living: family budget, nutrition and health, personality development, care of children, relation of family to community institutions. The whole responsibility does not fall on home economics — there are other areas. We should coordinate the work of these various areas. 600 National Education Association TEACHING HOUSING IN THE HOME ECONOMICS PROGRAM MARION B. WOODWARD, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, COLUMBUS, OHIO We have too long pushed aside the question of housing and its relation to homemaking in home economics education, when it is really the “woof and warp” of the situation. Altho the housing problem has always been with us, for different reasons we have failed to incorporate it in home economics. Teachers have felt unprepared because of lack of background. College courses have dealt mainly with home furnishings and decorations, which are wholly inadequate to meet the needs of many girls. It is often easier to introduce a class hour by saying, “Girls get your boxes ; we shall continue to sew,” than it is to plan and execute a unit on housing, family relationships, consumer education, etc. Last year in Ohio, in the teacher-training service division, we realized what an important part housing is playing the country over and what a direct rela¬ tion it bears to homemaking education. We also realized that teachers were slow in presenting it because of lack of background and experience. As a result, an outline on the teaching of housing was prepared as a guide and placed in the hands of vocational education teachers. We are just now getting the results of some of the instruction carried on this year. There is no better place to start and to motivate the teaching of housing than right in your own school, and in your own department. Why do our departments not look more homelike? There are infinite ways of improving housing conditions in your own school which will help students realize the possibilities in their own homes. In order to do effective teaching the instructor must be thoroly cognizant of the needs of her community and more than that she must be entirely familiar with the home conditions of each individual pupil. The following are some of the things which are being done in Ohio : Teachers are using current magazines and newspaper articles which em¬ phasize the causes and effects of poor housing on individuals and families as a basis for class discussion and to put on bulletin-boards; studies are being made of the effects of poor housing on social conditions such as crime, juvenile delinquency, health, accidents, and fire; and tours of inspection are being made to observe good and poor housing. Several teachers report that they are making special studies of home conditions with a view to using their find¬ ings as a basis for teaching and stimulating home improvement. Special atten¬ tion has been given to the housing problems of rural girls, e.g., lack of pri¬ vacy, insufficient storage space, no water supply in the house, no bathroom, poorly lighted and ventilated rooms, inconvenient kitchen, and no electricity. All teachers can build up the attitude that the right spirit of home is within the reach of all and that it is to be desired far more than the material struc¬ ture and furnishings without the spirit. Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 601 TRENDS IN HOME ECONOMICS INDICATED AT THE 1937 ANNUAL MEETING OF THE AMERICAN HOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION HELEN w. ATWATER, EDITOR, Journal of Horjie Economics , WASHINGTON, D. C. LYdoubtedly the most common underlying idea in all the individual pro¬ grams is what is commonly spoken of (perhaps a bit loosely) as integration of the different fields of home economics one with another, integration of home economics subjectmatter with actual experience and needs of the stu¬ dents. The members of the home economics profession need to demonstrate that they are neither so departmentalized in their organization nor so com¬ partmentalized in their thinking that they cannot integrate their essential contributions into the whole program of education. This general idea is expressed in some of the resolutions passed at the Kansas City meeting of the American Home Economics Association : Whereas, All home economics is directed toward a common goal, namely, the im¬ provement of personal and family living and activities growing out of them, Be It Resolved, That the chairmen of departments devote a portion of their pro¬ grams to the presentation of the common purpose and to a consideration of the social significance of their particular field of work to the ultimate objective of home economics. Whereas, Health education in the schools is rightly a cooperative program, Be It Resolved, That school administrators be urged to provide for participation of home economics teachers in those phases of health education in which they are best qualified to give instruction. Other trends discussed at the 1937 annual meeting of the Association were : increasing connection between home economics and social welfare and public health ; continued growth of interest in the house and housing and the decision of the Association to participate in the proposed Consumer Retail Relations Council — the first consumer group to take such action. THE TEACHER OF HOME ECONOMICS AND A PROGRAM OF MENTAL HYGIENE O. R. YODER, ASSISTANT MEDICAL SUPERINTENDENT, YPSILANTI STATE HOSPITAL, YPSILANTI, MICH. The problem of mental disease is sufficiently serious to justify the specific and decisive steps to stop the development of such a condition before it is acute. More hospital beds are devoted to these patients than to those suffering from physical ailments. W e are now interested in the development of personality thru some process which will enable the individual to become an effective social being. To de¬ velop such a personality it is important that students have some form of creative experience within themselves which will permit them to assume a 602 National Education Association proper social attitude toward their fellowmen. I know of no better place than in home economics to present an opportunity for such creative experience. In mental hygiene we are definitely interested in how an individual re¬ sponds to his social group or to a situation. What he thinks, his habits of food and dress and moral conduct, are determined by what we might term a proper behavior pattern ; and I know of no better place to stimulate a proper behavior pattern in our children than in the department of home economics. The very nature of the subject itself is one in which there must be cooperation between teachers and parents and physicians and social agencies, and everyone interested in human welfare. Children must first be social individuals. Our educational programs must be a socialization process. We look to you as teachers of home economics to aid society in teaching the children the rules of the game. You have a splendid opportunity to enable the child to adjust himself to his ability. Life presents hardships to all, and a hardening against punishment should start in childhood. Let us give our children the stimulation of success. Awaken the personality with vital difficulties and then act as a guide and counselor in helping them to overcome these difficulties. Life presents many problems for each individual. These must be met and solved according to the individual’s own decisions and judgment. You as teachers of home economics, by presenting some of these problems in the schoolroom, can be an important factor in the prevention of crime and mental disease in this country. AN EXPERIMENT WITH HOME ECONOMICS IN A FUNCTIONAL CURRICULUM KENNETH L. HEATON, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF CURRICULUM RESEARCH, STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, LANSING, MICH. Some three years ago the faculty of Central State Teachers College at Mt. Pleasant, Michigan, started a study of the general and professional curriculum for college students. An attempt has been made to set up a pro¬ gram of instruction based on the needs of individual students and planned to help students live more effectively in the personal, social, family, and vocational relationships of life. As the members of the faculty began to study the common needs of stu¬ dents they became conscious of a wide variety of essential understandings and abilities which are important to life, but which are not usually recog¬ nized in the curriculum of the average student. It was discovered, for exam¬ ple, that only a few students were benefiting from the contributions of the home economics instructor with her knowledge of nutrition and health, the selection and care of clothing, the budgeting and handling of money, the importance of the home as a cause and a preventive of modern social ills, and of the many problems of home management and child care. Problems in these areas are of importance to all students and do not alone concern the student who is preparing for a vocation in the field of home economics. Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 603 An effort has been made by the faculty of Central State Teachers College to make available to all who need them the services of the various college departments. Such instructors as those in this field of home economics no longer teach courses to only those who specialize in their particular field. The exploration of student needs led not only to the conclusion that there were many important factors which were neglected in the curriculum of the average student, but also to the conclusion that the needed adjustments could not be made merely by adding a few new courses in the usual field of learning. One reason for this conclusion is pertinent to the present dis¬ cussion. Many of the problems of students are of such a nature that several instructors from different fields are more helpful to the student than any single instructor. The home economics instructor, the chemist, the health specialist, and the biologist all contribute to the understanding of problems of health and nutrition. Problems of family relationship demand the guid¬ ance not only of home economics but of psychology and often in other fields of learning. All departments have been involved in an attempt to answer the question: “How can the curriculum be organized to utilize effectively the services of an expert in a specialized field?” Out of this experience there is gradually evolving a plan by which it is hoped thru integrated courses, conferences with individuals and groups, and assistance to students in the study of individual problems to find a way by which each student may profit from the leadership of a specialized faculty in the meeting of a wide variety of life’s functional needs. REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT FREDA G. WINNING, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y., President On the whole my work during the intervening months since October 1, 1936, when I officially began my first term of office, has continually suggested to me the great opportunity which is ours “to promote the growth and pro¬ gressive development of home economics education in the public school pro¬ gram,” as stated in our constitution. I cannot help speaking of the splendid cooperation which officers, committee chairmen, and members at large have shown, and I know that only with such cooperation as this can we succeed. Much time was spent in planning for the winter and summer meetings of the Department. Considerable correspondence has been a necessary part of my work. Some time was spent in the preparation of material from our New Orleans meeting for the Bulletin. It has been my privilege to represent you on the Educational Policies Commission of the National Education Asso¬ ciation. Two hundred dollars has been secured from national headquarters for our current budget. The American Home Economics Association, thru the Journal, has con¬ tributed its cooperation with this organization in requesting your president to serve on the board of advisers for the Journal. Announcement of our meet¬ ings appeared in this periodical. 604 National Education Association With our plans for the next year getting under way I know that it is only with the support and help of officers and members that your president can succeed in carrying out your wishes. May I urge you all to continue your helpful cooperation with our executive committee and continue making sug¬ gestions for the good of the group. Lose no opportunity to keep the general public aware of home economics education and we shall go far ! DEPARTMENT OF Teachers Colleges HISTORICAL NOTE The department of teachers colleges takes the place of the Depart¬ ment of Normal Schools, which was formed at the Cleveland meeting, August 19, 1870, by a reorganization of the American Normal School As¬ sociation which had been organized in 1858. See proceedings, 1870:176 ; 1906:524. In 1924 it was voted to appoint a committee to discuss the possibility of combining with the American Association of Teachers Colleges. See proceedings, 1924:614. In 1925 the combination was effected. It was arranged that the National Education Association take over the publications of the American Association of Teachers Colleges, including its yearbook, in 1926. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-38 are: president, L. A. Pittenger, President, Ball State Teachers College, Muncie, Ind.; vicepresident, F. E. Engleman, Principal, State Normal School, New Haven, Conn.; secretary-treasurer, Charles W. Hunt, Principal, State Normal School, Oneonta, N. Y.; executive committee, C. E. Rarick, President, Fort Hays State College, Hays, Kans. (term expires 1938) ; E. J . Ashbaugh, Dean, School of Education, Miami University , Oxford, Ohio (term expires 1939) ; Marvin S. Pittman, President, South Georgia Teachers College, Collegeboro, Ga. (term expires 1940). The Department publishes a Yearbook. The annual dues, $15, are pay¬ able to the Secretary-Treasurer. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1870: 1- 88 1873 :164-199 1874 :214-254 1875 -.138-153 1876:157-211 1877:139-174 1879:113-135 1880 :176-192 1881 -.199-218 18 82:173-180 1884 -.236-258 1885 -.223-247 1886 -.387-420 188 7:465-508 1888 :463-512 1889 :555-609 1890 -.715-755 1891 -.709-740 189 2:407-433 1894 -.819-870 1895 -.672-717 189 6:642-665 189 7:709-735 1898 -.728-756 1899 -.835-903 1900 -.480-490 1901 -.635-645 1902 -.529-643 1903 -.539-593 1904 -.567-591 1905 -.517-555 1906 -.707-711 190 7:739-758 1908 -.703-738 1909 -.547-596 1910 -.563-593 1911 -.695-707 1912 -.809-896 1913 : 523- 552 1914: 497- 564 1915 : 763- 813 1916: 441- 460 1917 : 383- 416 1918: 209- 234 1919: 221- 257 1920: 237- 262 1921 : 515 1922 -.1063-1084 1923: 737- 743 1924: 613- 635 1925 -.863 1926 : 839-947 1927:873-950 1928 -.833-948 1929 -.827-936 1930:801-910 1931 -.845-945 1932 -.713-785 1933 : 709-777 1934:705-776 1935 : 659-718 19 36:555-618 i 606 1 EDUCATION NEGLECTS ITS FUNDAMENTAL BASES W. W. CHARTERS, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO Historical movements have a way of growing regularly for long periods of time and then with the injection of a new concept a period of rapid growth and broad expansion sets in. This is what is now trans¬ piring in the training of teachers. To clarify the concept we may go back to the beginnings of teacher training in America and define the factors which were noticed at that time. In 1829 when Samuel R. Hall wrote his Lectures on School-Keeping , the first Amer¬ ican textbook on pedagogy, we find a number of the elements of sound educa¬ tion in very low and raw condition. Public support of education, which is an essential factor in a healthy educational system, was 100 years ago in its feeble infancy. And during this century this factor has steadily developed until now it can be validly claimed that education is the religion of America. Support has steadily grown in regular historical sequence without more than occasional eruptions of opposition. We discover also that in 1829 the teacher, who is another essential factor in education, was “imperfectly qualified.” Many teachers had no education beyond the common schools, and the earliest normal courses consisted of spelling, reading, writing, and arithmetic; drawing, geography, algebra, physiology, geometry, philosophy, music, and composition ; a single omnibus course in theory and practise of teaching and another in observation all com¬ pleted in a year’s course of elementary- or low secondary-school level. In 100 years we have increased the education curriculum to scores of courses, the subject courses to majors of 30 or 40 semester hours, and the whole curricu¬ lum to four or five years. Thus, emphasis upon subjects has developed natu¬ rally, courses in theory and practise have evolved and in general the lines laid down in 1829 have been adhered to, perfected, expanded, and improved in regular historical sequence. None of these factors, nor all of them com¬ bined, is evolving in such fashion as to introduce a new era. They are merely growing into the golden age of an ancient era, better support, better scholar¬ ship, better technics, better administration, better buildings, and in general more smoothly running schools with essential characteristics not radically changed since 1829. The new factor that is now ushering in the new era in the education of teachers has in its turn an adventurous history of nearly 200 years. Accepted implicitly since schooling began, it was first enunciated by Jean Jacques Rousseau in 1762 in his Emile. Prior to the time of that erratic philosopher, it was assumed that the aim of education was the mastery of subjects by children. He introduced the revolutionary concept that the aim of education was the development of children and in his naive way he claimed that chil¬ dren developed best when they were isolated from the conventions, knowl¬ edge, and disciplines of civilization. [ 607 ] 608 National Education Association This concept of a child-centered education has had its natural historical evolution. Specifically, Pestalozzi made his contribution of concrete learn¬ ing, Froebel added his refinements, and lesser men and women educators car¬ ried on the idea and applied it in new situations. Later Dewey in his School and Society , his demonstration school, and his voluminous writings, has given the concept its current vogue. His followers, who number most of the teachers of America, are now in thousands of centers carrying on studies, research, and investigations into the implications of what the concept of growth of children means to the structure of American education. In my judgment the development of this concept is unsettling the orderly historical development of education on the road to fundamental changes. This new factor — the thoro understanding of children — has been accepted as a paper objective in the training of teachers from the beginning, but its emergence as a technic of education slipped into the literature of education in noticeable fashion when the National Society for the Study of Education published its yearbook on diagnosis in 1935. Diagnosis has a medical origin. It connotes intimate knowledge of anatomy and physiology, diseases, conditions, tests, all the mysterious regions of med¬ ical investigation and practise. And in education it implies a necessity for a similar acquaintance with the functions and structures of the minds of chil¬ dren, their mental pathologies, their urges, drives, and complexes. A reading of the yearbook on diagnosis leaves one major impression — the vast amount of data that teachers must have if they are to effectively understand the children with whom they deal. Much of these necessary data are known but a depressing amount is known by nobody and is therefore fair game for educational and psychological research for decades and centuries to come. It is inevitable that with the evolution of the idea of diagnosis, growth, and development, we must have a new body of subjectmatter introduced into teacher-training curriculums — not better courses in the traditionally recog¬ nized fields but a constellation of new fields. With these additions a new era will begin. I agree in part with those teachers of subjects in colleges of liberal arts who maintain that the mastery of subjectmatter is a sufficient training for teachers and that courses in education are chiefly thin collections of methods of instruction and administration which can normally be picked up on the job by an average teacher. I agree in part. But the point at which I part company is that this need be the case. If courses in education are bodies of superficial method it is the error of educators but not the fault of education. Education has its unique and basic body of materials just as the other professions have. Medicine specializes in a knowledge of the human body and engineering in the field of the structure of materials. Education’s unique field is a knowledge of the human mind and particularly the minds of chil¬ dren. It is unfortunate that while a doctor in training spends 75 to 125 semester hours in his four-year course on the anatomy, physiology, and pathology of the human body, a teacher in training devotes only six to ten hours on psychology and educational psychology which deal with the anat- Department of Teachers Colleges 609 omy, physiology, and pathology of the human mind. It is unfortunate that educators consider an understanding of the human mind to be of such slight importance. But assuredly it is not the fault of education that educators are not yet alive to the importance of this understanding. The need is vital, but they have not yet recognized it. Conditioned by 100 years of laudable atten¬ tion to improvement of scholarship and the theory and principles of teaching, an organization of one million members cannot respond instantly to a new combination of factors calling for new procedures and points of view. But however charitable one may be to the deficiencies of his brethren-in- the-craft it yet remains that education is neglecting its fundamental bases. There is available today a huge body of materials in contributory fields which can be easily assembled for the required use of teachers, and without this knowledge teachers are less w^ell equipped than nurses in the medical profession. They cannot by any stretch of imagination compare with the doctor, in spite of the fact that human psychology is more complicated and needs more artistry than human physiology. Turn now to illustrations of the bases which education is neglecting. I shall mention three. The first is the field of clinical psychology. The currently required courses in psychology and educational psychology with credit content of six to ten semester hours are respectable descriptions of the classified analysis of the human mind into the processes of sensation, perception, and memory with a slim chapter on the emotions, the abstract rules of habit formation, and the principles of the learning process. But when one compares these pallid analyses of the human mind with the squirming, laughing, crying children that face the teacher the verbal descriptions of the textbooks are unrecog¬ nizable and futile. The approximate equivalent of nothing is said in the texts about conflicts, complexes, inferiority, prestige, phantasies, maladjust¬ ments, ambitions, rivalries, repressions, inhibitions, friendships, submission, ascendancy, and the scores of phases of psychological experience which drive the child and influence his behavior with irresistible power. The expanding wealth of data in the fields of clinical psychology and psychiatry are a com¬ pletely closed book to teachers so far as teacher-training institutions are concerned. A teacher may learn a bit about these subtle elements thru experi¬ ence in teaching, by desultory and often dangerous reading, and in an occa¬ sional elective course when he has the time to take it after he has covered the required courses in theory and practise. But at best the bright teacher thruout his life gains only an empirical and amateurish acquaintance with this base of understanding, and the typical teacher remains in ignorance to his death. A second base which we neglected is the contributory field of physiology and nutrition. Reference is not directed to the human physiology which is learned in the junior high school and freshman hygiene courses, or to the neurology that is included in the conventional psychology course. Rather we point to the data of physiology and nutrition that have extensive influence upon the mental behavior of children. The conventional course in educational psychology usually contains a chapter of ten pages or so upon vision and hearing and the physical basis of habit — and this in the face of the enormous 610 National Education Association strides that bio-chemistry, glandular therapy, nutrition, and physiology have been making in the last quarter of a century. Lazy boys may be changed to model pupils by taking iodine pills or thyroid extracts, excitable girls may become controlled by change of diet; while communities are raised by the extermination of hook worms, dull children may become bright by the use of pituitary extracts. The relations between mental behavior and physiological causes are multitudinous. As a matter of routine, every maladjusted child should be given, first, a thoro physical examination with the expectation that a substantial proportion of his difficulties would be controlled by physical remedies. Yet this enormous mass of materials, so fertile in data for the under¬ standing of children, might just as well be non-existent so far as teacher¬ training institutions are concerned. Teachers graduate by the tens of thou¬ sands completely ignorant of these matters. They are too busy mastering subjects and learning the theory and practise of teaching to become ac¬ quainted with the basis in which effective methods must be grounded. Not only should educational method be based upon psychology and physi¬ ology — it has a third base in sociology. To be sure, we treat the sociological base of education somewhere in our education courses in abstract fashion when we refer to the school as an agency of society, responsive to community mores and activities, and when we analyze the elements of group behavior in class and extracurriculum activities. And this is good as far as it goes. But I am referring to the extended use of sociology in two directions — the social case work field and the technics for understanding a community. Closely related to clinical psychology, sociology explains much about the children before the teacher. The troubles and strength of children are not completely understood without a knowledge of their homes. Parental con¬ flicts, untidiness, disruption in the home, poverty, malnutrition, quarrels with brothers and sisters, lack of prestige in the neighborhood, gangs, pool halls, streets, all infect the sensitive fibers of children’s egos and when understood explain some of their buried troubles in school. Parental happiness, well- ordered homes, harmony, good food, good standing, wholesome associates, likewise explain the superiority of many children. Again, teachers who graduate and teach in communities different in mores from those in which they were reared are conditioned to look upon them as peculiar and as such to be treated without sympathetic understanding as one treats the Japanese or the Fiji Islanders. They have not been taught that communities have histories, that their so-called peculiarities spring from causes that are entirely logical. If they have the technics for understanding the mores and patterns of the community in which they live and by which their children are conditioned, they immediately develop the understanding and poise that come from knowledge. Yet, again, this social basis of education is slighted in required courses, and in many institutions is ignored. To these three illustrations of neglected bases I could add others: a familiar and broadened understanding of American culture and civilization to integrate and supplement the teacher’s knowledge of subjects and frag- Department of Teachers Colleges 611 ments of subjects which he has mastered in the high school and college; anthropology, to explain the evolution of the institutions, mores, and con¬ ventions which dominate the cultures in which children and teachers live ; and comparative psychology and biology to illuminate the fundamental, hard- mouthed drives of human experience, such as hunger and reproduction. But enough has been said to make the thesis of this paper clear. I must, however, answer two objections to my position. Both are practical criticisms. Someone may say that our courses are now overcrowded and there is no time for this material. The answer is either of two or both. First, I am con¬ vinced that if we had the courage to functionalize our subjects (mathematics, French, or botany) and build courses which would be focused upon com¬ petency in teaching rather than upon majors and academic respectability in colleges of arts and sciences, we could save enough time to care for these additions reasonably well in a four-year course for the present at least. Second, if it takes more time properly to train teachers, a fifth year could easily be added. It is coming very rapidly. When a boy outgrows his clothes his mother orders more cloth because he must not go naked and shock the neighbors. Others object that such a program assumes that we should make doctors, psychologists, and sociologists out of our teachers. But doctors study bio¬ chemistry and use it without becoming bio-chemists ; they study anatomy without becoming anatomists, and acquire bacteriology without becoming experts. That objection is trivial. The pragmatic members of this audience will immediately ask what can be done about the situation if the thesis is accepted. Many things can be done but in general they all follow one simple pattern. First, in each of the con¬ tributory areas a collecting agency can be formed. It can be composed of three or four experts in the field who know enough about education to select the facts, principles, and sources of significance in understanding children, and an expert in education who knows enough about the contributory field to check the selections. Second, this raw material can be organized and treated by teachers for a period long enough to make it usable in textbooks for sepa¬ rate courses or as absorbed material in existing courses. Whether new courses are added or old courses expanded, an essential first step is to collect mate¬ rials from these basic fields and make them easily available for use. The col¬ lection and organization are relatively simple matters. That is a very simple and quite adequate beginning tersely expressed in principle with the details to be worked out by those engaged in the enter¬ prise. There is no doubt that textbooks could be on the market in five years. Indeed some more or less adequate texts are now available. The task is neither expensive nor difficult. In conclusion, I hope that I have presented a case for the neglected bases with fairness as with frankness. It is clear to me that the currents of pro¬ fessional training that have moved with regularity for the last century are now being impacted by this other current springing from the concept of Rousseau to carry us on into a new terrain. When we have become thoroly established there, we shall be able to claim by right of cultivation the posses- 612 National Education Association sion of our distinctive professional area — an understanding of children bas/ed upon all the established information that exists in our own or any contribu¬ tory held. TEACHER EDUCATION AS I SEE IT GEORGE F. ZOOK, PRESIDENT, AMERICAN COUNCIL ON EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. This year we celebrate the 100th anniversary of the election of Horace Mann to the newly created office of secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education. The occasion is of great significance not only because it ultimately resulted in the provision for a chief state school officer in every state in the Union but because it was the beginning of a glorious campaign for the improvement of schools and the development of an informed public opinion as to the significance of education in a democratic society. Horace Mann was a very discerning individual of great cosmopolitan interests. His interests comprehended the importance of schoolhouses and textbooks, indeed every mechanical and physical aid to learning then known to the world, but he realized that all of these things combined were small in importance compared to the place occupied by capable teachers. From those early beginnings there has developed in this country a great system for the education of teachers which includes several hundred pub¬ licly controlled teachers colleges and normal schools, major divisions in every state and endowed university, and considerable attention to this field of work in almost every college of liberal arts. There are indeed very few higher institutions in this country so specialized in character as not to be drawn into the program of teacher education. I am quite conscious of the remarkable development of teacher education in the United States. I yield to no one in admiration for what has gone on before. But any review of that splendid record will, I am sure, not induce a spirit of complacency. It reveals our deficiencies all the more sharply and inspires us to renewed energy for even greater improvements in the teacher¬ training situation. Hence, if during the brief time at my disposal I dwell seriatim on what ought to be done rather than what has been accomplished, it will be only out of devotion to a cause shared by all members of the pro¬ fession. First of all, there should be developed in this country a concise but com¬ prehensive statement of objectives for the education of teachers. What serves for their purposes today in the minds of a great majority of the new teachers who each year invade the classroom is slavish adherence to tradition in which the textbook, with all of its implications, plays a very prominent role. Apart from teaching wrhat is in the textbook, very few prospective teachers have any well-defined idea of what they should attempt to accomplish in school, for the simple reason that institutions for the education of teachers themselves have no code of defined purposes and hence no program of desirable outcomes which they teach their students to work for in the classroom. Department of Teachers Colleges 613 I believe that it is a solemn obligation, long neglected, of those engaged in the education of prospective teachers to formulate and announce the goals which they are seeking to attain. The lack of any clear-cut statement of fundamental purposes on the part of our teacher-training institutions has often resulted in loss of contact with the realities of the society in which they exist, in indecision as to institutional programs, in waste and expensive duplication of effort, and in the loss of public confidence. A traveler who reaches New Orleans has in mind a definite goal. A teachers college which arrives some place needs to decide in what direction it is going. The first plank in the platform of teacher education should be the devel¬ opment of ways and means for prospective teachers to know children. It is a curious fact, not often commented on, that whereas the prospective doctor spends a large part of two years in intensive study of the anatomy and physiology of the physical body the prospective teacher devotes himself to the infinitely more difficult mental and emotional characteristics of children in a weak, short course in so-called educational psychology. I am convinced that we are turning out teachers today who know comparatively little about the changing interests and characteristics of children from one period of development to another, who cannot identify individual differences readily and assign responsibilities accordingly, who do not know how to measure achievement in terms of native ability, who do not know what the effects of physical characteristics are upon mental growth, who indeed are not suffi¬ ciently acquainted with children as to know whether they really like them. There are many implications growing out of an emphasis on a knowledge of the child. Here again a comparison with the medical profession is in point. With his extended information concerning the way in which indi¬ viduals react to the same diseases the doctor diagnoses each case according to the stage of its development, the age of the individual concerned, and other factors in the physical condition of the patient. Upon the basis of extended information relative to each individual case he prescribes a particular remedy. In other words, there are very few general cure-alls and panaceas in a modern doctor’s practise. In the teaching profession we long ago reached a similar conclusion, namely, that each child was different in important respects from all his playmates. Children differ from one another in ability, interests, background, emotional temperament, and specific attitudes. We know, therefore, that instruction should be individualized but we go on emphasizing courses in general methods of teaching as if they really provided universal remedies for individual situations. Here even more than in physical development the proper approach is an individual prescription on the basis of individual diagnosis. No teacher can know whether he is attaining the outcomes of his instruc¬ tion until he is able first to measure the capacities of his students, and second their achievements in terms of their respective abilities. What may reasonably be expected of one child is quite beyond the capacity of another. Measure¬ ment of results is therefore as necessary to the success of the teacher as it is to the scientist. A prospective teacher should therefore enter the classroom with 614 National Education Association full knowledge of how to use those measures of native ability and achieve¬ ment which are at his disposal and further how to construct others suited to the particular course of study which he is following. I need not tell you that few new teachers graduated from our teacher-training institutions meas¬ ure up to this level of knowing children. Yet where shall we look for adequate instruction in tests and measurements if not to our teacher-training insti¬ tutions? I believe, therefore, that we are far beyond the stage where courses in general methods of teaching are useful and that we should face frankly the question as to how we may provide that amount of education for prospective teachers relative to the child as will make of them diagnosticians before they become practitioners in education. When we get to that level of performance we may well leave off using the term “teacher training” and substitute for it the term “teacher education.” The faculty — What more can one say about the faculty of institutions for the education of teachers that has not already been said repeatedly? Very little, if anything, I am sure. But the matter is extremely important. This association has expended much of its energy in promoting this good cause in recent years and with a marked measure of success. Nevertheless there is no one who would not now exchange much that he has in buildings and equipment for a permanent improvement in the level of his faculty. Much that I am suggesting in other parts of this paper cannot possibly be attained without improved teaching personnel. The proper instruction of young people who will later go out to teach the children of this country is a respon¬ sibility worthy of the best talent in the land. It is not a talent necessarily identical with that of the specialist in educational research but it is com¬ parable in importance. Such an individual is not accurately identified by the degree which has been conferred upon him or by the number of volumes which he has published, but by the extent to which he can develop self¬ starting, self-generating, and self-reliant future school teachers. Such a process calls for creative ability of the first magnitude. Notwithstanding sub¬ stantial progress we are yet a considerable distance from the desired goal. Now I shall turn to the subject of demonstration and practise teaching. I do not see how anyone in this day and age of vocational and professional education can doubt the value and the necessity of this aspect of teacher education. Whether it be in medicine, on the farm, in the shop, or in the classroom, we learn to do by doing. As individuals we yearn to participate in an actual life situation. The relation between theory and practise takes on meaning. A sobering sense of responsibility settles down on the student and puts him in tune with his whole environment. To me there are no sub¬ stitutes for the educative value of a work experience. It is to the great credit of the teacher-training movement in this country that it has long emphasized the fundamental importance of practise teaching. With so much agreement on the importance of the field it is surprising that there is as yet so little agreement on the extent and the organization of demonstration and practise teaching. A fundamental difficulty is the fact that in almost every instance the elementary and secondary schools in the Department of Teachers Colleges 615 community are under a totally different jurisdiction from the teacher-train¬ ing institution, whether it be state teachers college or privately controlled liberal arts college. Because of numerous difficulties in the past the teachers colleges have usually insisted on building demonstration and practise schools on their campuses, even when it amounts to providing, at the expense of the state, free instruction for a large number of children. To me there has always been an element of unfairness in this situation. Even when corrected by local contributions the school is necessarily conducted under somewhat un¬ natural conditions. Even if one agrees that demonstration teaching should be done under circumstances as near ideal as possible, it can be maintained that practise teaching should be carried on under normal conditions of school life. In any case school administrators agree that no matter how effective the period of practise teaching prior to graduation may be it is ordinarily insufficient to make out of a novice a seasoned effective teacher. The question may well be raised, therefore, whether some form of careful supervision for beginning teachers following graduation may not be substituted, at least in part, for the present period of practise teaching undertaken under conditions not wholly satisfactory. The plan would have the virtue of bringing the beginning teacher in contact with normal school conditions, it should be less expensive to the state and it would have the advantage of bringing the teachers college into closer contact with the life of the community. Any social institution tends inevitably to detachment from its constitu¬ ency, to self-protection against the cross currents of public opinion, to self- determination, and to stagnation. To this general statement the colleges and universities are no exception. The Supreme Court may be out of tune with modern life, but so, too, may be the teacher-training institutions. In almost all instances the teachers colleges are located away from the centers of popula¬ tion. They draw their students largely from the rural -areas. The faculty is attracted by the opportunity to escape from the hurly-burly of competitive economic life. The institution has no official connection with or responsibility for the school system round about. Hence without realizing it a teacher¬ training institution may easily be cut off from its constituency so effectively and so completely that a large proportion of the faculty never even observes the actual conditions of school life. I believe that one of the best ways for an institution devoted to the edu¬ cation of teachers to escape the subtle disease of complacency is to cultivate the acquaintance of schools within its area, help them to supervise beginning teachers, hold conferences for the teachers, make special studies for school administrators, and in general to cooperate with the schools on a great variety of enterprises. The close contact should be good for the schools but it is just as essential to the vitalizing of the teachers colleges. Further, the schools are only one of a number of social institutions oper¬ ating within a community which deal with children. There are the hospitals, the recreation system, the health department, the churches, the juvenile court, the police department, the social service agencies, and the home. Where the interest or jurisdiction of one leaves off and the other begins is 616 National Education Association often a matter of dispute and adjustment. The possibilities of cooperation between the schools on the one hand and all the other social service agencies on the other have been relatively unexplored for the simple reason, among others, that the teachers of today have little knowledge of the services which they perform or can perform. It is my firm conviction that the schools can no longer withdraw in splendid isolation from the many public and private agencies which share responsibility for the best development of children within a given community. If, however, the teachers cooperate with these other social service agencies it will first be necessary for the teachers colleges to learn about them in order that they may instruct prospective teachers in the importance of and in ways and means of cooperating with them. I believe that the institutions for educating teachers should lose no time in availing themselves of this opportunity. And now let us deal briefly with teacher certification. There is no subject about which there is so much controversy today as that of certification. Dean Gildersleeve of Barnard College is convinced that instead of providing safe¬ guards the present system of certification is actually preventing educated persons from entering the teaching profession. This is a serious challenge and it is echoed in many quarters thruout the country. The challenge deserves our most serious consideration. Before one can get a true perspective it should be remembered that the present system of teacher certification and the present method of accrediting higher institutions grew up contemporaneously. It is perhaps natural that they should be confused with one another. As a matter of fact, we have no system of teacher certification worthy of the name. We have only a system of accrediting higher institutions for teacher-training purposes. We simply accept within the states the products of these approved institutions. In the certification of teachers there is nothing comparable to the licensure of doctors, dentists, and lawyers only after they have passed professional exam¬ inations. Today within our institutions we talk eloquently about individu¬ alizing instruction and measuring achievement in terms of what a student knows or can do rather than in terms of time spent, variously described as units, credits, and semester hours. What we need in identifying desirable persons for certification as teachers is some comparable system of ascertaining what the prospective teacher knows and can do. When that day arrives we can and should throw over the entire present system of certifying teachers on the basis of time spent in prescribed courses both in subjectmatter and professional content, and substitute for it a modern effective system of pro¬ fessional examinations. Lest I may be misunderstood let me hasten to add that the licensure exam¬ ination I am thinking of is one which amply provides for estimates or meas¬ ures of personality traits and demonstrations of ability to teach as well as knowledge of subjectmatter and professional content. It ought to be a searching and dependable measure of the candidate’s ability to teach com¬ parable to that now so successfully used in several of our large cities. Such a system would be in great contrast to the medieval system of teacher certi¬ fication now in use thruout the various states in the Union. Department of Teachers Colleges 617 In the comprehensive survey of teacher education completed by the United States Office of Education a few years ago, Dr. Evenden pointed out the fact that the teachers colleges and the liberal arts colleges, which for years had been carrying on a vigorous debate concerning the relative emphasis which should be given to subjectmatter and professional content, are steadily grow¬ ing more alike. The liberal arts college has consented to the value of pro¬ fessional courses and practise teaching. The teachers college is bringing up its scholarship. In the program which I have discussed, there should be even greater possibilities of agreement on fundamental policies. The liberal arts college should welcome an extended knowledge of children as a very desirable substitute for general methods of teaching; the teachers colleges cannot object to the substitution of comprehensive professional examinations for teacher certification instead of the time-serving credits in subjectmatter and profes¬ sional content now commonly required everywhere; both can agree that practise teaching should be carried on under as near normal conditions as possible. I foresee approaching, therefore, a period not free from rigorous discussion, to be sure, but one where there is far greater agreement between these two types of institutions on fundamental policies than has so far ob¬ tained relative to the education of teachers. For many centuries all educational policy was settled on the basis of somebody’s opinion. Usually it was dignified as educational philosophy but it was, nevertheless, somebody’s opinion entirely unsupported by any evidence except that which came from more or less casual observation and experience. How different is the age in which we live. We are in the midst of an era which is emphasizing the scientific approach to the solution of educational problems. It is our belief that by bringing together great collections of facts which seem to have a bearing on particular situations w~e shall be able to resolve all our issues in education. Hence for a number of decades we have been busily engaged in piling up the results of innumerable researches, most of which have no relation to one another or to any hypothesis. What we need today in American education is not more fact-finders but more interpreters, more Horace Manns rather than more research students in education, more basic statements of educational philosophy rather than more doctor’s theses. Particularly in the field of teacher education there are needed today great leaders and interpreters who can think thru and express a consistent philos¬ ophy of teacher education suited to the demands of American democracy, and who at the same time have the power to evangelize a people constantly tempted to emphasize the ephemeral things in life. Many of our improvements in modern social life seem to depend on proper organization and adequate financial support. What great things we could do in teacher education, we say, if only we had money and the right set-up. Perhaps the assertion is true, but it is to be remembered that vision is more important than money. An artist must see a picture before he can paint it, an engineer must build a bridge in his mind before he erects it in steel, a man must see visions before he can prophesy. The best way for us to secure ade¬ quate facilities in teacher education is the old way used by Horace Mann and all his noble successors, namely, a farseeing, dynamic conception of our task. 618 National Education Association THE DEFENSE ANSWERS EDGAR G. DOUDNA, SECRETARY, BOARD OF REGENTS OF NORMAL SCHOOLS, MADISON, WIS. Those who administer and those who teach in normal schools and teachers colleges sometimes develop a mild inferiority complex. And with reason. The normal school, from which the teachers college developed, was never in the straight line of the educational ladder about which we love to declaim. The teachers college has had a history which to some of the orthodox seems so irregular that they hesitate to recognize it as a legitimate member of the college family. One often notes a lifting of the eyebrow, a tolerant smile, or a benevolently patronizing nod when normal schools and teachers colleges are discussed by the educational vested interests. Probably the fact that such attitudes are noticed causes the psychiatrist to smile indulgently and suggest that a neurosis is indicated. Still when one reads that the Dean of Barnard College, Columbia Uni¬ versity, regrets that “the general tendency seems to be to discourage educated persons from teaching in our public schools,” or when a distinguished pro¬ fessor of education asserts that “education as now administered in teacher¬ training institutions does not stimulate those who attend these institutions to independent, intellectual activity of a vigorous type in their professional careers,” one has a fair notion that their conception of “educated person” is not one who graduated from a teachers college. Well, such comments from leaders, and you can duplicate them by the hundred, certainly make “the galled jade wince.” But laymen contribute to the barrage of shrapnel, especially those whose official positions give them an opportunity to exercise what Chesterton de¬ scribes as “the never-ending audacity of elected persons.” This winter in many of our state legislatures the time-worn stereotypes will be dug up as important discoveries of educational follies and futilities. Some time ago I sat in the balcony of a legislative body and listened to a debate on a normal school appropriation bill which carried with other recom¬ mendations a specific increase for a department for training teachers of art. The speakers opposing the bill were positive and dogmatic. They denounced the normal schools in particular and all modern education in general. I made notes of the principal arguments urged in opposition to the appropriation. In brief they were : 1. We have too many normal schools. 2. We are training teachers for other states. 3. We were sent here to reduce taxes, not to increase them. If we must spend money it can better be used for asylums and reformatory institutions. 4. This year we had several hundred more normal school graduates than we needed ; they went to other states and we paid the bills. 5. Our education is costing too much now, and a school of arts does not appeal to the people who are crying aloud for relief from the tremendous burden of tax¬ ation. Why should we be taxed for industrial art? Let industry pay for it. Did Henry Ford have to go to art school to learn to improve his car? Department of Teachers Colleges 619 6. It is time we returned to the essentials of education set up by our fathers. We have wandered after false gods. Our pupils do not measure up. They fail in colleges and universities. We should improve the lower and not the higher schools. The proponents of this bill said little or nothing and when the vote was taken it showed 119 for and 81 against. Where? In the Legislature of Massachusetts under the sacred codfish about one hundred years after the first normal school in America had opened its doors in that state ! In much the same form and certainly in the same spirit we listen to identical indictments in the Middlewest. Generally here we add two more criticisms : 1. Our normal schools — now teachers colleges — are overemphasizing the training of high-school teachers and neglecting their elementary courses. 2. Teachers colleges have gone degree mad, and are trying to become liberal arts colleges and graduate schools. I think I have indicated fully enough the professional and lay indictments of the institutions which we represent. Outside of these we seem to be all right. As one of my friends puts it, “They are as luckless as good girls with a bad reputation.” It is quite apparent that many are rhetorical exaggera¬ tions and others the results of uncritical acceptance of academic and popular banalities. Those that have any validity , and some have, should be corrected ; the others, exploded. I doubt if we want to defend or justify, to explain or rationalize, to attack or retreat; we want merely to submit along with our plea of “Not guilty” something of a positive defense. Above all we do not want to develop a mart}T-complex or become victims of self-pity. The teachers colleges accept their field as that of the education and training of teachers for all grades of the public schools. In spite of many apparent deviations from this function they are always concerned with their principal problem — that of helping young men and women to become better teachers than they could have been without their help. They are jealous of this reputation. A second principle that teachers colleges are insisting upon is that all of their work must be of collegiate grade. In a very few years they have moved from the secondary-school to the college level. Perhaps we should be somewhat tolerant of administrative zeal which tells the world that complete transformation has actually occurred. But anyone familiar with what has been accomplished in the last decade must regard the changes as something akin to an educational revolution. These changes and shifts of emphasis have probably produced here and there some undesirable situations, but basically the teachers colleges have remained loyal and devoted to their very difficult and specialized objectives. There have come with this shift from the secondary to college level some extremely difficult problems of harmonizing the purely academic viewpoint with the teacher-training program. Much greater emphasis is now being placed upon adequate and realistic knowledge ; but because this is so evident in the new teachers college set-up it is unfair indeed to conclude that the other problem is being neglected or that the adjective has been eliminated from 620 National Education Association the name. But we have not yet found all of the answers to the old question : “What should a teacher in a teachers college do or not do that he would or would not do if he were in an institution of the same rank not preparing teachers?” During the period that teachers colleges were emerging from the normal school status there has also been developing a science of education which has carried us far beyond the days when some metaphysics answered for a philosophy of education and some empirically contrived methods and devices could be passed on thru the medium of methods courses and practise classes. The college of education today is as far from the chair of theory and art of teaching which the universities once found adequate as teachers colleges are from the old normal school which prepared teachers for temporary work in a most uninviting field. Yet these departments have had to fight for recognition, and but for the support of public school administrators, normal schools, and teachers colleges they could not have achieved their present position of leadership. And they, too, have to take from academic Brahmans exactly the same professional patronizing and basic misunderstanding which the teachers colleges have had to endure in their difficult and dangerous years. In the colleges of education research work which is making a science of education is being steadily pushed ahead. Today we have a fairly large body of useful scientific knowledge which makes for better schools. The adaptation of the results of this research and the relating of it to subjectmatter for the specific purpose of teaching become the basic work of the teachers college. It is grossly unfair to make invidious comparisons accusing the teachers colleges of lack of experimentation and publication, or of the university departments of education for being devoted to research instead of training. In fact, if educators generally would declare a moratorium on public attacks of each other we should all be happier and wiser. Perhaps we had better “look at the record,” or at least at the problems of educating teachers. I think this group knows better than any others the advances that have been made in teacher education. Sometimes I fear you are altogether too modest about yourselves. Whenever I have attended conferences I have heard much about better selection of candidates ; func¬ tional curriculums; collegiate methods of presentation; general education; professionalized subjectmatter; more adequate observation, demonstration, and practise teaching facilities; follow-up of apprentice teachers; and the multitudinous problems arising from these central ones. This indicates an awareness of the needs of the institutions which can only result in better practise. Perhaps there has been too ready an acceptance of surveys, studies, and graduate school pressures, with results not always1 as anticipated. But by and large the record merits a mark of “excellent.” There are, it seems to me, two or three difficulties that teachers colleges face which they cannot overcome alone. We are living in one of the most confusing, unsettled, and disillusioned periods of history. Old values are being questioned, old standards overthrown, and old governments succeeded by new and terrifying dictatorships. And with education recognized by all of them as more necessary, more fundamental, more tightly woven into the Department of Teachers Colleges 621 social fabric than ever before, we have to work with less certainty than we have ever known. In the totalitarian states of Russia, Italy, and Germany the schools have been organized into vast and perfectly functioning propa¬ ganda agencies set upon indoctrinating youth with the political philosophy of the dictator. This determines organization, curriculums, textbooks, teach¬ ing personnel, and even classroom method. Literally education in these countries is definitely and specifically training for complete subordination of the individual to the state as represented by its dictator. But this is not new. When Horace Mann visited the schools of Prussia in 1843 he was almost ecstatic in his admiration of the conduct of the schools. He did not seem much concerned with their underlying philosophy, altho he did recognize the aristocratic and authoritarian character of the secondary schools and the limitations of the common school which fitted only for subservience. He recognized then that the masses left school too early, that the means of acquiring political information were negligible since “the Prussians have political newspapers, but these are under rigorous censorship. There are but few of them, and their size is very small. One of our mammoth sheets would nearly supply a Prussian editor for a year.” And finally after they leave school their lives are so ordered that they have no need for those responsibilities of citizenship which democratic countries demand. “There government steps in to take care of the subject almost as much as the subject takes care of his cattle. The subject has no officers to choose, no inquiry into the character or eligibility of candidates to make, no vote to give. He has no questions about peace or war, finance, taxes, tariffs, postoffice, or inter¬ nal improvements to decide or discuss. . . . His sovereign is born to him. The laws are made for him. In war, his part is not to declare it or end it, but to fight and be shot in it, and to pay for it.” And so on. And if Horace Mann were to go back today he would find the subject more completely subordinated and more positively identified as atoms in a political compound. He would be nothing; the state would be everything. He would also find that his prophecy that “no one who witnesses that quiet noiseless develop¬ ment of the mind which is now going forward through the agency of educa¬ tional institutions can hesitate to predict, that the time is not far distant when the people will assert their right to a participation in their own govern¬ ment” had failed totally to come true. Yes, he would be amazed to find that a dictatorship more complete than any that he knew had grown up in that same country from which he expected so much. And so in Japan, Russia, Italy, and many minor countries democracy has disappeared as an ideal. In such governments education and the training of teachers become relatively easy. The answers are all in the back of the book. As one of their leaders says: “To find the truth is the work of the great political thinkers. We must not ask the people what they think; we must tell the people what they should think.” Power comes from above; confidence and obedience, from below. To two-thirds of the population of the world that is basic education today. On the other hand we are grappling with the problem of developing an education, which includes a teacher education program, for making a 622 National Education Association democratic society in which each can achieve his own destiny under a gov¬ ernment of and by and for all of the people. And since we do not know all of the answers, and since at best democracy fumbles and blunders and muddles along we have to recognize that progress is slow, the pathway wind¬ ing, but the destination certain. Now this very priceless freedom is challenged. Without recognizing the implications there are voices calling for swift and complete centralization — the subordination of education and the schools to social reorganization and regimentation, the essence of fascism. And because teachers colleges are close to the people, close to the common school, close to the needs of the common man, they may be and probably are at the very center of the struggle to maintain and improve our democratic way of life. I doubt if we have understood this as well as we should. Why should you be concerned to become a part of the unconscious forces making for social stratification? Why should you be led always by the specialist who has an important place in the world, but not as a democratic guide? He can never make the synthesis which is education; he can never understand the relationship of his work to the common life. His achievements in science, in art, in every field are magnificent, but he can never bring his work into proper relationships with the others. But back of the specialists the great masses slowly assimilate their work and move ahead, tho sometimes with glacier-like deliberation. And this job of synthesis is supremely that of the public school system with teachers who understand the implications of democracy, who recognize its weaknesses, its failures, and its need of reform, but who understand equally its superiority to any imposed government, who see in it the only hope that exists for the common man, who are willing to study it, to live it, and to teach it. That it seems to me is at the heart of every educational problem, the point of the spear of every educational advance. And this means a great deal more in our teachers colleges of what we are now calling general educa¬ tion, breadth and depth of learning, plus all that the science of education can give, to make the student a teacher and the teacher a student. Why then the hesitation, why the apologetic attitude, why the necessity for the defendant to answer? With a reasonable understanding of the ulti¬ mate goals of a democratic society built and maintained by a democratic school system, with a clear appreciation that the teachers colleges are at the very heart of this society, and with an equal certainty that not for them is the glory of great and distinguished scholars, not for them are magnificent physical plants, not for them the aura of collegiate aristocracy, not for them huge endowments and noble monuments. Their reward is that which comes to him who walks with the masses and who follows the greatest European personality of post-War Europe, President Masaryk, who says of his own little country of Czechoslovakia: We shall always be a small minority in the world, but when a small nation accom¬ plishes something with limited means, what it achieves has an immense and ex¬ ceptional value, like the widow’s mite. Thus the defendant answers. Department of Teachers Colleges 623 TEACHER-EDUCATING INSTITUTIONS AND PROFES¬ SIONAL ASSOCIATIONS WORKING TOGETHER JOY ELMER MORGAN, EDITOR, Journal of the National Education Association , WASHINGTON, D. C. It is a peculiar privilege to me to address the American Association of Teachers Colleges. These colleges have carried on the purpose and the tradition of the pioneer normal schools. It was to one of those schools — at that time the only state normal school in Nebraska — that I went thirty years ago to prepare myself for a career in education under one of the ablest normal school presidents this country has known, J. W. Crabtree. During the thirty years since entering the normal school at Peru it has been my privilege to witness the second phase of the great American educational revival whose first phase is associated with the life of Horace Mann, the centennial of whose secretaryship we this year celebrate. During these thirty years high-school enrolment has risen from three- fourths of a million to more than seven million. Tax-supported adult educa¬ tion has come to the fore and the CCC has been born. Normal schools have become teachers colleges and have grown in scope until today tens of thou¬ sands of college graduates go forth each year to the classrooms of our Amer¬ ican schools. It is one of the major achievements of all history to have started with an untrained staff and to have reached within a century the level of training that now obtains for the teachers of our thirty million young people. The teachers colleges represented in this Association made more progress during the past ten years than any other group of colleges in America and the times call for equal progress during the next ten years. It is no longer necessary to point out that democracy needs at this time to be made as effec¬ tive as possible. All the arguments that have been advanced on behalf of free public education apply with double force in the light of social-economic conditions as they are today. Two agencies have done most to strengthen the teaching staff during this century: first, the normal schools and teachers colleges with their devotion to the ideals of great teachers, with their intensive study of the needs and purposes of education ; and second, our professional organizations. The growth of the normal schools was fostered thru organization, and their devel¬ opment into teachers colleges was in accordance with standards set up by the National Education Association and its Department of Teachers Colleges. The most casual examination of educational history shows that our state and national organizations have been the central fact in our educational progress. It is these organizations which have developed leadership, which have fos¬ tered legislation, which have improved the curriculum, and which have kept the cause of education before the general public thru such projects as Amer¬ ican Education Week and the Horace Mann Centennial. From the very beginning organization has been recognized as a powerful means for promoting teacher growth. Young people aspiring to be teachers 624 National Education Association look to the teachers college for their special preparation as practising teachers. They look to the association for continued growth and advancement. The biggest thing that can be done for any young teacher is to set him upon the path of lifelong personal and professional growth. We do not make enough use of the motivating power of a lifelong goal. There is one standard by which every teachers college must and will be measured : that is, the success of its graduates. The school which does not follow up its graduates and take a life¬ long interest in their careers is missing one of its best opportunities. The school which does emphasize the motive of a lifelong career, which does seek to establish enduring habits of personal and professional growth will develop men and women of power who will add to its fame and good name. In an effort to bring about close cooperation between the teachers colleges and professional organization, the National Education Association three years ago began its plan of student membership. Under this plan members of the senior class become members of the Association in January of their senior )^ear. From January to May they receive the Journal along with outlines for regular class study. The following fall they become active mem¬ bers and pay their dues for the current school year. They thus receive eighteen months’ service in return for the first year’s dues. Students who do not obtain positions are under no obligation to pay dues or become active members. The student membership plan was first put into operation in 1935 with twenty-five schools and some 2000 student members. In 1936, eighty teacher- educating institutions participated, and in 1937 there were more than ninety schools with over 6000 student members. The plan is clearly outlined in a little 16-page leaflet entitled Your Pro¬ fession in the Making , published in the January 1937 Journal. This leaflet answers such questions as “What is meant by a profession ?” “How did teach¬ ing become a profession?” “What is the National Education Association?” “What is N. E. A. Student Membership?” “How do I become an active member ?” The student membership plan has received the wholehearted support of the American Association of Teachers Colleges. Its Committee on Profes¬ sional Ethics “commends the plan of the National Education Association in offering student memberships to seniors in teachers colleges so that they may receive the Journal from January of their senior year.” The Committee further recommends that “in a course given late in the curriculum, usually following the student-teaching experience . . . there should be a synthesis of theoretical material previously studied with practical experiences. Codes of ethics should be critically studied. Particular attention should be paid to teacher’s organizations, their services to teachers, the obligation of teachers to them, etc.” In the February 1937 Journal, a four-page unit on “Teaching Professional Organization” was published to meet this and similar demands for definite study material covering professional organizations. Additional lesson out¬ lines and references will appear in later issues of the Journal. The response to the student membership plan shows increasing recognition among school people that one of the most important things the teachers Department of Teachers Colleges 625 college can do for its students is to make sure that they understand the sig¬ nificance of the all-inclusive system of professional organizations which is brought together in the National Education Association, with its component state and local associations. The National Education Association is not some¬ thing apart. It is the teachers of the nation working together at their prob¬ lems. It is “dedicated to the upbuilding of democratic civilization and sup¬ ported by the loyal cooperation of the teachers of the United States to advance the interests of the teaching profession, promote the welfare of children, and foster the education of all the people.” There are two kinds of services which the National Education Association extends to its members: First, those which reach the member directly, such as the Journal and other publications, conventions, and correspondence. These promote personal growth and build up the common mind of the profession. Second, there are many indirect services, such as the work for teacher welfare, which over a period of years have tremendous importance. The Association’s research in all fields of teacher welfare is outstanding. Its inter¬ pretation of education to the public thru American Education Week, radio programs, and news releases, strengthens the hands of teachers everywhere. The member may not be aware of the relation between organization and his tenure, his salary, or his retirement; and yet advances at all these points have been won thru the sustained work of state and national associations. Just now the Association is concentrating especially on the program of federal aid which would bring money into the states to increase school sup¬ port. Federal financing has drawn so heavily on the reservoirs from which state and local taxes come that federal support for schools is imperative. Teachers colleges share this need along with elementary schools, high schools, and all other levels. The campaign for teacher welfare also includes salaries, tenure, freedom of teaching, and retirement. Salaries in many communities are now too low to permit a reasonable standard of living. The present is an auspicious time to push forward in each of these fields of teacher welfare so that schools may share in the gains of any general recovery. The part which organization has played in the improvement of schools for the preparation of teachers is a chapter by itself. The Normal School Association began in 1870 to take a prominent part in the work of the National Education Association. Some of the Association’s ablest presidents and much of its finest inspiration came from the normal schools. Its first full¬ time secretary, J. W. Crabtree, had a long service as president and builder in two normal schools and is a genuine product of the folk movement in edu¬ cation. It was logical, therefore, that following the World War when the need for better prepared teachers became apparent, the National Education Association should take the lead. This leadership came together in the American Association of Teachers Colleges, a department of the National Education Association, and what a farsighted leadership it was! It defined problems; set standards for faculties and libraries; revised curriculums; visited thru its committees all the state teachers colleges; encouraged the weak and reenforced the strong. Within fifteen years it has brought about 626 National Education Association a revolution in the education of teachers that must have a profound impor¬ tance to the future of democracy. It has lifted the two-year normal school to four- and five-year colleges. Where could one turn in any profession or in any country for another example of such a record of self-improvement ! Because of it every teacher can stand straighter, hold his head higher, and walk with firmer and surer step. How can the teachers colleges in their turn contribute to the upbuilding of professional organization ? There are four things which teacher educating institutions can do to advance the cause of organization : ( 1 ) they can enrol the members of their faculties, thus setting a worthy example to the student body; (2) they can teach the history of organization and acquaint the stu¬ dents with its program of service; (3) they can enrol their students in the organization; and (4) they can take part and thus help to make our pro¬ fessional organizations more effective. ACADEMIC FREEDOM FRANK E. BAKER, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, MILWAUKEE, WIS. To the American mind liberty and democracy are closely related. If the perpetuity of democracy depends on the preservation of liberty and if human liberty is largely a matter of self-expression, then academic freedom is a vital issue. Pursuing the hypothetical proposition still further, if the preser¬ vation of academic freedom is in the hands of the teachers, then the educa¬ tion of teachers in the principles and technics of academic freedom is ex¬ tremely important. In spite of all the attempts to becloud the issue, the problem facing the schools on educational freedom is, after all, rather a simple one. One thing is entirely certain. The free public school system of America was founded primarily to promote and preserve democracy. Whatever may be the multifarious aims of public education today, there can be no doubt what the founding fathers had in mind when they established the free school system. Whenever Washington, or Jefferson, or Franklin, or Madison, or Adams urged the establishment of a system of free schools, it was on the ground that if democracy was to be perpetuated it could be done only thru universal public education. The question that faces education today is this: Was the vision of the founding fathers wrong, or has education failed to realize the vision? To my mind, the vision was right, but the schools have failed. Time will not permit the marshaling of evidence that public education has failed the trust of democracy. It probably is not necessary. Most thoughtful people have become apprehensive that American democracy is not secure. If the schools have failed American democracy to any degree or in any way, then we must face this further question : Why have they failed ? I o my mind, the answer to this question is not difficult. They have failed, first, because they have not taught the truth about the realities of democracy; Department of Teachers Colleges 627 second, because they have not kept the fires of fundamental democratic idealism alive ; third, because they have not developed their own organiza¬ tions and processes on democratic principles. I shall discuss these three causes of failure in order. The schools have taught the utopian perfections of democracy, but have concealed their realistic failures. They have taught the idealistic machinery of American government, but have failed to point out how often that machin¬ ery jams and refuses to work in the hands of ignorant and greedy oper¬ atives. The schools have traced the sovereign power of our democratic gov¬ ernment back to the consent of the governed, but they have failed to assess the paralysis of that power to the same source. They have glorified government by law, but have not pictured the reign of lawlessness. The teachers of New York City have taught the children to sing “Amer¬ ica,” to reverence the Statue of Liberty, and to salute the flag, but they have not dared to describe the degradation of democracy, the corruption of the courts, and the debauching of the civil service in the hands of venal political parties. The teachers of Chicago have taught the glories of the Century of Prog¬ ress, but have failed to point out the countless victims of the juggernaut of economic expansion. The teachers of Wisconsin have taught the natural resources of that great state, but have covered up the rape of the common riches by a selfish few. Some years ago Richard Welling of the Student Self-Government League was called upon to address a convocation of one of the large high schools of New York City. It was at the time of the investigations of the Seabury Com¬ mission. A few days before the convocation, Mr. Welling’s telephone rang and a dialog about as follows ensued: “Mr. Welling, you are to address our convocation next Wednesday. May I ask what your subject is to be?” “I propose to speak,” said Mr. Welling, “on the revelations of the Seabury Commission.” The telephone clicked the close of the conversation. A few hours later, Mr. Welling’s telephone rang again. This time a district super¬ intendent was speaking. “Mr. Welling,” he said, “you are to address a high school convocation on Wednesday, and I am informed that you propose to speak on the revelations of the Seabury Commission. The engagement is hereby cancelled.” The school authorities of New York City did not dare to let Mr. Welling tell the truth about the utter corruption of the processes of democratic gov¬ ernment in New York City in the hands of the dominant political power. H ow can the schools develop in children the responsibilities and capacities for democracy unless they teach the truth about the realities of democracy? One of the prime responsibilities, then, of teacher-educating institutions is to develop in the minds of prospective teachers a sacred regard for the truth, in the social as well as in the natural sciences, and the courage to follow in the path of social truth regardless of professional pitfalls that are sure to be encountered. The teachers colleges must themselves dare to teach the truth about all phases of human experience, whether in the natural or in the social environment. 628 National Education Association Have the schools failed to keep alive the fundamental ideals of America? An ideal has been defined as an idea so touched with emotion that it has become an effective goal of conduct. The founding fathers had some very definite ideals which were effective goals of American democracy. One of these was the ideal of personality as the most precious thing in the world. This is a cardinal concept of democracy and is a comparatively new one in the history of human culture. There is little place for individual personality in primitive society. Except in the realm of the purely vegetative functions, the expression of individuality is rigidly suppressed under the might of the mass mores. With increased ca¬ pacity to produce, with the accompanying accumulation of property and the extension of leisure, personality asserts its rights with increasing power. But even in the ancient Oriental monarchies, personality continued to be sub¬ merged in the splendor of the ruling monarch. In the pages of Herodotus we are told how the monarchs of Akkadia, Sumeria, Babylon, Persia, and Egypt ruthlessly destroyed any person that fell helplessly into their paths, whether father, mother, wife, son, daughter, or closest friend, as we today tread upon the insects that fall unknowing and unknown beneath our feet. The Greeks developed a fine concept of the value of the personality of the free man and so they built a democracy, definitely biased against the slave. Under the teachings of Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson, Samuel Adams, and Benjamin Franklin, the founding fathers developed a lofty concept of the individual personality of all men. “We hold these truths to be self-evi¬ dent, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” I shall not discuss the looseness of the statement, “All men are created equal.'’ I am concerned here only with its loftiness. Human personality and its welfare were placed first in the Declaration of Independence. And so the fathers founded a system of universal education to hold aloft this torch, to develop in the hearts of American youth an intense love for the human per¬ sonality and a burning desire to promote its welfare. How well has education accomplished that function ? A candid appraisal compels a none too favorable answer. American education has held property above personality. It has placed the emphasis on material rather than spiritual values. It has measured its own processes by external standards, as witness the well-known and much quoted report, Index of Educational Systems in Forty-eight States , by Leonard Ayres. In this report an attempt was made to evaluate relatively the school systems of the forty-eight states on the basis of standards set up for that purpose, every one of which was material. Not a single spiritual standard was even attempted. The schools were measured in terms of buildings, dollars spent, days attended, and noses counted. American education has made wealth the chief goal of the good life. Wit¬ ness the much quoted report of the Office of Education, The Money I alue of an Education. Department of Teachers Colleges 629 That the schools have not perpetuated this ideal in the hearts of American youth is evident in their product. While the members of our legislative bodies may not be the highest output of our educational system, they are an output and yet a very large proportion of the laws passed by them pertain to property rather than to personality. Our judiciary is not only a product, it would be rated among the highest of the products of our educational system, and yet our courts have been much more regardful of property than of personality. The famous due process clause “nor (shall he) be deprived of life, liberty or property, without due process of law” has been invoked often to protect property, seldom to protect life. It is being invoked now to protect the sacred right of profit; it is not being invoked to protect the higher right of the individual to a good life. It was not invoked in the Sacco-Vanzetti case, it is not being invoked in the Mooney-Billings case, it was invoked seldom if at all in the 2224 lynchings that occurred between the years 1889 and 1923. Another ideal of the founding fathers was that of liberty. To them, liberty was a very precious thing. For it they pledged their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor. But the liberty coveted by the founding fathers was an inner and spiritual thing, the liberty to be, to think, to express oneself, to worship God according to the dictates of conscience — in short, to do every¬ thing necessary to develop a full and rich personality. Before we go further, we need to point out two orders of rights clearly distinguished by the founding fathers. First, there were the rights of the in¬ dividual necessary to become a fine personality; second, the rights of the individual as a social being. These two orders were clearly distinguished in the First and Fifth Amendments. The First Amendment states: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. These are rights over which the government has no control. Congress can pass no law respecting them. Of these rights, government is the servant and not the master. It should be mentioned that the legislatures do pass criminal libel laws. The personality has a right to develop but not to the detriment of any other personality. On the other hand, the Fifth Amendment states “nor (shall he) be de¬ prived of life, liberty or property without due process of law.” The govern¬ ment under the Constitution cannot control the right to think or to speak or to worship; it can control life, liberty, or property, but it must do it according to law. The point we are concerned with today is not the logical distinction of these two orders of rights except so far as is necessary to a discussion of the efficiency of education in perpetuating the democratic conception of them. And again to the question, “How well has education succeeded?” I am com¬ pelled to say to a candid world, “Not too well.” Certainly the liberty coveted by the average American is not inner freedom to be, so much as the external 630 National Education Association freedom to do and to have. The freedom that has been most emphasized in recent years has been the freedom to exploit others rather than the freedom to develop the self. During the period of rapidly expanding capital wealth from 1920-29 any attempt by local or state governments to control the use of property was met by a storm of protest. On the other hand, hundreds of governmental interferences with freedom of speech and assembly were passed unnoticed by the majority of citizens. The teachers colleges must offer courses and must create experiences that will develop in the minds and hearts of the candidates for the profession of teaching a concept of the value of personality, and must create an atmosphere of freedom and opportunity that will enable and compel students to do those things necessary to develop within themselves fine personalities. The teachers colleges must create in the students a desire so strong that they, the students, will demand the privilege of so acting and living and expressing themselves that they will develop their own personalities to the highest perfection. Courses must be offered and experiences developed that will inculcate in the minds of the students the spiritual ideals of the founding fathers, the ideals of inner liberty and external equality. The third reason for the failure of public education to realize the vision of the founding fathers is to be found in the failure to develop its organi¬ zations and processes on democratic principles. The public schools of America have been organized and conducted on authoritarian rather than on demo¬ cratic lines. Controlled by employer-minded boards, administered by em¬ ployer-minded superintendents, and taught by regimented teachers, they have developed neither the atmosphere nor practises of democracy. Education is growth and children in the public schools and students in the teachers colleges cannot grow in the responsibilities of and the capacities for democracy except thru experiences in democratic situations. And so I say to you that the vision of the founding fathers of the American public schools as the foundation of the temple of democracy will not be realized until every classroom, every school, every college, and particularly every teachers college, becomes a laboratory of democracy in which American youth of all ages shall have the opportunity to grow in the capacities for democracy by experiencing democracy. If every schoolroom must become a laboratory of democracy, the obligation that every teachers college should do so is doubly great, for the teachers col¬ leges prepare the men and women who are to create the democratic situations in the children’s laboratories. This means that the teachers colleges must be organized and conducted on democratic principles from top to bottom. First of all the board of control must be democratically chosen, must be socially-minded, must believe in and exemplify social and democratic principles in the control of the teachers college. In the second place, the president must be, above all, a teacher. He is in no sense an employer ; he is only a teacher with vision and poise selected to lead a group of socially-minded teachers in a democratic enterprise. He must realize that true education is a process that can only occur in an atmosphere Department of Teachers Colleges 631 of complete freedom, an atmosphere in which the bacteria of social and pro¬ fessional fear cannot live for a single moment. In the third place, the faculty, including the president, must organize according to democratic principles, in an atmosphere that encourages freedom of initiative and permits free rein of the critical attitude. In the fourth place, the faculty must develop for the students the same atmosphere of freedom, devoid of fear and free from all repression, that they demand from the administration. But the faculty must go much further ; it must consciously create experiences that will exercise the democratic capacities of the students, to the end that the students shall have the oppor¬ tunities of growth thru democratic self-expression. Upon the teacher-educating institutions depends, it may be, more than upon any other institutions, the perpetuation of the ideals and practises of American democracy. They must build organizations and develop environ¬ ments that will make them laboratories of democratic experiences, to the end that they will be centers of democratic life, which will send out constant streams of young men and women imbued with the ideals of American democ¬ racy and equipped with the technics of carrying those ideals into the halls and classrooms. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON ACCREDITING After five years as a member of the Accrediting Committee of the American As¬ sociation of Teachers Colleges, it is a pleasure to submit this brief report, altho conscious of my inability during these years to measure up in service to the Associa¬ tion in a way which would have greatly increased my satisfaction. During the past year the general routine of the Committee has been carried forward for the most, at least, under the leadership of the tireless and efficient efforts of our splendid executive secretary, Charles W. Hunt. The chairman has cooperated, and in small way only, made contribution. Each passing year brings additional satisfaction to your Accrediting Committee as it observes pronounced and continual progress in all fields of work on the part of our member institutions. The Accrediting Committee occupies a rather advantageous position. It is theirs, as a committee, to interpret, to apply, and to enforce the standards passed to them by the Committee on Standards and approved by our Association. In so doing it is both privileged and compelled to note the character of our standards, both with respect to their weaknesses and their strength, as affecting their application to member insti¬ tutions. While our standards, as you know thru the years, have been largely quantita¬ tive, and as we believe necessarily so, there has been, and now is, a pronounced and growing feeling that in the near future they should become more and more qualitative in character from year to year. In this feeling the members of the Accrediting Com¬ mittee have shared, and do share, most fully. With little, practically no, financial resources but with the aid of a few willing and efficient men from a small number of institutions on the accredited list, the secre¬ tary has brought about the collection of certain data, and charted the same in such fashion as to make the information not only interesting, but by way of comparison, most illuminating, suggestive, and helpful. When you have received copies for your respective institutions covering this work you will fully agree with this statement. Whatever progress we have made, as an Association, in the matter of standardizing is due to the splendid work of our officers, together with the fine quality of cooperation on the part of each member institution. Your Accrediting Committee firmly believes 632 National Education Association that the American Association of Teachers Colleges has done a splendid job thus far in setting up and standardizing its own work. We firmly believe that it should con¬ tinue as a standardizing, or policy procedure making agency, for its own member institutions, and for other institutions which wish to become members of the Associa¬ tion, provided such institutions are ambitious to do a first-class job of teacher edu¬ cating. We justify our position in this because of a well-founded conviction that the standardizing of both the academic and the professional part of teacher education can and will be done ultimately, more efficiently by those who are in sympathy with and who understand more clearly the educational preparation of teachers. Two meetings of the Accrediting Committee have been held during the past year. At the December meeting, in Washington, D. C., the Committee made preliminary or tentative examination of all institutional reports. In keeping with the established policy of the Committee, this meeting was held for the purpose of discovering condi¬ tions on the different standards, and also to determine what warnings seemed neces¬ sary in order that member institutions might have opportunity to recheck reports for possible discrepancies. In 1936 there was a total of 51 conditions lodged against the accredited list of our Association. In addition to this, 55 warnings were issued. In 1937, as the list stands today, the number of conditions has decreased from 55 to 33. Your Accrediting Com¬ mittee is much pleased with the large percentage of decrease in conditions, and is hopeful that most of the warnings will not result in conditions one year hence. Two new inspections were made during the past year. Two reinspections have been made, and two inspections requested were not made. One standard which has given the Accrediting Committee great concern, and one which has been more or less unfavorably criticised by member institutions, is the standard relating to practise teaching — Standard VI. We have recommended to your Committee on Standards that careful consideration be given to the revising of this standard — a revision embodying more of flexibility, and, due to the greatly diversified practise teaching programs in member institutions, a standard more qualitative in character. We feel sure that this can be done without violence to well-established pro¬ fessional procedure, and probably with increased fairness to all concerned. While it may be somewhat difficult to set up a standard per se, which will protect an institution against inefficiency due to political interference, it is sincerely hoped that at least some declaration of policy will be brought forward and approved by our Association which will make clear the Association’s attitude on this point; to the end that academic freedom will be conserved, and stability of tenure made more secure. We believe this to be necessary in order to serve the best interests of education. Your Committee has observed with great satisfaction the fine progress made in the health standard. From year to year increasing provisions for the carrying out of a better health program, and for the greater protection and promotion of the health and general welfare of faculty and students of our member institutions, have been made. No observation would be just which does not note the wonderful improvement in scholastic equipment of the respective faculties of our member institutions. Certainly improvement on this standard has been so pronounced and so gratifying as to deserve modest mention at least. Across the years of the last decade improvement in this re¬ spect is little short of phenomenal. It is certainly significant of a most sincere and genuine professional attitude on the part of the men and women constituting our several faculties. While we make the statement without comparative data with which to verify, we feel reasonably sure that no group of institutions in any part of our nation has witnessed such increase in faculty efficiency. As you are well aware, our institutions approach in 1938 a sort of “dead line,” or shall we call it the beginning of a new epoch. So great has been the improvement of our institutions along all lines that the Accrediting Committee feels that we may approach 1938 with no feeling of fear; that we may safely go forward with the present plan — that of allowing no conditions with respect to the applying of our present standards, or such other standards as may be added. In short, the institutions of our Association are amply able to stand alone. While your Accrediting Committee has attempted to be reasonable and fair in the interpretation and application of the Department of Teachers Colleges 633 standards approved by our Association, we have also felt as individuals, and as a committee, that a courageous stand must be taken in each and every instance in the maintaining of standards. To the best of its judgment the Committee has followed this policy without fear or favor. But at the same time let me say that thru it all, we have not been unmindful of the fact that professional courtesy and helpfulness have been, and still are, cardinal virtues of our Association since its beginning. As you know, we have two lists in the American Association of Teachers Colleges. One list is made up of those institutions which are not only members of the Associa¬ tion, but are accredited members; the other list is composed of institutions which hold membership in the Association but are not accredited. The Accrediting Committee has discovered that frequent confusion arises in the mind of the public regarding the rela¬ tive status of these two lists. Not infrequently an institution, holding only membership, is thought of by the public as an accredited institution. This ought not so to be. Your Accrediting Committee is also confronted with the condition where occasionally in¬ stitutions have been carried on the membership list thru a period of years without apparently making anything like satisfactory improvement or progress toward meet¬ ing the legitimate standards of an accredited college. Your Committee can see no rea¬ son why it should continue to carry on its list indefinitely, even as members, such in¬ stitutions. We therefore recommend that the Accrediting Committee be given authority' to drop from our unaccredited list, from time to time, institutions which do not show evidence of satisfactory educational improvement and progress. Permit me in closing this report to express both my personal and official apprecia¬ tion of the outstanding work of our efficient, courageous, and genial secretary whose leadership has bulked so large in w'hatever progress we have made. Also it has been nothing short of a real education, and a stimulating pleasure, to have been associated with the splendid men who have constituted the membership of our committees thru- out these five years. Alonzo F. Myers C. C. Sherrod George A. Selke A. Linscheid W. A. Brandenburg, Chairman REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON STANDARDS AND SURVEYS At the 1936 meeting of the Association it was voted that a research committee of three be appointed to prepare and distribute comparative data. During the year the president of the Association requested the Committee on Standards and Surveys to assume the functions of this special committee on research for the current year. In addition, therefore, to the work concerning the standards for the accreditment of in¬ stitutions, the Committee has prepared two studies which are being distributed at this meeting. One of these, entitled “The Evolution of Teachers College Standards,” was sponsored by Professor Crabb of George Peabody Teachers College. The second, entitled “An Investigation of Factors Affecting the Stability of Tenure of Presidents and Faculties of State Teachers Colleges,” was sponsored by the chairman of the Committee. The fundamental thesis underlying the investigation of stability' of tenure was that altho public educational institutions must be subject to the ultimate control of a structure of administration responsible to the people, this structure should be of a nature to promote decisions on a professional basis and prevent political interference. No administrative machinery can be guaranteed to be 100 percent perfect in this prob¬ lem, but certainly the experience in certain states recently shows how the lack of pro¬ tective provisions can be taken advantage of. In the section of the study listing practises “dangerous to stability” it is not meant to infer that wrong practises have been common where certain types exist but simply that a given item may give the opportunity for undesirable interference. Neither should one assume that states that possess the “practises making for stability'” have not committed errors. A state may have certain good provisions in its code and have these nullified by other sections. The two summaries are intended to indicate tenden¬ cies towards bad or good practises. 634 National Education Association In view of the importance of this matter in promoting the efficiency of an in¬ stitution the Committee recommends that the following standard be added to the present list as Standard XII. XII. A dministrative Stability The appointment of administrative officers and of faculty members and the deter¬ mination of educational policies should be governed by professional considerations. Political factors should not be permitted to interfere with the efficiency of an in¬ stitution. The spirit of these principles should also be demonstrated in the internal administration of the college for the development and maintenance of the best type of faculty service and of student growth. The major work of the Committee during the year has centered around the recom¬ mendation of the report of the Standards Committee in 1936 to the effect that special attention be given “to the development of qualitative standards and that the Commit¬ tee be authorized to prepare a plan of study that can be presented to some suitable source for financial support in order to accelerate the kind of modifications heretofore suggested as desirable.” The Committee met in Washington in October with the secretary of the Association for a preliminary discussion of the entire problem. Representatives of the American Council on Education and the National Education Association were asked to listen to the discussions and give us the benefit of their advice and experience. A second meet¬ ing was held in December in combination with the meetings of the Accrediting, Ex¬ ecutive, and Special Policies Committees. The result of this meeting was a vote by the combined committees authorizing the chairman of the Committee on Standards to appoint a special committee to assist him in collecting data and preparing a statement to support a request by the Association for funds for a complete revision of the stand¬ ards and for studies leading towards new types of accrediting. The chairman ap¬ pointed Presidents Hunt, Baker, and Sprague to assist in this undertaking. The results of these deliberations and the work of the Committee on Standards with the assistance of the secretary and the two other presidents mentioned are embodied in a memorandum which has been sent to all member institutions. This memorandum presents the historical development of our Association, the story of the development of its standards and of its accrediting, a few items illustrating the improvement of institutions which has come about during the last few years, a summary of the present sratus of the Association, its accrediting procedures, and our desire for improvement of standards and these procedures. The memorandum also presents a list of questions and problems not answered by the present standards as written. A plan is then pro¬ posed for a commission to be appointed by the Executive Committee of the Association to have charge of studies and investigations to bring about the objectives as stated in the memorandum. It is recommended that this commission be empowered to ask for funds necessary for their program and to set up the required staff. It would seem that a plan of at least three years’ duration in special studies is desirable in order that the plans recommended by such a commission can be put into operation. The plan pro¬ poses that studies already made, such as the National Survey of the Education of Teachers, data from the North Central Association studies, be utilized but that new material be gathered by means of questionnaires, visitation, committee conferences, and experimentation. It is the belief of the Committee that at least $50,000 will be needed for these studies, probably to be divided as follows: first year, $25,000 ; second year, $15,000; third year, $10,000. It is not our purpose in this report to repeat the material which is contained in the memorandum or to present elaborate arguments for the justification of such a pro¬ gram. We believe that the experience of the North Central Association has already demonstrated that the accreditment of institutions has far more important values than mere classification. Setting up optimum as well as minimum practises and encourage¬ ment of institutions to improve their programs are of far greater importance to the future of the education of teachers than mere classification. No one can deny that the development in the field of teacher education in the past fifteen years has been phe- Department of Teachers Colleges 635 nomenal. It seems fair to state that the work of the American Association of Teachers Colleges has contributed greatly to the total improvement. As stated in the memoran¬ dum, the Committee believes that all institutions educating teachers will benefit from such comprehensive studies as are here proposed and that the ultimate values should come in a larger and more abundant education for the children of America. A. L. Crabb Frank W. Thomas R. W. Fairchild E. S. Evenden R. L. West, Chairman AN INVESTIGATION OF FACTORS AFFECTING THE STABILITY OF TENURE OF PRESIDENTS AND FACULTIES OF STATE TEACHERS COLLEGES Made by the Committee on Standards and Surveys of the American A ssociation of Teachers Colleges Educational institutions supported wholly or in part by public money must be subject to the ultimate control of a structure of administration responsible to the peo¬ ple. This fundamental principle should be recognized by state teachers colleges and they must expect to determine their general program in accordance with what is approved by the duly selected representatives of the electorate. On the other hand, it would seem that good public policy will be served best by setting up administrative machinery which will tend to eliminate the possibility of actions on a political and personal basis. Educational and professional standards should constitute the criteria for decisions affecting the educational welfare of the people and their children. This applies particularly to the appointment of the presi¬ dent and the faculty. Unless stability of administration and security of faculty are assured, state teachers colleges cannot progress in an orderly, systematic fashion. Long-time planning, development of faculty morale, achievement of academic free¬ dom, maintenance of high educational standards are impossible without stability and security. This does not mean that the administration of a teachers college should not be sub¬ ject to continuous examination by a board of control to keep it active and in tune with the general purposes of the people, or does it mean that inefficient faculty members should be protected from scrutiny. Such evaluations, however, should be made on the basis of demonstrable educational policies and criteria. The relationship of a board of control to the general structure of government should be such that it becomes difficult to inject political considerations, and yet possible, within a reasonable space of time, to correct deadening and undesirable practises in an institution. Furthermore, the structure of control should also protect the members of the faculty in their relationships to the president of the institution so that they may be assured of being treated in a professional manner and not according to dictatorial or personal methods. It is just as important for the faculty members to have a method of appeal when they feel that they are being unjustly treated by the president as it is for the president to be assured of having his own position free from political pressure. It is common knowledge that security of administration and faculty has recently been violated in a number of states. It is not the purpose of this study to examine these violations in detail, to analyze the causes, or to attempt to connect them with the governmental structure in vogue in connection with these situations. Before such evaluations could be made, it would be necessary to make detailed investigations of specific situations. A first step seems to be to discover what structures are used, de¬ termine what types offer the greatest likelihood of non-political administration, and what provisions make political interference easy. The specific purposes of this study were: 1. To discover the different kinds of governmental structure under which state teachers colleges operate. 2. To determine the likenesses and differences of the various methods used. 636 National Education Association 3. To make clear which structure seems to make most difficult the application of political and personal considerations. 4. To show in detail different methods of appointment of president and faculty. 5. To determine tenure provisions affecting faculty members. The method of investigation consisted of sending to teachers colleges in thirty-six states a statement giving the method of appointment of president and faculty in the state of New Jersey with the factors affecting these items in connection with any officer or board which could have any effect upon the appointment. The same letter and sample description were sent to the commissioner of education or state superin¬ tendent of schools in each state in order that there could be a check on the reply of the president of the teachers college. Replies were received from thirty-four states, as follows: Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missis¬ sippi, Missouri, Montana, Newr Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Da¬ kota, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. How Presidents of Teachers Colleges Are Appointed State board of education — 13 states: Alabama, Iowa, Kansas, Maryland, Michigan, Mississippi, Montana, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. Board of trustees for teachers colleges — 7 states: Arkansas, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, Texas, and Wisconsin. Board of trustees for each college — 6 states: Kentucky, Missouri, New Mexico, North Carolina, Ohio, and Washington. Commissioner of education or director of education with approval of state board of education — \ states: California, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and New York. State board of education with recommendation of state superintendent: Arizona. Board of trustees for each college with approval of governor: Pennsylvania. State board of education with recommendation of chancellor of state system of higher education: Oregon. Commissioner of education: Massachusetts. Term of Office of Teachers College Presidents The usual practise regarding term of office of presidents of teachers colleges is the making of appointments without specifying any definite term. Of the thirty-four states, twenty-five hire their presidents for an indefinite term, and seven rehire every year. Only two states have definite terms. Montana Teachers College presidents have tenure after three years of successful service. Washington Teachers College presi¬ dents may not be appointed for a period to exceed four years. The practise is to appoint for a period of three years. The names of the states with and without specification of term of office of teachers college presidents are as follows: Locations of teachers colleges where term of office of presidents is not specified: Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Ten¬ nessee, Virginia, and Wisconsin. Locations of teachers colleges where term of office is one year: California, Min¬ nesota, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Dakota, Texas, and West Virginia. Constitution of Boards The constitution of boards varies greatly. There are no two boards that are made up in exactly the same way. The number of members on the boards ranges from three to twelve. The average number is eight. There are ten states with boards of ten or more members. In con¬ trast to this there are nine states with boards of three to five members. Some states Department of Teachers Colleges 637 having a large number of board members are: New York, North Carolina, Missis¬ sippi, Tennessee, Illinois, Montana, Wisconsin, New Jersey, and California. Some states having very small boards are Washington, Arizona, and Michigan. The varia¬ tion in size is shown in the frequency table. Number of Board Members 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 Total 33 Median 8 There are two main methods used for appointing board members: appointment by governor and election by legislature. Or a combination of methods is used, especially when there are ex-officio members on the board. In a few cases the state superintend¬ ent of schools, elected by the people, is a member of the board. The governor, elected by the people, is in a few cases, a member of the board. The usual practise of selecting members of the boards is the appointment by the governor with the consent of the senate. Twenty-three of the thirty-three boards are selected in this way. The states not following the general procedure are listed below: Six boards are appointed by the governor without the consent of the senate. The six states using this method are: Arizona, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Tennessee, and Wisconsin. Other methods used are: Elected by people — Michigan Appointed by governor with consent of governor’s council — New Hampshire Elected by legislature — New York Appointed by governor with consent of general assembly by joint vote of both houses — Virginia. The number of boards having and not having ex-officio members is about equal, sixteen having them and seventeen not having them. The states whose boards have ex-officio members are: Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Tennessee, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. The states having boards with the state superintendent or commissioner of educa¬ tion as members and acting as chairman or secretary of the board are: Alabama, Ari¬ zona, Arkansas, California, Illinois, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and West Virginia. The boards having the governor as an ex-officio member are: Alabama, Montana, and Tennessee. Other ex-officio members different from the usual practise are: North Dakota — commissioner of agriculture and labor as member Arkansas — state treasurer and state auditors as members Montana — attorney-general on its governing board. The usual terms of office for the board members are from four to six years. The schools not following the usual practise are: New York, 12 years; Mississippi, 12 years; Oregon, 9 years; New Jersey, 8 years; Maryland, 7 years; Ohio, 5 years; Arizona, 2 years. States specifying geographical location of board members: Alabama, Minne¬ sota, Mississippi, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, and South Dakota. Frequency 4 4 2 6 1 7 0 6 1 2 638 National Education Association No mention of staggering appointment of members: Arizona, Minnesota, Montana, Tennessee, Texas, and West Virginia. States having political restrictions in selection of board members: Iowa, Mis¬ souri, Montana, New Jersey, New Mexico, South Dakota, Tennessee, and West Virginia. State specifying that both men and women shall be board members: New Jersey. Unusual features in the constitution of boards: Indiana — Governor of Indiana has power to remove and appoint whenever he cares to do so. Iowa — Iowa’s state board may not have more than one alumnus from each of three schools. Maryland — Specifies that a board member must be a citizen of the state. No person may be a member who is subject to its authority; for example, a faculty member or an executive officer of the school. New Hampshire — Board members must not be technical educators nor profes¬ sionally engaged in school work. Two board members shall be trustees of the University of New Hampshire. New Jersey — At least two board members must be women. Must have resided in state five years previous to appointment. North Carolina — One college in the state has twelve members on the board, while two other colleges have nine members each. Alabama, Montana, and Tennessee — Governor is on the board. Massachusetts — No board of education in control. There is an advisory board that has no power. North Dakota — Commissioner of agriculture and labor is ex-officio member of state board. Oregon — No more than three members shall be alumni of three institutions. No more than one member shall be an alumnus of any one institution. South Dakota — Even tho the number of members on the board of regents is five, the legislature is empowered to increase the number to nine at any time. Oklahoma — Two members must have had at least four years’ experience as a practical educator. States whose board members draw salaries: West Virginia — $1000 per year and expenses South Dakota — $1000 per year and expenses. Selection of State Superintendent or Commissioner of Education The usual method of selecting the head of the state school system is election by the people. Twenty-two of the thirty-four states use this method: Alabama, Arizona, California, Colorado, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Mon¬ tana, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Texas, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. Other methods used by some states are: Appointment of the commissioner of education by the governor: New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Virginia. Appointment of the commissioner of education by the state board of education: Maryland, Arkansas, Minnesota, and New Hampshire. Election of one commissioner by the people with a director appointed by the gover¬ nor: Illinois. Appointment of the commissioner of education by regents of a state university: New York. Appointment by governor with the consent of the governor’s council. Selection of Faculty The usual method used in selecting faculty members in state teachers colleges is the recommendation by the president of the college to the board of education for election. Department of Teachers Colleges 639 Twenty-one of the thirty-one states and two cities reporting on this question used the above method: Arkansas, Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Texas, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. Other methods used in a smaller number of cases are: Recommendation by the president of the college, nomination by the state director, or commissioner of education, and elected by the board of education: Alabama, Cali¬ fornia, New Hampshire, New York, Oregon, and Tennessee. Recommendation by the head of the department, nomination by the president of the college, and election by the state board: Indiana, Kansas. Recommendation by the president of the college, nomination by a “committee on teachers” from state board and election by board: Minnesota. Recommendation by the president and election by state board of education (to the chancellor when in office) : Montana. Recommendation by the president and approval by the commissioner of education (the appointment is reported to the state board of education) : New Jersey. Appointment by the commissioner of education: Massachusetts. Term of Office of Faculty The usual term of office for faculty members is either indefinite or for one year with re-appointment each year. The exceptions to the rule are as follows: term of four years — Kentucky and Washington; dismissal must be for cause and can only be removed after hearing — Oklahoma and Oregon; tenure of office after satisfactory service — Colorado, Montana, Oregon (generally), New Mexico, and Wisconsin. Typical Practises Regarding Appointments of Presidents and Faculties of Teachers Colleges 1. President is appointed by the board governing the teachers college 2. The term of office is indefinite with no tenure 3. The average number of board members is eight 4. The usual method of selection of board members is by appointment by governor with the consent of the senate 5. The usual term of office of board members is from four to six years 6. Geographical location of board members usually not specified 7. The terms of office of the board members usually expire at different times 8. There are usually no restrictions regarding political affiliation of board members 9. State superintendent is elected by the people 10. The control of the teachers colleges is vested in a board 11. The usual method of selecting faculty members is the recommendation by the president of the college and election by the board of education in control 12. Term of office of faculty members is indefinite. Practises Dangerous to Stability Practises that would seem to work against stability in the tenure of office of presi¬ dents and faculties of teachers colleges are as follows: 1. A small number of members on the boards of education: Washington, Arizona, and Michigan. 2. Expiration of terms of office of board members at the same time. 3. Short terms of office of board members: Arizona — two years. 4. The state superintendent of schools elected by the people. The majority of the states. • 5. A board appointed by governor without the check of any other group: Arizona, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Tennessee, and Wisconsin. 6. Appointments of presidents and faculty by one person only: Massachusetts. 640 National Education Association 7. The governor as a member of board of education: Alabama, Montana, and Tennessee. S. Other governmental officials on the board of education: North Dakota, Arkansas, and Montana. 9. Separate governing boards for the different teachers colleges in a state: Ken¬ tucky, Missouri, New Mexico, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Washington. 10. Members of board may be removed at pleasure of the governor: Pennsylvania. 11. No board of education to approve appointments and dismissals of presidents and faculty members: Massachusetts. Practises flaking for Stability Safeguards and principles used in some situations which make for stability in the tenure of office of presidents and faculties of teachers colleges include: 1. A large number of members on the boards of education. Ten of the thirty-two states have ten to twelve members. 2. Expiration of terms of office of board members at different times. Twenty-six of the thirty-two states studied. 3. Long terms of office of board members: New York, Mississippi, Oregon, New Jersey, and Maryland. 4. An educator, such as commissioner of education, who is responsible for the nomination and approval of presidents: California, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, and Oregon. 5. An educator appointed by a board as commissioner of education. 6. A board that has restrictions regarding political affiliation of its members — half and half. 7. A board that has restrictions that would require the board members to come from different sections of a state. 8. Board members having a degree of professional interest and ability. 9. Tenure of office a state law. 10. Recommendation and nomination for appointment and dismissal of faculty members by heads of departments and president of the college. Approval of a board required. 11. The governor or superintendent of schools, who are political appointees, should not have the power of a board member. . 12. The terms of office of president and faculty indefinite — based on satisfactory service. 13. The consent of the senate if appointment of board members is by governor. 14. All members of board appointed in the same manner. No ex-officio members except the commissioner of education. 15. An equal distribution of alumni from different colleges if the same board con¬ trols several colleges. 16. The governor should not have the power to control or affect the majority vote of a board as he has in: Alabama, Arizona, Indiana, New Mexico, and Pennsyl¬ vania. 17. The necessity of having approval of appointments and dismissals by a govern¬ ing body, such as a board of education. 18. One board of education for all of the teachers colleges in a state instead of separate governing bodies for each institution. The significant conclusion from this study is to be found in the great variety of methods and combinations of practises that are legal in the United States. There are principles, however, that are running thru the practises that lead to very definite trends as indicated in the typical practises. E. S. Evenden, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. F. W. Thomas, State Teachers College, Fresno, Calif. R. W. Fairchild, State Normal University, Normal, Ill. A. L. Crabb, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. R. L. West, State Teachers College, Trenton, N. J., Chairman. Department of Teachers Colleges 641 A PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED TO CONSIDER THE PLACE AND FUNCTION OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS COLLEGES AND TO DEFINE THE SCOPE OF MEMBERSHIP IN THE ASSOCIATION 1. That well-defined and well-established professions have been unified and pro¬ moted by professional associations national in scope. 2. That, because of the great numbers engaged in teaching, and the importance of teaching as a public service, it should be one of the greatest professions in our country. 3. That there are numerous agencies and departments which should be working together and contributing more effectively to teaching as a profession. 4. That the American Association of Teachers Colleges should work in close co¬ operation with other educational associations and the state and national offices of education in order to insure adequate preparation for all teachers, and to raise the general standard of teaching service to a higher level of efficiency. 5. That the American Association of Teachers Colleges is the only national ac¬ crediting agency organized solely for the promotion of teaching as a profession, and that this fact tends to indicate that the Association must assume added responsibilities towrard teaching as a profession. 6. That the American Association of Teachers Colleges should not continue pri¬ marily as an association of teachers colleges, but rather as an association of the departments, schools, and colleges organized for the education of teachers. 7. That the name, American Association of Teachers Colleges, as designated in Article I of the Constitution, should be changed to the American Association of Schools and Colleges for the Education of Teachers. 8. That this association for the advancement of teaching should revise its stand¬ ards in accordance with resolutions previously adopted, and with such standards should be of greater assistance to associations now accrediting institutions for the education of teachers. 9. That this association should provide for individual memberships from the U. S. Office of Education, the state departments of education, and representation from educational associations and agencies which are interested primarily in the education of teachers. 10. That the plans by which individual memberships may be granted, associations affiliated, and professional forces coordinated and unified be considered as matters for study and discussion by the cooperating agencies. The above is a presentation of general policies. The majority of the above state¬ ments or recommendations have been approved by the joint committee of the Amer¬ ican Association of Teachers Colleges at its meeting in December 1936. Committee members: Frank E. Baker Sam H. Whitley H. A. Sprague REPORT OF THE RESOLUTIONS COMMITTEE Your Committee on Resolutions has given careful consideration to the suggestions placed before it, and now begs leave to report the following resolutions to the Asso¬ ciation : 1. That the Association express its appreciation to its officers for their excellent service in the preparation of the program and to the committees which have labored so efficiently in carrying forward the professional studies reported today. 2. That we hold in affectionate memory the names and services of three of our colleagues who have passed on since our last meeting: President George E. Martin, Nebraska State Teachers College, Kearney, Nebr.; President Hoyt C. Graham, New Mexico State Teachers College, Silver City, N. Mex. ; and President W. R. Straughn, State Teachers College, Mansfield, Pa. 642 National Education Association 3. That we express our particular esteem for Dwight B. Waldo, whose resigna¬ tion has deprived this Association of one of its most faithful and beloved participants. President Waldo has contributed so richly to the development of this Association, not only thru his guidance as one of its presidents but also thru his constant labors and counsels from its earliest organization, that we shall always feel a debt of especial gratitude to him. 4. That we recommend to the officers and Executive Committee the early formula¬ tion of plans for an appropriate observance by this Association and its member insti¬ tutions of the centennial anniversary of the founding of the first state-supported teacher-training institution in 1839. 5. That this Association commend the federal government for its emergency aid to the schools; for its support of the National Youth Administration; and for its geneious and timely services thru the Public Works Administration; and, further, that this Association request the continuance of these federal agencies. 6. That this Association go on record as endorsing the Harrison-Black-Fletcher Bill, which has for its purpose permanent federal aid to the schools (free from fed¬ eral control). 7. That this Association especially commend the work of the Committee on Stand¬ ards and Research, looking toward a comprehensive study of factors vital to the establishment of qualitative standards, and that our hearty endorsement be given to plans for securing a grant of funds essential for such study. 8. That this Association officially express appreciation to the American Council on Education for its interest in, and activities on behalf of, the improvement of teacher training, and recommend institutional affiliation with the American Council on the part of its eligible members. 9. That the Association, in recognition of the valuable services inaugurated by the special committees working during the past year on a consideration of the Expansion of Our Professional Services and on the question of the Scope of Organizations Eli¬ gible for Membership, authorize the continuation of the work of these committees thru another year. Lida Lee Tall Kate Galt Zaneis , H. H. Cherry (absent) J. W. Brister Frank W. Thomas, Chairman SECRETARY’S REPORT Charles W. Hunt During the past year the committees have been unusually active. The Standards Committee has been vigorously at work on the revision of the standards, as will be seen by the report of this committee. The Committee on General Policy or Institutional Relationships met at St. Louis in the fall and after canvassing the available informa¬ tion is presenting a very interesting set of suggestions to the Association for con¬ sideration. In December a combined meeting of the Standards, Accrediting, Policy, and Executive Committees was held in Washington to review the suggestions made by the Policy Committee. A special subsidy was required for these meetings, making an unusually large expenditure for committee expense. Despite this expense and the outlay for research on the records in the Secretary’s office, the year closed with an excess of cash receipts over disbursements of about $850. This was due, of course, to the increase in fees. Altho the fees have been thus increased, the membership of the Association has suffered a loss of only two out of a total of 201. This increase in funds has made possible a consideration of the Association prob¬ lems which will be very significant in the development of future policy. The difficulty in the past has been that the Association officers have changed in too many instances from year to year, making the development of policy disconnected. It is not desirable for the policies of the Association to be controlled by the Secretary’s office, as is too Department of Teachers Colleges 643 likely to be the case without a continuous working group which establishes the policy of the Association. The new constitution, organized in 1933, was intended to supply this deficiency and is beginning to do so. The Committee on Nominations for the general officers should bear in mind the desirability of continuing members on the Executive Committee for their terms of office so that they may become informed and useful in the guidance of the Association affairs. The Secretary has for some years foreseen the necessity of a revision of the stand¬ ards and is greatly pleased with the progress which has been made in planning this change. The Association, like other organizations in these days, cannot stand still. The accredited list will be significant only as it represents the best practise. The North Central study has indicated some directions in which our future, practise should be guided. To be a stimulating educational process, which is the most valuable side of the accrediting in the Secretary’s opinion, a much larger number of items and new fields not now covered by the standards should be represented in the annual reports filed by institutions with the Accrediting Committee. The circulation of in¬ formation in regard to experimentation and general current practise is possible with the filing of a more complete report and the provision of funds for the analysis of these reports. The general work of the Association increases from year to year. This reflects itself especially in the Secretary’s office. Some change and enlargement of the pro¬ gram will be necessary, and the Secretary is referring these matters for discussion to the Executive Committee, so that ample time may be given for the important decisions necessary. The Secretary submits herewith tables which have been a feature of the reports for some years, in regard to inventory, membership, and accrediting and classifica¬ tion. In this connection it should be noted that no institution may remain upon the accredited list after the 1938 meeting unless it has met all standards. It is important to call the attention of all institutions especially to this date. It is furthermore of the utmost importance that the Association live up to the plan which has been made for some years, to publish a clear list in 1938. It is entirely possible that under our present practise some institutions which have in general a good program may be excluded from the accredited list because of their failure to meet one standard, but the Secre¬ tary is very strongly of the opinion that no changes should be made from the stand¬ ards of the Accrediting Committee for the past few years, until some more adequate plan is made. INVENTORY MEMBERSHIP December 31, 1936 58 1928 Yearbooks 142 1933 Yearbooks 1927— -147 1932- —189 172 1929 Yearbooks 86 1934 Yearbooks 1928— -161 1933- -187 127 1930 Yearbooks 213 1935 Yearbooks 1929— -175 1934- -192 247 1931 Yearbooks 240 1936 Yearbooks 1930—180 1935- -201 232 1932 Yearbooks 185 Standards 1931— 185 1936- -199 ACCREDITING AND CLASSIFICATION 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 Number of Institutions Classified 116 126 140 142 146 150 153 Violations of Standards Definition . 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Requirements for admission. . . 4 3 1 0 0 0 1 Standards for graduation . 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 Size of faculty . 12 14 14 11 — — — Preparation of faculty . 104 44 13 5 7 56 48 Teaching load . 10 13 14 17 25 13 10 Training school . 33 11 2 2 10 5 8 Organization of curriculum . . . 5 3 0 0 0 0 1 Health and living conditions. . 4 0 8 5 6 2 33 Library, laboratory . 69 36 42 12 11 11 12 Buildings . 7 2 0 0 0 0 0 Limits of registration . 11 4 3 0 — — — Financial support . 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 General requirements . 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 263 132 98 53 61 88 116 644 National Education Association 1936 1937 Number of Institutions Classified . 156 (Tentative) 155 Violation of Standards Conditions Warnings Conditions Warnings Definition . 0 0 0 0 Requirements for admission . 0 0 0 0 Standards of graduation . 0 0 0 0 Preparation of faculty . 22 4 13 5 Teaching load . 3 12 2 14 Training school . 5 23 4 22 Organization of curriculum . 1 0 1 0 Health and living conditions . 11 10 8 38 Library, laboratory . 7 6 4 2 Buildings . 0 0 0 0 Financial support . 2 0 2 0 General requirements . 0 0 0 0 51 55 34 81 New inspections, 1937 . , . 2 Reinspections . 2 Inspections requested but not made . ' . 2 Application for membership has been made by Chico State College, Chico, Cali¬ fornia ; and the resignation of the College of Education of Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, has been received. The Secretary wishes to submit the results of the analysis of data reported by 143 teachers college libraries in October 1935, as follows: LIST OF THE 200 MAGAZINES MOST FREQUENTLY FOUND IN 143 TEACHERS COLLEGE LIBRARIES IN OCTOBER 1935 2300 different periodicals were reported in this study, 1013 appearing but once. 143 National Geographic 140 Harper’s Magazine 139 Atlantic Monthly 139 Literary Digest 138 Current History 137 School and Society 136 Hygeia 136 School Arts Magazine 136 Elementary School Journal 135 Forum 135 Scribner’s Magazine 133 Journal of Geography 131 Review of Reviews 131 Teachers College Record 130 School Review 128 Grade Teacher 127 Educational Administration and Supervision 126 Journal of Educational Psychology 126 Library Journal 126 N.E.A. Journal 126 Scientific American 125 Survey 123 Progressive Education 121 Instructor 121 Journal of Educational Research 121 American Library Association Book¬ list 120 School Life 120 Social Studies 119 Nation 119 New Republic 118 Education 118 Saturday Review of Literature 117 Good Housekeeping 117 Educational Method 117 School Science and Mathematics 117 Yale Review 115 Childhood Education 115 Theatre Arts Monthly 113 Elementary English Review 113 English Journal 112 Journal of Health and Physical Edu¬ cation 112 Time 111 Asia 111 American Childhood 111 Congressional Digest 111 Recreation 110 Foreign Affairs 110 North American Review 107 Survey Graphic 106 Wilson Bulletin* 106 Mathematics Teacher 106 Nature Magazine* 105 Parents’ Magazine Department of Teachers Colleges 645 105 Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Science 104 Living Age 103 American Magazine 103 American School Board Journal 103 New Outlook 103 Poetry 103 N.E.A. Research Bulletin 102 American Journal of Sociology 102 Christian Century 102 Economic Geography 101 Child Life 100 Scientific Monthly 100 Nation’s Schools 99 American Historical Review 99 Reader’s Digest 99 Travel 98 Etude 98 Science 97 Popular Science Monthly 96 Bulletin of the Pan-American Union 95 Subscription Books Bulletin 93 Journal of Home Economics 92 Arts and Decoration 91 Journal of Chemical Education 91 Popular Mechanics Magazine 91 Bird Lore 90 Musical America 89 American Review 89 Peabody Journal of Education 88 Industrial Education Magazine 88 Mental Hygiene 88 Quarterly Journal of Speech 87 American Journal of Public Health 87 Journal of Higher Education 86 American Mercury 86 Journal of Education 85 American Magazine of Art 85 Science News Letter 84 Design 84 St. Nicholas 84 Geographical Review 83 English Journal (College Edition) 82 Journal of Educational Sociology 82 House Beautiful 81 American Home 80 Educational Record 80 Athletic Journal 79 Golden Book & Fiction Parade 78 Book Review Digest 75 Industrial Arts and Vocational Edu¬ cation 75 Publishers Weekly 75 Teachers College Journal 74 Cumulative Book Index 74 School Executives Magazine 73 Political Science Quarterly 72 Science Education 72 Modern Language Journal 71 Horn Book 69 American Boy 69 Child Study 69 National Parent-Teacher Magazine 68 Vogue 67 Bulletin of American Library Asso¬ ciation 67 American Economic Review 67 Occupations 66 Music Educators Journal 65 American Journal of Psychology 65 Scholastic 64 American Cookery 64 American Literature 64 Monthly Labor Review 63 Musical Quarterly 63 House & Garden 63 School Music 62 North Central Association Quarterly 62 Social Frontier 61 Practical Home Economics 61 Woman’s Home Companion 60 Psychological Review 59 Bulletin of Association of American Colleges 57 Delineator 57 Journal of Political Economy 56 World Order 55 Education Index 55 Journal of Heredity 54 American Issue 54 Mind and Body 54 Nation’s Business 54 Mississippi Valley Historical Review 53 Collier’s 53 American City 52 Business Week 52 Journal of Modern History 52 Library Quarterly 52 Junior-Senior Clearing House 51 Academy of Political Science Pro¬ ceedings 51 Classical Journal 51 Country Gentleman 51 Country Life 51 Journal of Applied Psychology 50 American Political Science Review 50 American Girl 48 Art Digest 48 News-Week 47 International Student 47 Quarterly Review of Biology 47 Sociology and Social Research 646 National Education Association 46 Educational Screen 46 International Conciliation 44 Fortune 44 Pictorial Review 44 Social Forces 43 American Forests 43 Boy’s Life 43 Journal of Adult Education 43 Quarterly Journal of Economics 41 Natural History 40 Books 40 Musical Courier 40 Review of Educational Research 40 Specialty Salesman Magazine 39 Connoisseur 39 International Labor Review 38 Business Education World 38 Sportswoman 38 Journal of Business Education 37 Gregg Writer 37 Forecast 37 Research Quarterly of American Physical Education Association 37 Stage 36 Christian Science Monitor Magazine 36 Fortnightly Review 36 Journal of Nutrition 36 McCall’s 36 Publications of Modern Language Association 36 Scientific Temperance Journal 35 Journal of Calendar Reform 35 Industrial and Engineering Chemis¬ try, Industrial Edition 35 Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 35 Musician 35 Rotarian 34 Breeder’s Gazette and Dairy Tribune 34 Congressional Record 34 Contemporary Review 34 Harper’s Bazaar 34 League of Nations Monthly Sum¬ mary 34 Reader’s Guide* * Position on list uncertain because of confusion with periodical of similar name. The Secretary asked the Executive Committee for a subsidy of $600 for the analysis of reports in the files. About $400 of this subsidy was spent. In this connection the guidance of C. E. Jackson of the State Teachers College at Montclair, N. J., is grate¬ fully acknowledged. The statistical work was performed by Jacob Orenstein and John H. Hindle, Jr., graduate students of the New Jersey State Teachers College at Montclair. Two purposes governed the accumulation of this data: (1) the analysis of the available data for the current year for all institutions with the presentation of trends in particular fields where these were available; and (2) a presentation of this material in a form which would indicate the possibilities under a revised system of standards and reports, for revising institutional policy in accordance with optimum practise. The results of this statistical study have enabled us to present the following charts : Chart I, Percentile Standings, 1935-36, which immediately follows, offers a graph of an individual institution’s standing with reference to the items noted on the sheet. To each institution which reports to the Accrediting Committee this graph is sent with its own situation graphically displayed. The line on this graph represents an actual situation in one of our institutions. The items are not presented as of equal worth but because the data was available and because it seemed worthwhile to indi¬ cate in this way what a more extensive collection of data would give to each institu¬ tion as a guide to institutional policy. In general, a position in the upper part of the graph indicates a favorable situation. With the possible exception of III (a), a per¬ centile standing of over 50 is more to be desired than one below 50. With items I, III (a), IV, VI, VIII, IX, XI (a), XI(c), XI(d), and XI(e), a high objective value implies a high percentile standing. With items II, III ( b ) , V(a), V(b), and XI(b), a low objective value implies a high percentile standing. Lower objective values on these items obviously indicate a better condition. II. Since 89 schools have 0 percent of non-high school graduates, and conse¬ quently tie for the rank of 1, their average rank is 45, and the highest possible per¬ centile score is 71. Ill (b) . Since 67 schools have a ratio of 0 on this item, the highest possible per¬ centile score is 78. Department of Teachers Colleges 647 VIII. Since 68 schools have 100 percent on this item, the highest possible per¬ centile score is 78. The actual values of the percentile lines on this graph are presented in Table I. The percentile standing of each school on this general chart is sent to all accredited institutions. Chart II presents the trends in the student-teacher ratio as represented in the reports from 1932-33 to 1935-36. Chart III represents the teaching load in hours per week, from 1929 on. Chart IV represents the changes in faculty preparation from 1926 to 1936. The method and figures originally used in 1925 by Dean Minnich and in 1931 by Stopher were used in this study. The data for 1933, 1934, and 1935 were not analyzed. This chart represents changes of great importance in the staffs of the teachers colleges. Chart V represents the trends in expenditure for library books and periodicals during the past years. This chart is particularly interesting because it shows the results of diminishing budgets upon essential expenditures in connection with the library. The data on salaries furnished on a special questionnaire are analyzed on Chart VI. TABLE I— OBJECTIVE INFORMATION TO ACCOMPANY CHART OF PERCENTILE STANDINGS, 1935-36 (See chart of percentile standings, 1935-36, for explanation of the Roman numerals.) Values of percentiles on chart for 1935-36 # Objective data for individual schools Item 25th percentile Median 75th percentile Item Value I .259 .365 .555 I .912 II • 26% 0% 0% II 0% II 1(a) 124 128 128 III (a) 124 III (b) .014S .002 0 III (b) 0 IV 5.23 5.45 5.61 IV 5.61 V(a) 13.97 13.32 12.76 V(a) 13.45 V(b) 25.09 19.69 17.30 V(b) 21 .53 VI 90 hrs. 100 hrs. 135 hrs. VI 90 hrs. VIII 67% 83% 100% VIII 83% IX $2.66 $3.61 $5.45 IX $3 . 77 XI (a) $202 .81 $258.30 $336.71 XI (a) $256.31 XI(b) $92.74 $46.38 $26.16 XI(b) $43 . 46 XI(c) $.51 $4.02 $10.30 XI (c) $.93 XI(d) $.84 $2.64 $6.59 XI (d) $22.43 XI (e) $11.07 $13.96 $15.80 XI (e) $16.87 # Data for Chart I. 648 National Education Association CHART I PERCENT/LE STANDINGS, 1935-56. I. Ratios of enrolments of final and first years. II. Percentage of non-high school graduates in total enrolment. Ill (a). Number of semester hours required for bachelor’s degree. Ill ( b ) . Ratio of number of students carrying more than eighteen semester hours to total enrolment. IV. Weighted score for faculty preparation. V(a). Average teaching load of college faculty in hours per week. V(b). Student-teacher ratio. VI. Minimum amount of student teaching required in four-year course. VIII. Percent of following health facilities available: (a) provision for medical examination, (b) medical examination each year, (c) correction of defects, (d) hospitalization, (e) doctor and/or nurse, and (f) health courses re¬ quired of all students. IX. Expenditure for library books and periodicals, per capita. XI(a). Expenditure for operation, per capita. XI (b). Student fees, per capita. XI (c). Loans available, per capita. XI (d). Loans and scholarships granted, per capita. XI (e). Federal grants, per capita. Department of Teachers Colleges 649 CHART II Student-Teacher Ratio - isV percentiles - MEDIANS . 2Sr-h PERCENTILES - ONE INSTITUTION 650 National Education Association CHART III Teacher Load in Hours per Week - 75 1* percentiles - MED/ A /VS . 25 & PEDC E/ZT/L £ S - O/VE //vsr/rc/T/o/v / 936 Department of Teachers Colleges 651 CHART IV Faculty Preparation - MINIMUM N£OU//?£M£NT - 75 f-h P£NC£NTIL£S - MEDIANS . 2S'-P£DCENT/LES - ONE JNSr/TL/T/ON Values Used in Determination of W eighted Scores Doctors . 7 Masters . 5 60 Hours of graduate Bachelors . 4 credit . 6 No degree . 2 /93b 652 National Education Association CHART V Expenditures for Library Books and Periodicals, Per Capita - MEDIANS . ZS tt> PERCENTILES - ONE INSTITUTION Co r- r- o ^ Department of Teachers Colleges 653 CHART VI Average Salary 654 National Education Association AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS COLLEGES LIST OF ACCREDITED INSTITUTIONS— 1937-38 Longest curriculum which has been approved indicated in number of years before each institution. The Association does not attempt to accredit graduate work. The Roman numerals refer to standards not fully met by the institution. Location Institution President Alabama Florence . 4/State Teachers College . H. J. Willingham Jacksonville . . . . 4/State Teachers College . C. W. Daugette Livingston . 4/State Teachers College . N. F. Greenhill Troy . 4/State Teachers College . M. D. Pace Arizona Flagstaff . 4/Arizona State Teachers College. . T. J. Tormey Tempe . 4/Arizona State Teachers College, V. Grady Gammage Arkansas Arkadelphia 4/Henderson State Teachers College. . J. P. Womack Conway . 4/Arkansas State Teachers College. H. L. McAlister California Fresno . 4/Fresno State College . Frank W. Thomas San Diego . 4/San Diego State College . Walter R. Hepner San Francisco . . 4/San Francisco State College . A. C. Roberts Santa Barbara . 4/Santa Barbara State College . C. L. Phelps Colorado Greeley . 4/Colorado State College of Education George W. Frasier Gunnison . 4/Western State College . C. C. Casey Connecticut New Haven 3/Teachers College of Connecticut, New Haven Unit, VIII F. E. Engleman, Prin District of cipal Columbia Washington . . . . 4/Miner Teachers College . E. A. Clark Washington . . 4/Wilson Teachers College . E. C. Higbie Georgia Collegeboro . . . 4/South Georgia Teachers College, IX Marvin S. Pittman Milledgeville . . 4/Georgia State College for Women, IV . Guy H. Wells Illinois Carbondale . . . . 4/Southern Illinois State Normal Uni- versity . Roscoe Pulliam Charleston . 4/Eastern Illinois State Teachers Col- lege . Robert G. Buzzard Chicago . 3/Chicago Normal College, IV . Verne 0. Graham DeKalb . . 4/Northern Illinois State Teachers Col- lege . Karl L. Adams Macomb . 4/Western Illinois State Teachers Col- lege . W. P. Morgan Normal . 4/Illinois State Normal University. . . . R. W. Fairchild Department of Teachers Colleges 655 Location Indiana Indianapolis . . . Muncie . Terre Haute . . . Iowa Cedar Falls Kansas Emporia . Hays . Pittsburg . Wichita . Kentucky Bowling Green . . Bowling Green . . Morehead . Murray . Richmond . Louisiana Lafayette . Natchitoches . . . Maryland Towson . Michigan Detroit . Kalamazoo Marquette . Mt. Pleasant . . . Ypsilanti . Minnesota Bemidji . Duluth . Mankato . Moorhead . St. Cloud . Winona . Mississippi Cleveland . Hattiesburg Missouri Cape Girardeau . Kansas City . Kirksville . Institution 4/College of Education, Butler Univer¬ sity . 4/Ball State Teachers College . 4/Indiana State Teachers College. .. 4/Iowa State Teachers College 4/Kansas State Teachers College.... 4/Fort Hays Kansas State College. . . . 4/Kansas State Teachers College.. 4/College of Education, University of Wichita . 4/Bowling Green College of Commerce, XI . 4/Western Kentucky State Teachers College . . 4/Morehead State Teachers College.. 4/Murray State Teachers College. . . . 4/Eastern Kentucky State Teachers College . 4/College of Education, Southwestern Louisiana Institute . 4/Louisiana State Normal College. . . 4/State Teachers College, IV 4/Teachers College, Wayne University 4/Western State Teachers College . 4/Northern State Teachers College . . 4/Central State Teachers College. .. 4/Michigan State Normal School 4/State Teachers College, IX 4/State Teachers College 4/State Teachers College. . . 4/State Teachers College . . . 4/State Teachers College. . . . 4/State Teachers College . 4/Delta State Teachers College 4/State Teachers College . 4/Southeast Missouri State Teachers College . 4/Teachers College of Kansas City. . . 4/Northeast Missouri State Teachers College . President W. L. Richardson, Dean L. A. Pittenger Ralph N. Tirey O. R. Latham Thomas W. Butcher C. E. Rarick W. A. Brandenburg Leslie B. Sipple, Dean J. L. Harman H. H. Cherry Harvey A. Babb James H. Richmond H. L. Donovan W. S. Dearmont, Dean A. A. Fredericks Lida Lee Tall W. E. Lessenger, Dean Paul V. Sangren W. H. Pearce E. C. Warriner J. M. Munson M. W. Deputy E. W. Bohannon Frank D. McElroy R. B. MacLean Geo. A. Selke G. E. Maxwell W. M. Kethley J. B. George W. W. Parker G. W. Diemer Eugene Fair 656 National Education Association Location Institution M aryville . 4 Northwest Missouri State Teachers College . St. Louis . 4 Harris Teachers College . St. Louis . 4 Stowe Teachers College, IV . Springfield .... 4 Southwest Missouri State Teachers College . . Warrensburg . . 4 Central Missouri State Teachers Col¬ lege, VIII . Montana Dillon . 4/Montana State Normal College.... Nebraska Chadron . 4 Nebraska State Teachers College. . . Kearney . 4 Nebraska State Teachers College... Peru . 4 Nebraska State Teachers College... Wayne . 4 Nebraska State Teachers College. . . New Hampshire Keene . 4 State Plymouth . 4 State New Jersey Jersey City .... 4/State Newark . 4 State Trenton . 4 State L'pper Montclair 4 State New Mexico Las Vegas . 4 New Silver City .... 4/New New York Albany . 4/State Buffalo . 4 ' State Fredonia . 3/State Geneseo . 3 /State New Paltz . 3 ./State Normal School, IV Normal School .... Normal School, IX . Normal School . Teachers College . Teachers College . Mexico Normal University... Mexico State Teachers College College for Teachers . Teachers College . Normal School . Normal School . Normal School, VIII . New York . 4. School of Education, College of the City of New York . Oneonta . 3/State Normal School, IV . Oswego 3 State Normal School Potsdam 3 State Normal School, IV North Carolina Asheville . 4/Asheville Normal and Teachers Col¬ lege . . Cullowhee . 4 Western Carolina Teachers College, IX . Greenville . 4/East Carolina Teachers College.... President Uel W. Lamkin C. G. Vannest, Princi¬ pal J. Arthur Turner, Chairman in Charge Roy Ellis E. L. Hendricks Sheldon E. Davis Robert I. Elliott Herbert L. Cushing W. R. Pate J. T. Anderson Wallace E. Mason Ernest L. Silver Roy L. Shaffer, Princi¬ pal M. Ernest Townsend Roscoe L. West H. A. Sprague H. C. Gossard H. W. James A. R. Brubacher Harry W. Rockwell L. R. Gregory, Princi¬ pal James B. Welles, Prin¬ cipal L. H. van den Berg, Principal Paul Klapper, Dean Charles W. Hunt, Principal R. W. SwTetman, Prin¬ cipal R. T. Congdon, Prin¬ cipal John E. Calfee H. T. Hunter Leon R. Meadows Department of Teachers Colleges 657 Location Institution North Dakota Dickinson . +/State Teachers College . Ellendale . 4/State Normal and Industrial School Mayville . 4/State Teachers College . Minot . 4/State Teachers College . Valley City . 4/State Teachers College . Ohio Bowling Green . . 4/Bowling Green State University Cleveland . 4/School of Education, Western Re¬ serve University . Cleveland . 3/Sisters College, VII . Kent . 4/Kent State University . Oxford . 4/School of Education, Miami Univer¬ sity . Wilmington .... 4/Wilmington College, XI . Oklahoma Ada . 4/East Central State Teachers College Alva . 4/Northwestern State Teachers Col¬ lege, VI, VII . Durant . 4/Southeastern State Teachers College, VI . Edmond . 4/Central State Teachers College . Tahlequah . 4/Northeastern State Teachers College Weatherford . . . 4/Southwestern State Teachers College Oregon La Grande . 2/Eastern Oregon Normal School.... Monmouth . 2/Oregon Normal School, IV . Pennsylvania Bloomsburg .... 4/State Teachers College . California . 4/State Teachers College . Clarion . 4/State Teachers College . East Stroudsburg 4/State Teachers College . Edinboro . 4/State Teachers College . Indiana . 4/State Teachers College . Kutztown . 4/State Teachers College . Lock Haven ... 4/State Teachers College . Mansfield . 4/State Teachers College . Millersville . . 4/State Teachers College . Shippensburg ... 4/State Teachers College . Slippery Rock .. 4/State Teachers College . WestChester ... 4/State Teachers College . South Dakota Aberdeen . 4/Northern State Teachers College Madison . 2/Eastern State Normal School, IV. . . Spearfish . 2/State Normal School . ^Springfield . 2/Southern State Normal School . Tennessee Johnson City ... 4/State Teachers College President H. O. Pippin J. C. McMillan C. C. Swain G. A. McFarland J. Frederick Weltzin H. B. Williams H. N. Irwin, Dean John R. Hagan, Direc¬ tor J. O. Engleman E. J. Ashbaugh, Dean Walter L. Collins A. Linscheid E. E. Brown Kate Galt Zaneis John O. Moseley John Vaughan W. W. Isle H. E. Inlow J. A. Churchill Francis B. Haas Robert M. Steele G. C. L. Riemer T. T. Allen Carmon Ross M. J. Walsh, Acting Q. A. W. Rohrbach Dallas W. Armstrong A. T. Belknap, Acting Landis Tanger A. L. Rowland Charles S. Miller Charles S. Swope C. G. Lawrence V. A. Lowrv E. C. Woodburn W. A. Thompson C. C. Sherrod * Subject to reinspection. 658 National Education Association Location Institution President Memphis . 4/State Teachers College . J. W. Brister Murfreesboro . . 4/State Teachers College . P. A. Lyon Nashville . 4/Tennessee Agricultural & Industrial State Teachers College . W. J. Hale Texas Alpine . 4/Sul Ross State Teachers College . . H. W. Morelock Canyon . 4/West Texas State Teachers College J. A. Hill Commerce . 4/East Texas State Teachers College S. H. Whitley Denton . 4/North Texas State Teachers College W. J. McConnell Huntsville . 4/Sam Houston State Teachers College H. F. Estill Nacogdoches . . . 4/Stephen F. Austin State Teachers College, VIII . A. W. Birdwell San Marcos .... 4/Southwest Texas State Teachers Col- lege, VIII . C. E. Evans Utah Salt Lake City.. 4/School of Education, University of Utah . Milton Bennion, Dean Virginia East Radford . . . 4/State Teachers College . J. P. McConnell Farmville . 4/State Teachers College . J. L. Jarman Fredericksburg . 4/State Teachers College . M. L. Combs Harrisonburg . . 4/State Teachers College . S. P. Duke Washington Bellingham .... 4/Western Washington College of Edu- cation . C. H. Fisher Cheney . 4/Eastern Washington College of Edu- cation R. T. Hargreaves Ellensburg . 4/Central Washington College of Edu- cation, IV . R. E. McConnell West Virginia Athens . 4/Concord State Teachers College . . J. F. Marsh Fairmont . 4/Fairmont State Teachers College . Joseph Rosier Glenville . 4/Glenville State Teachers College. . . E. G. Rohrbough Huntington .... 4/Marshall College . J. E. Allen Shepherdstown 4/Shepherd State Teachers College. . . W. H. S. White Wisconsin Eau Claire . 4/State Teachers College . H. A. Schofield La Crosse . 4/State Teachers College . G. M. Snodgrass Menomonie .... 4/The Stout Institute . B. E. Nelson Milwaukee . 4/State Teachers College, IV . Frank E. Baker Oshkosh . 4/State Teachers College . Forrest R. Polk Platteville . 4/State Teachers College, IV . A. M. Royce River Falls .... 4/State Teachers College . J. H. Ames Stevens Point . . 4/Central State Teachers College .. F. S. Hyer Superior . 4/State Teachers College, IV, VIII . . J. D. Hill Whitewater .... 4/State Teachers College, IV, VIII C. M. Yoder Department of Visual Instruction HISTORICAL NOTE The department of visual instruction was organized at the Oakland San Francisco meeting in July 1923. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-38 are: president, Rupert Peters , Director of Visual Instruction , Public Schools, Kansas City, Mo.; first vicepresident, Edgar Dale, College of Education, Ohio State U niversity, Columbus. Ohio; second vicepresident, Rita Hoch- hc'imcr, Acting Director of Visual Instruction, Public Schools, New York. X. Y .; executive committee, Robert Collier, South High School. Dower, Colo.; Marian Evans, Director, Visual Instruction, Public Schools, San Diego, Calif.; William H. Dudley, Director, Dudley Visual Education Service, 746 South Wabash Avenue, Chicago, III.; J. E. Hanson, Director, Bureau of Visual Instruction, University of Wisconsin, Madison, JVis.; H. A. Henderson, Butler University, Indian¬ apolis, Ind. This Department meets once each year, in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follozos: 1923 : 85- A 1924 :963-985 1925 -.864-871 19 26:949-963 1927 \951-970 1928 -.949-970 1929:937-944 1930:911-930 1931 :947-963 1932 ‘.787-800 1933 -.779-795 1934 -.777-788 1935 -.719-726 19 36:619-620 OVERVIEW OF DETROIT’S VISUAL PROGRAM MANLEY E. IRWIN, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF INSTRUCTION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, DETROIT, MICH. The department of Visual Education of the Detroit public schools was organized in 1918, with approximately 7000 slides and two schools using films. The policy of purchasing films and equipment was soon established, and the training of teachers was begun. Today we have one of the largest slide and film libraries in the nation. The Department has expanded and changed its name to the Department of Visual and Auditory Education. Detroit has engaged in a number of experimental studies within the school system, and has followed closely the research findings of others in determining the subjectmatter and methods to be employed in its visual edu¬ cation program. Definite standards have been set up and adhered to in selecting pictures, films, equipment, charts, models, etc. The Detroit teachers believe that instruction by visual aids can be used in five ways: (1) as a means of stimulation; (2) as a means of integration; (3) as a means of disseminating information; (4) as a means of summarizing other classroom experiences; and (5) as a means of evaluating motion pictures and talkies and of appreciating the great historical films which are presented to the public. In carrying out this program, practically every phase of the school cur¬ riculum has been reenforced by visual aids. No course of study is prepared which does not list with each of its units the visual aids supplied by the Department of Visual and Auditory Education, the Children’s Museum, and other cooperating agencies. These, with textbooks and supplementary materials, are a part of our references. The radio is closely allied with the program of visual education. There are 254 radios in the schools. A number of programs are prepared by the Depart¬ ment of Radio Education and are broadcast directly into the schools. The radio programs are as carefully and accurately prepared as the motion picture programs and any others which include visual and sensory aids. THE IMMEDIATE NEEDS IN VISUAL EDUCATION F. DEAN MCCLUSKY, DIRECTOR, SCARBOROUGH SCHOOL, SCARBOROUGH, N. Y. No educational movement in recent years has been characterized by so much experimentation as has visual instruction. We have made enough re¬ search to prove its value. It is apparent that the greatest need is to shift the emphasis in visual education from the experimental basis to that of practical application. Such a change presents five problems of pressing need if visual education is to fulfil its important mission. 1 661 1 662 National Education Association In the first place, a number of demonstration schools or centers should be created in public and private schools of the country in which a thorogoing, continuous demonstration of visual instruction in daily classroom use could be exhibited. Each of these demonstration schools should fully equip every classroom with all of the recognized visual-sensory materials which are necessary for a systematic instructional program. The demonstration centers should be geographically located so that teachers, principals, and school- boards could benefit by visiting the centers and seeing the work close at hand. A second step which should be taken is the blue-printing by educators of the areas in the school subjects which can best be taught by the use of visual materials. This should be undertaken by a foundation which would finance the bringing together of educators to accomplish this task. If this Depart¬ ment were to do no other thing than to make it possible for such a group to function, it would be making a real contribution which, alone, would justify its existence. A third immediate need in visual instruction is that of the establishment of an unbiased and independent clearing-house of information such as would be regarded as authentic and reliable by teachers and commercial interests alike. Here again is a job for a foundation. A fourth pressing need is the recognition, on the part of those in the com¬ mercial field of visual instruction, that large sums of money and profits are not to be made at the expense of American education thru the making and selling of visual materials to the schools of the nation. The fifth and last immediate need in visual instruction is the development of a spirit of cooperation between commercial and educational interests. If by some medium this cooperation could be secured and the now scattered efforts unified, visual instruction would come into its own and would become a major force in American education. COMPLETE LEARNING THRU VISUAL AIDS IN PHYSICS O. S. ANDERSON, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, FARGO, N. DAK. The discussion given herewith will not pertain entirely to the subject of physics, for we know without question that physics is not the only subject for which there is need of more complete learning. Today many gaps are left in our presentation of subjectmatter. The individual student is left to conjecture for himself. This is not the fault of educators or of any one par¬ ticular group. Rather is it true because there is more to be learned than a decade ago and because society demands more of the learner. There is one solution to this problem — the use of visual aids to cover more thoroly a greater amount of work and make for greater efficiency. There are some things which can be taught in a few minutes with the use of pictures which might take a week by the regular classroom procedure. The advantages to be gained thru the use of visual-sensory aids cannot be denied much longer if we are to keep up with the changing world. Department of Visual Instruction 663 We must first recognize some general outline of approach to the subject. The value and use of visual aids in physics as well as in any other subject can be guided by six essential points as follows: (1) resourcefulness of the teacher; (2) knowledge of the use of visual-sensory aids; (3) systematic planning of each semester’s work; (4) knowledge of contents of visual- sensory aids to be used; (5) classroom situation set-up; and (6) application of contents of visual-sensory aids to subjectmatter. LANTERN SLIDE TECHNIC IN GEOGRAPHY INSTRUCTION VILLA B. SMITH, LECTURER IN GEOGRAPHY, WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY, CLEVELAND, OHIO Pictures and maps in lantern slide form are essential tools in geography instruction. Since they have contributions to make that are as essential as those of the printed page, there is great need to practise a technic which will make them function effectively. Under guidance, the child should find and recognize the facts of the map or picture and should acquire skill in using these facts in geographic thinking. He should not only recognize map symbols but should interpret and translate them into actual landscapes. He should find the picture a substitute for reality and thru it he should experience, vicariously, many of the things met in actual travel. Such directions as “study the picture” or “look at the picture” are out of place in modern class procedure. These directions assume that the child instinctively knows what to look for in a picture and how to use the information found. The ability to read a picture is acquired only under care¬ ful guidance. In pictures of high geographic quality there are two types of studies to be recognized: (1) those that pertain to man and his activities, and (2) those that pertain to nature. The recognition step must be followed by that of in¬ terpretation, which calls for the finding of the relationships that exist between man and his natural environment. In the elementary school, interpretation consists largely in finding the simple reasons that help explain what man is doing. Lantern slide technic does not differ radically from that of other picture or map technics. The slide places the map or picture before the entire group. It brings the entire group to the same place at the same time, and easily focuses attention upon specific things. It introduces new ideas. It provides opportunity for recognition and interpretation of map and picture facts. With proper technic, it gives all pupils definite concepts. It provides means for effective guidance. By building vocabulary and developing ideas, it points the way to more purposeful reading and a clearer understanding of the printed page. The low cost, convenience, and flexibility of the lantern slide commend it as a geographic tool worthy of more careful consideration. 664 National Education Association THE TEACHING OF WILD LIFE NEAR HOME FRANK S. GEHR, HIGH SCHOOL, YONKERS, N. Y. In my travels with camera and flashlight in the woods and fields near home I have found that Mother Nature has been kind and that all of her little subjects found there have been more than willing to pose for me. Night is the most interesting time for nature photographs if one wishes to have thrills and pictures that are considered by most people as impossible to obtain. All girls and boys of school age have a vast store of the hunting instinct. With a little coaching this can be of great help in the schoolroom. On their hikes during summer vacations the children may learn much of the great outdoors, and with a little patience they may secure interesting and helpful pictures that can later be used in the classroom. When a child, while on some trip, is able to secure a nature picture of a little wild friend he is always ready and willing to show it and to tell how and where it was procured. After making a study of the subject he is able to explain the value which he and others may derive from it. Four phases of hunting must be employed in the photographing and studying of any outdoor subject: (1) where and how to find the subject; (2) how to photograph it; (3) what value it is to man; and (4) its natural habits. The last two may be explained in the form of composition and thus, by combining English and science, may aid us in advancing our modern integrated program. A camera club can develop methods of taking nature pictures. The com¬ bination of the camera and nature work is a medium for gaining helpful information, and is an incentive for health-giving hikes. It is very easy to talk about what a club can do with nature study but it is not easy to start one. However, it is possible to start such a club and work around a small nucleus until plans are formulated which will meet the demands and de¬ sires of presentday education. In other words, the members of the group may be allowed to get some plans of their own under way and then be guided to build upon them in the direction the instructor wishes. There is no limit to what the work can be made to produce in data, pictures, and objective material for many school subjects. SEEKING NEW EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES THRU THE USE OF FILMS EDGAR DALE, COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO Writers and educators have pointed out the gap that exists between our best scientific knowledge and our ability to apply it. There are several reasons why education has not solved this problem of cultural lag: 1. The unprecedented increase in school enrolment has emphasized administrative rather than educational problems. Department of Visual Instruction 665 2. Much of presentday education is verbalistic and quickly forgotten. 3. We have stressed passivity in learning rather than an active grappling with modern problems. 4. We have depended upon a cold intellectualism and have failed to humanize current problems. 5. The educational theory persists that to pass on a portion of the accumulated knowledge of the past is sufficient, in spite of the fact that we have no consistent standard for selecting that portion; emphasis upon the past is no guide for a changing future; and the theory is based upon a conception of education as a cold- storage product to be used when needed. To close the gap between our scientific knowledge and its application we should show our young people graphically how that application can be made ; we should not only present modern problems but should interpret them ; we should humanize our information and make it functional in the lives of our students. These ends may be accomplished better by means of the motion picture than in any other way, because, thru the motion picture it is possible to reconstruct significant past experience, to record present experience, and to develop sensitivity to modern social and economic problems. Our educational films have, to date, been inadequate. In our film program we have followed typical school standards, dispensing facts without integrat¬ ing them with the social scene. Our objectives have been too largely informa¬ tional. A film on automobiles will show every technical process, but not the effect of mass production on the worker ; a film on electricity will demon¬ strate electrical equipment and fail to point out how few homes are equipped with electric lights. We need films to picture the social significance of these modern devices and the problems they involve. We need to vitalize such subjects as the application of the scientific method ; the continuity of the laboring process; public health and socialized medicine; taxation — national, state, and local ; the resources, human and material, of the different states. In our attempts to use films we have merely tried to improve established educational practise. This may be commendable when our efforts in the past have been in the right direction ; but we should not try to do better with films what ought not to be done at all. Let us not use films for the purpose of securing unrelated, unintegrated increments of knowledge. A constructive film program could be paid for in a number of ways. Ohio raises $60,000 a year thru a tax on censored films ; ten cents from every school child in the country would bring in more than two and one-half million dollars ; a library of excellent films could be collected if organizations such as the League of Women Voters, service clubs, trade unions, and religious groups made but one excellent film each. From a social point of view, a good film program, even if it were only 5 percent efficient in cor¬ recting social abuses, would pay for itself. 666 National Education Association TEACHER PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATIONAL FILM PRODUCTION CHARLES A. GRAMET, CHAIRMAN OF BIOLOGY AND GENERAL SCIENCE, FRANKLIN K. LANE HIGH SCHOOL, BROOKLYN, N. Y. Teaching films differ from educational films as popularly defined in that they must be applicable to situations that are provided in the curriculums of the schools and they must contribute in a definite way to educational ob¬ jectives. While there is considerable incidental and supplementary learning from all motion pictures, those that are designed for classroom use must make a specific contribution. Teachers stand in a unique relationship between the ultimate consumer of the teaching film — the school child — and the producer. Society has charged teachers with the responsibility of guiding the learning and the de¬ velopment of desirable attitudes, interests, appreciations, and loyalties of children. Teachers should, therefore, be consulted as to the educational needs of schools with respect to picture materials. The knowledge, technics and skills necessary for film production are prob¬ ably possessed by few teachers today. There are some who have learned them at their own expense and effort. The abilities of these teachers may be utilized in two ways for the improvement of teaching films. Commercial producers may use them as consultants and advisers. Schools may provide them with facilities for producing pictures that are needed but which commercial pro¬ ducers may not find it profitable to produce. RESOLUTIONS Resolved, That the Visual Instruction Department of the National Education Association hereby expresses its appreciation and gratitude to the Convention Bureau for the exceedingly satisfactory, pleasant, and convenient headquarters and meeting places provided; to the Detroit News for the courtesies extended thru the use of the WWJ Broadcasting Studio for its meetings and for the notably efficient service ren¬ dered by its entire staff; to the Detroit schools for the gracious courtesies extended thru its system, the inspiration given by Superintendent Frank Cody, and the exceed¬ ingly efficient services rendered by W. W. Whittingill and his staff in handling all details of local arrangements; and to the generosity of those individuals and organi¬ zations who so kindly provided and operated projection equipment at our meetings. Whereas, Nelson Greene has for many years devoted untiring efforts and given generously his time and energy to the cause of visual instruction and the work of this Department and has, during the past two years, served as the president of the Department and in that capacity' has worked without stint and given the utmost of his outstanding ability to the growth and welfare and accomplishment of the Depart¬ ment, therefore, Be It Resolved, That we extend to him our sincere gratitude and deep appreciation for the most efficient performance of the duties of his office, the excellent work he has accomplished, and the outstanding results which have been attained under his leadership. Resolved, That the Department of Visual Instruction hereby extends to the Educa¬ tional Screen, its editor, Nelson Greene, Evelyn Baker, and other members of its staff, its sincere thanks for their efficient and helpful services to the work of the Department and in aiding in the success of the meetings of the year. Department of Visual Instruction 667 Whereas, Economy, simplicity, availability of materials, and safety from fire hazards justify the use of 16 mm. motion pictures as a standard for instructional use, therefore, Be It Resolved, That the use of 16 mm. motion pictures be considered as standard for educational purposes. Whereas, There is urgent need in the Visual Instruction field for standard termi¬ nology, therefore, Be It Resolved, That a committee of three members of this Department be ap¬ pointed by the Executive Committee to prepare and submit to the Executive Commit¬ tee a list of terms generally used in this field that may comprise a standard glossary of visual instruction terms. Resolved, That the Department of Visual Instruction strongly advocates that boards of education provide in their annual budgets adequate appropriation for visual- auditory equipment, materials, and supplies, and for the salaries of personnel en¬ gaged in the work of visual-auditory instruction. Whereas, The Safety Committee of the Automotive Industry has made a grant to the New York metropolitan branch of the Department of Visual Instruction of the National Education Association for the production of a silent motion picture on child safety in traffic for elementary grades and its national distribution, free of cost to the users, and Whereas, The Executive Committee of the Visual Instruction Department has approved of the production and national distribution, free to schools, of said film on child safety in traffic, for elementary grades, as a presentation of this Department, under the supervision of the New York metropolitan branch, and Whereas, The New York metropolitan branch has, under said grant, had the film produced under its supervision and arranged for its free national distribution, and Whereas, The said film has been completed and submitted to this Department for approval, and Whereas, A full accounting of the expenditure of the grant for the production and distribution of this picture has been made, therefore, Be It Resolved, That the Department hereby compliment the New York metropoli¬ tan branch for its excellent work and approve of the film as a presentation of this Department, and Be It Further Resolved, That the Department hereby expresses to the Safety Com¬ mittee of the Automotive Industry its appreciation for the grant which has made possible the accomplishment of this project, and Be It Further Resolved, That copies of these resolutions be sent to the Safety Com¬ mittee of the Automotive Industry and to the New York metropolitan branch of this Department. Resolved, That a committee of this Department be appointed by the president to set up and submit to the Executive Committee standards and requisites for the ap¬ proval by the Department of any educational motion picture production or production project hereafter submitted to it for approval, said standards and requirements, when accepted by the Executive Committee, to become the policy of the Department with reference to the approval of such production or production project. Resolved, That the Department of Visual Instruction urges the wider dissemina¬ tion of accurate information concerning the proper educational use of visual-auditory materials and that teacher-training institutions, in particular, give greater attention to the problem of training prospective teachers and teachers in service in the skilful use of these materials. Whereas, The Visual Instruction Department deplores the indiscriminate use of motion pictures in the school, therefore, Be It Resolved, That it urges greater attention be given by the schools toward securing and using only those motion pictures which are suited to the mental and maturity levels of pupils, and Be It Further Resolved, That the Department recommends that greater care be taken to distinguish more clearly between motion pictures used for specific classroom 668 National Education Association purposes and those more general motion pictures useful for auditorium or assembly activities. Resolved, That the Department of Visual Instruction suggests that greater atten¬ tion be given by its members to the functions of the Department as a clearing-house of information on visual-auditory materials and instructional methods, and Be It Further Resolved, That the Department recommends that its members survey the possibilities of developing local, state, and regional groups for better achieving the purposes of this organization, and that they make their findings available to the Executive Committee, and Be It Further Resolved, That the Executive Committee explore the possibility of giving additional services and benefits to members in order to increase the size and effectiveness of the organization. Whereas, The Department of Visual Instruction considers that visual aids should possess the following characteristics: (1) they should be accurate and authentic as to factual content; (2) they should be pedagogically suited to the groups or grade levels for which they are designed; and (3) they should be technically and artis¬ tically of a high order; therefore, Be It Resolved, That this Department urge upon all producers of visual aids the necessity for effective collaboration of subjectmatter specialists, of practical class¬ room teachers or supervisors, and of competent production technicians, and Be It Further Resolved, That a standing committee, to be known as the Committee on Standards of Visual Materials, be appointed by the Executive Committee and that its first duties shall be the setting up of standards of instructional motion pictures. DEPARTMENT OF Vocational Education HISTORICAL NOTE The department of vocational education was organized as the in¬ dustrial section at Minneapolis , Minnesota, 1875. See proceedings, 1875:100. The name zoos changed in 1890 to the Department of Indus¬ trial and Manual Training. See proceedings, 1890:758. In 1899 the name zoos changed to the Department of Manual Training. See proceed¬ ings, 1899:556. In 1914 the name zuas changed to the Department of Vocational Training and Practical Arts. Since 1919 it has been knozvn as the Department of J'ocational Education. This Department cooperates with the National J'ocational Guidance Association and zi Itli the National Society for Vocational Education. The officers of the Department for the year 1937-38 are: president. Earl Bedell , Director of JNcational Education, Public Schools , Detroit, Mich.: secretary, Irene Hickey, Director, Home Economics, Detroit City Gas Company, Detroit, Mich. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are to be found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follozvs: 1914 : 565-624 1915 :815-846 1916 -.461-516 1917 -.431-473 1918 -.249-269 1919 -.271-279 1920 : 269- 270 1921 : 851- 858 1922 -.1465-1483 1923 -.1025-1043 1924: 987-1015 1925: 872- 912 19 26:964- 996 19 27 -.971-1006 19 28:971-1003 1929:945- 972 1930:931- 954 1931 :965- 994 1932:801-815 1933 -.797-806 1934 -.789-798 1935 -.727-734 1936 -.621-628 [ 670 ] BUSINESS BEHAVIOR— CHARACTER TRAINING THRU DIRECT METHODS RAY ABRAMS, PRINCIPAL, JOSEPH A. MAYBIN SCHOOL FOR GRADUATES, NEW ORLEANS, LA. IN A study made in 1932 on “Success Factors of Leaders of Business in New Orleans,” answers were given which showed the functioning of char¬ acter traits in business relationships. Not only did business leaders of that city acknowledge that the moralities when applied in their business lives brought with them a measure of success but they also placed emphasis on the fact that their employees must possess certain standards and traits which would function favorably in their business contacts. The 1927 study made by John M. Brewer, “Causes for Discharge,” shows clearly that under lack of skill or technical knowledge, the greatest single reason for discharge is incompetencv, yet the total number of dis¬ charges due to lack of skill is 34.2 percent while lack of social understanding (lack of character traits functioning) accounts for 62.4 percent. A study made in 1935 by H. Chandler Hunt shows that a lack of definite character traits is responsible for discharges and failures to win promotion to an even higher degree than does the Brewer study. With these tests as bases, we are justified in believing that in preparing students for business activities, in addition to stressing efficiency of per¬ formance and the development of business intelligence, we must include in our objectives the cultivation of agreeable habits of personal behavior, of acceptable attitudes, and of approved business outlooks. It is not enough that such training should be given indirectly or incidentally. The results we hope to achieve have been clearly indicated by the demands business makes on employees. The goal is definite — the approach must be definite also. In the direct approach to character training thru business behavior, it will be necessary to find : the typical business situation, involving personal rela¬ tionship problems, which confront the employee in store or office work; the types of behavior which are acceptable in these contacts; and the code of ethics which business demands of its employees. With such knowledge accum¬ ulated, the following become the student’s objectives : to acquire the ability to judge for himself whether his own behavior habits are agreeable and ac¬ ceptable; to change his unacceptable behavior patterns to conform to ac¬ ceptable standards; to employ the attitudes, traits, and outlooks which he needs that his character may function, develop, and integrate as he serves honestly, loyally and enthusiastically. To accomplish such results calls for the introducing into the classroom of vicarious experiences of the business world. It calls for student contacts with the business world, and the accumulation of a fund of information from first-hand sources about how business operates. It calls for the discussion of case-conference problems where the opinions of the individual may be in¬ i' 671 1 672 National Education Association fluenced by the best thinking of the group. It calls for character function¬ ing in facilitating the way of life. In actual business contacts our students will find a driving force, a com¬ pelling influence challenging them to live according to the plan which real business with its watchword of ‘‘Service” has set for them to follow. They will find the need for personal adjustment, for individual conformity, but, if they are strong, they need never find the necessity for the sacrificing of prin¬ ciple. They will then know the satisfaction of contributing their share to the welfare of humanity. THE JACKSONVILLE PLAN OF COOPERATIVE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION R. C. MARSHALL, SUPERINTENDENT OF JACKSONVILLE AND DUVAL COUNTY SCHOOLS, JACKSONVILLE, FLA. When we, as educators, think of the countless numbers of lives that are' touched thru our daily association, can anything be more gratifying than to feel that we have had a part in assisting boys and girls to receive high-school training, and upon the day of graduation see them go forth with assurance because of having been most fittingly prepared to take their places in the business world ? Surely, no greater satisfaction, no richer reward, can be realized ! Vocational guidance in our senior high schools owes its existence to the conception of education as a cooperative enterprise, incumbent upon both the general public and the school authorities. Our community as a training center and faculty group, both vocational and academic, regards its particular contributions as integral parts of an arti¬ culate whole. The conception of education as a mediating and coordinating agency involves the idea of personnel work, permeating the entire educational system rather than crystallization in a specific department or office. An arrangement has been made with employees, parents, and school authorities which permits students from the three senior high schools to enter the various training agencies cooperating with the schools. There such stu¬ dents receive training in the occupation of their choice, under real conditions and without interference with the regular academic course required for high- school graduation. The objectives of the Jacksonville Plan are carefully laid out, and the result is that students who graduate under this program are able to enter the business world as experienced men and women. Or, if it is desired, they may enter college or other institutions of higher learning. A great deal of the success of this Plan is attributed to the splendid co¬ operation accorded it by many agencies in our city. Also, the services ren¬ dered by the coordinator, who is ably assisted by an adviser from each of the high schools, have been invaluable. The program has expanded gradually and successfully during the past three years, and the educational leaders are gratified to see a number of business establishments become equipped with employees who are more ef- Department of Vocational Education 673 ficient because of the high standards to which the cooperative students have adhered under the well-known Jacksonville Plan. Facts and figures show that this feature of education, from the standpoint of finances, has proved to be an asset rather than a liability to the Board of Public Instruction. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN APPRENTICESHIP TRAINING WILLIAM F. PATTERSON, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, FEDERAL COMMITTEE ON APPRENTICE TRAINING, WASHINGTON, D. C. I wish to state that there never has been a uniform national apprenticeship system. I do not mean to say that there have not been individual apprentice¬ ship set-ups. Those of us in vocational work are familiar with such systems, carried on by employers or by labor unions. A sound type of apprenticeship was maintained in most of these systems, for which their sponsors deserve much praise. When the depresssion came many of them were abandoned, however, since employers could not be expected to indenture new apprentices when conditions required that many or all of their skilled workers be laid off. I should like to set forth certain causes for the present situation of appren¬ ticeship. Those who more clearly appreciate these causes recognize the tremendous importance of apprenticeship and consequently have taken vigor¬ ous steps to secure the development and application of accepted standards. It has been stated that the automatic machine is making the skilled work¬ man unnecessary. The inaccuracy of that statement can be shown at once by figures of the United States Office of Education, demonstrating that in the past two or three decades the need for skilled workers, both in numbers and in relation to the total number of all workers, has steadily risen. Another important factor contributing to the neglect of apprenticeship is the fact that in previous years an abundant supply of skilled workers came in from Europe, and, therefore, made unnecessary any large scale design for building skilled workers. Figures of the United States Immigration Bureau for the period 1912 to 1936 show that a predominant number of skilled work¬ men entered our country compared to those who left our shores. For the period mentioned there were 1,566,876 skilled workmen who entered whereas there were only 352,385 who emigrated, leaving a net increase in the skilled worker population over this period from immigration of 1,214,- 291. May I point out the significance of that figure in connection with the skilled worker situation? More than a million skilled workers from abroad were added to our working population ! American youth was deprived to this extent of the opportunity to prepare for the skilled trades. The situation practically made unnecessary the development of our own skilled workers. It is small wonder then, that little attention was given to apprenticeship. But the Immigration Laws of 1924 virtually put a stop to the influx of foreign skilled workers. I am sure that you will be surprised to know that, altho approximately 470,000 skilled workmen entered the United States 674 National Education Association from 1924 to 1931, from that time on skilled workers were actually leaving the United States in rather large numbers. During the last four years the numbers returning to foreign countries exceeded those entering by 25,831. In a word then, in addition to the fact that in the last four years there has been practically no apprentice training in the United States, we have actually lost more than 25,000 skilled workers thru emigration. It has been estimated that each year 4 percent of the total number of skilled workers (approxi¬ mately 6,000,000) die, become too old to work, or go into other employment. That figure would amount to approximately 1,200,000 men during the last five years. The job is now ours and ours alone. America must either look ahead to the training of adequate numbers of apprentices, or industry will be badly crippled for lack of skilled manpower. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION GEORGE E. MYERS, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. Among the most important factors that are influencing developments in industrial education today are later entrance into employment by youth and the consequent extension of schooling. Twenty years ago 59,000 employ¬ ment permits for boys and girls under sixteen years of age were in effect in New York City alone. Today, few youth find employment under eighteen years of age. Other factors are the shortage of skilled labor in many of the trades; such New Deal agencies as the CCC, WPA, and NYA; and a grooving popular approval of vocational education. As a result of these influences we find, first, that attendance at compulsory continuation schools has declined rapidly, the youth remaining in full-time schools. A new emphasis has been placed on apprenticeship, beginning later in the youth’s life than it did a generation ago and supervised by the school system. This apprenticeship is less formal and applies to a greater variety of occupations than in years past. It takes advantage of the best features of the “cooperative” form of vocational education which began nearly thirty years ago. Second, young people are now beginning their industrial education after a more extensive general education. For example, 60 percent of the 2000 students in the Frank Wiggins Trade School in Los Angeles are high-school graduates. Third, supervised correspondence study, started fifteen years ago by Super¬ intendent Mitchell of Benton Harbor, Michigan, has come to play an im¬ portant part in industrial education not only in the United States but also in Canada and Australia. It promises to be very useful in connection with supervised apprenticeship. Fourth, there is a growing recognition that vocational guidance is basic to industrial education, that it is wasteful to prepare young people for particular occupations without first making reasonably sure that they are suited to these occupations. Department of Vocational Education 675 And, fifth, is the fact that the doubling of federal aid for industrial edu¬ cation, which seems assured under the George-Deen Act, is in itself a very significant recent development. RESOLUTIONS 1. Whereas, The major attendance at the sessions of the Department of Vocational Education of the National Education Association is made up largely of those in the local community who cannot attend meetings at long distances from home, and ; 2. Whereas, Meetings of the American Vocational Association, National Educa¬ tion Association, and Association of American School Administrators and Adminis¬ trative Service (Department of Superintendence) come to given cities only at long intervals of time, and; 3. Whereas, The inspirational values of conventions may be spread over wider territory to reach those who cannot attend several such meetings, and; 4. Whereas, General classroom teachers and school administrators are not well informed concerning programs of vocational education, and ; 5. Whereas, There is great danger inherent to the education of our citizens in the growing tendency to separate general education from vocational education, and desir¬ ing to prevent the divorce of these two phases of the total education program, and; 6. Whereas, It would be most unfortunate to divide the leadership of vocational education between the American Vocational Association and those who may aspire to develop an independent group in the National Education Association; Be It Resolved: 1. That the American Vocational Association shall recognize its opportunity and responsibility to the Department of Vocational Education of the National Education Association since those attending are largely dues paying members of the American Vocational Association, and ; 2. That the American Vocational Association shall provide assistance and leader¬ ship in the formation of the program of the Department of Vocational Education at the conventions of the National Education Association, and the Association of Amer¬ ican School Administrators and Administrative Service, and; 3. That the American Vocational Association shall provide official representatives whose duty' it shall be to look after and promote vocational education at the National Education Association convention and Association of American School Administra¬ tors and Administrative Service. Committee on Resolutions: W. C. Geyer, Upper Darby, Pa. Raymond W. Hayes, Mt. Vernon, N. Y. Gerald Baysinger, Detroit, Mich. Frederick G. Leasure, Portland, Ore. Albert F. Siepert, Peoria, Ill. Earl L. Bedell, Detroit, Mich. ♦ • World Federation of Sducation Associations HISTORICAL NO T E The world federation of education associations was the outgrowth of a IV orld Conference on Education which zvas called by the Committee on Foreign Relations of the National Education Association to meet at San Francisco in July 1923. The first biennial meeting of the W orld Federation of Education Associations was held in Edinburgh, Scotland, in July 1925. The second biennial conference zvas held in Toronto, Canada, in August 1927. The third conference was held in Geneva, Switzerland, August 1929 ; the fourth conference took place in August 1931, at Denver, Colorado; the fifth conference took place in August 1933, in Dublin, Ireland ; the sixth conference took place in August 1935, at Oxford, England; and the seventh conference took place in August 1937 , at Tokyo, Japan. The officers for the years 1937-39 are: president, Paid Monroe, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y .; secretary- general, Ucl IV. Lamkin, President, Northwest Missouri State Teachers College, Maryville, Mo. Facts relating to the establishment of the World Federation of Edu¬ cation Associations and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follozcs: 1921:176-182 1926 : 996-1003 1933:807-814 1922 :312-317 192 7:1007-1016 1935:735-742 1923 :106, 402-424 1928 :1005-1012 1936 :629-630 1924:272-274 1929 : 975- 988 1925:913-927 1931: 985- 994 I 67 S I -.Association al cords AND Information * ' Associational Records and Information 1857—1870 The National Teachers Association Organized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Purpose — To elevate the character and advance the interests of the pro¬ fession of teaching and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States. The name of the Association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August 15, 1870, to the “National Educational Association.” 1870—1907 National Educational Association Incorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24, 1886, under the name, “National Education Association,” which was changed to “National Educational Association,” by certificate filed November 6, 1886. 1907- National Education Association of the United States Incorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906, to succeed the “National Educational Association.” The charter was accepted and bylaws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Conven¬ tion held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California. ACT OF INCORPORATION AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled: Section 1. That the following-named persons, who are now officers and direc¬ tors and trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the year eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorpora¬ tion of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz.: Nathan C. Schaeffer, Eliphalet Oram Lyte, John W. Lansinger, of List of Pennsylvania; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur J. Matthews, Incorporators of Arizona; John H. Hinemon, George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph O’Connor, Josiah L. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; Aaron Gove, Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis C. Greenlee, of Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut; George W. Twitmyer, of Delaware; J. Ormond Wilson, William T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the District of Columbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida; William M. Slaton, of Georgia; Frances Mann, of Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, Albert G. Lane, Charles I. Parker, John W. Cook, Joshua Pike, Albert R. Taylor, Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois; Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A. Mott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory; John F. Riggs, Ashley V. Storm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, A. V. Jewett, Luther D. Whitte- more, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; Warren Easton, of I 681 ] 682 National Education Association Louisiana; John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W. Eliot, Mary H. Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G. White, William H. Elson, of Michigan; William F. Phelps, Invin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of Minnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; F. Louis Soldan, James M. Greenwood, William J. Hawkins, of Missouri; Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of Nebraska; Joseph E. Stubbs, of Ne¬ vada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; James M. Green, John Enright, of New Jersey; Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; James H. Canfield, Nicholas Murray Butler, William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, Albert P. Marble, James C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina; Pitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L. Griswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hickham, of Oklahoma; Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs, of Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina; Moritz Adelbert Langer, of South Dakota; Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolf, of Texas; David H. Christensen, of Utah; Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont; Joseph L. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington; T. Marcellus Marshall, Lucy Robinson, of West Virginia; Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; Thomas T. Tynan, of Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F. Griffiths, of Hawaii; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands; and such other persons as now are or may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Co¬ lumbia by the name of the “National Education Association of the United States,” and by that name shall be known and have a perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and restrictions herein contained. Sec. 2. That the purpose and objects of the said corporation shall be to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to pro¬ mote the cause of education in the United States. This corporation shall include the National Council of Education and the following depart- Purpose and ments, and such others as may hereafter be created by organi- Departments zation or consolidation, to wit: The Departments, first, of Su¬ perintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elemen¬ tary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education; eleventh, of Child Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science Instruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department; sixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties and the numbers and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education may be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its bylaws. Sec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a common seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be sued in any court of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make bylaws not inconsistent with the provisions of this act Powers of or of the Constitution of the United States; to take or receive, Corporation whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal estate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purpose of its incorporation; and to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational purpose within the objects of the corporation. Sec, 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia which shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corporation as aforesaid other than the purposes of producing income and all per- Associational Records and Information 683 sonal property and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes aforesaid, or to produce Property to be income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from Tax-Exempt taxation; provided, However, that this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation which shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational purposes of the corpora¬ tion; and, provided further, That the corporation shall annually file, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating in detail the property7, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure or other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year. Sec. 5. The qualifications, classifications, rights, and obliga¬ tions of members of said corporation shall be prescribed in the Members bylaws of the corporation. Sec. 6. (a) The officers of the corporation shall be a President, one or more Vicepresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, a Board of Trustees and such boards, councils, committees, and other officers as shall be prescribed in the bylaws. (b) Except as limited by this Act, as amended, the bylaws of the corporation shall prescribe the powers, duties, terms of office, and the manner of election or appointment of the said officers, boards, councils, and committees; and the said corpora¬ tion may by its bylaws make other and different provisions as to the numbers and names of the officers, boards, councils, and committees. Sec. 7. (a) The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members elected by the Board of Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member ex officio during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held during the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they shall elect one Board of trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in Trustees said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his membership. (b) The invested fund now known as the “Permanent Fund of the National Education Association,” when transferred to the corporation hereby created shall be held in such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trustees, who shall provide for the safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other funds which the cor- Permanent poration may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part Fund of the principal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly, after the proposed expenditure has been approved by the Board of Trustees and the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed expenditure has been printed in the Journal of the National Education Association at least two months prior to the meeting of the Representative Assembly. (c) The income of the Permanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organization of the Association and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the donation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the bylaws of the corporation shall otherwise provide. Officers Additional Boards, Coun¬ cils, Commit¬ tees, and Officers 684 National Education Association (d) The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Election of Association, who shall be Secretary of the Executive Committee, Secretary and shall fix the compensation and the term of his office for a period not to exceed four years. Sec. 8. That the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, D. C. ; provided, That the meetings of the corpora- Office of tion, its officers, committees, and departments, may be held, and Corporation that its business may be transacted, and an office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be determined in accordance with the bylaws. Sec. 9. That the charter, constitution, and bylaws of the National Educational Association shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall be accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until new bylaws shall be adopted; and Acceptance of that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said Associa- This Charter tion shall continue to hold office and perform their respective duties as such until the expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and until their successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the National Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the charter granted by this act and adopt bylaws, to elect officers to succeed those whose terms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the “National Education Associa¬ tion of the United States”; and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation hereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this act be accepted, receive, take over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and personal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association incorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, and all its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and the several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other person having charge of any of the securities, funds, books, or property thereof, real or personal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees of the corporation hereby created. Pro¬ vided, That a verified certificate executed by the presiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the charter granted by this act by the National Educational Association, shall be legal evidence of the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia ; and, provided further, That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted by this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Asso¬ ciation and its incorporate existence shall be and are hereby extended until the thirty-first day of July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be extended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation of the District of Columbia. Sec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the National Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or obligation, or payment of any sum due or Rights of to become due, or any claim or demand, in any manner, or for Creditors any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released or impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of its debts, liabilities, and contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debts or damages, and no action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason of this act. Associational Records and Information 685 Sec. 11. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired. Amendments to Charter Sec. 12. That said corporation may provide, by amendment the powers of the active members exercised at the annual meet¬ ing in the election of officers and the transaction of business shall be vested in and exercised by a representative assembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and governed in accordance with the provisions of the bylaws adopted by said corporation. to its bylaws, that Creation of Representative Assembly Sections 1-11 were passed by Congress and approved by the President, June 30, 1906. They were accepted and adopted as the constitution of the National Educa¬ tion Association of the United States by the active members of the National Educa¬ tional Association in annual session at Los Angeles, California, July 10, 1907. Section 12 was passed by Congress and approved by the President of the United States, May 13, 1920, as an amendment to the original act of incorporation. It was accepted and adopted as an amendment to the constitution of the National Education Association of the United States by the active members thereof in annual session at Salt Lake City, Utah, July 9, 1920. Sections 5-8 were amended by Congress and approved by the President of the United States, June 14, 1937. These amendments were accepted and adopted by the Representative Assembly of the National Education Association of the United States in annual session at Detroit, Michigan, June 29, 1937. 686 National Education Association BYLAWS AS AMENDED AT THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEET¬ ING OF THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY, DETROIT, MICHIGAN, JULY 1937 ARTICLE I— MEMBERSHIP Section 1. The membership of the National Education Asso¬ ciation shall consist of four classes: Active, Associate, Corre¬ sponding, and Institutional, whose qualifications, rights, and obligations shall be as hereinafter prescribed. Sec. 2. Active members of the Association shall be those actively engaged in the profession of teaching or other educational work. Sec. 3. The dues of an active member shall be $2 or $5 annually or $100 for a Life Membership. Active members shall be entitled to attend all meetings of the Association and its several Departments, to vote for delegates Obligations to the Representative Assembly, and to hold office. Those who and pay annual dues of $2 shall be entitled to receive the Journal. Privileges Those who pay annual dues of $5 shall be entitled to receive, in addition to the Journal, the Research Bulletins and the volume of Proceedings. Those who pay $100 become members for life without payment of additional dues and are entitled to receive the Journal, the Research Bulletins, and the volume of Proceedings. Sec. 4. All Life Directors shall have all the rights and privi- Life leges of active members without the payment of annual dues, Directors and shall receive free without application or condition the pub¬ lications of the Association. Membership Defined Sec. 5. Associate members of the Association shall be persons who are not ac¬ tively engaged in the profession of teaching or other educa- Associate tional work, but who are otherwise interested in the promotion Members of education. The annual dues of an associate member shall be the same as the dues of an active member and he shall have the same rights and privileges, except the right to vote, to serve as a delegate in the Representative Assembly, and to hold office. Sec. 6. Eminent educators not residing in America may be Corresponding elected by the Board of Directors as corresponding members. Members The number of corresponding members shall not at any time , exceed fifty. They shall pay no dues and may receive free the publications of the Association. Sec. 7. Institutional Membership in the Association may be held only by libraries in normal schools, teachers colleges, liberal arts colleges, and universities, and by public libraries. The annual dues for the regular Institutional Institutional Membership shall be $5, which shall entitle the institution to Members receive the Journal, the Research Bulletins, and the volume of Proceedings. A special Institutional Membership shall be avail¬ able to the above-named institutions for a fee of $2. This shall entitle the institution to receive the Journal only. Institutional Membership shall have no rights other than to receive the publications named. Membership Year Sec. 8. The membership year shall be from September 1 to August 31. All membership dues shall be credited to the current membership year unless otherwise requested. Associational Records and Information 687 Sec. 9. The annual dues of members shall be sent to the Executive Secretary on or before December 31. An active member failing to pay dues as herein provided shall forfeit the privileges of member- Payment ship and be dropped from the list of members. of Dues Sec. 10. The Executive Secretary of the Association shall furnish each member of the Association a membership card, declaring him to be a member of the Na¬ tional Education Association for the year for which his dues are paid, and as such entitled to all the rights and privileges Membership granted by the charter and bylaws of the Association. Arrange- Card ments may be made with Local and State Affiliated Associations for the issuance of a coinclusive membership card, or insignia, or both on a volun¬ tary basis. Sec. 11. The right to vote, to serve as a delegate in the Representative As¬ sembly, and to hold office in the Association or in any Depart¬ ment thereof, shall be limited to active members whose dues are paid. The right to vote and to hold office in the Council to Vote shall be limited to members of the Council whose dues are paid. Sec. 12. The Representative Assembly shall be composed of the President, twelve Vicepresidents, the Executive Secretary, and Treasurer of the National Education Association, the United States Commissioner Representative of Education, and the delegates elected from the various Affiliated Assembly State and Local Associations as provided in the bylaws. ARTICLE II— OFFICERS, REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY, AND AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS Section 1. (a) The officers of said corporation shall be a President, twelve Vicepresidents, an Executive Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, a Board of Trustees, and such boards, councils, or other offi¬ cers as shall be prescribed in the bylaws. (See Act of Incorporation, section 6, first paragraph.) (b) The Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vicepresi¬ dent, the Executive Secretary, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member from each Officers, Direc- state, territory, or district to be elected by the Representative tors, Trustees, Assembly for the term of three years or until their successors and Committees are chosen, and of all Life Directors of the National Educa¬ tional Association. (c) The terms of the members of the Board of Directors elected from the states, the District of Columbia, and the territorial possessions shall be for three years, the terms of one-third of the members expiring each year. All members of the Board of Directors representing the states, the District of Columbia, and the terri¬ torial possessions shall be nominated by the said states, the District of Columbia, and the territorial possessions to the Representative Assembly for election by that body. All members so elected to take office at the close of the annual meeting in 1937 shall draw lots to determine who shall serve one, two, or three years. There¬ after all terms of office for such members shall be for a three-year period. (d) The Executive Committee shall consist of nine members as follows: The President of the Association, the First Vicepresident, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, two members elected by the Board of Directors for the term of one year, and three members elected by the Representative Assembly for the term of one year. A director elected to the Executive Committee shall continue as a member of the Board of Directors. The election of the members of the Executive Committee by the Representative Assembly shall be by the Hare System of Pro- 688 National Education Association portional Representation. The provisions of this Section shall become effective in the selection of the Executive Committee for the Association year beginning with the close of the convention in 1937. (e) The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members elected by the Board of Directors for a term of four years and the President of the Association who shall be a member ex officio during his term of office. (See Act of Incorporation, section 7, first paragraph, first sentence.) (f) The election of officers and transaction of business at the annual business meeting shall be by a Representative Assembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and governed as hereinafter provided. Election of Officers and Qualifications of Directors Sec. 2. At the first business meeting of the Representative Assembly on the second day of the annual meeting of the Association, nominations for the follow¬ ing offices shall be made: President, Vicepresident, and Treasurer. Candidates for said offices shall be nominated from the floor upon roll call of the states. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association the delegates of each state, territory, and district of the United States in which the term of office expires shall nominate one person for member of the Board of Directors and the name of such person shall be reported to the Representative Assembly at the first business meeting upon roll call of the states. Any person to qualify to serve as Director shall have been an active member with dues paid in the National Education Association and in a State, or District, or Territory, and a Local Association, if organized, for a five- year period immediately preceding the election. Only delegates who are active members of the N. E. A. and whose dues have been paid in a State, or District, or Territory, and a Local Association, if organized, respectively, shall have the right to vote for such directors. On the fourth day of the annual meeting officers shall be elected from the candidates by the delegates to the Representative Assembly by ballot. Said ballots shall be printed and shall contain the names of all nominees as provided above. Polls for voting shall be open from 8 a. m. to 6 p. m., at such place or places as the President of the Association shall designate. The candidates for President, Treasurer, member of Board of Directors from each state, territory, or district, respectively, in which the term of office ex¬ pires and the eleven candidates for the office of Vicepresident receiving the highest number of votes shall be declared elected. The President of the Asso¬ ciation shall appoint tellers and complete all arrangements for carrying out the election. The results of the election herein provided shall be announced at the final business session of the Representative Assembly. The officers thus chosen shall continue in office until the close of the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as herein provided. The Executive Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their duties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall not be later than the first of October and shall continue in office during the term for which they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly elected. Sec. 3. The State Teachers Association or Educational Association of a state, territory, or district, may become affiliated with the National Education Associa¬ tion and shall be designated an Affiliated State Association. Each Affiliated State Association shall be a state unit in the organization of the Affiliated State National Education Association and as such shall be entitled Associations to representation in the Representative Assembly as herein¬ after provided. The annual dues of an Affiliated State Asso¬ ciation shall be $10. Said Association shall receive without application, or other condition, all regular publications of the National Education Association, includ¬ ing the volume of Proceedings, reports of committees, and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. Associational Records and Information 689 Sec. 4. A Local Educational Association or Teachers Organization within a state, territory, or district, may affiliate with the National Education Association and shall be designated an Affiliated Local Association. Each Affiliated Local Asso¬ ciation shall be a local unit in the organizaton of the National Education Association and as such shall be entitled to rep- Affiliated Local resentation in the Representative Assembly as hereinafter pro- Associations vided. The annual dues of an Affiliated Local Association shall be $10, except that the fee of Affiliated Local Associations of less than two hundred N. E. A. members shall be $5, which shall entitle said Association to receive without application, or other condition, all regular publications of the National Education Association, including the volume of Proceedings, reports of committees, and all bulletins and announcements when issued. Sec. 5. Each Affiliated Association, both state and local, shall be furnished a certificate of membership and shall be entitled to the active assistance and sup¬ port of the National Education Association in promoting the interest of such Affiliated Association and its members insofar as such interest comes within the purpose and object of the National Educa- Relationship: tion Association as set forth in its charter. The Executive Secre- National, State, tary of the National Education Association shall, with the advice and Local and approval of the Executive Committee, make such arrange¬ ments for mutual cooperation between the National Education Association and the State and Local Affiliated Associations as will promote the welfare of all and advance the interests of the teaching profession. Sec. 6. Each Affiliated State Association shall be entitled to elect one delegate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Edu¬ cation Association, up to five hundred such active members, and thereafter one delegate and one alternate for each five hundred State Delegates of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active mem¬ bers of the National Education Association. Such delegates shall be designated State Delegates. Sec. 7. Each Affiliated Local Association shall be entitled to elect one dele¬ gate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, Local who are active members of the National Education Association. Delegates Such delegates shall be designated Local Delegates. Sec. 8. Only active members of the National Education Association shall be eligible to be delegates to the Representative Assembly, and to vote in the elec¬ tion of delegates in a State or Local Affiliated Association. An active member shall be permitted to vote for the election of delegates in but one Affiliated Local Association. For determining the appor- Selection of tionment of delegates, an active member may be counted in two Delegates Affiliated Associations, and no more; and that one of these shall be the State Association. Sec. 9. The President, the Twelve Vicepresidents, the Executive Secretary, and Treasurer of the National Education Association, and the United States Commissioner of Education, shall be ex-officio delegates to Ex-Officio the Representative Assembly. Delegates Sec. 10. Delegates shall file their credentials with the Executive Secretary of the Association on blanks furnished by him for that purpose not later than ten days be- 690 National Education Association fore the beginning of the annual meeting. The Executive Secretary shall turn over such credentials to the Credentials Committee, when appointed, with such information thereon as may be obtained from the records of the Association. The Representative Assembly shall be the final judge of the qualifications of delegates. The delegates shall have equal rights and each shall have one vote. Meet¬ ings of the Representative Assembly shall be open to the active members of the Association who shall be privileged to address the Assembly on subjects pertaining to the Association. The Representative As¬ sembly shall adopt rules of procedure which shall not conflict with the charter and bylaws of the Association. It shall recommend an equitable plan for pay¬ ing the expenses of delegates to the annual business meeting of the Association. Delegates ; Credentials ; Voting ; Freedom of Floor ARTICLE III— DUTIES OF OFFICERS Section 1. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and shall perform the duties prescribed by the Act of Incorporation and these bylaws, and in addition such duties as usually devolve upon the Chief Executive of such an Association. In the absence of the President, the ranking Duties of the Vicepresident, who is present, shall preside and in the absence President of the President and all Vicepresidents a Chairman pro tempore shall be elected under the direction of the Executive Secretary of the Association. The President shall prepare the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the Association and shall have power to confer with the President of the Council and the heads of the several Departments and to make such recommendations in regard to the program of the Council and the several Departments as will, in his opinion, promote the interest of the annual meeting. The President shall be a member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and Chairman of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee. He shall sign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors and all bills ap¬ proved or authorized by the Executive Committee acting for and under the in¬ struction of the Board of Directors. On the expiration of his term of office as President, he shall become First Vicepresident for the ensuing year. Sec. 2. The Executive Secretary shall keep a full and accurate record of the pro¬ ceedings of the general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the As¬ sociation as provided in the Act of Incorporation and these Duties of the bylaws and, in all matters not definitely prescribed therein, Executive shall be under the direction of the Board of Directors or of the Secretary Executive Committee acting for the Board of Directors, and, in the absence of instructions from the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee, shall be under the direction of the President. He shall receive or collect all moneys due the Association and pay the same each month to the Treasurer. He shall countersign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, or by the Executive Committee acting under the authority of the Board of Directors or by the President acting under authority of the Board of Directors or of the Executive Committee. The Executive Secretary shall have his records present at all meetings of the Association, of the Board of Directors, and of the Executive Committee. He shall keep a list of members and shall revise said list annually. He shall be Secretary of the Board of Directors. He shall be the custodian of all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and the Board of Trustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. He shall submit his annual report to the Executive Committee not later than fifteen days before the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at its annual meeting. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer Associational Records and Information 691 to his successor all money, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association. The Executive Secretary shall not print, publish, or distribute any official report or other document without the approval of the Board of Direc¬ tors or of the Executive Committee acting under the general instruction of the Board of Directors. Sec. 3. The Treasurer shall perform the duties prescribed by the Act of In¬ corporation and these bylaws. He shall receive from the Executive Secretary and, under the direction of the Board of Trustees, shall hold in safekeeping all moneys paid to the Association; shall pay the same only upon the order of the Board of Trustees; shall notify the President of Duties of the the Association and the Chairman of the Board of Trustees Treasurer whenever the surplus funds in his possession exceed $500 ; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures with vouchers for the latter, and said accounts, ending on the thirty-first day of May each year, he shall render to the Executive Committee not later than ten days before the annual meeting of the Association, and when approved by said Committee, these ac¬ counts shall be transmitted by this Committee to the Board of Directors at its meeting held in connection with the annual meeting of the Association and a copy of the report shall be transmitted to the Representative Assembly for its informa¬ tion. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association. Sec. 4. (a) The Board of Directors when in session shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own body and shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting those entrusted to the Board of Trustees. (See paragraph (e) of this section.) (b) At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held during the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they shall elect one Trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a Trustee from two successive annual meet¬ ings of the Board shall forfeit his membership. Only members who have the qualifi¬ cations required of Directors shall be elected Trustees. (See Act of Incorporation, section 7, first paragraph, last two sentences.) (c) The Board of Directors shall take such action with respect to the Per¬ manent Fund of the Association, its accretions and income, as is authorized by the Act of Incorporation or these bylaws. (See Act of Incorporation, section 7, second paragraph, part of second sentence.) (d) The Board of Directors may determine what office or offices of the Associa¬ tion may be maintained in the United States other than its principal place of business in Washington, D. C., and where the meetings of the corporation, its officers, committees, and departments may be held, and what business other than provided by the Act of Incorporation and these bylaws may be transacted at such office or offices and meetings. (See Act of Incorporation, section 8.) (e) The Board of Directors shall have such powers and perform such duties as are prescribed by the Act of Incorporation and by these bylaws; shall elect correspond¬ ing members as prescribed in Section 6 of Article I of these bylaws; shall elect members of the National Council of Education as provided in Section 3 of Article IV of these bylaws. The Board of Directors shall approve all bills incurred by itself or by the Executive Committee, or the President or the Executive Secretary acting under the authority of the Board of Directors; shall appropriate from the current funds of the year the amounts of money ordered by the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting of the same for the work of all special committees of Duties of the Board of Directors 692 National Education Association research and investigation authorized and provided for at the annual business meeting, and for all other needs of the Association; shall make a full report of the financial condition of the Association including the reports of the Executive Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees to the Representative As¬ sembly at its annual business meeting, and shall do all in its power to make the Association a useful and honorable institution. (f) The Board of Directors shall appoint at its annual meeting a Budget Com¬ mittee for the ensuing year, whose duty it shall be to prepare and present a budget to the Board of Directors at its next meeting. The Budget Committee shall have authority to secure the support of the Auditing Committee in preparing this budget. (g) The Board of Directors shall meet in connection with the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly, and may meet in connection with the annual meet¬ ing of the Department of Superintendence and at such other times and places as may be determined by the President or requested in writing by a majority of the elective members of the Board of Directors. Duties of Executive Committee Sec. 5. (a) The Executive Committee shall have authority to represent and to act for the Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent of carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions as may be given by said Board. (b) The Executive Committee may recommend to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting the appointment of special committees for investi¬ gation or research, the subjects for which may have been suggested by the National Council or by the active members of the National Education Association or by any of its Departments; it shall recommend the amount of money to be appropriated for such investigations. When such special committees are provided for and duly au¬ thorized by the Representative Assembly and appropriations for them have been authorized by the Board of Directors, the Executive Committee shall, under the instructions of the Board of Directors, have general supervision of them. The Ex¬ ecutive Committee shall receive and consider all reports made by the special committees and shall print these reports and present them, together with the reports of the Executive Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and the recommendations of the Executive Committee thereon, to the Board of Direc¬ tors, which shall transmit the same with recommendations to the Representative As¬ sembly at its annual business meeting. All such special committees shall be ap¬ pointed by the President of the Association. (c) The Executive Committee shall fill all vacancies occurring in the body of officers of the Association, except as otherwise provided for in the Act of Incorpora¬ tion or in these bylaws. Sec. 6. (a) The Board of Trustees shall have such powers and perform such duties as are prescribed by the Act of Incorporation; shall require of the Executive Secretary and Treasurer bonds in such amounts as may be determined by said Board for the faithful performance of their duties; shall make a full Further Duties report of the finances of the Association to the Executive Com- of Trustees mittee not later than ten days prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted by the Executive Committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the Board held in connection with the annual meeting of the Association. It shall annually choose its own chairman and secretary. (b) The Board of Trustees shall have charge of the Permanent Fund and shall provide for the safekeeping and investing of such Fund and of all other funds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the pay¬ ment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Executive Secretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Associational Records and Information 693 Directors. When practicable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus funds exceeding $500 that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed expenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year. (See Act of Incorporation, section 7.) (c) The Board of Trustees shall elect the Executive Secretary of the Association, who shall be Secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his office for a period not to exceed four years. (See Act of Incorporation, section 7.) ARTICLE IV— THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Section 1. The National Council of Education shall discuss educational ques¬ tions of public and professional interest; propose to the Executive Committee, from time to time, suitable subjects for investigation and re¬ search; have a report made at its annual meeting on “Edu- Function of cational Progress during the Past Year”; and in other ways National use its best efforts to further the objects of the Association and Council to promote the cause of education in general. Sec. 2. The National Council of Education shall consist of not less than 120, nor more than 200, members to be selected as pro- Membership vided by its bylaws. Sec. 3. The annual meeting of the Council shall be held dur¬ ing the week of the annual meeting of the Association. Time of - Meeting Sec. 4. The absence of a regular member from two successive annual meetings of the Council shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership. Persons whose regular membership in the Council has expired shall be denomi¬ nated honorary members of the Council during the time of their active membership in the Association with the privilege Loss of of attending the regular sessions of the Council and partici- Membership pating in its discussions. A member who discontinues or forfeits his active membership in the Association forfeits his membership in the Council. Sec. 5. The officers of the Council shall consist of a President, a Vicepresident, a Secretary, and such standing committees as may be prescribed by its bylaws, all of whom shall be regular members of the Council. The Secre¬ tary of the Council shall, in addition to performing the duties pertaining to his office, furnish the Executive Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the Council for publication. Sec. 6. The National Council of Education is hereby authorized laws for its government not inconsistent with the act of incor¬ poration or the bylaws of the Association; provided, That such bylaws be submitted to, and approved by the Board of Directors of the Association before they shall become operative. Sec. 7. The powers and duties of the Council may be changed or the Council abolished upon a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly taken at the annual meeting of the Association; provided, That notice of the proposed action has been given at the preceding annual business meeting of the Association. Council Officers to adopt by- Bylaws and Powers of Council ARTICLE V— DEPARTMENTS Section 1. The following Departments are now (1937) in existence, to wit: The Departments, first, of American Association of School Administrators; second, of Vocational Education; third, of Kindergarten-Primary Education; fourth, of Music 694 National Education Association Education; fifth, of Secondary Education; sixth, of Business Education; seventh, of American Association for Health and Physical Education; eighth, of Science Instruc¬ tion; ninth, of Rural Education; tenth, of Classroom Teachers; eleventh, of Deans of Women; twelfth, of Adult Education; thirteenth, of Elementary School Prin¬ cipals; fourteenth, of Visual Instruction; fifteenth, of Social Studies; sixteenth, of Teachers Colleges; seventeenth, of Lip Reading; eighteenth, of Secondary School Principals; nineteenth, of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction; twentieth, of Educational Research; twenty-first, of Special Education; twenty-second, of Super¬ visors and Teachers of Home Economics; twenty-third, of Administrative Women in Education; twenty-fourth, of Art Education. There is also the National Council of Education. Sec. 2. Each Department shall have the right to fix the qualifications of its members for the purpose of electing officers and transacting the other business of the Department; provided, Active members of the Associa¬ tion, and no others shall be eligible to such Department mem¬ bership; and provided also, That all active members of the Association shall be permitted to attend the professional pro¬ grams and discussions of any Department. Department shall hold an annual meeting at the time and place of the meeting of the Association except as otherwise provided in these bylaws or as directed by the Board of Directors, or by the Executive Committee acting under the general instruc¬ tions of the Board of Directors. Sec. 4. The object of the meetings of the Departments shall be the discussion of questions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The pro¬ grams of these meetings shall be prepared by the respective presidents under the general direction of the President of the Association. Each Department shall be limited to two sessions, with formal programs, unless otherwise ordered by the President of the Association, except that a third session of business or in¬ formal round table conference may be held at the discretion of the Department officers. Sec. 5. The officers of each Department shall consist of a President, a Vice- president, a Secretary, and such other officers as may be deemed necessary by the Department, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the Department to serve for the term of office specified in the regulations of the Officers of Department and until their successors are duly elected; and who Departments shall at the time of their election, be active members of the Asso¬ ciation. Each Department shall provide for the creation of an Executive Committee, and assign to it any duties consistent with the purposes of the Department and the Act of Incorporation and bylaws of the Association. In case there is a vacancy in the office of President of any Department, it shall be filled by appointment made by the Executive Committee of the Department. Any other Departmental vacancy shall be filled by appointment made by the President of the Department. Sec. 6. The Secretary of each Department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, furnish to the Executive Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the meetings of the Department Department for publication. No Department shall establish an Headquarters office outside of the general headquarters of the Association with¬ out the consent of the Board of Directors. Object of Department Meetings Members of Departments Sec. 3. Each Department Meetings Sec. 7. All Rights of Departments Departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the ex¬ ception stated in section 3 of this Article. They shall be named in section 1 of this Article in the order of their establishment and shall be dropped from the list when discontinued. Associational Records and Information 695 Sec. 8. Upon the recommendation of the Board of Directors a new Department may be established by vote of two-thirds of the delegates to the Representative Assembly present at any annual meeting; provided, That a written application for said Department with title and purpose of the same shall have been made at the regular meeting of the Assembly next pre- How ceding the one at which action is taken by at least 250 mem- Established bers engaged or interested in the field in the interest of which the Department is proposed to be established; provided, That no group shall be admitted to Departmental status until it shall have held constructive meetings for at least three successive years. A Department already established may be discontinued upon a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly, at any business meeting; provided, That announce¬ ment of the purpose to discontinue has been made at the preceding annual busi¬ ness meeting. The Board of Directors may recommend to the Representative As¬ sembly the discontinuance of any Department. Upon the recommendation of the Board of Directors a Department which has failed to hold a regular meeting for two successive years may be discontinued by a vote of two-thirds of the delegates to the Representative Assembly present at any annual meeting. Sec. 9. Any Department, by a two-thirds vote of those voting at any regular business meeting, may levy a membership fee to supplement its allowance from the Association. Such membership fees shall be paid to the Secretary of the De¬ partment who shall transmit them monthly to the Executive Sec¬ retary of the Association. Such funds shall be added to the De¬ partment’s allowance from the Association and shall be used for the work of said Department only, and shall be disbursed upon the recommendation of the executive officers of the Department in the same manner as other funds of the Association are disbursed. Sec. 10. Each Department is hereby authorized to adopt bylaws for its govern¬ ment not inconsistent with the Act of Incorporation or the bylaws of the Association; provided, That such bylaw's be submitted to, and approved by, the Board of Directors of the Association before they shall become operative. Fees for Department Members ARTICLE VI— COMMITTEES Section 1. Not later than five months before the end of the fiscal year, the Presi¬ dent shall appoint an Auditing Committee, consisting of three active members of the Association, no one of whom shall be either a Trustee or a Director; to this Committee shall be referred the report and audit of the expert accountant or accountants, together with the communication of Auditing the President transmitting the same as provided in section 5 of Committee this Article; and the Committee shall report its findings to the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at such time and place as shall be designated on the annual program by the President of the Association, the accredited delegates to the Representative Assembly from each state shall elect one member and one alternate who are active members of the Association for each of the following commit- Delegates Meet tees, to serve for the ensuing year: Credentials, Resolutions, -and by States Necrology. The Committee on Credentials shall receive the official list of delegates from the Executive Secretary and report thereon to the Repre¬ sentative Assembly. 696 National Education Association Sec. 3. The Committee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meeting of the Representative Assembly, and except by unanimous consent or by a two-thirds vote, all resolutions shall be referred to said Committee without discussion. This Committee shall receive and consider all resolutions proposed by Resolutions active members, or referred to it by the President; some time during the second day of the annual meeting of the Association the Committee shall hold a meeting, at a place and time to be announced in the printed program, for the purpose of receiving proposed resolutions and hearing those who may wish to advocate them. Sec. 4. The Committee on Necrology may prepare for the Necrology published Proceedings brief memorial tributes to members who have died during the year. Sec. 5. Within thirty (30) days prior to the time of the annual meeting of the Association, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm, or corporation, licensed to do business as expert accountants; the accountant or accountants so appointed shall examine the accounts, papers, and vouchers of Examination the Executive Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trus- of Accounts tees, and compare the same; shall also examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees. The report of said accountant or accountants shall be filed with the President not less than ten days before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by him submitted to the Auditing Committee with such comments as he may think proper. Sec. 6. There shall be a Committee on Bylaws and Rules which shall serve as an advisory and interpreting committee. The Committee shall consist of five mem¬ bers appointed by the President as follows: In July 1935, the retiring president shall appoint two members, one to serve for three years and one to serve for four years. The incoming president shall appoint three members of this Committee: one to serve for one year; one to serve for two years; and one to Bylaws and serve for five years. In July 1936, and in each July thereafter, Rules the President shall appoint one member to serve for five years. All proposed amendments to the charter and to the bylaws shall be referred to this Committee for comment. This Committee shall be responsible for recommending and presenting rules of procedure to the Representative Assembly from year to year. This Committee may render decisions on any points referred to it by the Executive Committee, the Executive Secretary, or the President of the Association. Additional Sec. 7. The Representative Assembly may provide such addi- Committees tional committees as it may deem wise. Sec. 8. In all committees, boards, or councils in which the entire personnel is named that year by the President, the President shall appoint the chairmen. In all other cases, the committee, board, or council shall elect its own chairman. Sec. 9. There shall be a Publishing Committee consisting of five members elected by the Representative Assembly by the method known as the Hare System of Propor¬ tional Representation. Nominations shall be made by petitions signed by ten delegates and presented to the Executive Secretary on the second day of Publishing the annual meeting. The election in 1936 shall be held on Thurs- Committee day, by printed ballot. Provision shall be made by the Rules Com¬ mittee for the nomination and election in 1937 to be held on the first day upon which the Representative Assembly meets. This Committee shall be responsible for editing and preparing that portion of the minutes of the Representa¬ tive Assembly which shall be published in the printed Proceedings. Associational Records and Information 697 ARTICLE VII— MEETINGS Section 1. Stated meeting of the Association, of the National Council of Education, and of all Departments, except as other- Meetings to be wise provided, shall be held at such time and place as shall be Held determined by the Board of Directors or by the Executive Com- Annually mittee acting under the instructions of the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. The annual business meeting of the Representative Assembly shall begin at 9 a. m., on the second day of the annual meeting of the Association. A regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held in connection with the annual meeting of the Association. The time and place of such meeting shall be designated in the program. The Executive Secretary shall notify the members of the Board of Directors of the time and place of meeting, not less than thirty (30) days before the meeting. The first regular meeting of the new Board of Directors shall be held as soon as practicable and within twenty-four hours after the close of the last session of the annual meeting. The place and time of this meeting shall be announced in the printed program. The Board of Trustees shall hold its annual meeting at some convenient time and immediately following the meeting of the new Board of Directors. Special meetings of the Trustees may be called by the Chairman and shall be called on request of a majority of the Board of Trustees. Due notice of all meetings of the Board of Trustees shall be given to every member of the Board by the Secretary thereof. Meetings of Assembly Directors, and Trustees ARTICLE VIII— PROCEEDINGS Section 1. The Proceedings of the Association, of the Council, of the Depart¬ ments, and of all commissions and committees, shall be published at the discretion of and under the direction of the Executive Publication of Committee; provided, That such publication has been approved Proceedings and the money therefor appropriated by the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any of the Departments in the absence of the author, without the approval of the President of the Association, or of the President of the Depart¬ ment interested ; nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be Absence of published in the Proceedings without the approval of the Execu- Author tive Committee. ARTICLE IX— QUORUM AND RULES OF ORDER Section 1. Elected directors from twenty-five states shall con¬ stitute a quorum of the Board of Directors. A majority of all the accredited delegates, representatives of not less than twenty- five states, shall constitute a quorum of the Representative Assembly. Formation of Quorum Sec. 2. Robert’s Rules of Order Revised shall be the authority governing all matters of procedure not otherwise covered in the Act of Incorporation and in these bylaws and in the rules of procedure adopted by the Representative Assembly. 698 National Education Association ARTICLE X— AMENDMENTS Section 1. These bylaws may be altered or amended at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly by unanimous vote, or by a two-thirds vote of the Repre¬ sentative Assembly if the alteration or amendment shall have been proposed in writing at the annual business meeting next preceding the one at which action is taken, and due announcement of the proposed action shall have been made in the official publication of the Association; provided, that these bylaws may be amended at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly in 1937 and 1938 by a two- thirds vote if such amendment has been printed in the May Journal of the National Education Association. Sec. 2. In all voting on proposed amendments to the charter and on proposed amendments to the constitution or the bylaws, written ballots shall be used when ever 200 members of the Representative Assembly by petition or by standing vote shall indicate that ballot voting is desired. In case a petition for secret ballot is signed by at least 200 members of the Representative Assembly and filed with the Executive Secretary he shall arrange for written ballots in accordance with the petition. State delegations may vote by ballot. The results shall be announced by the chairman of each delegation as the roll of states is called; such vote to be deter¬ mined by the actual number of delegates present at such meeting and voting. Upon the request of three delegates any state delegation must vote by ballot. ARTICLE XI— PERMANENT FUND Section 1. The invested fund now known as the “Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association,” when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be held by such corporation as a Permanent Fund. Sec. 2. The Permanent Fund shall be in charge of the Board of Trustees, who shall provide for the safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other funds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. (Article III, section 6, second paragraph, first sentence.) Sec. 3. No part of the principal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly upon the recommendation of the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been approved by vote of the Board of Directors and after printed notice of the proposed expenditure has been mailed to all active members of the Association, and after all other requirements of the bylaws and the Act of Incorporation have been fulfilled. Sec. 4. The income of the Permanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organization of the Association and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings , unless the terms of the donation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the board of Directors shall otherwise order. Associational Records and Information 699 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION NOW KNOWN AS THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES CERTIFICATE of Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of Bylaws under the Act of Congress approved June 30, 1906. We, the undersigned, Nathan C. Schaeffer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shepard, the Secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles, California, on the 10th day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Association held next after the passage of an act of Congress entitled “An Act To Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States,” Do hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being present, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached, and accepted the charter of the National Education Association of the United States, granted by said act of Congress, and adopted bylaws as provided in said act and selected officers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions, Do hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has duly accepted said charter granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by¬ laws, and is the lawful successor to the National Educational Association. In witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907. Nathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding Officer Irwin Shepard, Secretary VERIFICATION RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE ACTIVE MEMBERS, JULY 10, 1907 1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the char¬ ter granted by an act of Congress entitled “An Act To Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States,” passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and Secretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certifi¬ cate showing the acceptance by the Association of the charter granted by said act. 2. Resolved, That the proposed bylaws of which notice was given at the annual meeting of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the Journal of said meeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect im¬ mediately. 3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the title “National Education Association of the United States,” and the dates “1857-1907.” 4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to or¬ ganize under the charter granted by the act of Congress. Filed in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, Septem¬ ber 4, 1907. 700 National Education Association CALENDAR OF MEETINGS NATIONAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, 1857-1870 1857— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized) James L. Enos, Chairman W. E. Sheldon, Secretary 1858— CINCINNATI, OHIO Z. Richards, President J. W. Buckley, Secretary A. J. Rickoff, Treasurer 1859— WASHINGTON, D. C. A. J. Rickoff, President J. W. Buckley, Secretary C. S. Pennell, Treasurer 1860— BUFFALO, N. Y. J. W. Buckley, President Z. Richards, Secretary O. C. Wight, Treasurer 1861, 1862 — No session 1863— CHICAGO, ILL. John D. Philbrick, President James Cruickshank, Secretary O. C. Wight, Treasurer 1864— OGDENSBURG, N. Y. W. H. Wells, President David N. Camp, Secretary Z. Richards, Treasurer 1865— HARRISBURG, PA. S. S. Greene, President W. E. Sheldon, Secretary Z. Richards, Treasurer 1866— INDIANAPOLIS, IND. J. P. Wickersham, President S. LI. White, Secretary S. P. Bates, Treasurer 1867 — No session 1868— NASHVILLE, TENN. J. M. Gregory, President L. Van Bokkelen, Secretary James Cruickshank, Treasurer 1869— TRENTON, N. J. L. Van Bokkelen, President W. E. Crosby, Secretary A. L. Barber, Treasurer 1870— CLEVELAND. OHIO Daniel B. Hagar, President A. P. Marble, Secretary W. E. Crosby, Treasurer NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, 1871-1907 1871— ST. LOUIS, MO. J. L. Pickard, President W. E. Crosby, Secretary John Hancock, Treasurer 1872— BOSTON, MASS. E. E. White, President S. H. White, Secretary John Hancock, Treasurer 1873— ELMIRA, N. Y. B. G. Northrup, President S. H. White, Secretary John Hancock, Treasurer 1874— DETROIT, MICH. S. H. White, President A. P. Marble, Secretary John Hancock, Treasurer 1875— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. W. T. Harris, President M. R. Abbott, Secretary A. P. Marble, Treasurer 1876— BALTIMORE, MD. W. F. Phelps, President W. D. Henkle, Secretary A. P. Marble, Treasurer 1877— LOUISVILLE, KY. M. A. Newall, President W. D. Henkle, Secretary J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer 1878 — No session 1879— PHILADELPHIA, PA. John Hancock, President W. D. Henkle, Secretary J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer 1880— CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y. J. Ormond Wilson, President W. D. Henkle, Secretary E. T. Tappan, Treasurer 1881— ATLANTA, GA. James H. Smart, President W. D. Henkle, Secretary E. T. Tappan, Treasurer 1882— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. G. J. Orr, President W. E. Sheldon, Secretary H. S. Tarbell, Treasurer 1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. T. Tappan, President W. E. Sheldon, Secretary N. A. Calkins, Treasurer 1884— MADISON, WIS. Thomas W. Bicknell, President H. S. Tarbell, Secretary N. A. Calkins, Treasurer 1885— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. F. Louis Soldan, President W. E. Sheldon, Secretary N. A. Calkins, Treasurer 1886— TOPEKA, KANS. N. A. Calkins, President W. E. Sheldon, Secretary E. C. Hewett, Treasurer 1887— CHICAGO. ILL. W. E. Sheldon, President J. H. Canfield, Secretary E. C. Hewett, Treasurer 1888— SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Aaron Gove, President J. H. Canfield, Secretary E. C. Hewett, Treasurer 1889— NASHVILLE, TENN. Albert P. Marble, President J. H. Canfield, Secretary E. C. Hewett, Treasurer 1890— ST. PAUL, MINN. J. H. Canfield, President W. R. Garrett, Secretary E. C. Hewett, Treasurer 1891— TORONTO, ONT. W. R. Garrett, President E. H. Cook, Secretary J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer 1892— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. H. Cook, President R. W. Stevenson, Secretary J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer 1893— CHICAGO, ILL. (International Congress of Education) Albert G. Lane, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer 1894— ASBURY PARK, N. J. Albert G. Lane, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer 1895— DENVER, COLO. Nicholas Murray Butler, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary I. C. McNeill, Treasurer 1896— BUFFALO, N. Y. Newton C. Dougherty, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary I. C. McNeill, Treasurer 1897— MILWAUKEE, WIS. Charles R. Skinner, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary I. C. McNeill, Treasurer Associational Records and Information 701 1898— WASHINGTON, D. C. J. M. Greenwood, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary I. C. McNeill, Treasurer 1899— LOS ANGELES, CALIF. E. Oram Lyte, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary I. C. McNeill, Treasurer 1900— CHARLESTON, S. C. Oscar T. Corson, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary Carroll G. Pearse, Treasurer 1901— DETROIT, MICH. James M. Green, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary L. C. Greenlee, Treasurer 1902— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. William M. Beardshear, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary Charles H. Keyes, Treasurer 1903— BOSTON, MASS. Charles W. Eliot, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary W. M. Davidson, Treasurer 1904— ST. LOUIS, MO. John W. Cook, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary McHenry Rhodes, Treasurer 1905— ASBURY PARK and OCEAN GROVE, N. J. William H. Maxwell, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary James W. Crabtree, Treasurer 1906 — No session 1907— LOS ANGELES, CALIF. Nathan C. Schaeffer, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary J. N. Wilkinson, Treasurer NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 1908 — 1908 — CLEVELAND, OHIO Edwin G. Cooley, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treas. 1909— DENVER, COLO. Lorenzo D. Harvey, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treas. 1910— BOSTON, MASS. James Y. Joyner, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treas. 1911— SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Ella Flagg Young, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary Durand W. Springer, Treasurer 1912— CHICAGO, ILL. Carroll G. Pearse, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary Katherine D. Blake, Treasurer 1913— SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH Edward T. Fairchild, President Durand W. Springer, Secretary Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer 1914 — ST. PAUL, MINN. Joseph Swain, President Durand W. Springer, Secretary Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer 1915— OAKLAND, CALIF. David Starr Jordan, President Durand W. Springer, Secretary Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer 1916— NEW YORK, N. Y. David B. Johnson, President Durand W. Springer, Secretary Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer 1917— PORTLAND, ORE. Robert J. Aley, President Durand W. Springer, Secretary Thomas E. Finegan, Treasurer 1918— PITTSBURGH, PA. Mary C. C. Bradford, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary A. J. Matthews, Treasurer 1919— MILWAUKEE, WIS. George D. Strayer, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary A. J. Matthews, Treasurer 1920— SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH Josephine Corliss Preston, Pres. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary A. J. Matthews, Treasurer 1921— DES MOINES, IOWA Fred M. Hunter, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer 1922— BOSTON, MASS. Charl Ormond Williams, Pres. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer 1923— OAKLAND-SAN FRANCISCO William B. Owen, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer 1924— WASHINGTON, D. C. Olive M. Jones, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer 1925— INDIANAPOLIS, IND. Jesse H. Newlon,. President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer 1926— PHILADELPHIA, PA. Mary McSkimmon, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer 192 7— SEATTLE, WASH. Francis G. Blair, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer 1928— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Cornelia S. Adair, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer 1929— ATLANTA, GA. Uel W. Lamkin, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer 1930— COLUMBUS, OHIO E. Ruth Pyrtle, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer 1931— LOS ANGELES, CALIF. Willis A. Sutton, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer 1932— ATLANTIC CITY, N. J. Florence Hale, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer 1933— CHICAGO, ILL. Joseph Rosier, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer 1934— WASHINGTON, D. C. Jessie Gray, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer 1935— DENVER, COLO. Henry Lester Smith, President Willard E. Givens, Secretary J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Emeritus R. E. Offenhauer, Treasurer 1936— PORTLAND, ORE. Agnes Samuelson, President Willard E. Givens, Secretary J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Emeritus R. E. Offenhauer, Treasurer 1937— DETROIT, MICH. Orville C. Pratt, President Willard E. Givens, Secretary J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Emeritus R. E. Offenhauer, Treasurer 702 National Education Association NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES OFFICERS— 1936-37 Orville C. Pratt . President . Superintendent of Schools, Spokane, Wash. Willard E. Givens . Executive Secretary . Washington, D. C. J. W. Crabtree . Secretary Emeritus . Washington, D. C. R. E. Offenhauer . Treasurer . Superintendent of Schools, Lima, Ohio Honorary Presidents John Dewey . New York, N. Y. Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey . Los Angeles, Calif. Executive Committee Orville C. Pratt . President . Superintendent of Schools, Spokane, Wash. Agnes Samuelson . First Vicepresident . State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa Joseph H. Saunders . Chairman, Board of Trustees, Superintendent of Schools, Newport News, Va. R. E. Offenhauer . Treasurer . Superintendent of Schools, Lima, Ohio Caroline S. Woodruff . Member by Election, Principal, State Normal School, Castleton, Vt. Board of Trustees Joseph H. Saunders . Chairman . ...Newport News, Va. Orville C. Pratt . President . Spokane, Wash. Edgar G. Doudna . Secretary, Board of Normal School Regents, Madison, Wis. Joseph Marr Gwinn . Professor of Education, San Jose State College, San Jose, Calif. A. L. Whittenberg . 2002 South Fifth Street, Springfield, Ill. Andrew Avery . Ernest H. Black . Marie Brotherson .... E. W. Butterfield . Evlyn Chasteen . W. L. Colvin . Mattie S. Doremus .... Herman E. Hendrix. . . . Miss Willie A. Lawson M. P. Moe . O. H. Plenzke . Agnes Samuelson . Vicepresidents County Superintendent of Schools, Bainbridge, Ga. President . Oklahoma Education Association, Bristow, Okla. Teacher . Kansas City, Kans. State Commissioner of Education, Hartford, Conn. President . Oakland Teachers Association, Oakland, Calif. Principal . High School, Jeanerette, La. Teacher . Paterson, N. J. State Superintendent of Schools, Phoenix, Ariz. Secretary . Arkansas Education Association, Little Rock, Ark Executive Secretary. . . .Montana Education Association, Helena, .Mont. Secretary . Wisconsin Education Association, Madison, Wis. First Vicepresident . State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa Board of Directors Directors Ex Officio Orville C. Pratt, President . Spokane, Wash. Agnes Samuelson, Vicepresident . Des Moines, Iowa R. E. Offenhauer, Treasurer . Lima, Ohio Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman, Board of Trustees . Newport News, Va. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary . Washington, D. C. Life Directors Cornelia S. Adair, 3208 Hawthorne Avenue . Richmond, Va. Francis G. Blair, 440 Canedy Street . Springfield, Ill. Board of Education . Nashville, Tenn. Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, 1201 East Sixteenth Avenue . Denver, Colo. Nicholas Murray Butler, President, Columbia University . New York, N. Y. P. P. Claxton, President, Austin Peay Normal School . Clarksville, Tenn. Hugh A. Graham, South Main Street . Mount Pleasant, Mich. Jessie Gray, Stevens School of Practice . Philadelphia, Pa. Associational Records and Information 703 Florence Hale, Hotel Davenport . Stamford, Conn. Frederick M. Hunter, Chancellor, University of Oregon . Eugene, Ore. Illinois State Teachers Association . Springfield, Ill. Olive M. Jones, Calvary House . New York, N. Y. James Y. Joyner . La Grange, N. C. Uel W. Lamkin, President, Northwest Missouri State Teachers College . Maryville, Mo. Mary McSkimmon, 205 Tappan Street . . Brookline, Mass. Jesse H. Newlon, Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia University . New York, N. Y. Carroll G. Pearse, 1721 Ludington Avenue . Milwaukee, Wis. Mrs. Josephine Corliss Preston . Burton, King County, Wash. E. Ruth Pyrtle, Principal, Bancroft School . Lincoln, Nebr. Joseph Rosier, President, Fairmont State Teachers College . Fairmont, W. Va. Agnes Samuelson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Des Moines, Iowa Henry Lester Smith, Dean, School of Education, Indiana University . Bloomington, Ind. George D. Strayer, Teachers College, Columbia University . New York, N. Y. J. W. Studebaker, U. S. Commissioner of Education . Washington, D. C. Willis A. Sutton, Superintendent of Schools . . . Atlanta, Ga. Teachers Institute . Philadelphia, Pa. John J. Tigert, President, University of Florida . Gainesville, Fla. Charl Ormond Williams, Director, Division of Field Service, N.E.A . Washington, D. C. George F. Zook, President, American Council on Education . Washington, D. C. State Directors Alabama . Alaska . Arizona . Arkansas . California . Colorado . Connecticut . Delaware . District of Columbia Florida . . * . Georgia . Hawaii . Idaho . Illinois . Indiana . Iowa . Kansas . Kentucky . Louisiana . Maine . Maryland . Massachusetts . Michigan . Minnesota . Mississippi . Missouri . Montana . Nebraska . Nevada . New Hampshire .... Newr Jersey . New Mexico . New York . North Carolina . North Dakota . Ohio . Oklahoma . Oregon . Pennsylvania . Rhode Island . South Carolina . South Dakota . Tennessee ......... . J. D. Williams, Principal, Avondale School . Birmingham . Everett R. Erickson, Head, Department of English, Alaska Public Schools . Juneau . T. G. Grieder, Superintendent of Schools . Winslow . W. E. Phipps, State Commissioner of Education . Little Rock . F. A. Henderson, Superintendent of Schools . Santa Ana . W. B. Mooney, Executive Secretary, Colorado Edu¬ cation Association . . . Denver . Helen T. Collins, Principal. Lovell School . New Haven . H. V. Holloway, State Superintendent of Public Instruction.. Dover . Edgar C. Higbie, President, Wilson Teachers College ....Washington . James S. Rickards, Executive Secretary, Florida Edu¬ cation Association . Tallahassee . M. D. Collins, State Superintendent of Schools . Atlanta . Earl L. McTaggart, Secretary, Hawaii Education Association . Honolulu . W. D. Vincent, Superintendent of Schools . Boise . John W. Thalman, Superintendent, Waukegan Town¬ ship Secondary Schools . Waukegan . Charles O. Williams, Secretary-Treasurer, Indiana State Teachers Association . Indianapolis . Fred D. Cram, Associate Professor of Education, Iowa State Teachers College . Cedar Falls . F. L. Schlagle, Superintendent of Schools . Kansas City . W. S. Taylor, Dean, College of Education, University of Kentucky . Lexington . J. N. Poche, Supervisor, St. Charles Parish Schools . Hahnville . William B. Jack, Superintendent of Schools . Portland . Eugene W. Pruitt, County Superintendent of Schools . Frederick . Annie C. Woodward, High School Teacher . Somerville . Grover Stout, Principal, 1851 West Grand Blvd . Detroit . Daisy Brown, Teacher, 407 South Sixth St . Stillwater . H. V. Cooper. Superintendent of Schools . Vicksburg . Thomas J. Walker, Associate Secretary, Missouri State Teachers Association . Columbia . M. P. Moe, Executive Secretary, Montana Education Association . Helena . George F. Knipprath, Technical High School . . Omaha . J. R. Warren, Teacher, Billinghurst Junior High School . Reno . Lyle Wilson Ewing, Head of English Department . Claremont . Raymond B. Gurley. Principal, Barringer High School . Newark . D. N. Pope, Acting Secretary, New Mexico Educational Association . . Santa Fe . Frederick Houk Law, Chairman, Department of Eng¬ lish, Stuyvesant High School . New York . Guy B. Phillips. Professor of Secondary Education, University of North Carolina . Chapel Hill . L. A. White, Superintendent of Schools . Minot . B. F. Stanton, Superintendent of Schools . Alliance . . . M. E. Hurst, Physics Instructor, Central High School . Tulsa . Austin Landreth, Superintendent of Schools.... . Pendleton . J. Herbert Kelley, Executive Secretary, Pennsylvania State Education Association . Harrisburg . James F. Rockett, State Director of Education . Providence . A. C. Flora, Superintendent of Schools . Columbia . N. E. Steele, Executive Secretary, South Dakota Edu¬ cation Association . Sioux Falls . S, L. Ragsdale, Principal, Hume High School . Memphis 704 National Education Association Texas . Utah . Vermont . . . Virginia .... Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Rush M. Caldwell, Teacher, Woodrow Wilson High School ... Dallas N. Howard Jensen, Principal, Central School . Tooele Joseph A. Wiggin, Principal, High School . Brattleboro Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Principal, Washington-Gatewood Schools . Berkeley, Norfolk Ernest W. Campbell, Office of Superintendent of Schools. . . .Seattle W. W. Trent, State Superintendent of Free Schools . Charleston Amanda H. Schuette, Director of Commercial Educa¬ tion, 220 South Van Buren St . Green Bay H. H. Moyer, Principal, High School . Rawlins HEADQUARTERS STAFF 1201 Sixteenth Street, Northwest, Washington, D. C. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Emeritus Directors of Divisions Mary J. Winfree . Harold A. Allan . Agnes Winn . Charl Ormond Williams T. D. Martin . Joy Elmer Morgan . William G. Carr . Frank W. Hubbard. Howard A. Dawson . Harriett M. Chase . Accounts and Records . Business . . . . Classroom Service . Field Service . Membership . Publications . Research . . . .Associate Director . Rural Service . Secretary’s Office Secretaries of Departments S. D. Shankland . American Association of School Administrators and Administrative Service Kathryn G. Heath . Deans of Women Eva G. Pinkston . Elementary School Principals Mary F. Hazell . Supervisors and Directors of Instruction NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION President — William C. Bagley, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. (Term expires 1937).- Vicepresident — Lida Lee Tall, President, State Teachers College, Towson, Md. (Term expires 1937). Secretary — Charl Ormond Williams, Field Secretary, National Education Association, 1201 16th St., N. W., Washington, D. C. (Term expires 1937). Executive Committee — Anna Laura Force, Principal, Lake Junior High School, Denver, Colo. (Term expires 1937); Margaret Kiely, Principal, Bridgeport City Normal School, Bridgeport, Conn. (Term expires 1937); A. L. Threliceld, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo. (Term expires 1938). OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS Department of Administrative Women in Education President — Mrs. Inez Johnson Lewis, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo. Vicepresident — Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Principal, Washington-Gatewood Schools, Norfolk, Va. Secretary — Mrs. Margaret Mendenhall Smith, Principal, Ebert School, Denver, Colo. Treasurer — Margaret C. Mackintosh, Principal, Public School No. 140, Brooklyn, N. Y. Auditor — Ruth West, Head, History Department, Lewis and Clark High School, Spokane, Wash. Directors — Elizabeth Wells Robertson, Director, Art Education, Chicago Public Schools, Chicago, Ill.; Sue M. Powers, Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn.; Agnes Samuel- son, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa; Mary Elizabeth O’Connor, 158 Highland St., Taunton, Mass.; Caroline Woodruff, Principal, State Normal School, Castleton, Vt. Association al Records and Information 705 Department of Adult Education President — Maude E. Aiton, Principal, Webster School, Tenth and H Sts., Washington, D. C. Vicepresident — George C. Mann, Chief, Division of Adult and Continuation Education, State De¬ partment of Public Instruction, Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary — Frances K. Wetmore. Director, Adult Education, Board of Education, Chicago, Ill. Editor, Bulletin— > Caroline A. Whipple, State Department of Public Instruction, Albany, N. Y. Treasurer — Jessie M. Robbins, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Executive Committee — L. R. Alderman, Director, Education Division. WPA, 1340 G St., N. W.. Washington, D. C.; Marguerite H. Burnett, State Director of Adult Education, Eleventh and Washington Sts., Wilmington, Del. American Association of School Administrators (Formerly Department of Superintendence) President — C. B. Glenn, Superintendent of Schools. Birmingham, Ala. First Vicepresident — A. L. Threlkeld. Superintendent of Schools, Denver. Colo. Second Vicepresident — J. W. Ramsey, Superintendent of Schools, Fort Smith, Ark. Executive Secretary — Sherwood D. Shankland, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington. D. C. Executive Committee — George C. Bush, Superintendent of Schools, South Pasadena, Calif. (Term expires 1938) ; Ben G. Graham. Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. (Term expires 1939); J. C. Cochran, Superintendent of Schools, San Antonio, Texas (Term expires 1940); Jesse H. Mason, Superintendent of Schools, Canton, Ohio (Term expires 1941); the president, first vicepresident, and second vicepresident, ex officio. American Association of Teachers Colleges (A Department of the N. E. A.) President — L. A. Pittenger, President, Ball State Teachers College. Muncie, Ind. Vicepresident — F. E. Engleman. Principal. State Normal School, New Haven, Conn. Secretary-Treasurer — Charles W. Hunt, Principal, State Normal School, Oneonta, N. Y. Executive Committee — C. E. Rarick, President. Fort Hays State College, Raj's, Kans. (Term expires 1938); E. J. Ashbaugh, Dean. School of Education. Miami University, Oxford. Ohio (Term expires 1939); Marvin S. Pittman, President, South Georgia Teachers College, Collegeboro, Ga. (Term expires 1940). American Educational Research Association (A Department of the N. E. A.) President — David H. Sutton, Director, Division of School Finance, State Department of Education, Columbus, Ohio. Vicepresident — W. A. Brownell. Professor of Educational Psj'chologj'. Duke Universitj', Durham, N. C. Secretary-Treasurer — Wllllam G. Carr. Director. Research Division, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Executive Committee — Philip A. Boyer. Director, Division of Educational Research, Board of Educa¬ tion, Philadelphia, Pa.; H. A. Greene, Director, Bureau of Educational Research and Service, State University of Iowa, Iowa Citj% Iowa; the officers of the Department, ex officio. Department of Art Education President — Grace M. Baker. Head, Division of Arts, Colorado State College of Education. Greelej’, Colo. Vicepresident — Muriel V. Sibell. Head. Art Department. University of Colorado. Boulder, Colo. Secretary-Treasurer — Mrs. Dora B. Hatfield, David Hill High School, Akron, Ohio. Department of Business Education President — Ernest A. Zelliot, Associate Professor of Education. Universitj' of Denver, Denver. Colo. First Vicepresident — Lola Maclean, Educational Director, Detroit Commercial College, Detroit, Mich. Second Vicepresident — Ida Granberg, Kelso High School. Kelso, Wash. Secretary-Treasurer — Mrs. Frances D. North. Western High School. Baltimore, Md. Editor, National Business Education Quarterly — Herbert A. Tonne. Assistant Professor of Education. New York University, New York. N. Y. Executive Committee — Joseph L. Kochka. Woodrow Wilson High School. Washington. D. C. (Term expires 1937); Mary Stuart, Brighton High School. Brighton. Mass. (Term expires 1937); C. D. Cocanower. Head. Department of Commerce. Phoenix Junior College. Phoenix, Ariz. (Term expires 1937); Benjamin R. Haynes, University of Southern California. Los .Angeles. Calif. (.Term expires 1937); Jessie Graham. Associate Professor of Commerce, State Teachers College, San Jose, Calif. (Term expires 1938): Ruby Perry. Allen High School of Commerce. New Orleans. La. (Term expires 1939); Elmer E. Spann abel. Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. (Term expires 1939). 706 National Education Association Department of Classroom Teachers President — Albert M. Shaw, Box 885. Arcade Annex, Los Angeles, Calif. Vicepresident — Mrs. Mary D. Barnes, 223 Summit Road, Elizabeth, N. J. Secretary — Frances Jelinek, Room 150, Hotel Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wis. Director Ex Officio— Mary C. Ralls, 6529 Jefferson St., Kansas City, Mo. Regional Directors — Eastern, Emily Tarbell, 235 Glenwood Ave., Syracuse, N. Y. (Term expires 1937); Midwestern, Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl, 312 South Eighth St., Minneapolis, Minn. (Term expires 1938); Western, Elphe K. Smith, Box 22, R. D. 1, Tigard, Ore. (Term expires 1939). Department of Deans of Women President — Harriett M. Allyn, Academic Dean, Mt. Holyoke College, South Hadley, Mass. Vicepresident — Alice C. Lloyd, Dean of Women, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Treasurer — Gladys C. Bell, Dean of Women, University of Denver, Denver, Colo. Secretary — Helen Pritchard, Dean of Girls, Hartford Public High School, Hartford, Conn. Headquarters Secretary — Kathryn G. Heath, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Department of Elementary School Principals President — Edy'the J. Brown, Principal, Kaley-Marquette Schools, South Bend, Ind. First Vicepresident — Harley W. Lyon, Principal, Longfellow-Cleveland Schools, Pasadena, Calif. Second Vicepresident — Maude A. Rhodes, Principal, Whitefoord School, 185 Westminster Drive, N. E., Atlanta, Ga. Third Vicepresident — Irvin A. Wilson, Principal, Delano School, Chicago, Ill. Fourth Vicepresident — Clifford E. Perry% Principal, Lents School, 4263 S. E. Belmont St., Portland, Ore. Fifth Vicepresident — Isabel Tucker, Principal, Festus Wade School, 2030 S. Vandeventer St., St. Louis, Mo. Executive Secretary — Eva G. Pinkston, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Executive Committee — Earl R. Laing, Principal, Burt School, Detroit, Mich. (Term expires 1937); Mason A. Stratton, Principal, Brighton Avenue School, Atlantic City, N. J. (Term expires 1938); Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Principal, Washington-Gatewood Schools, Norfolk, Va. (Term expires 1939); Ira M. Kline, Principal, Greenburgh #8 Schools, White Plains, N. Y. (Term expires 1940). Certification Division — Cassie F. Roys, Principal, Walnut Plill Schools, 2609 Bristol St., Omaha, Nebr. Life Membership Division — Herbert C. Hansen, 1045 North Lockwood Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Term expires 1937). Retirement Division — M. Emma Brookes, Principal, Miles-Cranwood Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education President — Mrs. Ada J. Farmer, 1623 Southeast Ladd Ave., Portland, Ore. Vicepresident — Evlyn Bird. 22 East Shadowlawn, Atlanta, Ga. Secretary-Treasurer— Anne O’Neill, Supervisor, Oregon Normal School, Monmouth, Ore. Regional Directors — Dodie Hooe, Supervisor, Kindergarten-Primary Education, Board of Education, Dallas. Texas (Term expires 1937); Helen L. Johnson, Supervisor, Central Teachers College, Mt. Pleasant, Mich. (Term expires 1938); Ethel Massengale, Supervisor, Kindergarten- Primary Education, Board of Education. Atlanta, Ga. (Term expires 1939); A. Maud Sproat, Supervisor, Kindergarten-Primary Education, City and County Building, Salt Lake City, Utah (Term expires 1940). Department of Lip Reading President — Eliza C. Hannegan. Lip Reading Teacher, Public School Adult Classes, Portland, Maine. Vicepresident — Mary E. Van Horn, 360 East Fiftieth St., New York, N. Y. Secretary-Treasurer — Marie K. Mason, Professor, Phonetics Laboratories, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Department of Music Education President — Robert B. Walsh, Music Department, Franklin High School, Portland, Ore. Secretary — Lena Belle Tartar, Music Department, Salem High School, Salem, Ore. Department of Rural Education President — Fred C. Fischer, Superintendent, Wayne County Schools, Detroit, Mich. Vicepresident — I. Jewel Simpson, Assistant State Superintendent in charge of Elementary Instruction, Baltimore, Md. Secretary — Mrs. Katherine M. Cook, Chief, Division of Special Problems, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. Executive Committee — Francis L. Bailey, State Commissioner of Education, State House, Montpelier, Yt. (Term expires 1938); O. H. Bennett, Superintendent, Hamilton County Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio (Term expires 1938); Chloe C. Baldridge, Director of Rural Education, State Department of Public Instruction. Lincoln, Nebr. (Term expires 1940); R. D. Baldwin, Professor of Educa¬ tion. West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va. (Term expires 1941); S. T. Burns, State Director of Music, Baton Rouge, La. (Term expires 1942); president and vicepresident, ex officio members of Executive Committee. Associational Records and Information 707 Department of School Health and Physical Education President — Mrs. Edna W. Bailey, Professor of Education, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. Vicepresident — A. G. Ireland, State Director of Health, Safety, and Physical Education, Trenton, N. J. Secretary-Treasurer — James E. Rogers, Director, National Physical Education Service, National Recreation Association, New York, N. Y. Executive Committee — F. W. Maroney, Professor of Physical Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. (Term expires 1937); Lulu V. Cline, Supervisor, Health and Physical Education, South Bend, Ind. (Term expires 1938); M. P. Isaminger, Professor of Hygiene, Oregon State Agricultural College, Corvallis, Ore. (Term expires 1939); Jessie R. Garrison, Supervisor, Health and Physical Education, State Department of Education, Mont¬ gomery, Ala. (Term expires 1940). Department of Science Instruction President — Ira C. Davis, Assistant Professor, University High School, Madison, Wis. Eastern Vicepresident — Mildred M. Fahy, Principal, Peirce Elementary School, Chicago, Ill. Western Vicepresident— Charles L. Hampton, Science Instructor, Piedmont Public Schools, Oakland, Calif. Secretary — Lillian C. Compton, Assistant Superintendent, Alleghany County Schools, Cumberland, Md. Treasurer — Esther W. Scott, Supervisor, Elementary Science, James F. Oyster School, Washington, D. C. Department of Secondary Education President — Ernest D. Lewis, Chairman, Department of Social Studies, Evander Childs High School, New York, N. Y. Vicepresident — George R. Rankin, Boys Technical High School, Milwaukee, Wis. Secretary — Nettie R. Bolland, High School of Commerce, Portland, Ore. Treasurer — L. D. Keigley, Chester S. Morey Junior High School, Denver, Colo. Department of Secondary School Principals President — McClellan G. Jones, Principal, Union High School, Huntington Beach, Calif. First Vicepresident — Paul E. Elicker, Principal, Newton High School, Newtonville, Mass. Second Vicepresident — H. V. Kepner, Principal, West Side High School, Denver, Colo. Executive Secretary — H. V. Church, 5835 Kimbark Ave., Chicago, Ill. Executive Committee — Willard N. Van Slyck, Topeka, Kans. (Term expires 1938); K. J. Clark, Principal, Murphy High School, Mobile, Ala. (Term expires 1938); John E. Wellwood, Prin¬ cipal, Central High School, Flint, Mich. (Term expires 1939); V. M. Hardin, Principal Reed Junior High School, Springfield, Mo. (Term expires 1940). Department of Social Studies President — Elmer Ellis, Department of History, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. First Vicepresident — C. C. Barnes, Head, Social Science Department, Detroit Public Schools, Detroit, Mich. Second Vicepresident — Ruth West, Lewis and Clark High School, Spokane, Wash. Secretary-Treasurer — Howard E. Wtilson, Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, Cam¬ bridge, Mass. Executive Committee — Fremont P. Wirth, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn.; Nelle E. Bowman, Central High School, Tulsa, Okla. ; ex-presidents and officers. Department of Special Education President — Lettisha E. Henderson, Supervisor, Special Education, Public Schools, St. Paul, Minn. Vicepresident — Georgia B. Howe, 1748 S. E. Yamhill St., Portland, Ore. Secretary-Treasurer — Mrs. Nellie C. MacDonald, Franklin Junior High School, Minneapolis, Minn. Department of Superintendence (See American Association of School Administrators) Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction President — Edith Bader, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Ann Arbor, Mich. First Vicepresident — Hollis L. Caswell, Director, Division of Surveys and Field Studies, George Peabody College, Nashville, Tenn. Second Vicepresident — Lucille Nicol, Assistant Superintendent of Schools. Jamaica. L. I.. N. Y. Field Secretary — James F. Hosic, Professor Emeritus of Education, Teachers College, Columbia LTni- versity, New York, N. Y. Executive Secretary — Mary F. Hazell, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Executive Committee — Mildred English, Director of Training School, Georgia State College for Women, Milledgeville, Ga. (Term expires 1938); Paul T. Rankin, Supervising Director of Curriculum and Research, Board of Education, Detroit, Mich. (Term expires 1939); Rudolph D. Lindquist, Director, The University School, Columbus, Ohio (Term expires 1940); the officers of the Department, ex officio. 708 National Education Association Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics President — Freda G. Winning, Teacher, New York University, New York, N. Y. Vicepresident — Mrs. Dorotha F. Marlow, Teacher, Shaker Heights High School, Shaker Heights, Ohio. Secretary — Mrs. Erma B. Christy, Supervisor, Home Economics, 103 Central High School Building, M untie, Ind. Treasurer — Clara Lee Cone, Teacher, 1041 West Peachtree St., Atlanta, Ga. Department of Visual Instruction President — Nelson L. Greene. Editor, Educational Screen, 64 East Lake St., Chicago, Ill. First Vicepresident — Wilber Emmert, Director, Visual Education, State Teachers College, Indiana, Pa. Second Vicepresident — Annette Glick. Director, Visual Education, Board of Education, Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary-Treasurer — E. C. Waggoner. 64 East Lake St., Chicago, Ill. Executive Committee — Daniel C. Knowlton, Professor of History, New York University, New York, X. Y. (Term expires 1937); John A. Hollinger. Director of Nature Study and Visualization, Board of Education, Pittsburgh. Pa. (Term expires 1937); William H. Dudley, Director, Dudley Visual Education Service, 736 South Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Term expires 1938); Mrs. Grace F. Ramsey, Assistant Curator of Education, American Museum of Natural History, New York. X. Y. (Term expires 1939); Robert F. Collier, Jr., Science Teacher, South High School. Denver, Colo. (Term expires 1940): Cline M. Koon, Senior Specialist, Radio and Visual Education, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. (Term expires 1941). Department of Vocational ^Education President — Frederick G. Leasure, City Director of Vocational Education, School Administration Building, Portland, Ore. Secretary — Albert F. Siepert. Bradley Institute, Peoria, Ill. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES OFFICERS— 1937-38 Caroline S. Woodruff . President . Principal, State Normal School, Castleton, Vt. Willard E. Gwens . Executive Secretary . 1201 16th St., N. W., Washington, D. C. J. W. Crabtree . Secretary Emeritus . 1201 16th St., N. W., Washington, D. C. R. E. Offenhauer . Treasurer . Superintendent of Schools, Lima, Ohio Honorary John Dewey . Professor Emeritus of Philosophy . Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey . 1506 Arapahoe St., Los Angeles, Calif. Executive Committee Caroline S. Woodruff . President . Principal, State Normal School, Castleton, Vt. Orville C. Pratt . First Vicepresident . Superintendent of Schools, Spokane, Wash. Joseph H. Saunders . Chairman, Board of Trustees... . Superintendent of Schools, Newport News. Va. R. E. Offenhauer . Treasurer . Superintendent of Schools, Lima, Ohio Amy H. Hinrichs . Principal. Audubon School, New Orleans, La. Fred D. Cram . Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl. . R. F. D. 2, Mound. Minn. Reuben T. Shaw . 1327 Real Estate Trust Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa. David A. Van Buskirk . Superintendent of Schools, Hastings, Mich. Board of Trustees Joseph H. Saunders . Chairman . Superintendent of Schools. Newport News. Va. Caroline S. Woodruff . President . Principal, State Normal School, Castleton, Vt. Edgar G. Doudna . Secretary . Board of Normal School Regents, Madison, Wis. A. L. Whittenberg . 2002 South 5th St., Springfield, Ill. Florence Hale . Hotel Davenport, Stamford, Conn. Vicepresidents Orville C. Pratt . First Vicepresident . Superintendent of Schools, Spokane, Wash. Andrew Avery . . County Superintendent of Schools. Bainbridge, Ga. Evlyn Chasteen . Teacher, 536 32nd St.. Oakland, Calif. J. J. Guenther . Teacher, Technical High School. Omaha, Nebr. H. Claude Hardy . Superintendent of Schools, White Plains, N. Y. Associational Records and Information 709 Harley W. Holmes . Superintendent of Schools, Marshall, Mich. R. L. Hunt . Superintendent of Schools, Madison, S. Dak. Frank A. Jensen . Superintendent, LaSalle-Peru Twp., High School and Junior College, LaSalle, Ill. Daisy Lord . 102 7 West Main St., Waterbury, Conn. Raymond H. Snyder . President, Normal School, Albion, Idaho B. C. Tighe . Principal, Senior High School, 1021 8th St., Fargo, N. Dak. N. Elliot Willis . Principal, Junior High School, 171 Woodside Ave., Winthrop, Mass. Board of Directors . Castleton, Vt. . . .Spokane, Wash. . Lima, Ohio Newport News, Va. Washington, D. C. Life Directors Caroline S. Woodruff, President . Orville C. Pratt, Vicepresident . R. E. Offenhauer, Treasurer . Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman Board of Trustees Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary . Board of Education . Nashville, Tenn. Illinois State Teachers Association, Robert C. Moore, Secretary . Springfield, Ill. Teachers Institute . Philadelphia, Pa. State Directors Alabama . Alaska . Arizona . Arkansas . California . Colorado . Connecticut . Delaware . District of Columbia Florida . Georgia . Hawaii . Idaho . Illinois . Indiana .... Iowa . Kansas . Kentucky Louisiana . . Maine . Maryland . . Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi . Missouri Montana . Nebraska . Nevada . New Hampshire New Jersey . New Mexico . New York . North Carolina . North Dakota . Ohio . Oklahoma . Oregon . Pennsylvania . Rhode Island . South Carolina South Dakota . Tennessee . Texas . Utah . . L. Frazer Banks, Assistant Superintendent of Schools. . . .Birmingham . Everett R. Erickson, University of Alaska . College . Harold W. Smith, Superintendent of Schools . Glendale . W. E. Phipps, State Commissioner of Education . Little Rock . Helen Holt, Teacher, 1543-B Santa Clara Ave . Alameda . W. B. Mooney, Executive Secretary, Colorado Education Association . Denver . Helen T. Collins, Principal, Lovell School . New Haven . H. V. Holloway, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Dover . Hugh Smith, Principal, Jefferson Junior High School . Washington . James S. Rickards, Executive Secretary, Florida Education Association . Tallahassee . M. D. Collins, State Superintendent of Schools . Atlanta . Earl L. McTaggart, Executive Secretary, Hawaii Education Association . Honolulu . W. D. Vincent, Superintendent of Schools . Boise . John W. Thalman, Superintendent, Township Secondary Schools . Waukegan . Charles O. Williams, Secretary, State Teachers Association . Indianapolis . Fred D. Cram, Associate Professor of Education, Iowa State Teachers College . Cedar Falls . F. L. Schlagle, Superintendent of Schools . Kansas City . D. Y. Dunn, Superintendent, Fayette County Schools .... Lexington . J. N. Poche, Supervisor, St. Charles Parish Schools . Hahnville . William B. Jack, Superintendent of Schools . Portland . Eugene W. Pruitt, County Superintendent of Schools .... Frederick . Annie C. Woodward, High-School Teacher . Somerville . Grover Stout, Principal, Wingert School . Detroit . Daisy Brown, Teacher, 407 South 6th St . Stillwater . H. V. Cooper, Superintendent of Schools . Vicksburg . Thomas J. Walker, Associate Secretary, State Teachers Association ... Columbia . M. P. Moe, Executive Secretary, Montana Education Association . . Helena . Alice Robinson, Dean of Women, State Teachers College . . Kearney . C. Layton Galbraith, Superintendent of Schools . McGill . Lyle Wilson Ewing, Head, English Department . Claremont . Lester A. Rodes, Supervising Principal of Schools . South River . D. N. Pope, Executive Secretary, New Mexico Educa¬ tional Association . . Santa Fe . Frederick H. Law, Chairman, Department of English, Stuyvesant High School .... New York . Elmer H. Garinger, Principal, Central High School . Charlotte . L. A. White, Superintendent of Schools . Minot . B. F. Stanton, Superintendent of Schools . Alliance . Kate Frank, Teacher, Central High School . Muskogee . C. R. Bowman, County Superintendent of Schools . Medford . J. Herbert Kelley, Executive Secretary, State Educa¬ tion Association . . Harrisburg . James F. Rockett, State Director of Education . Providence . A. C. Flora, Superintendent of Schools . Columbia . S. B. Nissen, Editor, S.D.E.A. Journal . Sioux Falls . S. L. Ragsdale, Principal, Humes High School . Memphis . Rush M. Caldwell, Teacher, Woodrow Wilson High School . . Dallas . N. Howard Jensen, Principal, Central Fligh School . Tooele 710 National Education Association Vermont . Joseph A. Wiggin, Principal, High School . Brattleboro Virginia . Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Principal, Washington-Gatewood Schools . . Norfolk Washington . Cora Oleson, Teacher, Ridpath Hotel . Spokane West Virginia . W. W. Trent, State Superintendent of Free Schools . Charleston Wisconsin . Amanda H. Schuette, Director of Commercial Education, 220 South Van Buren St . Green Bay Wyoming . H. H. Moyer, Principal, High School . Rawlins NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION President — L. A. Pechstein, Professor of Education, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio (1940). Vicepresident — Edgar G. Doudna, Secretary, Board of Normal School Regents, Madison, Wis. (1938). Secretary — Margaret Kiely, Principal, Bridgeport City Normal School, Bridgeport, Conn. (1939). Executive Committee — A. L. Threlkeld, Superintendent of Schools, Montclair, N. J. (1938); Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Principal, Washington-Gatewood Schools. Norfolk, Va., (1939); H. V. Hollo¬ way, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Dover, Del. (1940). OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS Department of Administrative Women in Education President — Mrs. Inez Johnson Lewis, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo. Vicepresident- -Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Principal, Washington-Gatewood Schools, Norfolk, Va. Secretary — Mrs. Margaret Mendenhall Smith, Principal. Ebert School, Denver, Colo. Treasurer — Margaret C. Mackintosh, Principal, Public School No. 140, Brooklyn, N. Y. Auditor — Ruth West, Lewis and Clark High School, Spokane, Wash. Directors — Elizabeth Wells Robertson, Director, Art Education, Public Schools, Chicago, Ill.; Sue M. Powers, Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn.; Agnes Samuelson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa; Mary Elizabeth O’Connor, 158 High¬ land St., Taunton, Mass.; Caroline Woodruff, President. State Normal School, Castleton, Vt. Department of Adult Education President — Maude E. Aiton, Principal, Webster School, Washington, D. C. Vicepresident — George C. Mann, Chief, Division, Adult and Continuation Education, State Depart¬ ment of Public Instruction, Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary — Frances K. W'etmore, Director, Adult Education, Board of Education, Chicago, Ill. Editor, Bulletin — Caroline A. Whipple, State Department of Public Instruction, Albany, N. Y. Executive Committee — L. R. Alderman, Director, Education Division, WPA, Washington, D. C.; Marguerite H. Burnett, State Director of Adult Education, Eleventh and Washington Sts., Wilmington, Del. American Association for Health and Physical Education (A Department of the N. E. A.) President -C. H. McCloy, Research Professor of Anthropometry and Physical Education, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. President-Elect — N. P. Neilson, Associate Professor of Physical Education and Hygiene, Stanford Uni¬ versity, Stanford, Calif. Viceprcsident — Margaret Bell, Director, Department of Physical Education, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Past-President — W. G. Moorhead, Board of Education, Wichita, Kans. Secretary-Editor — E. D. Mitchell, Associate Professor of Physical Education, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Governing Board — A. O. Anderson, Public Schools, St. Louis, Mo.; Percy Clapp, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho; Laurentine B. Collins, Public Schools, Detroit. Mich.; F. W. Cozens, University of California, Los Angeles, Calif.; C. W. Davis, Public Schools, Berkeley, Calif.; H. A. Jones, State Department of Education, Albany, N. Y. ; Alfreda Mosscrop, Alabama College, Montevallo, Ala.; Gertrude E. Moulton, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio; Jay B. Nash, New York University, New York, N. Y. American Association of School Administrators (A Department of the N. E. A.) President — Charles B. Glenn, Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham, Ala. First Vicepresident — A. L. Threlkeld, Superintendent of Schools, Montclair, N. J. Second Vicepresident — J. W. Ramsey, Superintendent of Schools, Fort Smith, Ark. Executive Secretary — Sherwood D. Shankland, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington. D. C. Executive Committee — George C. Bush, Superintendent of Schools, South Pasadena, Calif. (1938); Bf.n G. Graham, Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. (1939); J. C. Cochran, Superin¬ tendent of Schools, San Antonio, Texas (1940); Jesse H. Mason, Superintendent of Schools, Canton, Ohio (1941); the president, first vicepresident and second vicepresident, ex officio. Associational Records and Information 711 American Association of Teachers Colleges (A Department of the N. E. A.) President — L. A. Pittenger, President, Ball State Teachers College, Muncie, Ind. Vicepresident — F. E. Engleman, Principal, State Normal School, New Haven, Conn. Secretary-Treasurer — Charles W. Hunt, Principal, State Normal School, Oneonta, N. Y. Executive Committee — C. E. Rarick, President, Fort Hays State College, Hays, Kans. (19.18); E. J. Ashbaugh, Dean, School of Education, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio (1939); Marvin S. Pittman, President, South Georgia Teachers College, Collegeboro, Ga. (1940). American Educational Research Association (A Department of the N. E. A.) President — David H. Sutton, Director, Division of School Finance, State Department of Education, Columbus, Ohio. Vicepresident — W. A. Brownell, Professor of Educational Psychology, Duke University, Durham, N. C. Secretary-Treasurer — William G. Carr, Director, Research Division, National Education Association, Washington. D. C. Executive Committee- Philip A. Boyer, Director, Division of Educational Research, Board of Educa¬ tion, Philadelphia, Pa. (1938); H. A. Greene, Director, Bureau of Educational Research and Service, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa (1938); and the officers of the Department ex officio. Department of Art Education President - Grace M. Baker, Head, Division of Arts, Colorado State College of Education, Greeley, Colo. Vicepresident — Muriel V. Sibell, Head, Art Department, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. Secretary — Mrs. Annabel J. Nathans, Director, Art Education, Public Schools, New Orleans, La. Treasurer and Chairman of Membership Committee — Mrs. Dora B. Hatfield, David Hill High School, Akron, Ohio. Department of Business Education President-- Lola Maclean, Detroit Commercial College, Detroit, Mich. First Vicepresident Joseph DeBrum, Sequoia Union High School, Redwood City, Calif. Second Vicepresident — Frederick Riecke, South Side High School. Newark, N. J. Secretary-Treasurer — Mrs. Frances D. North, Western High School, Baltimore, Md. Editor, Quarterly — Herbert A. Tonne, Assistant Professor of Education, New York University, New York, N. Y. Executive Committee — Jessie Graham, Associate Professor of Commerce, State Teachers College, San Jose. Calif. (1938); Ruby Perry, Allen High School of Commerce, New Orleans, La. (1939); Elmer E. Sp Annabel, Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. (1939); Mary Stuart, Brighton High School. Brighton, Mass. (1940): Vernal H. Carmichael, Ball State Teachers College, Muncie, Ind. (1940); Herbert A. Tonne, Assistant Professor of Education, New York University, New York, N. Y. (1940). Department of Classroom Teachers President — Emily A. Tarbell, 235 Glenwood Ave., Syracuse, N. Y. Vicepresident-- -David E. Temple, Room 215, Masonic Temple Bldg., Tulsa, Okla. Secretary — Frances Jelinek, Room 150, Hotel Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wis. Director Ex Officio —Albert M. Shaw, Box 885, Arcade Annex, Los Angeles, Calif. Regional Directors — Midwestern, Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl, R. F. I). 2, Mound, Minn. (1938); Western, Elphe K. Smith, Box 22, R. F. D. 1, Tigard, Ore. (1939); Eastern, Mrs. Mary D. Barnes, 223 Summit Road, Elizabeth, N. J. (1940). Department of Deans of Women President Harriett M. Allan, Academic Dean, Mt. Holyoke, South Hadley, Mass. Vice president ‘ Alice C. Lloyd, Dean of Women, LTniversity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Treasurer- Gladys C. Bell, Dean of Women, University of Denver, Denver, Colo. Secretary — Helen Pritchard. Dean of Girls, Hartford Public High School, Hartford. Conn. Headquarters Secretary — Kathryn G. Heath, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Department of Elementary School Principals President — Mason A. Stratton, Principal. Brighton Avenue School, Atlantic City, N. J. First Vicepresident — Edythe J. Brown, Principal, Kaley-Marquette Schools, South Bend, Ind. Second Vicepresident — Isabel Tucker, Principal. Festus Wade School, St. Louis, Mo. Third Vicepresident — H. B. Norton, Principal, Robinson School, Birmingham, Ala. Fourth Vicepresident — Arnold Gregory, Principal, Raupp School, Lincoln Park, Mich. Fifth Vicepresident— Harry H. Haw, Principal. Alice Birney School, San Diego, Calif. Executive Secretary— Eva G. Pinkston, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Executive Committee — Maude A. Rhodes, Principal, Whitefoord School, Atlanta, Ga. (1938); Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Principal. Washington-Gatewood Schools, Norfolk, Va. (1939); Tra M. Kt.ine, 177 Gibson Ave., White Plains, N. Y. (1940); Irvin A. Wilson, Principal, Delano School, Chicago. Ill. (1941). Certification Division Cassie F. Roys, Principal, Walnut Hill Schools, Omahn. Nebr. Fife Membership Division Herbert C. Hansen, 1045 No. Lockwood Ave., Ch'cago, Ill. Retirement Division — M. Emma Brookes, Principal, Miles-Cranwood Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. 712 National Education Association Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education President — Mrs. Ada J. Farmer. 1623 Southeast Ladd Ave., Portland, Ore. Vicepresident — Evlyn Bird. 22 East Shadowlawn, Atlanta. Ga. Secretary-Treasurer Anne O'Neill. Supervisor, Oregon Normal School. Monmouth. Ore. Regional Directors — Helen L. Johnson. 206 South College St., Mt. Pleasant, Mich. (1938); Ethel Massexgale, Supervisor. Kindergarten-Primary Education, Board of Education. Atlanta, Ga. (1939); A. Maud Sproat. Supervisor. Kindergarten-Primary Education, Salt Lake City, LTtah (1940); Ethelyx L. Mitchell. 5535 Kenmore Ave., Chicago, Ill. (1941). Department of Lip Reading President — Eliza C. Hannegan, Lip Reading Teacher, Public School Adult Classes, 25 Washburn Ave.. Portland. Maine. ]' ice president— -Mary E. Van Horn. 360 East Fiftieth St.. New York. N. Y. Secretary-Treasurer — Elsie O. Bexsing. 932-38th St., Des Moines. Iowa. Department of Music Education No officers were elected for 1937-38. Department of Rural Education President — Fred C. Fischer. Superintendent, Wavne Countv Schools, 2615 Barium Tower, Detroit. Mich. Vicepresident — I. Jewel Simpson. Assistant State Superintendent in charge of Elementary Instruction, Baltimore, Md. Secretary — Mrs. Katherine M. Cook, Chief, Division of Special Problems, U. S. Office of Education, Washington. D. C. Executive Committee — O. H. Bennett. Superintendent. Hamilton County Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio (1938): Francis L. Bailey. State Commissioner of Education, Montpelier, Vt. (1938); Chloe C. Baldridge. Director of Rural Education. State Department of Public Instruction. Lincoln. Nebr. (1940); R. D. Baldwin. Professor of Education. West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va. (1941): S. T. Burns. State Director of Music, Baton Rouge. La. (1942); and the president, and vicepresident, ex-officio. Department of Science Instruction President — Mildred Fahy. Principal. Peirce Elementarj- School, Chicago, Ill. Eastern Vicepresident — Philip G. Johnson, Professor of Secondary Education, Cornell University, Ithaca. N. Y. Western Vicepresident -Charles L. Hampton. Physics Instructor. Piedmont High School, 5536 Thomas St.. Oakland. Calif. Secretary — Lillian C. Compton. Assistant Superintendent of Allegany County Schools, Cumber¬ land. Md. Treasurer — Harold E. Wise, School of Education. University of Nebraska. Lincoln. Nebr. Department of Secondary Education President — George R. Rankin. Boys Technical High School. Milwaukee. Wis. Vicepresident — Ralph S. Christen. Wilbur Wright Junior High School. Detroit. Mich. Secretary — Mrs. Nettie R. Bolland. High School of Commerce. Portland, Ore. Executive Secretary — Ernest D. Lewis, Evander Childs High School, New York, N. Y. Treasurer — Allegra Nesbit. Lew Wallace High School, Gary, Ind. Department of Secondary School Principals President — McClellan G. Jones. Principal. Union High School. Huntington Beach. Calif. First Vicepresident— Paul E. Elicker. Principal. Newton High School. Newtonville. Mass. Second Vicepresident — H. V. Kepner. Principal. West Side High School. Denver. Colo. Executive Secretary — H. V. Church. 5835 Kimbark Ave., Chicago. Ill. Executive Committee — Willard N. Van Slyck. Topeka, Kans. (1938): K. J. Clark. Principal. Murphy High School. Mobile. Ala. (1938); John E. Wellwood. Principal. Central High School. Flint. Mich. (1939); V. M. Hardin, Principal, Reed Junior High School, Springfield, Mo. (1940). Department of Social Studies President— Elmer Ellis. Department of History, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. First Viccpresident — C. C. Barnes, Head. Social Science Department, Public Schools, Detroit, Mich. Second Vicepresident — Ruth West. Lewis and Clark High School. Spokane. Wash. Secretary-Treasurer — Howard E. Wilson. Graduate School of Education. Harvard University, Cam¬ bridge. Mass. Executive Committee — Fremont P. Wirth. George Peabody College for Teachers. Nashville. Tenn. Nelle E. Bowman. Central High School. Tulsa. Okla.: and ex-presidents and officers. Associational Records and Information 713 Department of Special Education President — Lettisha E. Henderson, Director, Special Education, Public Schools, St. Paul, Minn. Vicepresident — Mrs. Nellie C. MacDonald, 1104 24th Ave., N. E., Minneapolis, Minn. Secretary-Treasurer — Rosemarie Dacey, Oakman Crippled School, Detroit, Mich. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction President — Edith Bader, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Ann Arbor, Mich. First Vicepresident — Hollis L. Caswell, Director, Division of Surveys and Field Studies, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. Second Vicepresident — Lucille Nicol, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Jamaica, L. I., N. Y. Field Secretary — James F. Hosic, Professor Emeritus of Education, Teachers College, Columbia Uni¬ versity, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Executive Secretary — Mary' F. H.azell, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Executive Committee — Mildred English, Director of Training School, Georgia State College for Women, Milledgeville, Ga. (1938); Paul T. Rankin, Supervising Director of Curriculum and Research, Board of Education, Detroit, Mich. (1939); Rudolph D. Lindquist, Director, The L’niversity School, Columbus, Ohio (1940); the officers of the Department, ex officio. Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics President — Freda G. Winning, School of Education. New York University, New York, N. Y. Vicepresident — Lela Tomlinson, State Department of Public Instruction, Baton Rouge, La. Secretary — Mrs. Natalie S. Diermier, Woodrow Wilson High School, Washington, D. C. Treasurer — Clara Lee Cone, Supervisor of Home Economics, 1041 W. Peachtree St., Atlanta, Ga. Department of Visual Instruction President — Rupert Peters, Director, Visual Instruction, Public Schools, Kansas City, Mo. First Vicepresident— Edgar Dale, College of Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Second Vicepresident — Rita Hochheimer, Acting Director of Visual Education, Public Schools, New York, N. Y. Executive Committee — William H. Dudley, Director, Dudley Visual Education Service, 746 South Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill. (1938); Marian Evans, Director, Visual Instruction, Public Schools, San Diego, Calif. (1939); Robert F. Collier, Jr., Science Department, South High School, Denver, Colo. (1940); J. E. Hansen, Director, Bureau of Visual Instruction, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. (1941); H. A. Henderson, Butler University, Indianapolis, Ind. (1942). Department of Vocational Education President — Earl L. Bedell. Director. Department of Vocational Education. Public Schools, Detroit, Mich. Secretary — Irene Hickey, Detroit City Gas Company, Detroit, Mich. 714 National Education Association COMMITTEES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, 1936-37 COMMITTEE ON ACADEMIC FREEDOM (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Smith, Henry Lester, Chairman; Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Babcock, Mildred D., 99 South Grove St., Valley Stream, Long Island, N. Y. Kilpatrick, William H., Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Tarbell, Emily, 235 Glenwood Ave., Syra¬ cuse, N. Y. (Blodgett Vocational High School). West, Ruth, Head, Department of Social Studies, Lewis and Clark High School, Spokane, Wash. COMMITTEE ON AMENDING THE CHARTER (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Shaw, Reuben T., Chairman; 1327 Real Estate Trust Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa. Cram, Fred D., Extension Division, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa Dahl, Mrs. Myrtle Hooper, R. F. D. 2. Mound, Minn. Ewing, Sara C., 5461 Pleasant Run Park¬ way, Indianapolis, Ind. Hardy, H. Claude, Superintendent of Schools, White Plains, N. Y. COMMITTEE ON BYLAWS AND RULES (Authorized by the Bylaws) Adair, Cornelia S.. 3208 Hawthorne Ave., Richmond, Va. (3 years) Deamer, Arthur, Superintendent, Independ¬ ent School District, Cedar Rapids, Iowa (1 year) Hendrix, H. E., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Phoenix, Ariz. (4 years) Marsh, Arthur L., Executive Secretary, Washington Education Association. Seattle, Wash. (5 years) Shaw, Reuben T., 1327 Real Estate Trust Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa. (2 years) COMMITTEE ON CREDENTIALS Colton, Albert S., Chairman; 5936 Chabolyn Terrace, Oakland, Calif. Barrows, Max, Superintendent of Schools, Barton, Vt. Benedict, Claude B., Oakhurst Circle, Brecks- ville, Ohio Berto, Thomas J., 3336 North Oakland, Mil¬ waukee, Wis. Briggs, Pearl A., 1718 Seneca St., Buffalo, N. Y. Bryan, P. D., 1628 Colorado Blvd., Denver, Colo. Carroll. Agnes, Principal, Elementary School, Cumberland, Md. Clark, J. J., Superintendent of Schools, Phoe¬ nix, Ariz. Clark, Robert Wayne, President, Philadel¬ phia Teachers Association, Philadelphia, Pa. Connors, Julia A., Junior High School, Woon¬ socket, R. I. Cooper, H. V.. Superintendent of Schools, Vicksburg. Miss. Dolph, A. H.. Superintendent of Schools, Lander, Wyo. Engle, C. H., Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Springfield, Ill. Fitzgerald, J. E., Principal, Hopkins School, Sioux City, Iowa Fowler, B. A., Executive Secretary, Utah Education Association, Salt Lake City, Utah Gordon, Eugene B., Principal, High School, Brewer, Maine Greer, Mrs. Lucille, Ponca City, Okla. Grier, B. M., Superintendent of Schools, Athens, Ga. Hawfield, S. G., Superintendent, Cabarrus County Schools. Concord. N. C. Hoover, Theo. W., 6402 Dudley, Lincoln, Nebr. Hunter, Eula, Stripling High School, Ft. Worth, Texas Jackson, C. W., Principal, Beaver High School, Bluefield, W. Va. Jahnke, Clara L., West 1930 Eighth Ave., Spokane, Wash. Julian, Roy, Superintendent of Schools, Val¬ paraiso. Ind. Keesee, T. O., 132 Maple Ave., Newport News. Va. Kelly, O. D., Jr., County Superintendent of Schools, Darlington. S. C. Landreth, Austin, Superintendent of Schools, Pendleton, Ore. Langston, Mrs. Margaret, 6809 Wellington St., Tampa, Fla. Lawson, Miss Willie A., Executive Sec¬ retary, Arkansas Education Association. Little Rock, Ark. Lougarre, T. L.. Principal, High School, Church Point. La. Lund, C. B., Teachers College, St. Cloud, Minn. McMahan, Herbert E., Supervisor. Commer¬ cial Education, Wilmington High School, Wilmington, Del. MacLean. Daniel W., Headmaster, Berlin High School. Berlin. N. H. Malik. Frances M., 1725 Bay St., Saginaw. Mich. Miller, Peggy, 621 S. Lafayette, Chanute, Kans. Association al Records and Information 715 Poelstra, Julia, Public School No. 15, Pater¬ son, N. J. Ringsrud, Olive A., Elk Point, S. Dak. Roth, George, President, Bridgeport Teach¬ ers Association, Bridgeport, Conn. Sams. Mrs. Moylin M., Eastern High School, Washington, D. C. Scantlin, Roy, County Superintendent of Schools, Neosho, Mo. Schroeder, Elroy H., Superintendent of Schools, Grand Forks, N. Dak. Smyth, W. G., Principal, Park Junior High School, Knoxville, Tenn. Spencer, G. R., Superintendent, Eddy County Schools, Carlsbad, N. Mex. Swope, D. C., Principal, Northside Junior High School, Reno, Nev. Tobias, Edna M., Hardin, Mont. Walker, Morton, Southern Junior High School, Louisville, Ky. Weaver, Corinne, High School, Anniston, Ala. Wong, Maria K., 1294-A Akoko Lane, Hono¬ lulu, Hawaii Woodbury, Mrs. Grace I., 4 Lakecroft Court, Melrose, Mass. Wyly, Minnie J., Longwood Territorial School, Kodiak, Alaska COMMITTEE TO COOPERATE WITH THE NATIONAL ASSOCIA¬ TION OF TEACHERS IN COLORED SCHOOLS (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Newbold, N. C., Chairman; State Director of Negro Education, State Department of Education, Raleigh, N. C. Banks, W. R., Principal, Prairie View State Normal and Industrial College, Prairie View, Texas Brawley, James P., Dean, Clark University, Atlanta, Ga. Caliver, Ambrose, Senior Soecialist in the Education of Negroes, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. Carney, Mabel, Associate Professor of Edu¬ cation, Teachers College. Columbia Uni¬ versity, New York, N. Y. Clement, R. E., Dean, Municipal College for Negroes. Louisville. Ky. Cousins, Robert L.. Assistant Supervisor of Negro Education, State Department of Education, Atlanta. Ga. Davis, Jackson, Associate Director of Edu¬ cation, General Education Board. 807 Grace-American Bldg., Richmond, Va. Duckrey. Tanner G.. Principal. Paul Lau¬ rence Dunbar Public School. Philadelphia, Pa. Duke, E. A., Rural School Supervisor, State Department of Public Instruction, Oklahoma City, Okla. Edwards, Margaret M., Director. Depart¬ ment of Home Economics. Woman’s Col¬ lege, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, N. C. Eleazer, R. B.. Secretary, Conference on Education and Race Relations, 703 Stand¬ ard Bldg., Atlanta, Ga. Favrot, Leo M., General Field Agent, Gen¬ eral Education Board, 916 Louisiana Na¬ tional Bank Bldg., Baton Rouge, La. Felton, J. B., State Agent of Negro Schools, State Department of Public Instruction, Columbia, S. C. Grossley, R. S., President. State College for Colored Students, Dover, Del. Hale. W. J.. President, Tennessee Agricul¬ tural and Industrial State College, Nash¬ ville, Tenn. Huffington, J. Walter, Supervisor of Col¬ ored Schools. State Department of Edu¬ cation, Baltimore, Md. Johnson, Charles S., Director, Department of Social Science, Fisk University, Nash¬ ville, Tenn. Klein, Arthur J., Department of Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio Leavell, U. W., Professor of Education, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. Lee, J. R. E.. President, Florida Agricul¬ tural and Mechanical College, Tallahas¬ see, Fla. Morton-Finney, J.. State Inspector of Schools for Indiana, Crispus Attucks High School, Indianapolis, Ind. Oberholtzer, E. E„ Superintendent of Schools, Houston, Texas Payne, A. C., Head, Department of Edu¬ cation. Indiana State Teachers College, Terre Haute. Ind. Phillips, H. T., Chairman, Department of Education, Northwest Missouri State Teachers College, Maryville, Mo. Seabrook, J. W., President, State Normal School, Fayetteville. N. C. Smith. S. L.. Director for Southern Office, Julius Rosenwald Fund, Nashville, Tenn. Wilkinson, Garnet. First Assistant Super¬ intendent of Public Schools, Washington, D. C. Williams, C. R., Superintendent of Schools, Waterman, Ill. Williams, Fannie C., Principal. Valena C. Jones Normal and Practice School, New Orleans, La. Williams, W. T. B., Vicepresident, Tus- kegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee Institute, Ala. Wright, Arthur D., President, John F. Slater Fund, 726 Jackson Place, N. W., Washington, D. C. COMMITTEE ON ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE RURAL TEACHER (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Executive Committee Robinson, William McKinley, Chairman; Department of Rural Education, Western State Teachers College, Kalamazoo, Mich. Cavins, L. V., American Youth Commis¬ sion of the American Council on Edu¬ cation, Maryland Study, 744 Jackson Place, Washington, D. C. Cyr. Frank W., Assistant Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. 716 National Education Association Gaumnitz, W. H., Senior Specialist in Rural Education Problems, U. S. Office of Edu¬ cation, Washington, D. C. Mead, A. R.. Director of Educational Re¬ search, University of Florida, Gaines¬ ville, Fla. Terrebonne, L. P., Sur>erintendent, Iber¬ ville Parish Schools, Plaquemine, La. Wofford, Kate V.. Director of Rural Edu¬ cation, State Teachers College, Buffalo, N. Y. Baldwin, R. D., West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va. Birdwell, A. W., President, State Teachers College. Nacogdoches, Texas Brown, Zeta I., Field Agent for Rural Edu¬ cation, State Department of Education, Augusta, Maine Calhoun, J. T„ Director of Teacher Place¬ ment Service. State Department of Edu¬ cation. Jackson, Miss. Chute, Mrs. Emma R., Prescott, Wash. Doudna, Edgar G., Secretary, Board of Normal School Regents, Madison, Wis. Driver, Lee L., State Department of Edu¬ cation, Harrisburg. Pa. Easterday, Margaret, Superintendent, Ber¬ nalillo County Schools, Albuquerque, N. Mex. Foster, J. Carlisle, Superintendent of Schools, Bethune, S. C. Free, Mrs. Juel, Spencer, Ind. Freeman, Eleanor, Rural School Supervisor. Office of the County Superintendent of Schools, Redwood City, Calif. Frost, Norman, George Peabody College for Teachers. Nashville, Tenn. Fulkerson, Mrs. Mary L., County Superin¬ tendent of Schools. Salem, Ore. Harerove, William Henry, State Teachers College. Greeley, Colo. Herring, W. C., State Teachers College, Ada, Okla. Heyl, Helen Hay, State Supervisor of Rural Education, State Department of Educa¬ tion, Albany. N. Y. Holden, A. John. Jr., Superintendent of Schools, Danville, Vt. Irvine. Paul. Professor of Education, Ala¬ bama Polytechnic Institute. Auburn, Ala. Jackson, Frank W.. Superintendent of Schools. Madison, N. H. Jackson, W. A., Benton, Ark. Jones, J. B., Superintendent, Transylvania County Schools, Brevard, N. C. Kilian, Raymond, Deputy State Superin¬ tendent of Schools, Reno, Nev. King. H. B., Assistant State Superintend¬ ent in Charge of Elementary Education, Dover, Del. Knehans. Lillian, State Teachers College, Cape Girardeau, Mo. McMurtry, H. M., State Teachers College, Bowling Green, Ky. Markley, R. L., Commissioner of Educa¬ tion, Cheyenne. Wyo. Moore. Harry W., County Superintendent of Schools, Flemington, N. J. Morgan. L. V., County Superintendent of Schools. Wheaton, Ill. Morris, Retson A., County Superintendent of Schools, Jefferson, Iowa Myers, C. E., State Supervisor of Research and Finance, State Department of Edu¬ cation, Richmond, Va. Nelson, Lowry. Extension Division, Utah State Agricultural College, Logan, Utah Nordwick, Myrtle, County Superintendent of Schools, Wolf Point, Mont. Partridge, H. R., Superintendent of Schools, Alliance. Nebr. Peterson, Francis E., Supervising Principal. West Hawaii Schools, Kamuela, T. H. Pittman. M. S., President, State Teachers College, Collegeboro, Ga. Rosenlof, G. W., Professor of Secondary Education, University of Nebraska, Lin¬ coln. Nebr. Russell, Charles, Principal, State Teachers College, Westfield. Mass. Stonecipher, E. E., Director of Rural Edu¬ cation and Extension, Kansas State Teach¬ ers College, Pittsburg, Kans. Sutton, D. H., State Department of Edu¬ cation, Columbus, Ohio Swain, C. C., President, State Teachers College, Mayville, N. Dak. Swenson. Anna, Director of Teacher Train¬ ing Departments, State Department of Education, St. Paul, Minn. Warner, Mrs. Ida M., County Superintend¬ ent of Schools, 419 Idaho Bldg., Boise, Idaho Weeks, I. D., President, University of South Dakota. Vermillion, S. Dak. EDUCATIONAL POLICIES COMMISSION (A Joint Commission of the National Education Association and the American Association of School Administrators) A. J. Stoddard. Chairman; Superintendent of Schools, Providence, R. I. William G. Carr, Secretary; 1201 Sixteenth St.. N. W., Washington, D. C. Appointed Members Cornelia S. Adair, 3208 Hawthorne Ave., Richmond, Va. Lotus D. Coffman, President, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. George S. Counts, Teachers College. Co¬ lumbia University. New York, N. Y. J. B. Edmonson, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Mich. Frederick M. Hunter, Chancellor, Oregon State System of Higher Education, Eu¬ gene, Ore. Charles H. Judd, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. John K. Norton, Teachers College, Colum¬ bia University, New York, N. Y. Agnes Samuelson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines. Iowa John A. Sexson, Superintendent of Schools, Pasadena, Calif. Payson Smith, Harvard University, Cam¬ bridge, Mass. A. J. Stoddard, Superintendent of Schools, Providence, R. I. George D. Strayer, Teachers College. Co¬ lumbia University, New York, N. Y. Willis A. Sutton, Superintendent of Schools. Atlanta, Ga. Ex-Officio Members Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary, National Education Association, 1201 Six¬ teenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Charles B. Glenn, President, American As¬ sociation of School Administrators; and Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham, Ala. Associational Records and Information 717 Orville C. Pratt, President, National Edu¬ cation Association; and Superintendent of Schools, Spokane, Wash. S. D. Shankland, Executive Secretary, American Association of School Adminis¬ trators, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Wash¬ ington, D. C. Albert M. Shaw, President, Department of Classroom Teachers, Box 885, Arcade Annex, Los Angeles, Calif. Advisory Members J. W. Studebaker, U. S. Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. George F. Zook, President, American Coun¬ cil on Education, 744 Jackson Place, Washington, D. C. COMMITTEE ON EQUAL OPPORTUNITY (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Executive Committee Mallory, Gertrude, Chairman; 1518 Arden- dale Ave., San Gabriel, Calif. Bradley, Helen, Vice Chairman; 2349 Ash¬ land Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio Davenport, Mrs. Minnie, Superintendent, Canyon County Schools, Caldwell, Idaho Doremus, Mattie S., 365 Twelfth Ave., Paterson, N. J. Olson, Mrs. Clara M.. P. K. Yonge Labora¬ tory School, University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. Wahlert, Jennie, 2918 Harper St., St. Louis, Mo. Adams, F. R. Superintendent of Schools, Marshall, Minn. Bamberger, Florence E., College for Teach¬ ers, Johns Hopkins University, Balti¬ more, Md. Bergquist, E. B., Superintendent of Schools, Rapid City, S. Dak. Burts, R. C.. Superintendent of Schools, Rock Hill, S. C. Browne, A. T., Superintendent, Acadia Par¬ ish Schools. Crowley, La. Buker, Lou M., Supervising Principal of Schools. Augusta, Maine Correll, J. J., Superintendent, Lancaster County Schools, Lincoln, Nebr. Deaton, Paul H., Principal, Senior High School, Roswell N. Mex. Doherty. Helen, Portsmouth, N. H. Doyle, Nell, Dillon, Mont. Early, J. J., Superintendent of Schools, Sheridan, Wyo. Easom, P. H., State Agent, State Depart¬ ment of Education, Jackson, Miss. Edmiston, Leon R., 110 Olive Ave., DuBois, Pa. Gordon, Jeannette M., Central High School, Oklahoma City, Okla. Graves, Elizabeth H., Box 193, Mason City, Iowa Hanley, James L., Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Providence. R. I. Henry, Beryl, SuDerintendent of Schools, Hope. Ark. Holland, Mary, Principal, Trombly School, Detroit, Mich. Horn, Carl M.. Superintendent of Schools, Dowagiac, Mich. Hurst, James. Division Superintendent. Norfolk County Public Schools, Norfolk, Va. Kenney, Don E., Richfield, Utah MacLennan, Mrs. Myrtle C., Stewart Junior High School, Tacoma, Wash. McTaggart, Earl L., Executive Secretary. Hawaii Education Association, 1049 Like- like St., Honolulu, T. H. Marsh, J. F.. President, Concord State Teachers College, Athens, W. Va. Morris, Mary E., Principal, Gove Junior High School, Denver, Colo. Murnhy, Rita, 213 Avenue A, West, Bis¬ marck, N. Dak. Parks, Lillian L., 619 Clement Ave., Char¬ lotte, N. C. Perry, L. L., State School Supervisor, State Department of Education, Atlanta, Ga. Pittenger, L. A., President. Ball State Teachers College, Muncie, Ind. Powers, G. W., Superintendent, Windham Central District Schools, Athens, Vt. Pulliam, N. D., Principal, Madison School. Phoenix, Ariz. Rarick, C. E., President. Fort Hays Kansas State College, Hays, Kans. Romig, Mrs. Maybelle, County Superin¬ tendent of Schools, Baker, Ore. Smith, S. L., Director for Southern Office. Julius Rosenwald Fund, Cotton States Bldg., Nashville, Tenn. Smith, Elphe K., Box 22, R. D. 1, Tigard, Ore. Stroh, M. Margaret, Professor of English. Wilson Teachers College, Washington. D. C. Swan, Jessie, 521 Hubbard St., Green Bay. Wis. Thompson, Roger M., Supervisor, Office of Research and Finance, State Department of Education, Hartford, Conn. Tidwell, R. E., Director of Extension, Uni¬ versity of Alabama. University, Ala. Wallin. J. E. W., Director, Division of Special Education, State Department of Public Instruction, Wilmington, Del. Williams, C. R.. Superintendent of Schools, W’aterman, Ill. Willis, N. Elliot, Principal, Winthrop Junior High School, Winthrop. Mass. Wilson, S. C., Director, Department of Teacher Training, Sam Houston State Teachers College. Huntsville. Texas Winkler, Mrs. Lucy Rice, 927 South Ogden Drive, Los Angeles, Calif. JOINT COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Wood, Thomas D., Chairman; Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Wilson, Charles C., Vice Chairman; Di¬ rector of Physical and Health Education, Hartford Public Schools, Hartford, Conn. Brown, Maud, Director of Health Educa¬ tion, State Department of Health, Helena, Mont. Burnham. William H., Bancroft Hotel, Worcester, Mass. 718 National Education Association Burns, H. B., Director of Hygiene, Pitts¬ burgh Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. Chayer, Mary Ella, Department of Nursing Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Cornell, Walter S., Director, Medical In¬ spection, Philadelphia Public Schools, Philadelphia, Pa. Firestone, Mrs. Myrtle Bevan, Supervising Principal, University Elementary School, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Harris, Cara L., Associate Professor of Health Education. University of Ten¬ nessee, Knoxville, Tenn. Holt, Lucy Mason, Principal, Ocean View School, Norfolk, Va. Langworthy, Mrs. B. F., Immediate Past- President, National Congress of Parents and Teachers, 6 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill. McWilliams, Mrs. Marion Lerrigo, 99 Wil¬ low Ave., Larchmont, N. Y. Morris, Earl, Director of Health and Phys¬ ical Education, Fort Hays Kansas State College, Hays, Kans. Morris, Henrietta, Associate Professor of Hygiene, Oregon State Agricultural Col¬ lege, Corvallis, Ore. Murphy, Mary E., Director, Elizabeth Mc¬ Cormick Memorial Fund, 848 North Dear¬ born St., Chicago, Ill. Neilson, N. P., Associate Professor of Physical Education and Hygiene, Leland Stanford University, Stanford University, Calif. Phelan, Anette M., Staff Associate in Edu¬ cation, National Society for Prevention of Blindness, 50 West Fiftieth St., New York, N. Y. Pinckney, Jeanie, Department of Nutrition and Health, University of Texas, Austin, Texas Shaw, Fannie B., Secretary, School Health Education. National Tuberculosis Asso¬ ciation, 50 West Fiftieth St., New York, N. Y. Starn, Bertha, Director of School Health, Board of Education, Beatrice, Nebr. Stoddard, A. J., Superintendent of Schools, Providence, R. I. Stoddard, George D., Director, Iowa Child Welfare Research Station, State Univer¬ sity of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa Sutton, Willis A.. Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta, Ga. Tall, Lida Lee, President, State Teachers College, Towson, Md. Threlkeld, A. L., Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo. Walker, Herbert F., Director of Health and Physical Education, Evansville Public Schools, Evansville, Ind. Whitney, Anne, Director, School Health Education Service, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. COMMITTEE ON HIGHER EDUCATION (Special Committee) Executive Committee Crane, A. G., Chairman; President, Uni¬ versity of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo. Benner, Thomas E., Dean, School of Edu¬ cation, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. Kelly, Frederick J., Chief, Division of Higher Education, U. S. Office of Edu¬ cation, Washington. D. C. Knode, J. C., Dean of Men, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, N. Mex. Rosier, Joseph, President, Fairmont State Teachers College, Fairmont, W. Va. Smith, Henry Lester, Dean, School of Edu¬ cation, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Zook, George F., President, American Council on Education, 744 Jackson Place, Washington, D. C. Anderson, Elam, Linfield College, McMinn¬ ville, Ore. Benjamin, Harold, Dean. College of Edu¬ cation, University of Minnesota, Minne¬ apolis, Minn. Brooks, T. D.. A. and M. College, College Station. Texas Clark, Robert, State Normal College, Dillon, Mont. Condon, Thomas J., Superintendent of Schools, Waterbury, Conn. Duke, S. P., President, State Teachers College, Harrisonburg, Va. Elliott, Edward C., President, Purdue Uni¬ versity, Lafayette, Ind. Frasier, G. W., President, Colorado State College of Education, Greeley, Colo. Garrison, S. C., Dean. Graduate School of Education, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. Goetch, E. W., Director of Placement Bu¬ reau, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa Harman, A. F., President, Alabama College, Montevallo, Ala. Hauck, Arthur A.. President, University of Maine, Orono, Maine Henry, David D., Assistant to Executive Vicepresident, Wayne University, De¬ troit, Mich. Holmes, Henry W., Dean, Harvard Gradu¬ ate School of Education, Cambridge, Mass. Holt, Frank O.. Dean, Extension Division, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Holton, E. L., Dean, School of Education, Kansas State College. Manhattan, Kans. Hotz, H. G., Dean, College of Education. University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Ark. Hullihen, Walter, President, University of Delaware, Newark, Del. Larson, Emil L., Professor of Education, University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. Lee. Charles E., Professor of Education, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. Ludeman, W. W., Dean, State Normal School, Springfield, S. Dak. McFarland, George A., President, State Teachers College, Minot. N. Dak. MacQuarrie, T. W., President. State Teachers College. San Jose, Calif. Meadows, Leon, President, East Carolina Teachers College, Greenville, N. C. Morton, W. H., Director of Teacher Train¬ ing, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. Neale, M. G., President, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho Nelson, D. M., President, Mississippi Col¬ lege, Clinton, Miss. Nuttall, L. John, Jr., Superintendent of Schools, Salt Lake City, Utah Pipkin, Charles W., Dean, Graduate School, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, La. Ramsey, Ralph L., Secretary, Georgia Edu¬ cation Association, Macon, Ga. Association al Records and Information 719 Reinhardt, Aurelia, President, Mills Col¬ lege, Mills College, Calif. Ricksecker, C. W., Principal, Chaney High School, Youngstown, Ohio Ross, Carmon, President, State Teachers College, Edinboro, Pa. Sayers, E. Vern, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, T. H. Silver, Ernest L., President, State Normal School, Plymouth, N. H. Small, W. S., Dean, College of Education, University of Maryland, College Park, Md. Stoddard, J. A., Professor of Secondary Education, University of South Carolina, Columbia, S. C. Strayer, George D., Director, Institute of Educational Research, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Taylor, W. S., Dean, School of Education, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. Tigert, John J., President, University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. Traner, F. W., Professor of Education, University of Nevada, Reno, Nev. Uhl, Willis L., Dean, College of Education, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash. von KleinSmid, R. B., President, Uni¬ versity of Southern California, Los An¬ geles, Calif. Wightman, Mr. Clair S., Head, Practice Department, State Normal School, Pater¬ son, N. J. COMMITTEE ON HORACE MANN CENTENNIAL CELEBRATION (Special Committee) Smith, Payson, Chairman ; Lawrence Hall, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Ade, Lester K„ State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. Atwood, Stanley F.. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Olympia, Wash. Bailey, Francis L., State Commissioner of Education, Montpelier, Vt. Ballou, Frank W., Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C. Bass, W. A., State Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Nashville, Tenn. Bowsher, E. Leslie, State Director of Edu¬ cation, Columbus, Ohio Butterfield, Ernest W., Commissioner of Education, Hartford, Conn. Callahan, John, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis. Collins, M. D.. State Superintendent of Schools. Atlanta, Ga. Condie, John W., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Boise, Idaho Cook. Albert S., State Superintendent of Schools. 2014 Lexington Building, Balti¬ more, Md. Cook, Paul M., Secretary, Phi Delta Kappa, 1180 E. 63rd St., Chicago, Ill. Crable, A. L., State Superintendent of Pub¬ lic Instruction. Oklahoma City, Okla. Dexter, Walter F., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Sacramento, Calif. Eldred, Arvie, Secretary, New York State Teachers Association, 152 Washington Ave., Albany, N. Y. Elliott, Charles H., State Commissioner of Education, Trenton, N. J. Elliott, Eugene B., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lansing, Mich. English, Colin, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Tallahassee, Fla. Erwin. Clyde A., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Raleigh, N. C. Graham, Ben G., Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. Graves, Frank P., State Commissioner of Education, Albany, N. Y. Hall, Sidney B., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Richmond, Va. Harris, T. H., State Superintendent of Public Education, Baton Rouge, La. Henderson, A. D., President, Antioch Col¬ lege, Yellow Springs, Ohio Hendrix, H. E., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Phoenix, Ariz. Hines, J. F., State Superintendent of Pub¬ lic Instruction, Pierre, S. Dak. Holloway. H. V., State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Dover, Del. Hope, James H., State Superintendent of Education, Columbia, S. C. Howard, C. A., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Salem, Ore. Keller, J. A., State Superintendent of Edu¬ cation, Montgomery, Ala. King, Lloyd W., State Superintendent of Public Schools, Jefferson City, Mo. Kirn, G. W., Principal, Abraham Lincoln High School. Council Bluffs, Iowa Lewis, Mrs. Inez Johnson, State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo. Long, Oren E., Superintendent of Public Instruction. Honolulu. T. H. McMurray, Floyd I.. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Indianapolis, Ind. Markham, W. T., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Topeka, Kans. Mitchell, J. C., Director of Secondary Edu¬ cation, State Department of Public In¬ struction, Lincoln, Nebr. Nixon, Hugh, Secretary, Massachusetts Teachers Federation, 15 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass. Outsen, Robert R., Deputy State Superin¬ tendent, State Department of Education, Cheyenne, Wyo. Packard, Bertram E., State Commissioner of Education, Augusta, Maine Pearse, Carroll G., 1721 Ludington Ave., Wauwatosa Branch, Milwaukee, Wis. Peters. Harry W., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Frankfort, Ky. Phipps, W. E., State Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Little Rock. Ark. Pringle, James N., Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Concord. N. H. Rockett, James F., State Director of Edu¬ cation, Providence, R. I. Rockwell, John G., State Commissioner of Education, St. Paul, Minn. Rodgers, H. R., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Santa Fe, N. Mex. Samuelson. Agnes, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa Skidmore, Charles H., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Salt Lake City, Utah Smith, Chauncey W.. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Carson City, Nev. Taylor, Charles W.. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lincoln, Nebr. Thompson. A. E.. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Bismarck, N. Dak. Trent, W. W., State Superintendent of Free Schools. Charleston, W. Va. Vandiver. J. S.. State Superintendent of Education, Jackson, Miss. Wieland, John A., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Ill. Williams, E. I. F., Director of Education, Heidelberg College. Tiffin, Ohio Woods, L. A.. State Superintendent of Pub¬ lic Instruction, Austin, Texas 720 National Education Association COMMITTEE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Executive Committee Woodward, Annie Carleton, Chairman; 78 Highland Ave., Somerville, Mass. King, W. P., Secretary; and Executive Secretary, Kentucky Education Associa¬ tion, 1422-23 Heyburn Bldg., Louisville, Ky. Goodrich, Bessie Bacon, Director, Cur¬ riculum Revision, Des Moines Public Schools, Des Moines, Iowa Holmes, W. H., Superintendent of Schools, Mount Vernon, N. Y. Howard, Margarette E., Principal, Lincoln School, Summit, N. J. Pyrtle, E. Ruth, Principal, Bancroft School, Lincoln, Nebr. Aiken, Georgia Whelan, Hotel Alms, Wal¬ nut Hills, Cincinnati, Ohio Bell, Maude R., 4147 Starr St., Lincoln, Nebr. Bennion. Milton, Dean, School of Educa¬ tion, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah Berman, Samuel, Principal, James R. Lud¬ low School, Philadelphia, Pa. Black, E. H., Superintendent of Schools, Bristow, Okla. Blair, Francis G., 440 E. Canedy St., Springfield, Ill. Blake, Katherine D., The A. W. A. Club¬ house, 353 W. 57th St., New York, N. Y. Boehm, Charles H., Assistant Superintend¬ ent, Bucks County Schools, Morrisville, Pa. Bradford, Mrs. Mary D., 6028 Third Ave., Kenosha, Wis. Brooks, L. W., Principal, Wichita High School North, Wichita, Kans. Brown, Eugenie J., Euclid-Logan Hotel, Cleveland, Ohio Burkholder, E. Paul, Supervisor, State De¬ partment of Education, Georgetown, Del. Burns, R. A., Professor of Education, Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H. Cadman, Bernice M., Chairman, History Department, High School, Janesville, Wis. Casey, William V., Superintendent Emer¬ itus of Schools, Boulder, Colo. Clark, Mrs. Frances E., Director Emeritus, Educational Activities, RCA-Victor Com¬ pany, Camden, N. J. Claxton, P. P., President, Austin Peay Normal School, Clarksville, Tenn. Clemons, Clarice, Head, Normal Training Department, Campbell County High School, Gillette, Wyo. Cogil, Annie M., Principal, Hayward School, Lincoln, Nebr. Coyne, Marie, South 210 Adams St., Spokane, Wash. Crawford, Mary Major. Nebraska State Teachers College, Kearney, Nebr. Daniel, Roland B., Superintendent of Schools. Columbus, Ga. de Francesco, Italo L., Art Instructor, State Teachers College, Kutztown, Pa. Donovan, H. L., President, Eastern Ken¬ tucky State Teachers College, Richmond, Ky. Dowling. Evaline, Board of Education, 1101 W. 109th St., Los Angeles, Calif. Dowling, H. G., County Superintendent of Schools, Tuscaloosa, Ala. Duke, Florence E., 2224 West Grace St., Richmond, Va. Edwards, Elbert B., 215 Bonnerville St., Las Vegas, Nev. Eisner, Miriam D.. Vice-Principal, Frank¬ lin School, San Francisco, Calif. Eldred, Arvie, Secretary, New York State Teachers Association, 152 Washington Ave., Albany, N. Y. Fahey, Sara H., Girls Commercial High School, Brooklyn, N. Y. Fair, Jessie Frances, 125 West First St., Dayton, Ohio Farrin, Leon M., Superintendent of Schools, Woonsocket, R. I. Fell, E. E., Superintendent of Schools, Holland, Mich. Ficke, Alice, Roosevelt High School, Hono¬ lulu, T. H. Finley, John H., New York Times, New York, N. Y. Foster, Blanche. Tilden Junior High School, Philadelphia, Pa. Gardner, Ethel M., Principal, Andrew Jack- son School, 420 N. Jackson St., Milwau¬ kee, Wis. Gilland, Mrs. Erna Grassmuck, Consultant in Geographic Education, 327 Wood St., California, Pa. Glenn, Charles B., Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham, Ala. Gosling, Thomas W., Director, American Junior Red Cross, Washington, D. C. Gray, Clifton D., President, Bates College, Lewiston, Maine Guhin, M. M., Northern State Teachers College, Aberdeen, S. Dak. Gyger, John T., Superintendent, Falmouth Public Schools, R. F. D. No. 4, Portland, Maine Haggard, Patience, Dean of Women, State Normal School, Potsdam, N. Y. Hale, M. S., Dean, University of Tampa, Tampa, Fla. Hall, Royal C., Professor of History, Al¬ bion College, Albion, Mich. Haller, Helene, Social Director, Hays Hall, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho Heacock, A. B., Principal, Los Feliz School, Los Angeles, Calif. Hendrie, William E., Principal. Public School No. 109, Queens Village, New York. N. Y. Holt, Lucy Mason, Principal, Ocean View School, Norfolk, Va. Hood. Edna E., Supervisor, Household and Fine Arts, Kenosha Public Schools, Kenosha, Wis. Hood, Elisabeth, Supervisor, Department of Household Arts, Racine, Wis. Howard, Daniel, Superintendent Emeritus, Windsor Public Schools, Windsor, Conn. Jacobsen, Christine A., 1320 West Forty- first Place, Los Angeles, Calif. James, William Alonzo. Principal, Ball High School, Galveston, Texas Johnson. M. Irene, Director, Student Teach¬ ing, Manchester College, North Man¬ chester, Ind. Kinsey, Juanita, Wichita Falls Public Schools, 1105 Holliday St., Wichita Falls, Texas Laing, Earl R., Principal, Burt School, Detroit, Mich. Lamkin, Uel W., President, Northwest Mis¬ souri State Teachers College, Maryville, Mo. Lommen, Georgina, Director, Training School, State Teachers College, Moor¬ head, Minn. Associational Records and Information 721 Longshore, W. T., Principal, Greenwood School, Kansas City, Mo. McCollum, R. E., Principal, Washington School. Tulsa, Okla. McCormick, Elizabeth, Principal, Timothy O, Howe School, Superior, Wis. MacCracken, John H., 9 East 83rd St., New York, N. Y. Mann, Mrs. Margaret, Superintendent, O’Brien County Schools. Primghar, Iowa Mansfield, Mrs. Katharine M., Principal, Cedar School, Canton, Ohio Marsh, Daniel L., President, Boston Uni¬ versity, Boston, Mass. ‘ Monroe, Paul, Director, International In¬ stitute, Teachers College, Columbia Uni¬ versity, New York, N. Y. Mull, Cora E., Assistant Principal, Ele¬ mentary School, Chicago, Ill. Nielson, Minnie J., 901 Fifth Ave., Valley City, N. Dak. Nisbett, Mary Leila, 4419 Gilbert St., Dallas, Texas Norman, J. W., Dean of Education, Uni¬ versity of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. Norton, H. B., Principal, Robinson School, Birmingham, Ala. O’Connor, Mary Elizabeth, 158 Highland St., Taunton, Mass. Patt, Hermann G., Principal, John Clarke School, Newport, R. I. Pitman, J. Asbury, President, Salem State Teachers College, Salem, Mass. Ralls, Mary C., 6529 Jefferson St., Kansas City, Mo. Reeder, Mrs. Fannie Scoville, 2017 Gid- dings St., Chicago, Ill. Rhodes, Maude A.. Principal, Whitefoord School, Atlanta, Ga. Richter, Leilet, George W. Brackenridge High School, San Antonio, Texas Riddle, Anna, 2 Summit Place, St. Joseph, Mo. Roach, Mary Margaret, Principal, Roach School, Decatur, Ill. Roberts, Cecil W., 165 Freeman St., Wood- bridge, N. J. Roberts, Edward D., Superintendent of Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio Rueben, Mrs. Helen M., 4817 N. Sawyer Ave., Chicago, Ill. Sexton, J. W., Superintendent of Schools, Lansing, Mich. Shepherd, Grace M., Professor of Educa¬ tion, State Teachers College, Maryville, Mo. Shinn, Alida Visscher, Mills College, Mills College, Calif. Sigler, Mrs. Lou I., Assistant Principal, Ottawa Hills High School, Grand Rapids, Mich. Simpson, Janet C., State Teachers College, Florence, Ala. Smith, Jessica. Head, Social Studies De¬ partment, Wichita High School North, Wichita, Kans. Smith, Mrs. Margaret Mendenhall, Prin¬ cipal, Ebert School, Denver, Colo. Steele, N. E., Secretary, South Dakota Edu¬ cation Association, 221*4 N. Phillips Ave., Sioux Falls, S. Dak. Stephens, E. L., President, Southwestern Louisiana Institute of Liberal and Tech¬ nical Learning, Lafayette, La. Stratton, Mason A., Principal, Brighton Avenue School, Atlantic City, N. J. Stiles, Mrs. Marieta Shibles, 39 Primrose Ave., Mount Vernon, N. Y. Strong, Vera, Board of Education, Houston, Texas Sykes, Mrs. Dorothy Eidson, Superintend¬ ent, Gila County Schools, Globe, Ariz. Thompson, Anna M., Northeast High School, Kansas City, Mo. Trent, Adelaide R., 4306 N. Larcom Lane, Arlington, Va. Vaughan, J. P., Superintendent, Independent School District Number Forty, Chisholm, Minn. von KleinSmid, Rufus B., President, Uni¬ versity of Southern California, Los An¬ geles, Calif. Walton, George A., Principal, George School, George School, Pa. Wellemeyer, J. Fletcher, Dean, Junior Col¬ lege, Ninth and Minnesota Ave., Kansas City, Kans. White, W. H. S., President, Shepherd State Teachers College, Shepherdstown, W. Va. Wilson, Mrs. Alice, George Washington High School, San Francisco, Calif. Wirt, Lula E., Nebraska State Teachers College, Kearney, Nebr. Withers, John W., Dean, School of Educa¬ tion, New York University, New York, N. Y. Woodruff, Caroline S., Principal, State Nor¬ mal School, Castleton, Vt. Wynn, W. T., Department of English, Georgia State College for Women, Mil- ledgeville, Ga, JOINT COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSO¬ CIATION AND THE AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION (Special Committee) Greer, Margaret R., Chairman; Central Li¬ brary, Board of Education, 315 City Hall. Minneapolis, Minn. Baldridge, Chloe C., Director, Rural Edu¬ cation, State Department of Education, Lincoln, Nebr. Batchelder, Mildred, School and Children’s Library Division, American Library Asso¬ ciation, 520 North Michigan Ave., Chi¬ cago, Ill. Gustafson, Myrtle, Isaac Young Junior High School, New Rochelle, N. Y. Lathrop, Edith A., Associate Specialist in School Libraries, U. S. Office of Educa¬ tion, Washington, D. C. Layton, Esther Irene, William Chrisman High School, Independence, Mo. McPherson, Oscar H., John Dixon Library, Lawrenceville School, Lawrenceville, N. J. Parks, Martha Manier, State Department of Education, Nashville, Tenn. Ross, Mrs. Margaret M., Department of School Libraries, State Department of Education, Wilmington, Del. Rugg, Earle U., State College of Education Library, Greeley, Colo. 722 National Education Association JOINT COMMITTEE OF NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Langworthy, Mrs. B. F., Chairman; Im¬ mediate Past-President, National Con¬ gress of Parents and Teachers, 6 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill. Bristow, W. H., Secretary, National Con¬ gress of Parents and Teachers, 1201 Six¬ teenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Brown. Frank. Superintendent of Schools, Gulfport. Miss. Calvert, Mrs. George E., President, Okla¬ homa Congress of Parents and Teachers, 1101 East Eleventh St., Oklahoma City, Okla. Diemer. G. W.. President, Teachers College of Kansas City, Kansas City, Mo. Dorsey, Mrs. Frank. President, Kansas Con¬ gress of Parents and Teachers, 293 Plaza Theater Bldg., Kansas City, Mo. Eisner, Miriam D.. Vice-Principal, Franklin School, San Francisco, Calif. Howard. Mrs. Daisy. Commissioner, Genesee County Schools, Flint, Mich. Langworthy. Harry W., Superintendent of Schools, Gloversville, N. Y. Minor, Lillian, Supervisor, Norfolk County Public Schools, Norfolk, Va. Pettengill, Mrs. J. K., President, National Congress of Parents and Teachers, De¬ troit, Mich. Pye, Mrs. Charles F., President, Iowa Con¬ gress of Parents and Teachers, 415 Shops Bldg., Des Moines, Iowa Read, Faye, 131 Vernon Ave., Pueblo, Colo. , Rosenbaum, Mrs. I. A., President, Missis¬ sippi Congress of Parents and Teachers, 2100 Twenty-third Ave., Meridian, Miss. Samuelson, Agnes, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa Shaffer, Mrs. Hamilton, 37 Gerlaugh Ave., Dayton, Ohio Shuttleworth, Mrs. A. B., 321 State Museum Bldg., Denver, Colo. Smith, Mrs. Albert L., President, Louisiana Congress of Parents and Teachers, Box 665, Winnfield, La. Stopher, Mrs. Emmet C., President, Ohio Congress of Parents and Teachers, 138 North Lincoln St., Kent, Ohio Terrebonne, L. P., Superintendent, Iberville Parish Schools, Plaquemine, La. LEGISLATIVE COMMISSION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Executive Committee Hall, Sidney B., Chairman; State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Richmond, Va. Callahan. John, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis. Graham, Ben G., Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. Grove, Frank L.. Secretary, Alabama Edu¬ cation Association, 21 Adams Ave., Mont¬ gomery, Ala. Packard, Bertram E.. State Commissioner of Education, Augusta, Maine Strayer. George D., Teachers College. Co¬ lumbia University, New York, N. Y. Weglein, David E., Superintendent of Schools, Baltimore, Md. Alford. T. H., Superintendent of Schools, North Little Rock. Ark. Anderson, Walter W.. Principal. School of Mines. P. O. Box 827, Ely, Nev. Anspaugh, George, Principal, Bryant School, Chicago. Ill. Atwood. Stanley F.. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Olympia, Wash. Bailey. Francis L., Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Montpelier, Vt. Baldwin, R. D.. Professor of Education, West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va. Ballou, Frank W.. Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C. Bass, W. A.. State Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Nashville, Tenn. Beasley, N. C.. Dean-Registrar, Middle Ten¬ nessee State Teachers College, Murfrees¬ boro, Tenn. Benner. Thomas E., Dean. School of Edu¬ cation, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. Biester. Fred L., Principal, Glenbard Town¬ ship High School, Glen Ellyn, Ill. Blackwell, J. D.. President, State Teachers College, Salisbury, Md. Bowers, Charles A. Secretary, Nebraska State Teachers Association, 605 South Fourteenth St., Lincoln, Nebr. Bowsher, E. Leslie, State Director of Edu¬ cation. Columbus, Ohio Bradford, Mrs. Mary C. C., 1547 Gaylord St., Denver, Colo. Breckner, Elmer L.. Superintendent of Schools, Tacoma, Wash. Broderick, Lillian, 216 Park Ave., Yonkers, N. Y. Brown, B, Frank, Superintendent of Schools, Gulfport. Miss. Brown. Daisy, 407 South Sixth St., Still¬ water, Minn. Bryan, J. E., Superintendent, Jefferson County Schools, Birmingham, Ala. Butler, Leslie A., Professor of Educational Administration, Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. Butterfield. Ernest W., Commissioner of Education, Hartford, Conn. Caldwell, Rush M., 2527 Ross Ave., Dallas, Texas Campbell. Arthur, Superintendent of Schools, Anderson, Ind. Campbell, Ernest W., Administrative As¬ sistant, Seattle Public Schools, Seattle, Wash. Clark, Harry. Superintendent of Schools, Knoxville, Tenn. Clarke, M. J., Superintendent of Schools, Ely, Nev. Cocking. Walter D., Woodmont Blvd., Nash¬ ville, Tenn. Collins, Helen T., Principal, Lovell School, New Haven, Conn. Collins, M. D., State Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta, Ga. Colvin, W. L., Jeanerette High School, Jeanerette, La. Condie, John A., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Boise, Idaho Cooper, H. V.. Superintendent of Schools, Vicksburg, Miss. Crable, A. L., State Superintendent of Pub¬ lic Instruction, Oklahoma City, Okla. Associational Records and Information 723 Cram, Fred D.. Extension Department, State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa Dietrich, H. O., Superintendent of Schools, Norristown, Pa. Dexter, Walter F., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Sacramento, Calif. Dunn, D. Y., Superintendent, Fayette County Schools, Lexington, Ky. Eckles, Isabel Lancaster, Box 927, Santa Fe, N. Mex. Edmonson, J. B., Dean, School of Educa¬ tion, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Elliott, Charles H., State Commissioner of Education, Trenton, N. J. Elliott, Eugene B., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lansing, Mich. Ely, Selden M., 2918 Cortland Place, N. W., Washington, D. C. English, Colin, State Superintendent of Pub¬ lic Instruction, Tallahassee, Fla. Englund, Walter E., Secretary, Minnesota Education Association, 2642 University Ave., St. Paul, Minn. Erickson, Everett R., Head, Department of English, Alaska Public Schools, Juneau, Alaska Erwin. Clyde A., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Raleigh. N. C. Ewing, Lyle Wilson, Bible Hill, Claremont, N. H. Fife, Ray, President. New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts, State College, N. Mex. Fillers, H. D.. Superintendent of Schools, Wichita Falls, Texas Fischer, Fred C., Superintendent, Wayne County Schools, 2615 Barium Tower, De¬ troit, Mich. Fisher, E. C., Superintendent of Schools, Peoria, Ill. Flora, A. C., Superintendent of Schools, Co¬ lumbia, S. C. Fowlkes, John Guy, Professor of Education, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. French, Will, Columbia University, New York N. Y. Gage, Jack R., State Superintendent of Pub¬ lic Instruction. Cheyenne, Wyo. Gates, C. Ray, Superintendent of Schools, Grand Island, Nebr. Gibson, Joseph E., Professor of Education, Tulane University. New Orleans, La. Goodall. Elizabeth, 524 Nancy St., Charles¬ ton. W. Va. Gordon, A. W.. Secretary, Maine Teachers Association, 185 State St., Augusta, Maine Gregory, J. H.. Superintendent of Schools, McAllen, Texas Grieder. T. G.. Superintendent of Schools. Winslow, Ariz. Grier, B. M., Superintendent of Schools, Athens, Ga. Griffey. Annie G., Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Eighth and Louisiana Sts., Little Rock, Ark. Griffith, P. H.. Director of General Exten¬ sion, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, La. Grosvenor. Edith Louise, The Iowa Apart¬ ments, Washington, D. C. Guenther, J. J., Technical High School, Omaha, Nebr. Gunn, Thomas T„ Principal, Eastern High School, 770 East Grand Blvd., Detroit, Mich. Gurley, Raymond B., Barringer High School, Newark. N. J. Gyger, John T., Superintendent of Schools, Route No. 4, Portland. Maine Harman, A. F., President, Alabama College for Women, Montevallo, Ala. Harris. T. H., State Superintendent of Pub¬ lic Education, Baton Rouge, La. Helms, W. T., City Superintendent of Schools, Richmond, Calif. Hendrix, H. E., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Phoenix, Ariz. Henderson, Frank A., Superintendent of Schools. Santa Ana, Calif. Hickey, P. J., Secretary-Treasurer, Board of Education, St. Louis, Mo. Higbie, Edgar C., President, Wilson Teach¬ ers College, Washington, D. C. Hines, J. F., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Pierre, S. Dak. Holler, J. C., Superintendent, Anderson County Schools, Anderson, S. C. Holliday, Leonore, 2805 Stratford Ave., Cin¬ cinnati, Ohio Hollis, L. C., Superintendent, Parker School District, Greenville, S. C. Holloway, Harry V., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Dover, Del. Hope, James H., State Superintendent of Education, Columbia, S. C. Howard, C. A.. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Salem, Ore. Howell, C. M.. Secretary. Oklahoma Edu¬ cation Association, 326 Key Bldg., Okla¬ homa City, Okla. Hughey, A. H., Superintendent of Schools, El Paso, Texas Hunt, Lyman C.. Superintendent of Schools. Burlington, Vt. Hurst, M. E., Central High School, Tulsa, Okla. Ireland. Elizabeth, Helena, Mont. Ivy. H. M.. Superintendent of Schools, Meridian. Miss. Jack, William B., Superintendent of Schools. Portland, Maine Jacob. Walter. Principal, Emerson School. Plainfield, N. J. James, W. A., Principal, Ball High School, Galveston, Texas Jeffords. H. Morton. Superintendent of Schools. Wallingford, Conn. Jensen, N. Howard, Principal, Central School, Tooele, Utah Johnson, Homer L.. Superintendent, Pike County Schools, Pittsfield, III. Joynes, Mrs. Edith B. Principal, Wash- ington-Gatewood Schools, Berkeley, Nor¬ folk, Va. Karnes, Anthony E.. Commissioner of Edu¬ cation. Juneau, Alaska Keller, J. A., State Superintendent of Edu¬ cation, Montgomery, Ala. Kelley, J. Herbert, Executive Secretary, Pennsylvania State Education Associa¬ tion, 400 North Third St., Harrisburg, Pa. Kersey, Vierling, Superintendent of Schools. Los Angeles, Calif. Kidder, G. E., Superintendent of Schools, Ronan, Mont. King, Lloyd _W., State Superintendent of Schools, Jefferson City, Mo. Kirkpatrick, Lee, Superintendent of Schools. Paris, Ky. Laing, Earl R., Principal, Burt School. Detroit, Mich. Lafargue, W. S., Superintendent. La- Fourche Parish Schools, Thibodaux, La. Lamkin. Uel W.. President, Northwest Mis¬ souri State Teachers College, Maryville, Mo. Lamb, L. H., Superintendent of Schools. Flint. Mich. Landreth, Austin, Superintendent of Schools. Pendleton, Ore. Law. Frederick Houk. Stuyvesant High School, 345 East 15th St., New York. N. Y. Lawson, Miss Willie, Secretary, Arkansas Education Association, Little Rock, Ark. 724 National Education Association Lee, Charles A., Professor of Education. Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. Lefler, Millard E., Superintendent of Schools, Lincoln, Nebr. Lewis, Mrs. Inez Johnson, State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo. Lindsey, John C., Superintendent of Schools, Mitchell, S. Dak. Logan, Jack, Superintendent, East Inde¬ pendent School District, Waterloo, Iowa Long, Oren E., Superintendent of Public Instruction, Honolulu, T. H. Loper, John D., Superintendent of Schools, Phoenix, Ariz. Lord, Charles E., Superintendent, School Union #69, Camden, Maine McAndrew, Mary, Superintendent of Schools, Carbondale, Pa. McClure, Worth, Superintendent of Schools, Seattle, Wash. McCombs, N. D., Superintendent of Schools, Muscatine, Iowa McFarland, E. W., Department of Eco¬ nomics. Wayne University, Detroit, Mich. McMurray, Floyd I., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Indianapolis, Ind. MacGregor, Effie, Principal, John Burroughs School, 2003 Aldrich Ave., South, Minne¬ apolis, Minn. MacKay, Donald, President, Eastern New Mexico Junior College, Portales, N. Mex. Mallory, Gertrude, Franklin High School, Los Angeles, Calif. Manning, C. G., Superintendent of Schools, District #1, Junior High Building, Lewis¬ ton, Mont. Markham, W. T., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Topeka, Kans. Martin, John E., Superintendent of Schools. Suffolk, Va. Melcher, George, Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City, Mo. Metcalf, J. L., Superintendent of Schools, Afton, Wyo. Moe, Martin P.. Executive Secretary, Mon¬ tana Education Association, 7 Kohrs Block, Helena, Mont. Mooney, W. B., Executive Secretary, Colo¬ rado Education Association, 230 Coronado Bldg., Denver, Colo. Moore, C. H., Superintendent of Schools, Clarksville, Tenn. Morrison, Ed, President, Panhandle Agri¬ cultural and Mechanical College, Good- well, Okla. Moyer, H. H., Secretary, Wyoming Educa¬ tion Association, High School, Rawlins, Wyo. Munro, P. M., Superintendent of Schools, Selma, Ala. Murdock. Hon. John R., House Office Build¬ ing, Washington, D. C. Nixon, Hugh, Secretary, Massachusetts Teachers Federation, 15 Ashburton Place, Boston. Mass. Norton, John K., Teachers College, Colum¬ bia University, New York, N. Y. Patrick, W. Burton, Superintendent of Schools, Orange, N. J. Peters, Harry W., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Frankfort, Ky. Phillips, A. J., Executive Secretary, Mich¬ igan Education Association, 935 Wash¬ ington Ave., Lansing, Mich. Phillips, Guy B., Professor of Secondary Education, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. Phipps, W. E., State Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Little Rock, Ark. Pillsbury, W. H., Superintendent of Schools, Schenectady, N. Y. Pinet, F. L., Secretary. Kansas State Teach¬ ers Association, 315 West Tenth St, Topeka, Kans. Plenzke, O. H., Secretary, Wisconsin Edu¬ cation Association, 404 Insurance Bldg., Madison, Wis. Poche, J. N., Supervisor, St. Charles Parish Schools, Hahnville, La. Pope, D. N., Acting Secretary, New Mexico Educational Association, P. O. Drawer 1538, Santa Fe, N. Mex. Powers, Sue M, Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn. Priest, Charles H., Superintendent of Schools, Carson City, Nev. Pringle, James N., Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Concord, N. H. Pruitt, E. W., Superintendent, Frederick County Schools, Frederick, Md. Prunty, Merle, Director of Personnel and Extra-Curricular Division, Stephens Col¬ lege, Columbia, Mo. Putnam, Rex, Superintendent of Schools, Albany, Ore. Pye, Charles F., Secretary, Iowa State Teachers Association, 415 Shops Bldg., Des Moines, Iowa Ragsdale, S. L., L. C. Humes High School, Memphis, Tenn. Ranson, Mrs. R. E., Principal, Junior High School, High Point, N. C. Reeves, J. A., Superintendent, Union High School, District #1, Mt. Vernon, Wash. Rice, D. F. R., Superintendent of Schools, Beloit, Wis. Richardson, E. S., President, Polytechnic Institute, Ruston, La. Richmond, James H., President, Murray State Teachers College, Murray, Ky. Rickards, James S., Executive Secretary, Florida Education Association, 33 Cen¬ tennial Bldg., Tallahassee, Fla. Risley, James H., Superintendent of Schools, District #1, Pueblo, Colo. Rockett, James F., State Director of Edu¬ cation, Providence, R. I. Rockwell. John G., State Commissioner of Education, St. Paul, Minn. Rodgers, H. R., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Santa Fe, N. Mex. Roe, Warren A., Principal, Alexander Street School, Newark, N. J. Rose, C. E., Superintendent of Schools, Tucson. Ariz. Rowell, Virginia, 200 West 107th St., Los Angeles, Calif. Rule, James N., Principal, Langley High School, Pittsburgh, Pa. Russell, Charlotte, 448 West Sixty-second St., Chicago, Ill. Ryder, H. E., Superintendent, Sandusky County Schools. Fremont, Ohio St. John, C. E., Superintendent of Schools, Arkansas City, Kans. Samuel, Helen E., Gordon Junior High School. Washington, D. C. Samuelson, Agnes, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Des Moines, Iowa Saunders, Joseph H., Superintendent of Schools, Newport News, Va. Saxvik, H. O., Superintendent of Schools, Bismarck. N. Dak. Schlagle, F. L., Superintendent of Schools, Kansas Citv, Kans. Schuette, Amanda, 220 South Van Buren St., Green Bay. Wis. Shaver, C. N., Huntsville, Texas Sherrod, C. C.. President, East Tennessee State Teachers College, Johnson City, Tenn. Showalter, N. D., Olympia, Wash. Associational Records and Information 725 Simpson, Mabel E., 74 Marlborough Road, Rochester, N. Y. Skidmore, Charles H., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Salt Lake City, Utah Smith, Mr. Beba B., Superintendent of Schools, Connellsville, Pa. Smith, Chauncey W., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Carson City, Nev. Smith, Harry P., Director of Research, Board of Education, Syracuse, N. Y. Smith, J. R., 1833 South Fifteenth St., East, Salt Lake City, Utah Snodgrass, G. M., President, State Teachers College, La Crosse, Wis. Snyder, Raymond H., President, Albion State Normal School, Albion, Idaho Stahl, H. E., Superintendent of Schools, Claymont, Del. Stanton, B. F., Superintendent of Schools, Alliance, Ohio Steele, N. E., Executive Secretary, South Dakota Education Association, 221^2 North Phillips Ave., Sioux Falls, S. Dak. Stilwell, H. W., Superintendent of Schools, Texarkana, Texas Stoddard, A. J., Superintendent of Schools, Providence, R. I. Stout, Grover, Principal, Wingert School, Detroit, Mich. Sutton, Willis A., Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta, Ga. Taylor, Charles W., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lincoln, Nebr. Taylor, William S., Dean, School of Educa¬ tion, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. Thalman, John W., Superintendent, Wau¬ kegan Township Secondary Schools, Wau¬ kegan, Ill. Thompson, Arthur E., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Bismarck, N. Dak. Thompson, Elizabeth, President, New Hamp¬ shire State Teachers Association, Cole- brook, N. H. Todd, G. W., Superintendent of Schools, Lewiston, Idaho Townsend, W. B., Butler University, In¬ dianapolis, Ind. Trent, W. W., State Superintendent of Free Schools, Charleston, W. Va. Troy, Ann A., Principal, Washington School, Nutley, N. J. Turnbull, L. W., Superintendent of Schools, North Bend, Ore. Turner, H. L., Director, Department of Laboratory Schools, Michigan State Nor¬ mal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. Underwood, Frank M., Assistant Superin¬ tendent of Schools, St. Louis, Mo. Upham, Mrs. Margaret S., 211 Washington St., Cumberland, Md. Vandiver, J. S., State Superintendent of Education, Jackson, Miss. Vaughan, John, President, Northeastern State Teachers College, Tahlequah, Okla. Vincent, W. D., Superintendent of Schools, Boise, Idaho Walker, Thomas J., Editor, School and Community, Columbia, Mo. Warren, J. B., Secretary, North Carolina Education Association, Box 274, Raleigh, N. C. Warren, T. R., Principal, Billinghurst Junior High School, Reno, Nev. Watson, Bruce M., Managing Director, Pub¬ lic Education and Child Labor Association of Pennsylvania, 1505 Race St., Phila¬ delphia. Pa. Wells, Guy H.. President, Georgia State College for Women, Milledgeville, Ga. White, L. A., Superintendent of Schools, Minot, N. Dak. Wieland, J. A., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Ill. Wiggin, Joseph A., Brattleboro High School, Brattleboro, Vt. Williams, Charles O., Secretary, Indiana State Teachers Association, Hotel Lin¬ coln, Indianapolis, Ind. Williams, J. D., Principal, Avondale School, Birmingham, Ala. Williamson, Pearl, Superintendent of Schools, DeQueen, Ark. Woodbury, Mrs. Grace I., 4 Lakecroft Court, Melrose, Mass. Woods, L. A., State Superintendent of Pub¬ lic Instruction, Austin, Texas Woodward, H. M., 1824 S. Tenth St., Salt Lake City, Utah Yount, M. E., Superintendent, Alamance County Public Schools, Graham, N. C. NATIONAL COUNCIL ON TEACHER RETIREMENT OF THE N. E. A. (Formed by the merging of the Committee on Retirement Allowances of the N. E. A. and the National Council of Teachers’ Retirement Systems) Executive Committee Allen, T. T., Chairman; East Stroudsburg, Pa. Pogue, George M., Vice Chairman; Assist¬ ant Secretary, Ohio State Teachers Re¬ tirement System, Columbus, Ohio Roch, Jennie, Secretary; Assistant Secre¬ tary, Orleans Parish School Board, New Orleans, La. Allison, Laura, 1807 East Ave., Austin, Texas Brookes, M. Emma, Principal, Miles-Cran- wood Schools, Cleveland, Ohio Davis, Mrs. Jane, 1013 Horatio St., Tampa, Fla. Gibson, C. S., Roosevelt School, Syracuse, N. Y. Adams, Mrs. A. Virginia. Principal, East Avenue School. Vineland, N. J. Allen, Catherine, 1532 Fourth Ave., Colum¬ bus, Ga. Baish, H. H., Secretary, Pennsylvania State School Employees Retirement Board, Harrisburg, Pa. Brotherson, Marie, 644 Ohio, Kansas City, Kans. Brown, Daisy, 407 South Sixth St., Still¬ water, Minn. Brown, Mrs. Nina, 311 North D St., In- dianola, Iowa Clifford, J. M., Secretary, Michigan Teach¬ ers Retirement Fund, Lansing, Mich. Cole, Elva E., Executive Secretary, Wash¬ ington Teachers Retirement Fund, Olym¬ pia, Wash. Cowles, Leroy, Dean of Education, Univer¬ sity of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah Crawford, Will C., Superintendent of Schools, San Diego, Calif. Dutton, Mary E., Recording Secretary, Chi¬ cago Public School Teachers Pension and Retirement Fund, Chicago, Ill. 726 National Education Association Emerson, Ethel, 1200 Linwood Blvd., Kan¬ sas City, Mo. Flora, A. C., Superintendent of Schools, Columbia, S. C. Frank, Kate. Central High School, Mus¬ kogee, Okla. Gray. M. P.. Woodlawn High School, Bir¬ mingham, Ala. Hickman, Alma, Station A, Hattiesburg. Miss. Holley. Ella J., Rural Supervisor for New Castle County Schools. Wilmington. Del. Hougham, Robert B., Executive Secretary, Indiana State Teachers Retirement Fund Board, Indianapolis, Ind. Karraker, O. M., Secretary, Illinois Teach¬ ers Pension and Retirement Fund, Spring- field, Ill. Kershner, W. E.. Secretary, Ohio State Teachers Retirement System, Columbus, Ohio Knutson, K. J., Secretary, Seattle Teachers Retirement Fund, Seattle. Wash. Lafferty, Oma C.. Central High School, Charlotte. N. C. Lantman, Edgar G., Secretary, New York State Teachers Retirement Board, Albany, N. Y. Loining. Carl, Secretary, Duluth Teachers Retirement Fund Association, Duluth, Minn. Maybry, W. L.. President, Memphis Teach¬ ers Association, 1893 Crump, Memphis, Tenn. Medinger, Mildred, Secretary, Maryland State Teachers Retirement System, Balti¬ more, Md. Morse, Marguerite, 1615 Maple St., Clear¬ water, Fla. Read. Faye, 131 Vernon Ave., Pueblo, Colo. Reynolds, Florence B.. 6820 North 24th St., Omaha, Nebr. Richards, R. H., Principal, Lincoln School, Huntington. W. Va. Richmond, J. H., President, Murray State Teachers College, Murray. Ky. Rogers. P. C., Secretary, Louisiana Teach¬ ers Retirement System, Baton Rouge, La. Ruiz, Fred, 908 Sixteenth Ave., S., Nampa, Idaho Schmidt. Arthur W.. Lead. S. Dak. Shanley, Dorothy M., Secretary, Connecti¬ cut State Teachers Retirement Board. Hartford, Conn. Slade. A. A.. Superintendent of Schools. Laramie, Wyo. Smith, Dee, Secretary. Minneapolis Retire¬ ment Fund, Minneapolis, Minn. Smith, Elphe K.. Route 1, Box 22, Tigard, Ore. Stretcher, E. T., Treasurer. Portland Teach¬ ers Retirement Fund Association, Port¬ land, Ore. Taylor. Louis. Secretary, New York City Teachers Retirement System, New York. N. Y. Tete, A. J.. Secretary-Treasurer. New Or¬ leans Retirement Fund, New Orleans, La. Thompson, Elizabeth, Colebrook. N. H. Trathen, Albert. Director of Investments, Wisconsin State Retirement System, Madison, Wis. White, H. E., Executive Secretary, Minne¬ sota State Teachers Retirement Fund, St. Paul, Minn. Wood, John A., 3rd. Secretary, New Jersey State Teachers Pension and Annuity Fund, Trenton, N. J. COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY (Authorized by Bylaws) H. V. Tempel, Chairman; Principal. Henry Clay High School, Shelbyville, Ky. Abernethy, R. R., Superintendent of Schools, Harrisburg, Pa. Adams, Mrs. A. Virginia. Principal, East Avenue Elementary School, Vineland, N. J. Aiton, Maude E., Principal, Webster School, 10th and H Sts., N. W., Washington, D. C. Anthony, Kate V., 1903 Hanover Ave., Richmond, Va. Baskervill, Elizabeth, Public Schools. Orangeburg, S. C. Briggs, Pearl A., President, Teachers Fed¬ eration of Buffalo, 1837 Hotel Statler, Buffalo, N. Y. Burgoon, A. L., Superintendent of City Schools, Diamondville. Wyo. Chappelle, E. H., Superintendent of Schools, Ypsilanti, Mich. Cusack, Loretto, Public Schools, Creston, Iowa Davis. J. P.. Principal, Trout-Good Pine High School. Jena. La. Denman, George E., Superintendent of Schools, Burley, Idaho Doe, Chester W., Superintendent of Schools. Northwood, N. H. Drexler, Mrs. Charles, Public Schools, Port Gibson, Miss. Erickson. Albert, Assistant Secretary, Mon¬ tana Education Association, Helena. Mont. Freeman, Helen. Head, English Department, Public Schools. Waterville. Maine Graston. H. S.. Head. History Department, Woodlawn High School. Birmingham, Ala. Gunoe, Otway, Assistant County Superin¬ tendent of Schools, Fayetteville, W. Va. Helm, Charles. Superintendent of Schools, Laurel. Del. Henry, Beryl, Superintendent of Schools, Hope. Ark. Hougham, Robert B., Secretary, State Teachers Retirement Fund, State House, Indianapolis, Ind. Jones. Mrs. Ola, County Superintendent of Schools, Carrizozo, N. Mex. Jorgensen, Henry C.. Elementary Principal, Jordan Public School District, Sandy, Utah Kelly. Margaret, State Helping Teacher, Derby. Vt. Kemp, Rae, Elementary Teacher, Public Schools, Kansas City. Kans. Lockhart, A. V.. Principal, Thornton Frac¬ tional Township High School, Calumet City, Ill. Lowe, Gladys, Audubon School, Spokane. Wash. McCurdy. M. E., Secretary, North Dakota Education Association, Fargo, N. Dak. Moffitt, L. C., County Superintendent of Schools, Eugene. Ore. Morse. C. Marguerite, President, Depart¬ ment of Classroom Teachers. Florida Education Association Clearwater, Fla. Pilcher, Daisy, Public Schools, West Wil- lineton. Conn. Riddle, Anna E., Public Schools, St. Joseph. Mo. Robbins. Alice V., Teachers College, Man¬ kato. Minn. Salesses, Margaret M., 30 Dart St., Provi¬ dence. R. I. Associational Records and Information 727 Sandsmark, L., Superintendent of Schools, Emerson, Nebr. Saxon, J. Harold, Superintendent of Schools, Quitman, Ga. Schmidt, A. W., Public Schools, Lead, S. Dak. Sledge, L. W., Deputy Superintendent of Schools, Fifth District, Las Vegas, Nev. Smith, Edgar B., Principal, Greenfield High School, Greenfield, Mass. Steel, Nettie, Principal, State Public School, Sparta, Wis. Temple, D. E., Public Schools, Tulsa, Okla. Thompson, Nellie V., Public Schools, Colo¬ rado Springs, Colo. Vineyard, Margaret, Elementary Teacher, Public Schools, Oakland, Calif. Ware, C. S., 618 West Craig St., San An¬ tonio, Texas Way, J. E., County Superintendent of Schools, Waverly, Ohio Williams, Marguerite K., Public Schools. Phoenix, Ariz. Wilson, Viola, Holston Heights School Bristol, Tenn. Yim, Tillie, Public Schools, Honolulu, T. H. PUBLISHING COMMITTEE (Authorized by Bylaws) Portland Convention Broderick, Lillian, 216 Park Ave., Yonkers, N. Y. Cloud, Roy W., Secretary, California Teach¬ ers Association, 155 Sansome St., San Francisco, Calif. Preble, Mrs. F. Blanche, 10855 Vernon Ave., Chicago, Ill. Reese, L. W., Superintendent of Schools, Washington Court House, Ohio Smith, Henry Lester, Dean, School of Edu¬ cation, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Detroit Convention Rice, Charles A., Superintendent of Schools, Portland, Ore. Smith, C. B., Superintendent of Schools, Pekin. Ill. Smith, John Allan, Classroom Teacher, Los Angeles, Calif. Temple, D. E., Classroom Teacher, Tulsa, Okla. Wenner, W. E., Superintendent of Schools, Ashtabula Harbor, Ohio COMMITTEE ON REORGANIZATION OF THE N. E. A. (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Taylor, William S., Chairman; Dean, School of Education, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. Adair, Cornelia S., 3208 Hawthorne Ave., Richmond, Va. Lord, Daisy, 1027 West Main St., Water- bury, Conn. Merrill, Birdine, Shattuck School, Portland, Ore. Moore, Robert C., Secretary, Illinois State Teachers Association, 100 East Edwards St., Springfield, Ill. Shaw, Reuben T., 1327 Real Estate Trust Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa. COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS (Authorized by Bylaws) Hunt, R. L., Chairman; Superintendent of Schools, Madison, S. Dak. Hinrichs, Amy H., Vice Chairman; Prin¬ cipal, Audubon School, 428 Broadway, New Orleans, La. Powers, J. Orin, Secretary; 822 Emerson St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Adair, Cornelia S., 3208 Hawthorne Ave., Richmond, Va. Bradley, Helen, Assistant Principal, Ken¬ nedy School, Cincinnati, Ohio. Breckner, Elmer L.. Superintendent of Schools, Tacoma, Wash. Carlson, Philip, Elementary Principal, Minneapolis, Minn. Clark, Harry, Superintendent of City Schools, Knoxville, Tenn. Clarke, M. J., Superintendent of City Schools, Ely, Nev. Coates, J. P., Secretary, South Carolina Education Association, Columbia, S. C. Condie, John W.. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Boise. Idaho Curtis, William E., Assistant Principal, Grafton Street Junior High School, Worcester, Mass. Dacey, Cecile, High School Teacher, 9374 Wildemere Ave., Detroit, Mich. Deamer, Arthur, Superintendent of Schools, Cedar Rapids, Iowa Ellis, D. B., 1200 Newport, Denver, Colo. Erickson, Everett R., Juneau, Alaska Flynn, Alice S., 133 Fourth Ave., Woon¬ socket. R. I. Frick, Mary, President, High School Teach¬ ers Association, Los Angeles. Calif. Goslin, Willard E., Superintendent of Schools. Webster Groves, Mo. Greene, Victor N., Principal, High School, Searsport, Maine Grove, Frank L., Secretary, Alabama Edu¬ cation Association, Montgomery, Ala. Hall, W. F.. State Supervisor of Elemen¬ tary Schools, Department of Education, Little Rock. Ark. Haller, Ralph, President, High School Teachers Association of New York City, 211 Egmont Ave., Mount Vernon, N. Y. Henderson, Leon, President, Hillsborough County Teachers Federation, 3602 San Pedro St.. Tampa, Fla. Holliday, Della, Newport High School, Newport, Ky. 728 National Education Association Holton, E. L., Dean, Department of Edu¬ cation, Kansas State College, Manhattan, Kans. Hunt, Lyman C., Superintendent of Schools, Burlington, Vt. Keenan, Robert C. Principal, Drake Public School, 2641 Calumet Ave., Chicago, Ill. Kitchin, Dorothy D.. Peshine Avenue School. Newark, N. Y. Learned. Welthea, South High School, Salt Lake City, Utah Lee, Nancy, 211 East Peace St., Raleigh, N. C. McKay. Donald, President, Eastern New Mexico Junior College, Portales, N. Mex. Martin, Rosalie. Assistant High School Principal, Georgetown, Del. May, Ernest A., 1615 East Locust St., Mil¬ waukee, Wis. Merrill, Birdine, Shattuck School, Portland, Ore. Michael, L. E., High School Principal, Cloverdale, Ind. Miller, Charles S., President, State Teach¬ ers College, Slippery Rock, Pa. Moyer, H. H., Principal, Rawlins High School, Rawlins, Wyo. Patterson, J. H., High School Principal, Thomas, W. Va. Pruitt, Eugene W., Superintendent, Fred¬ erick County Schools, Frederick, Md. Rock, Margaret, Teacher Training School, 118 Lenox Ave., Bridgeport, Conn. Rost, Grover F., 912 North Wheeler, Grand Island, Nebr. Skewes, George, Professor of Science, May- ville, N. Dak. Stevenson, H. G., Superintendent of Schools, Globe, Ariz. Strong, Vera, 1922 Blodgett, Houston, Texas Sutton, Willis A., Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta. Ga. Taylor, W. N., Secretary, Mississippi Edu¬ cation Association, Jackson, Miss. Thompson, Elizabeth M., Public Schools, Colebrook, N. H. Williams, D. S., Superintendent of City Schools, Bozeman, Mont. Zaneis, Kate Galt, President, Southeastern State Teachers College, Durant, Okla. COMMITTEE ON TENURE (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Executive Committee DuShane, Donald, Chairman; Superintend¬ ent of Schools, Columbus, Ind. • Dahl, Mrs. Myrtle Hooper, 312 South Eighth St., Minneapolis. Minn. Irizarry, Oscar B., Central High School, Tulsa, Okla. Jelinek, Frances, Room 150, Wisconsin Hotel, Milwaukee, Wis. Keenan, Robert C., Principal, Drake Public School, Chicago, Ill. Kingan, J. Constance, High School, Royal Oak, Mich. O’Connor, Mary Elizabeth, Supervisor of Elementary Schools, Natick, Mass. Allison, Elizabeth, Public Schools, Bis¬ marck, N. Dak. Anderson, Homer W., Superintendent of Schools, Omaha, Nebr. Andrews, Mrs. Flora J., 2110 East Lead Ave., Albuquerque, N. Mex. Banting. C. O., Superintendent of Schools, Waukesha, Wis. Baskervill, Elizabeth, Public Schools, Orangeburg, S. C. Batchelder, Carl J., Deputy Commissioner of Education, Montpelier, Vt. Bechtold, R. H., Principal. Longfellow Elementary and Junior High School, Flint. Mich. Bloom, W. H., Superintendent of Schools, Fairbanks, Alaska Blunk, Ella, Senior High School, Grand Island. Nebr. Booth, C. L., Superintendent of Schools, Pasco, Wash. Booth, Jonathan L., 522 East Second St., Tucson, Ariz. Bowden, A. O., Department of Anthro¬ pology. University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif. Boyum, Louise V., Principal, Wailuku Ele¬ mentary School, Wailuku, Maui, T. H. Cameron, E. T., Business Representative, Michigan Education Association, Lansing, Mich. Carr. A. T., Principal, Nathan Hale Junior High School, Cleveland, Ohio Cody, Frank, Superintendent of Schools, Detroit, Mich. Cook, Katherine, 912 West Twenty-third St., Austin, Texas Couch, E. B., Chairman, Committee on Tenure, California Teachers Association, 1133 North Everett St., Glendale, Calif. Dann, George J., Superintendent of Schools, Oneonta, N. Y. DeCamp, John A., Superintendent of Schools, Utica, N. Y. Dick, L. C., Superintendent, Madison County Schools, London, Ohio Dickinson, Florence M., Assistant Principal, Bonsall School, Camden, N. J. Drake, Flora E., 2230 Brookside Ave., In¬ dianapolis, Ind. Eakin, Miss Myrl I., 518 Shady Ave., East Liberty, Pittsburgh, Pa. Early, John T.. Superintendent of Schools, Sheridan, Wyo. Egbert. Freda D., 7529 Alaska Ave., N. W., Washington, D. C. Eubank, L. A., Dean, State Teachers Col¬ lege, Kirksville, Mo. Evans. C. Ray, Principal. North Summit High School, Coalville, Utah Everett, Ralph W., Sacramento Junior Col¬ lege, Sacramento, Calif. Gayman, H. E., Assistant Executive Secre¬ tary, Pennsylvania State Education As¬ sociation, 400 North Third St., Harrisburg, Pa. Gerber, R. A., Superintendent of Schools, Sidney. Mont. Greer, H. G., Superintendent, Monroe County Schools, Monroeville, Ala. Grieder, Theodore G., Superintendent of Schools, Winslow, Ariz. Hale, Mrs. Gertrude, 58 Lewis St., Athol, Mass. Hart, Harry T., Principal, Stevens School, Stamford, Conn. Hassell, B. L., Principal, Clarksville High School, Clarksville, Tenn. Havens, Kathryn C., 129 Allen Place, Hart¬ ford, Conn. Hendricks, Lorene, 110 East Eleventh St., Wahoo, Nebr. Hier, Ruth, Assistant Principal, James Ford Rhodes High School, Cleveland, Ohio Associational Records and Information 729 Hinman, Harriett L., Supervisor of Re¬ search and Instruction, Board of Educa¬ tion, Toledo, Ohio Holley, Ella J., Rural Supervisor, New Castle County Schools, Wilmington, Del. Holt, Miss Terrell, 728 Napier Ave., Macon, Ga. Howard, Homer, P. K. Yonge Laboratory School, University of Florida, Gaines¬ ville, Fla. Humphreys, Pauline A., Head, Department of Education, State Teachers College, Warrensburg, Mo. Ireland, E. W., Superintendent of Schools, Stratford, Conn. Jacobs, Clara M., Department of Educational Research, District #1, Pueblo City Schools, Pueblo, Colo. Jenkins, F. F., Division Superintendent, Southampton County Schools, Franklin, Va. Johnson, Leslie W., Garfield High School, Seattle, Wash. Keller, Lester E., Principal, Sudlow Inter¬ mediate School, Davenport, Iowa Kittrell, Charles A., Superintendent, Inde¬ pendent School District, Waterloo, Iowa Lively, Mrs. Emery, 2900 Prytania St., New Orleans, La. Longmire, Mrs. L. T., Alexandria, La. Lord, Mary A., North Junior High School, Sioux City, Iowa Loser, Paul. Superintendent of Schools, Trenton, N. J. Lozo, John P., R. F. D. 4, Lancaster, Pa. McConnell, John Preston, President, State Teachers College, East Radford, Va. Moore, Mrs. Clarence, High School Prin¬ cipal, Osceola, Ark. Moreau, Cecilia M., 334 North Main St., Presque Isle, Maine Muller, Edgar, Principal, Westlake Junior High School, Oakland, Calif. Nicely, O. W., President, Teachers Retire¬ ment Fund Board, 310 State House, In¬ dianapolis, Ind. Nissen, S. B., Editor, South Dakota Educa¬ tion Association Journal, Perry Bldg., Sioux Falls, S. Dak. Olson, Mrs. Clara M., College of Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. O’Rourke, Catherine, 3057 W. Jackson Blvd., Chicago, Ill. Owens, A. D., Superintendent of Schools, Newport, Ky. Plenzke, O. H., Executive Secretary, Wis¬ consin Education Association, Madison, Wis. Reed, Truman G.. Principal, Wichita High School, East, Wichita, Kans. Roland, H. M., Superintendent of Schools, Burlington, N. C. Shawkey, M. P., Morris Harvey College, Kanawha County Public Library Bldg., Charleston, W. Va. Sheehan, Marv A., Vice-Principal, Wash¬ ington High School, Rochester, N. Y. Shepherd, Grace M., Department of Educa¬ tion, Northwest Missouri State Teachers College, Maryville, Mo. Smith, Stanton E., 201 Ferger Bldg., Chat¬ tanooga, Tenn. Snyder, Mrs. Barbara B., Arcadia Hotel, St. Helens, Ore. Stiles, Chester D., Superintendent of Schools, Westfield, Mass. Strickland, Rose, Principal, Powell School. Birmingham, Ala. Sullivan, Jack, 224 Lexington St., Jackson, Miss. Tieert, John J., President, University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. Vance, Mrs. Una E., 2223 Routt St., Pueblo, Colo. Weeks, Zoraida, 506 Main St., Oneida, N. Y. Wilson, Mrs. A. R., Principal, Lakewood School, Durham, N. C. Winslow, Howard L., Superintendent of Schools, Somersworth, N. H. Wolaver, Florence E., 407 Liberty St., Dun¬ dee, Ill. 730 National Education Association MINUTES OF THE SEVENTEENTH REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY Detroit, Michigan, June 28-July 1, 1937 First Business Session, Tuesday Morning, June 29, 1937 The first business session of the Representative Assembly of the National Educa¬ tion Association was held in the Masonic Temple Auditorium, Detroit. The meeting convened at 9:30 a.m., with President Pratt presiding. A basket of flowers was presented to President Pratt by the representative of the Spokane teachers. President Orville C. Pratt: It is very nice indeed to have a buttonhole bouquet of that size to wear this morning. It is certainly gratifying to me personally to find that altho we are 2500 miles away from home, the teachers have sent this fine bouquet. I want to thank them personally — each and every one! This, as you know, is the first business session. It has been suggested that it might be better to have, first, the report of the Committee on Bylaws and Rules, of which Miss Adair is chairman. Miss Cornelia S. Adair (Virginia) : I will ask you to take your manual and turn to page 6 while the Rules Committee reports. Rules of Procedure for Conduct of Business in the Representative Assembly 1. Each state delegation shall elect a chairman. In the absence of a delegate, only an alternate shall take his place, and when there is more than one alternate of a state or local affiliated association the delegates of that association shall select the alternate to act. This pertains to the organization of each state delegation, the first step being that each delegation shall elect a chairman. 2. There shall be not more than one nominating speech and two seconding speeches for any one candidate. Nominating speeches shall be limited to five minutes and seconding speeches to two minutes each. There may be any number of seconds to nominations so long as there are only two seconding speeches. 3. No member shall speak in debate more than twice during the same day to the same question, nor longer than five minutes at one time, unless permission is granted by a majority vote of the Representative Assembly at that session. 4. All resolutions and all motions submitted for consideration in the reports of officers, boards, or committees shall be in writing and shall be signed by the maker and the seconder. 5. Resolutions for the Committee on Resolutions must be in the hands of the Committee not later than noon of the second day of the convention, and such notice shall appear in the Manual for Delegates and announcement be made by the executive secretary on the first and second mornings of the convention. 6. T he printed copies of the report of the Committee on Resolutions shall be in the hands of the delegates twenty-four hours before they are voted upon. 7. All morning sessions of the Assembly shall be exclusively business meetings. 8. In all voting on amendments to the charter and on all amendments to the bylaws, except where unanimous consent is given by the Representative Assembly, state delegations may vote by ballot. The result shall be announced by the chair¬ man of each delegation as the roll of states is called. (See Article X, Section 2, of the bylaws.) 9. There shall be an official parliamentarian to whom questions may be directed thru the presiding officer only. Mr. Chairman, I move the adoption of this report as the rules for the convention. President Pratt: You have heard the motion. Is there a second? Mr. E. M. JV hitesides (Utah) : Seconded. President Pratt: It has been moved and seconded that the report of the Committee on Bylaws and Rules be adopted. Are there any questions? Hearing no requests for information, we shall proceed to vote. Associational Records and Information 731 The motion is carried and the report of the Committee on Bylaws and Rules is adopted. We shall pause for just a moment now while the Reverend John D. Howell, St. Stephens A.M.E. Church, gives the invocation. (The invocation was given.) President Pratt: We shall now have the report of the Committee on Credentials of which Albert S. Colton is chairman. Mr. Albert S. Colton (California) : The Committee on Credentials met in the Masonic Temple at 2 p.m., on Monday, June 28 , with twenty-seven members present. The secretary of credentials reported that there were more than 1143 delegates registered and expected about 200 more. The Committee recommended that all dele¬ gates properly certified be seated, provided they satisfy the Secretary’s Office that the members of the organizations they represent have paid their 1936-37 dues by Decem¬ ber 31, 1936. The Committee recommended that the registration of delegates close by 8:30 A.M., Wednesday, June 30. The Committee further recommended that all delegates certified by state or local organizations must be members of the organiza¬ tion they are certified to represent. The Committee appointed a subcommittee to pass upon any questions pertaining to the certification of delegates. The following were appointed: Eugene B. Gordon, Maine; Frances M. Malik, Michigan; Minnie J. JVyly, Alaska; Coririne Weaver, Alabama; and A. S. Colton, California. I move the adop¬ tion of this report. President Pratt: You have heard the motion for the adoption of the report of the Committee on Credentials. Is there a second? Mr. J. E. Fitzgerald (Iowa) : Seconded. President Pratt: It has been moved and seconded that the report of the Committee on Credentials be adopted. Is there any discussion or questions? The report is adopted. Next is the matter of the adoption of the Order of Business, to be followed by the minutes of the Portland meeting. There are two necessary changes to be made. The first of these is to have the report of the Committee on Amending the Charter come first and the report of the Committee on Reorganization come second in the order of procedure. Then, following the report of the Committee on Academic Freedom, it is necessary to arrange for the election of the Publishing Committee and we should like to insert that item at that place. Is there any objection to the Order of Business as just now outlined? Hearing no objection, by your unani¬ mous consent, that becomes the Order of Business. (The minutes of the Portland meeting were adopted as published and distributed.) President Pratt: We are ready now for the report of the Committee on Amending the Charter. Mr. Shaw, chairman of that Committee, will make the report. Mr. Reuben T. Shaw (Pennsylvania): Many of you are aware of the adoption of certain proposals to amend the charter one year ago. I feel it would be a waste of time and would be an annoyance to you to go into the details of all that has occurred since then, but I wish to read very briefly the following report: The Committee on Amending the Charter with the cooperation of the Executive Committee, the executive secretary, and the attorney of the Association prepared a bill for introduction into Congress in accordance with the action taken by the Representative Assembly, at Portland, in 1936. The bill was introduced by Senator Will iam H. King of Utah. It was passed by the Senate, February* 11, 1937 ; passed by the House of Representatives, June 7, 1937. It was signed by the President, June 14, 1937. The passage of this bill transfers from the charter to the bylaws many of the provisions which more properly belong in the bylaws. Certain provisions in re¬ gard to the Board of Trustees and the Permanent Fund remain in the charter, and cannot be changed without another act of Congress. In all other respects the Association is now free to revise the set-up of its Executive Committee, or its Board of Directors, or its Representative Assembly in whatever way it may desire and without going to Congress. It may rearrange the assignment of powers and duties among its officers, boards, councils, and committees, except as limited by the act as amended. 732 National Education Association I submit this report on behalf of the Committee, and offer this motion: I move that the amendments to the Act of Incorporation of the National Education Association made by the passage of S. 709 by Congress and approved by the President of the United States on June 14, 1937, be accepted as amendments to the charter and adopted as amendments to the constitution of the National Education Association of the United States. This motion is moved by myself as chairman and seconded by Mr. Taylor, chair¬ man of the Committee on Reorganization. President Pratt: The motion is now before you for action. Are you ready for the question? (The motion was put to vote.) President Pratt: The “ayes,” I believe, have it. Unless a division is called for, I shall declare the motion carried. The motion is carried. Mr. Shaw: On behalf of the Committee and of all committees and all people that have helped to put this across, I have the honor to present to the Association thru you a photostatic copy of Act 146 which brings the amendment of the charter into existence. President Pratt: I wish to take this occasion to thank Mr. Shaw and the members of his Committee for following thru on this matter of the new charter, and being able to present it as something finished before our annual meeting. I am calling on the secretary now to make an announcement about elections. ( Secretary Givens explained the duties and work of the Publishing Committee, consisting of five members, and asked the state delegations to nominate at least ten candidates. In accordance with the bylaws ten signatures were required on the nomi¬ nating petitions of each candidate. The election was conducted under the Hare System of Proportional Representation. In addition, each state delegate was asked to nominate a member to serve on the Elections Committee.) President Pratt: We shall have now a recess of two or three minutes while this matter is being arranged. Mrs. Johanna Lindlof (New York) : Mr. Chairman, before you have a recess, I would like to ask a question about this Publishing Committee. As I understand it, this Publishing Committee will be a sort of censorship commit¬ tee. I believe that the proceedings of the convention should be an accurate account of everything that is said and done at the convention, and I believe that anything else is censorship. I think the only possible use for a Publishing Committee is correction of perhaps incorrect English, and nothing else. Secretary Givens: May I say, according to the action taken at the Portland con¬ vention, the Publishing Committee is to determine what is to go into the Proceedings. Mrs. Lindlof: That is the very thing I object to, that the Publishing Committee will decide whether a thing shall go in or not. I think that everything that occurs should go in, so that the teachers back home, who cannot attend the convention, may know exactly what this convention does. Secretary Givens: The official record is kept here, and the Publishing Committee is supposed to put in everything that takes place in the Representative Assembly, and I think you should elect on the Publishing Committee the kind of people that you are sure will do that. President Pratt: Questions can be asked, if you desire, but no motions can be made now. « Mr. Fred D. Cram (Iowa) : If this action that was taken last year is irrevocable so far as this year’s meeting is concerned, what I want to know is, How can it be changed? I am certain that this organization wants everything that is heard here edited carefully, but we want to know all that occurs. The question that I am asking is, How can it be changed so that we will not make another mistake such as we seem to be making this year? That is the question. President Pratt: We are hearing questions, but we are not giving any answers now. . Miss Emily Tarhcll (New York) : A good many questions have been asked as to why the reports of the investigation of the cases of the Tenure Committee were not included in the Proceedings published for this last year. Associattonal Records and Information 733 President Pratt: I am going to ask Mr. Givens to read the list of names submitted for the Publishing Committee to see that we have received all names that you have sent up. Secretary Givens: I will also check on the names, to make sure we have them correct: C. T. Coleman, Indiana; Lillian Broderick , New York; 0. D. Kelley, South Carolina; H. A. Moerschel, Wisconsin; IVilliam J. Laramy, Pennsylvania; M. E. McCurdy, North Dakota; D. E. Temple, Oklahoma; Otis Crosby, Michigan; C. B. Smith, Illinois; IV. E. JVenner, Ohio; Mrs. A Hie M. Hammond, Florida; John Rusinko, Minnesota; H. J. Paul, California; Charles A. Rice, Oregon; Christina Claussen, Washington; John Allan Smith, California; Sarah T. Muir, Nebraska; Carroll Convuay, New Mexico; IV. D. Asfahl, Colorado. ( Cornelia S. Adair explained that ten names were necessary on the nominations of candidates for the Publishing Committee in order to comply with the bylaws.) President Pratt: We are ready now, I believe, for the report of the Committee on Reorganization. Dean Taylor, of the University of Kentucky, is 'the chairman of that Committee. Mr. fVilliam S. Taylor (Kentucky) : Mr. President and members of the Represen¬ tative Assembly, may I have unanimous consent to make a brief preliminary state¬ ment before presenting the recommendations of the Committee? President Pratt: Are you willing to have Dean Taylor make such a statement? (Consent granted.) Mr. Taylor: In 1934 the president of the National Education Association appointed the Reorganization Committee. This Committee made its first report at Denver in 1935. The same Committee was reappointed by the incoming president at Denver, irt 1935, and made its report at Portland in 1936. The Committee was reappointed by Dr. Pratt at Portland, and this is the third, and what we hope will be the final, report of the Reorganization Committee. This report was presented yesterday to the Board of Directors of the National Education Association. The Board of Directors must have all reports of this nature presented to it before they can be presented to the Representative Assembly. The Board of Directors approved yesterday certain recommendations of the Com¬ mittee for presentation to you this morning. Certain recommendations were made by the Board of Directors yesterday, and incorporated into the report of the Com¬ mittee to be presented to you today. Certain recommendations of the Committee were not approved by the Board of Directors yesterday, but were rejected. These, as you know, must be presented to you today in the form of the Report of the Reorganization Committee. The members of the Board of Directors who desire to present amendments to these recommendations will do so at such time as they feel it desirable. Now, if you will turn to the report you will find recommended changes in the bylaws: “The amendments marked with an asterisk * have been submitted in sub¬ stance at some previous convention. All materials in brackets [ ] in this report are materials recommended for omission. All materials printed in italics will be new material, presented to you at this time.” I move that Article X, Section 1 (a) of the bylaws, be amended as set forth in the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, Chapter II, by striking out “1936” and inserting “1937 and 1938” in place thereof. (Seconded by R. T. Shaw.) President Pratt: You have heard the motion. Are you ready for the question? Those favoring the motion will please indicate by saying “aye.” (The motion was put to a vote, and was carried, but there were some objections from certain parts of the floor that it was impossible to hear.) President Pratt: We will now have Dean Taylor repeat the motion. Mrs. Lindlof: May I suggest that the speaker each time speak slowly, allow each word to be said without running it into the next one? Then we will understand. Mr. Taylor: That is a very happy, suggestion. Now, Mr. C hair man, may I repeat? I move that Article X, Section 1 (a) of the bylaws, be amended as set forth in the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, Chapter II, by striking 734 National Education Association out “1936" and inserting “1937 and 1938” in place thereof, to make the amendment read as follows: provided, That these bylaws may be amended at the annual meeting of the Rep¬ resentative Assembly in 1937 and 1938 by a two-thirds vote if such amendment has been printed in the May Journal of the National Education Association. (Seconded by R. T. Shan.) President Pratt: Are you ready to vote? Those favoring the motion will please indicate by saying “aye.” (Motion carried.) Mr. Taylor: I move that Article X, Section 1 (b) of the bylaws, be amended as set forth in the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, Chapter II, by striking out “1936” and inserting “1937” in place thereof and by further re¬ wording the paragraph so that it shall read as follows: That amendments to the bylaws proposed by the Committee on Reorganization may be adopted with or without amendment at the annual meeting of the Repre¬ sentative Assembly in 1937 by a two-thirds vote without previous notice. (Seconded by R. T. Shan.) President Pratt: IT. S. Taylor moves and R. T. Shan seconds this motion that you have just heard. Is there discussion? Are you ready for the question? Mr. Taylor: Mr. President, I wonder if we might have unanimous consent for the passage of this? President Pratt: Are you willing to give unanimous consent for the passage of this motion? Hearing no objection, the motion is carried by unanimous consent. Mr. Taylor: I move that Article I, Section 1, of the bylaws, as set forth in Chapter III, of the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, be amended to read as follows: The membership of the National Education Association shall consist of four classes: Active, Associate, Corresponding, and Institutional, wffiose qualifications, rights, and obligations shall be as hereinafter prescribed. Moved by myself, seconded by Mr. Shan. President Pratt: May we have unanimous consent to adopt this motion as just now made and seconded? Hearing no objection, the motion is adopted by unanimous consent. Mr. Taylor: I move that the word “free” in the fifth line of Section 3, page 5, of the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, be stricken out. Moved by myself, seconded by E. E. Oberholtzer. President Pratt: You have heard the motion as made by Mr. Taylor and seconded by Mr. Oberholtzer. May we have unanimous consent for the adoption of this motion? Delegate: Where is the statement in the report? Mr. Taylor: On page 5, line 5, in Section 3. President Pratt: Hearing no objection, the motion is adopted by unanimous consent. Mr. Taylor: I move that Article I, Section 3, of the bylaws, as set forth in Chapter III, of the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, be amended and reworded to read as follows: The dues of an active member shall be $2 or $5 annually or $100 for a Life Membership. Active members shall be entitled to attend all meetings of the Asso¬ ciation and its several departments, to vote for delegates to the Representative Assembly, and to hold office. Those who pay annual dues of $2 shall be entitled to receive the Journal. Those who pay annual dues of $5 shall be entitled to receive, in addition to the Journal, the Research Bulletins and the volume of Proceedings . Those who pay $100 become members for life without payment of additional dues and are entitled to receive the Journal, the Research Bulletins, and the volume of Proceedings. Moved by myself and seconded by E. E. Oberholtzer. May we have unanimous consent? President Pratt: Unanimous approval is asked for this motion just made by Dean Taylor, and seconded by Mr, Oberholtzer, Hearing no objection, the motion is adopted. Associational Records and Information 735 Mr. Taylor: I move that Article I, Section 4, of the bylaws be amended as set forth in Chapter III of the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, by striking out the words “life members and,” so that the Section as amended, will read as follows: All Life Directors shall have all the rights and privileges of active members without the payment of annual dues, and shall receive free without application or condition the publications of the Association. Moved by myself and seconded by Mr. Oberholtzer. Mr. Chairman, I ask unanimous consent to the approval of this motion. President Pratt: Unanimous consent is asked for this motion you have just heard read. Mrs. Lindlof: I would like to know who are the life directors. Mr. Taylor: We must retain the words, life directors, in this section, Mrs. Lindlof, because there are three such directors whose status cannot be changed by vote of this Association. The Board of Education, Memphis, Tennessee, purchased a life directorship many years ago. The Illinois State Teachers Association purchased one, and the Teachers Institute in Philadelphia purchased one, and these three, this organization can do nothing about, so the words, life directors, must be included in this section. Miss Florence Hale (New York) : Mr. Chairman, I do not think, as I understand it, that that is correct. I think until we proceed further, they are still life directors, are they not? Mr. Taylor: Miss Hale, that is entirely correct so far as this Committee knows. Mrs. Lindlof: May I ask another question? I was absent from the last convention — held in Portland — perhaps that is why I do not know, but it seems to me that a few meetings ago, we adopted an amendment which took out these privileges for these special classes. It seems to me that we voted by ballot and we won by more than two-thirds majority to take from all these who held positions, the right to vote in the Delegate Assembly because at some time in the past they had occupied certain positions. Now, I would like to know what it means. Mr. Taylor: Mrs. Lindlof, that will come up for amendment a little later in this report. Mrs. Lindlof: I want to know what happened to that amendment we adopted. We adopted that amendment by ballot by more than a two-thirds vote. We certainly did. I was there, and I know we did. Mr. Taylor: The parliamentarian asks that I say that that problem will come up for discussion later. President Pratt: The parliamentarian rules that this matter will come up later. Mr. Clyde Miller (New York) : Mr. Chairman, is it possible to lay this motion on the table until it comes up later, until the delegates know more about it? President Pratt: The parliamentarian tells us that it would be better to pass on this motion at this time, and then if you should not like the way in which the matter works out, when this other matter does come up, it can be reconsidered then in con¬ nection with the other. Mrs. Lindlof: I understand that a motion to table has to be put without discussion. There was a motion made. Mr. Miller: I so make a motion to table. President Pratt: Clyde Miller of New York, moves to table this motion. Was there a second ? (The motion was seconded by Charles P. Malloy, Pennsylvania.) President Pratt: This question is not debatable. Mr. Joseph H. Saunders (Virginia) : A question of parliamentary inquiry. Would not a motion to table carry with it this original motion, also, and that you could not act upon Section 4 if the motion to table is adopted? Mrs. Lindlof: That is the very thing we want tabled. President Pratt: The parliamentarian rules that if this motion is tabled, the other motion stands. 736 National Education Association New York Delegate: Which motion? President Pratt: The one previously passed on. Mr. Fred D. Cram (Iowa) : I believe that I can answer the question raised by the lady from New York. I am rather surprised that it has not been answered from the platform. President Pratt: Mr. Cram, the motion now before us cannot be debated. This is a motion to table. (The motion was put to a vote and was lost.) Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl (Minnesota) : May I ask Mr. Shaw a question? Is not the matter that Mrs. Lindlof refers to — that motion that was passed in Washington — a motion to just eliminate life delegates from the Representative Assembly, and not life directors? Mr. Shaw: I am surprised that the question should be directed to me, but I am glad to answer it; that is, that the action taken at Washington, first eliminated them from the Representative Assembly; the other action recommended that the charter be changed so that they would be eliminated from the Board of Directors. Now, if I may have the floor, Mr. Chairman, for just a moment: it seems to me that the legislation before you is being much misunderstood. The motion is to take out the words “life directors.” The other is already in there. We are making no recommendation at this time, and we do have three life directors that cannot be eliminated in any way. Mrs. Dahl: I misstated myself. The motion was to eliminate life delegates in this Representative Assembly, not life directors but ex-officio delegates in this Assembly. I think that is the motion to which Mrs. Lindlof refers. President Pratt: Those favoring the motion as made by Dean Taylor and seconded by Mr. Oherholtzcr, will please signify by saying “aye.” (Motion carried.) Mr. Taylor: I move that Article I of the bylaws be amended by adding the new section, to be known as Section 7, as set forth in Chapter III, of the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, and which shall read as follows: Institutional Membership in the Association may be held only by libraries in normal schools, teachers colleges, liberal arts colleges, and universities, and by public libraries. The annual dues for the regular Institutional Membership shall be $5, which shall entitle the institution to receive the Journal, the Research Bul¬ letins, and the volume of Proceedings. A special Institutional Membership shall be available to the above-named institutions for a fee of $2. This shall entitle the institution to receive the Journal only. Institutional Membership shall have no rights other than to receive the publications named. Moved by Mr. Taylor and seconded by Birdine Merrill. I ask unanimous consent for the approval of this motion. President Pratt: Unanimous consent has been asked for the approval of this motion. Hearing no objection, it is approved. Mr. Taylor: I move that Article I, Section 8, as set forth in the report of the Com¬ mittee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, Chapter III, shall be amended to read as follows : The membership year shall be from September 1 to August 31. All membership dues shall be credited to the current membership year unless otherwise requested. Moved by Mr. Taylor and seconded by Miss Merrill. Mr. Chairman, may we have the unanimous consent for the approval of the motion? President Pratt: Unanimous consent is asked for the approval of this motion. Hearing no objection, the motion is approved. Mr. Taylor: I move that Article I, Section 8 of the bylaws, as set forth in the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, Chapter III, be amended by changing the number to Section 9, and by striking out the words “November 1” and by inserting in lieu thereof the words “December 31”; and further, by striking out the words “after being in arrears one-half year” so that the Section as amended shall read as follows: Section 9. The annual dues of members shall be sent to the Executive Secre¬ tary on or before December 31. An active member failing to pay dues as herein Associational Records and Information 737 provided shall forfeit the privileges of membership and be dropped from the list of members. Moved by Mr. Taylor and seconded by Miss Merrill. I ask unanimous consent for the approval of this motion. President Pratt: Unanimous consent is asked for the approval of this motion. Hearing no objection, the motion is approved. Mr. Taylor: I move that Article I, Section 9, of the bylaws, as set forth in the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, Chapter III, be amended by changing the number to Section 10, and by adding the following sentence: “Ar¬ rangements may be made with Local and State Affiliated Associations for the issu¬ ance of a coinclusive membership card, or insignia, or both on a voluntary basis,” so that the Section as amended shall read as follows: Section 10. The Executive Secretary of the Association shall furnish each member of the Association a Membership Card, declaring him to be a member of the National Education Association for the year for which his dues are paid, and as such entitled to all rights and privileges granted by the charter and bylaws of the Association. Arrangements may be made with Local and State Affiliated Associations for the issuance of a coinclusive membership card, or insignia, or both on a voluntary basis. (Seconded by Daisy Lord.) Mr. Taylor: I ask the unanimous consent for the passage of this motion. President Pratt: Unanimous consent has been asked for the adoption of this motion. Hearing no objections, the motion is adopted. Mr. Taylor: I move that Article II — Officers — as set forth in the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, Chapter III, Section I, paragraphs (a), (b), (c), and (d), be referred to the Executive Committee for further study and for report at the annual meeting of the Association in 1938. Mr. Chairman, I ask unanimous consent for the adoption of this motion. Moved by Mr. Taylor and seconded by R. T. Shaw. President Pratt: You have heard the request for unanimous consent. Hearing no objection, the motion is adopted. Mr. Taylor: Will the delegates please turn to Article III, Duties of Officers, Sec¬ tions 2, 3, and 4? I ask unanimous consent to refer to the Board of Directors because it is vitally tied up with Section 1 of Article II. President Pratt: You have heard the motion for unanimous consent. Hearing no objection, this motion is adopted. Mr. Taylor: I move that the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, Chapter III, be amended to read as follows: Article X, Section 2. In all voting on proposed amendments to the charter and on proposed amendments to the constitution or the bylaws, written ballots shall be used whenever 200 members of the Representative Assembly by petition or by standing vote shall indicate that ballot voting is desired. In case a petition for secret ballot is signed by at least 200 members of the Representative Assembly and filed with the Executive Secretary he shall arrange for written ballots in accordance with the petition. State delegations may vote by ballot. The result shall be announced by the chairman of each delegation as the roll of states is called; such vote to be determined by the actual number of delegates present at such meeting and voting. Upon the request of three delegates any state delegation must vote by ballot. Mr. Chairman, I ask unanimous consent for the approval of the motion. Moved by Mr. Taylor and seconded by Miss Lord. President Pratt: You have heard the request for unanimous consent. Hearing no objection, the motion is approved. Mrs. Lindlof: I do not understand why it should be necessary to have 200 people request a vote by ballot on amendments. I think we have had enough experience in the past to show that it is absolutely essential that we have voting on amendments 738 National Education Association by ballots on every occasion in order that there shall be no possible kind of coercion exerted, and the only way to do that is by secret ballot. President Pratt: The motion has already been adopted. There is, of course, the possibility of reconsideration — not right away, however. Mr. Taylor: I move that the proposed amendment to Article III, Section 6 (b) of the bylaws as printed at the bottom of page 8, 1937 report of the Committee on Reorganization, be referred to the Committee on ByLaws and Rules for consideration and report at the 1938 convention. Moved by Mr. Taylor and seconded by Miss Merrill. Mr. fl . A. Walls (Ohio) : Will the chairman of the Committee state why this motion is made? Mr. Taylor: The report of the Reorganization Committee will take too long as it is. The reason for making this request is that a question has arisen as to the powers and duties of the Board of Trustees, whether or not the Committee has a right to take this out of the bylaws of the Association at the present time. It will take a year to get a legal ruling on whether or not it should be brought back to the organization. The Committee believes in the recommendation but the Committee was not able to answer the legal point, Mr. Walls. President Pratt: Mr. Taylor has asked for unanimous consent for the approval of this motion. Hearing no objection, the motion is adopted. Mr. Taylor: I move that a new paragraph be added to Article II, Section 1, as set forth in the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, Chapter III, which shall be known as Section 1 (f) and which shall read as follows: The terms of the members of the Board of Directors elected from the states, the District of Columbia, and the territorial possessions shall be for three years, the terms of one-third of the members expiring each year. All members of the Board of Directors representing the states, the District of Columbia, and the territorial possessions shall be nominated by the said states, the District of Columbia, and territorial possessions to the Representative Assembly for election by that body. All members so elected to take office at the close of the annual meeting in 1937 shall draw lots to determine who shall serve one, two, or three years. Thereafter all terms of office for such members shall be for a three-year period. Moved by Mr. Taylor and seconded by Miss Lord. I ask unanimous consent for the approval of this motion. President Pratt: Unanimous consent has been asked for approval of this motion. Hearing no objection, the motion is approved. Mr. Martin Wilson (New York) : Will the directors elected next year serve for three years? President Pratt: Those elected next year will serve for a term of three years. Mr. Taylor: I move that the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, Chapter III, be amended to read as follows: Section 7 (a) The Board of Directors, when in session, shall have powTer to fill all vacancies in its own body and shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting those intrusted to the Board of Trustees. Moved by Mr. Taylor and seconded by Miss Merrill. I ask unanimous consent for the approval of this motion. President Pratt: Unanimous consent has been asked by Dean Taylor. Hearing no objection, the motion is adopted. Mr. Taylor: I move that Article II, Section 8 of the bylaws as set forth in the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, Chapter III, be amended by striking out the first sentence and substituting in lieu thereof the following: To be eligible to election as a delegate to the Representative Assembly, the candidate must have been for two years immediately preceding the election an active member of the National Education Association and a member of a State, District, or Territorial Association; and if the delegate is to represent a Local Affiliated Association, then two years’ membership in such Association imme- Associational Records and Information 739 diately preceding the election shall be added to the above-named qualifications, provided that the two-year restriction shall not apply to newly organized local Associations. Moved by Mr. Taylor and seconded by Miss Adair. Mr. Chairman, I ask unani¬ mous consent to the approval of this motion. Mr. Joseph H. Saunders (Virginia): I object to the unanimous consent. I should like to be recorded as voting “no.” President Pratt: Just a moment. This motion has been made by Dean Taylor and seconded by Miss Adair. Refusal has been made for unanimous consent and so it is necessary to place the motion before you for vote. We are ready now for discussion. Mr. Taylor: Mr. Saunders, may I ask a question? If we substituted “a” for “such,” would that satisfy your problem? Mr. Saunders: No, Dean Taylor, because I believe that the proposition of making it two years’ service in the local association before a delegate can come here as a delegate would be detrimental to the welfare of the National Education Association. I know that you have sitting here now before you many delegates who would be disqualified to serve this Association if this motion is adopted. I believe we want to increase the interest of the young people coming into the profession and build up a great unified Association. I believe this motion would be detrimental to that objective. President Pratt: Is there further discussion? Mrs. Lindlof: I rise to ask a question. I would like to know whether this paragraph means that in order to be a delegate to the convention of the National Education Association, you must not only be a member of the National Education Association but also a member of your state association. Mr. Taylor: It does mean that. Mrs. Lindlof: May I then state that I object on behalf of a large number of New York City teachers whom we are anxious to enrol as members of the National Education Association and whom I am sure, we cannot induce also to join the state association. Now, it is a question that has arisen before and I know for a fact that the New York City teachers do not belong to the New York State Association except in a very small number. You would be keeping them out of the Association. I believe that should be changed and we should not be required to belong to a state association. In New York City we have eighty teachers associations. Now, we would like to get them to join the National Education Association. If you are also going to insist that they belong to the state association, I think you are going to lose out. The New York City teachers cannot attend meetings thruout the state. We are glad and anxious to have them attend meetings in the city and if they do that, they are doing quite a good deal. President Pratt: Mr. Oberholtzer has been recognized. Mr. E. E. Oberholtzer (Texas) : The Committee has the same interest in the Asso¬ ciation that Mr. Saunders referred to. However, we also had in mind the protection of the National Education Association from those that might come from centers where they might join just that year to become delegates. Most organizations believe their members should be active for a short time at least before they become legis¬ lators of policy. I do not agree with Mr. Saunders that it will discourage them. We have said it takes experience in this Representative Assembly to act in the best way and we have recommended that delegates be given a term of service longer than one year. I think it is a safeguard. It also stimulates, I believe, active and continued membership. Mr. Saunders: Will the Committee agree to change the word “two” to “one”? Then I will be glad to withdraw my objection. I think the answer given to Mrs. Lindlof is incorrect. President Pratt: Mr. Saunders, do you wish to offer that as an amendment? Mr. Saunders: I move to amend by striking out “two” and inserting in lieu thereof “one.” President Pratt: Is there a second? There being no second, I recognize Mr. Muller of California. Mr. Edgar E. Muller (California): I believe everything in that amendment can 740 National Education Association be accomplished by the local organization’s taking care of that themselves and I do not believe it should go into the bylaws of the National Education Association. President Pratt: Are you ready for the motion? Those favoring the motion will indicate by saying “aye”; those opposed “no.” The “noes” seem to have it. (Division was called for.) Mr. Lyle Wilson Ewing (New Hampshire) : There is a little confusion in the house as to just exactly how the motion reads at this moment. Will you read it again, please ? (The motion was reread.) President Pratt: We shall now have a roll call. Miss Sara H. Fahey (New' York) : I have a question. I wonder if you realize that in various areas of the country there is a belief that nothing has harmed the National Education Association quite so much as the feeling that memberships were obtained by a machinery that is established from state organizations thru superintendents to the members of the teachers organization without the active work of the teachers. We want an active association. We want teachers to understand what this organiza¬ tion stands for and what it does for them. President Pratt: This discussion is out of order as the motion is already before the house. Dean Taylor, however, will be called on now. Mr. Taylor: The Committee asks permission to withdraw this. The vote in the house was almost equal and since there is so much question in your minds about it, we should like to withdraw it and refer it to the Executive Committee to be presented next year if the Executive Committee thinks it advisable. President Pratt: You have heard this request for unanimous consent. Delegate (New York) : I understand that this motion was defeated. How can it be withdrawn? President Pratt: I said I thought the motion was defeated and then a division was asked and that division, of course, has not been determined. The Committee now wishes to withdraw the motion. Do we have unanimous consent to the withdrawal? (Unanimous consent granted.) Mr. Taylor: I move that any renumbering or relettering of articles, sections, or paragraphs in the bylaws made necessary or desirable by the action taken by this Representative Assembly shall be delegated to the executive secretary. Moved by Mr. Taylor and seconded by Miss Adair. Mr. Chairman, I ask unani¬ mous consent to the approval of this motion. President Pratt: You have heard the request for unanimous consent. A Delegate: Is that in the printed record? Mr. Taylor: This is not in the printed record. It is simply a request because some of the things you have done will necessitate renumbering and relettering. This is in the form of a motion to give authority to the executive secretary. (The motion was repeated.) The question was asked whether that is in the printed record. It is in the printed record as a suggestion. I am making the motion to make it valid. Mr. Taylor: Mr. Chairman, I ask for unanimous consent. President Pratt: Unanimous consent has been requested. Hearing no objection, the motion is adopted by unanimous consent. Mr. Taylor: I ask unanimous consent to delete the words “the second vicepresi- dent” from the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, Chapter III, because there is no second vicepresident. I should like, first, to get unanimous consent to leave that out. President Pratt: Unanimous consent is asked to omit “the second vicepresident” who, by your previous action, does not exist, anyw'ay. Hearing no objection, this omission is made. Mr. Taylor: I move that Article II, Section 1 (b) ( e ) as set forth in the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, Chapter III, be amended so that it shall read as follows: The Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vicepresident, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional mem- Associational Records and Information 741 ber from each State, Territory, or District to be elected by the Representative Assembly for the term of three years or until their successors are chosen, and of all Life Directors of the National Education Association. (Motion seconded.) Mr. Chairman, I ask unanimous consent for the adoption of this motion. Mr. Fred D. Cram (Iowa) : At the meeting of the Board of Directors yesterday, there was an addition made to that section. That has not been presented. Mr. Taylor : I am assuming Mr. Saunders will present that now. Mr. Saunders: I should like to amend the pending motion by adding the words “and of all past presidents of the N. E. A. w'hose term of office expires prior to July 3, 1937.” This is seconded by IV. H. Holmes of New York. I should like to discuss the amendment. President Pratt: The amendment by Mr. Saunders is before you. The amendment is now open for discussion. Mr. JV . H. Holmes (New York) : In seconding that amendment, I would like to say I seconded it in the interest of harmony in this Association. There is no good reason why this matter should be made retroactive and I think in the interests of harmony and goodwill, we should allow the past presidents to serve on the Board of Directors. I hope the amendment will prevail. Mr. Saunders: I want to say that in making this motion, I believe the great National Education Association not only believes in adhering to all the legalities involved in its organization but also in adhering to all of its moral obligations. I am satisfied in my mind that we have both a legal and a moral obligation to the past presidents of this organization who have served up to and including the present president who soon becomes a past president of this organization. That is, the orig¬ inal charter of the National Education Association said that each past president should become a director for life and the charter further states — and this is still in the charter — that any amendments to the charter shall not deprive anyone of the rights acquired under the charter. I know my opponents will claim that that refers only to legal rights such as the three life members who purchased their directorship and who are life members by contract. But I believe this Association owes a greater debt of gratitude to these past presidents for the wonderful service they have given to the association than to the three people who paid $100 and secured life membership thereby in the Board of Directors. I have no objection and my motion does not contemplate that any president who serves in the future shall be added to the Board of Directors. My motion only keeps it from being retroactive and striking off those presidents to whom we have issued a certificate and stated, “You are hereby created a life member and life director of this Association,” signed our names and put the great seal of this organization. Are we going to repudiate that now? And, furthermore, there are only a few of them left. They are dying off year by year. Sad as that may be, it is true, I am sorry to say, because I am as old as many of them. It is a fact. And, in a few years these life directors will have passed away and there will then be no more life directors except those three previously mentioned. They will not die because at least two are institutions and they will go on forever having a life membership here. But the past president after this year will pass out of the picture and I do not believe that we want to repudiate a legal obligation — a moral obligation — and make this action of ours at this time retroactive. For that reason I offered you the suggested addition to the Committee’s report. President Pratt: Are you ready for action on the amendment? Mrs. Lindlof: We talk a great deal about democracy. We heard some very fine speeches last night. This organization, by democratic action taken at a convention a few years ago, adopted an amendment which I understood took the right of voting in the Representative Assembly from these people. Now we are attempting to put these past presidents perpetually on the Board of Directors. I believe that that is no more democratic than if we should say that every President of the United States should continue as a member of the Supreme Court after his term expires. 742 National Education Association I think the action taken in the adoption of the amendment some years ago indicated they were supported by the constituency back home who elected them and sent them here and paid for their expenses and were willing to have them represent them. I am sure that any individual who has had the signal honor of being elected to the presidency of this Association can most assuredly receive the support of his own constituency and come here as a bona fide delegate from his own constituency and as such I should be very glad on all occasions to shake his hand and welcome him as a mere classroom teacher. Now, Mr. Chairman, I hope this amendment will be defeated in the interests of the welfare of this Association. Miss Florence Hale (New York) : I wish to speak in the interests of a moral principle and make the following statement to this Association. I have in my possession a certificate issued publicly stating that I am to be a life director of this Association. It is sealed; it is signed by the officers of this Asso¬ ciation, and I have no reason to believe there was a footnote saying “until we change our minds or until we have some different use for you or until you are superannuated.” I do not believe I am going to pass away right off. I want to tell you that I know that you may say I am not doing a modest thing. Some people have said that. I do not care. A principle is at stake. Does the word of this Association mean anything or does it not? When you applauded Orville Pratt last night when he received his certificate, should you have added, “But it does not mean a thing!” Now, let me tell you, if we repudiate the word of this Association — let alone the legal phase; I am not saying a thing about that — if we repudiate the promises every time there is a change of heart or ruling powers, then the word of the Association is worth nothing. The next thing may be the life membership. You may decide that you will change the name of the Association slightly and get another charter. As a man said to me, “Then that life membership will be yours. You paid for it. But it will be a life membership in a defunct organization.” Now, I would like to see the word of the National Education Association as good as its bond. If we are going to be the greatest professional organization in the world, when we sign a certificate, when we put the seal of the organization on that cer¬ tificate, are we to say that we changed our minds? Now, you say, “Oh, that won’t occur about the life memberships” — but if you told me five years ago when you applauded me and gave me that certificate and I took it home and had it framed, if I had met one of you as I walked out and you said, “Don’t be so proud. That is nothing but a scrap of paper. It is a pretty gesture but it means nothing!” I would have said that that could not happen. When the National Education Association goes back on its written word with its sign and seal, it is establishing what we call in business “a sharp practise.” On behalf of what I believe to be a moral principle, I want to state that I feel I have a claim, a place, and whether others think so or not, I am going to do a Jim Braddock. I am not going to be licked until I am unconscious! The moral obligation of the Association is at stake. Miss Frances Harden (Illinois) : Mr. Saunders stated a few minutes ago that there were only a few of these life directors and most of them were getting along in years, and they will not be here long! I would like to state there are now twenty-one ex-presidents and at the close of this meeting there will be twenty-two. Many of these, like Miss Hale just now said, have many years ahead of them. The number of life directors would be enough to create a balance of power in the Board of Directors. Now, these life directors are not sent to the National Education Association by any group of people. They are not responsible to any group of people. Every elected delegate sent by a group is responsible to that group and can be withdrawn by the group if the work is not satisfactory. That is not true of this small group which holds and will continue to hold the balance of power on the Board of Directors. That certainly does not make for democracy in a great national organization and I hope very much that this amendment will be defeated. Mr. F. E. Norton (Texas) : I wTish to offer a substitute to the amendment — that Associational Records and Information 743 in any case the expenses of these life directors to the meetings of the Board of Directors be not paid by the National Education Association. President Pratt: This proposal the parliamentarian says is out of order. It can come out later, however. Mr. W. A. Walls (Ohio) : I would like to speak to this. We have quite a lot of extraneous material introduced into this discussion. These past presidents are class¬ room teachers, superintendents, and college presidents. There is no more danger of them agreeing in this Board of Directors than there is that the rest will agree. Anybody that knows anything about the meetings of the Board will agree with that statement. Now, we do have a moral obligation which it seems to me transcends any obliga¬ tion involved in this and I hope that this amendment will prevail. There is no question here at all of any group being able to control this Board of Directors. There are forty-eight on it just from the forty-eight states and there is no possi¬ bility of control being lodged in any group. It is a pretty poor business and as a member of the N. E. A., I hope I will not be forced to go back into the community and say that the national body of our organization has repudiated a solemn agreement which it has made with these individuals. President Pratt: Are you ready for the motion? Mr. Walter J. Rideout (Maine): I want to say a good hearty “Amen” to this gentleman from Ohio. We do not want to go home with our plighted word dis¬ regarded. Mrs. F. Blanche Preble (Illinois) : I would like to ask how we may proceed to take a ballot vote on this question. Mr. Clyde R. Miller (New York) : Air. C hair man, our interest must not be in a pretty seal but whether or not we repudiate democracy in this organization. President Pratt: The motion has been called for. We are voting now on the amend¬ ment to the original motion. Mrs. Preble: Air. Chairman, I am asking how we may get a ballot on this question. President Pratt: By action taken a little while ago, by petition with 200 votes or by standing vote of 200. Mrs. Preble: Air. Chairman, does that mean that the amendments we adopted a few moments ago went into immediate effect? President Pratt: It does. Airs. Preble: May I ask then how we may proceed to get those 200 signatures? President Pratt: A standing vote of 200 will do the same thing. Airs. Preble: Will a motion at this time to proceed to secure a ballot vote be in order ? President Pratt: If Airs. Preble wishes to ask for a rising vote so that we may ascertain if there are 200 delegates who wish such action taken, it will be done. Airs. Preble: Air. Chairman, may we have that amendment read so we may see how those 200 votes are secured? Air. Taylor: May I answer that without reading the amendment? Two hundred voting for it will compel the ballot. Airs. R. B. Huxtable (California) : Would it not be possible to delay this amend¬ ment and. give the life directors a chance to make a move themselves? These people might want to take a voluntary step. Air. W. W. Trent (West Virginia) : The request was made that the secretary read Section 2. That request was not granted. I rise to state as far as I am concerned, I do not quite understand fully what the interpretation is — that on 200 votes there shall be a printed ballot and in any state delegation there may be a vote by ballot on request of three delegates as we have it here, but we do not have the revised version. Air. Taylor: I shall read the amendment again: In all voting on proposed amendments to the charter and on proposed amend¬ ments to the constitution or the bylaws, written ballots shall be used whenever 200 members of the Representative Assembly by petition or by standing vote shall indicate that ballot voting is desired. In case a petition for secret ballot is signed 744 National Education Association by at least 200 members of the Representative Assembly and filed with the executive secretary he shall arrange for written ballots in accordance with the petition. State delegations may vote by ballot. The result shall be announced by the chairman of each delegation as the roll of states is called; such vote to be determined by the actual number of delegates present at such meeting and voting. Upon the request of three delegates any state delegation must vote by ballot. Mr. Trent: The last statement answers my question and it seems to answer the objection from some of the representatives or rather the request that there be a vote by ballot. Any delegation may vote by ballot on the request of three delegates. Miss Frances Jelinek (Wisconsin) : I move that the amendment be voted on by written ballot. Mrs. Preble: Seconded. President Pratt: Miss Jelinek moves and Mrs. Preble seconds that the amendment be voted on by written ballot. This requires that 200 or more favor the motion. All those favoring the motion please stand. There are more than the required 200. The vote on the amendment will be made by ballot tomorrow. Mr. Taylor: I move that the proposed amendment to Article II, Section 1 (c) as set forth in the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, Chapter III, be amended to read as follows: The Executive Committee shall consist of seven members as follows: The President of the Association, the First Vicepresident, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, a member of the Association to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors to serve one year, and two members elected by the Repre¬ sentative Assembly for the term of one year. A director elected to the Executive Committee shall continue as a member of the Board of Directors. Mr. Chairman, I move the adoption of this motion and Mr. Shaw seconds it. Mr. Leon Neulen (New Jersey) : I move to amend the motion just made, striking out the word “seven” and substituting in lieu thereof “nine” and further by striking out the words “a member elected by the Board of Directors” and substituting in lieu thereof “two members elected by the Board of Directors”; and further by striking out the words “two members elected by the Representative Assembly” and substitut¬ ing in lieu thereof “three members elected by the Representative Assembly.” President Pratt: Is there a second ? Mr. M. D. Collins (Georgia) : Seconded. President Pratt: Mr. Collins of Georgia seconds the proposed amendment. The amendment is now before you for action. Mr. Neulen: Mr. Chairman, may I speak to the motion? I made this motion for this reason, that the wider circles we can have for wider participation, the more interest we are going to create for the National Education Association. In the second place, if we have a larger Executive Committee than the seven, it permits better rep¬ resentation thruout the United States. In the next place, our funds indicate perfectly good ability to support a nine-mem¬ ber Executive Committee rather than a seven-member. Only two additional members would mean only slight expense — probably not more than $900. And, if you people are going to be perfectly willing to take in twenty-two life members as directors, you certainly should be willing to concede an additional two members for the Executive Committee. Furthermore, we have only a 200,000 membership in the N. E. A. out of a possible million membership. Now, if a larger Executive Committee can stimulate greater membership then I say that it certainly pays to increase our Executive Committee from seven to nine members. Another reason, if we have large committees running our state teachers associa¬ tions affairs — and I know some committees run up to nineteen — then certainly we need at least nine members of the Executive Committee to run the affairs of the United States. Associational Records and Information 745 Last and most important of all, we need a nine-member Executive Committee to make for greater democratic participation on the part of our Delegate Assembly, and I am here to tell you the delegation from the state of New Jersey is unanimously agreed that a nine-member Executive Committee is not too many. President Pratt: The motion is to amend the motion made by Dean Taylor and seconded by Mr. Shaw. It is on the question of the amendment of the original motion. Mr. Cram: I do not want this affair to go thru without calling your attention to the fact that the Board of Directors yesterday by a very large majority, as I remember it, turned down this whole proposition proposing to leave the Executive Committee as it now exists so far as size is concerned. The addition of four members to our present Executive Committee, as proposed by the last speaker, would add $2600 a year to the expense of the organization. Now, there might be some compensating factors there. But, our Budget Committee is put to it at the present time to find funds enough to support the organization. We need the money. I suspect it would be good policy to devise some way of securing the money before we enlarge the Board, or rather the Executive Committee. Now, it has been my experience for a good many years (and I have said this over and over again when I have been asked to appoint committees as presiding officer of various organizations), “Do you really want this thing done?” And when they say they do, I say: “I’ll appoint a one-man committee. Do you think maybe it would be all right to do it but you don’t care much? Then I’ll appoint a three-man commit¬ tee. Do you want it to die a natural death? I’ll appoint a committee of five members or more!” The larger the committee, the less you have done. That has been my experience. It will add to our expense, as I have said. But, my principal purpose in coming to this platform was to call your attention to the omission and I am not chal¬ lenging anyone’s motives in making that omission, nor do I have any reference what¬ ever to the action of the Board of Directors. I simply want you to know that by a large vote yesterday it was voted to leave the Executive Committee as it is at present. President Pratt: Is there anybody else who desires to be heard? Mr. Holmes: I do not believe this Association could invest $2600 in any better way than to make the Executive Committee more democratic, and I hope that this amended motion will prevail. Mr. Taylor: I should merely like to answer Mr. Cram on the fact that the chair¬ man of the Committee omitted any reference to the action of the Board of Directors. In the Board of Directors’ meeting yesterday, the entire discussion centered around the omission on our part of the vicepresident. If he has made an error, he made it unintentionally. He thought he was doing what the Board of Directors wanted done. Miss Adalinc Van Kirk (Pennsylvania) : Mr. Chairman, may I suggest that a one- man committee may get done what that one man wants. A nine-man committee will bring to the discussions the opinions of many different people and, therefore, will be more democratic. Air. Thomas J. IValker (Missouri) : I want to ask for information, Air. C hair man. According to the resolution presented, there were four ex-officio members. Then the gentleman proposed an amendment to make six elective, so what we are considering is a ten-member Board instead of nine. Is that not right? President Pratt: No, it is not right. Air. IValker: What was the original motion? Did not the original include the president, first vicepresident, treasurer, and chairman of the Board? President Pratt: That is right. Air. IValker: Then did not the amendment include three members elected by the assembled delegates and three by the Board of Directors? President Pratt: I will ask that the amendment be read again. Mr. Neulen: The motion made by Mr. Taylor on behalf of the Reorganization Committee consisted of four members ex officio, one member from the Board of Directors, and two members from the Delegate Assembly, making a total of seven members. My motion was to amend the motion by striking out the word “seven” and sub¬ stituting in lieu thereof the word “nine”; and further by striking out the words “a 746 National Education Association member elected by the Board of Directors” and substituting in lieu thereof “two members elected by the Board of Directors”; and further by striking out the words “two members elected by the Representative Assembly” and substituting in lieu thereof “three members elected by the Representative Assembly.” Mr. Charles O. Williams (Indiana) : I am a member of the Board of Directors; also on the Budget Committee, so I know what they are talking about. I have been a member of the N. E. A. for years and years and I have tried to find out for the last twenty years wTho is running it and when I was on the Board, they told me it was the boys on the Budget Committee. I have come to my own conclusion that the wffiole N. E. A. between meetings is run by the Executive Committee, and as a member of the Board of Directors and of the Budget Committee, I see no reason why this should not be increased to nine or ten. I suggest that the number of nine makes it more democratic, gives you more chance to get right up in front as an organiza¬ tion. Mr. Neulen: I would just like to ask this one question of Mr. Cram and the others who brought it up. According to our reports, we have $85,000 and assets of a million. I am going to ask what we are going to do wTith all this money. Certainly we can afford to have nine members. President Pratt: The motion is on the amendment. Those favoring the amendment will please indicate by saying “aye”; those opposed, “no.” The amendment is carried. President Pratt: The motion before you now is the original one, as amended. Those favoring the motion as amended, will please indicate by saying “aye”; those op¬ posed, “no.” The motion is carried. Mr. Taylor: I move that Article II, Section 1 (c) as set forth in the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, Chapter III, be amended by adding the following sentence: The election of the members of the Executive Committee by the Representative Assembly shall be by the Hare System of Proportional Representation. Seconded by R. T. Shaw. I ask unanimous consent. President Pratt: Unanimous consent is asked for the approval of this motion. (“No,” from the audience.) Objection is made to unanimous consent. The secretary will call the roll. The vote will be by state delegations. Mr. W. A. Walls (Ohio) : A question of information? Will somebody on the plat¬ form, if anybody knows, explain what the Hare Proportional System of Representa¬ tion is? President Pratt: There is nothing to be accomplished by that just now, but briefly we will ask Mr. Shaw to answer it. Mr. Shaw: Last year we adopted the Hare System of Proportional Representation for the election of the Publishing Committee, and I am sure most of you are familiar with the method used. The gentleman who made the request will remember how he voted, using numbers to indicate his preference of candidate. When the vote was completed, it seemed to me that from every one from whom I heard anything at all, there came a hearty endorsement of the method. If you remember, the people elected were Mr. Roy W. Cloud, state secretary, of California; Mrs. F. Blanche Preble, past president of the N. E. A. Department of Classroom Teachers, of Chicago; Miss Lillian Broderick of New York; Superintendent L. W. Reese of Ohio; Dr. Henry Lester Smith, past president. It seems to me it is sufficient to call attention to the results you saw there, and to call attention that we are going to use it again this morning in this election. I want to assure you that I would be the first one to drop the system if it did not make for more democracy, and more good of the National Education Association. Mr. Cram: I should like to make a request for unanimous consent to turn from this order of business to that of election of officers, in order that we may have the nomi¬ nation speeches. President Pratt: Unanimous consent has been asked for the postponement of this particular vote. Hearing no objections . . . (unanimous consent denied.) Associational Records and Information 747 President Pratt: The roll will now be called. Secretary Givens: Roll is being called by the state delegations. The chairman of the state delegation will report, so many votes for and so many votes against, as the state is called. Are you ready to vote? (A three-minute recess was taken at this time, while the state chairmen polled their delegations.) President Pratt: Will the assembly please be in order now? We are ready now to proceed with the roll call. Let us be sure that we know what is before us. I will ask the secretary to explain. Secretary Givens: You all understand, I think, that we are voting either for or against the use of the Hare System in the Representative Assembly for electing these three members to the Executive Committee and not to the Board of Directors. The Board of Directors is not in the picture at all. It is whether or not we want to elect the three members from this body to the Executive Committee by the Hare System of voting, the Hare System of Proportional Representation. I will now call the roll. Alabama — 10 yes, 0 no; Arizona — 9 yes, 0 no; Arkansas — 4 yes, 0 no; California — 73 yes, 0 no; Colorado — 23 yes, 0 no; Connecticut — 14 yes, 0 no; Delaware — 4 yes, 0 no; Florida — 7 yes, 0 no; Georgia — 7 yes, 0 no; Idaho — 7 yes, 0 no; Illinois — 32 yes, 27 no; Indiana — 19 yes, 9 no; Iowa — 20 yes, 0 no; Kansas — 16 yes, 0 no; Kentucky — 7 yes, 0 no; Louisiana — 17 yes, 0 no; Maine — 6 yes, 4 no; Maryland — 11 yes, 0 no; Massachusetts — 11 yes, 1 no; Michigan — 11 yes, 34 no; Minnesota — 37 yes, 0 no; Mississippi — 6 yes, 0 no; Missouri — 29 yes, 0 no; Montana — 5 yes, 0 no; Nebraska — 6 yes, 0 no; Nevada — 6 yes, 0 no; New Hamp¬ shire — 2 yes, 0 no; New Jersey — 31 yes, 0 no; New Mexico — 6 yes, 0 no; New York — 31 yes, 1 no; North Carolina — (no reply) ; North Dakota — 6 yes, 0 no; Ohio — 73 yes, 0 no; Oklahoma — 21 yes, 0 no; Oregon — 17 yes, 0 no; Pennsylvania — 37 yes, 6 no; Rhode Island — (no reply) ; South Carolina — 0 yes, 5 no; South Dakota — 6 yes, 0 no; Tennessee — 2 yes, 0 no; Texas — 23 yes, 0 no; Utah — 1 yes, 0 no; Vermont — 8 yes, 0 no; Virginia — 15 yes, 0 no; Washington — 21 yes, 0 no; West Virginia — 11 yes, 0 no; Wisconsin — 31 yes, 3 no; Wyoming — (no reply) ; Alaska — 3 yes, 0 no; District of Columbia — 10 yes, 0 no; Hawaii — 7 yes, 0 no; Philippine Islands — (no reply); Puerto Rico — (no reply). Those voting “yes,” 757; those voting “no,” 90. President Pratt: The motion is carried. We have two other items which may be brief, if you wish to make them so. Mr. Taylor: I move that Article II, Section 1 (c), as set forth in the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, Chapter III, be further amended by adding the following sentence: The provisions of this Section shall become effective in the selection of the Ex¬ ecutive Committee for the Association year beginning with the close of the conven¬ tion in 1937. Moved by Mr. Taylor, seconded by R. T. Shave. Mr. Chairman, may we have unanimous consent? President Pratt: Unanimous consent is asked for. Hearing no objection, this motion is approved. Mr. Taylor: I move that the recodification of the constitution and bylaws be re¬ ferred to the Committee on Bylaws and Rules with the instruction that in consulta¬ tion with the parliamentarian and attorney of the Association, it formulate its recom¬ mendations in regard to the matter and publish the recodification in the May 1938 issue of the N. E. A. Journal. Moved by Mr. Taylor, seconded by Mr. Oberholtzer. I ask unanimous consent. President Pratt: Unanimous consent has been asked; hearing no objections, this motion is approved. Mr. Taylor: Mr. Chairman, the Committee at this time wishes to express to you its very great appreciation for your consideration, and wishes to refer all other material printed in the report to you and to the Representative Assembly for further con¬ sideration. President Pratt: It is desired to get the matter of election of officers before the group at this time, if you will give unanimous consent for us to vary from the items 748 National Education Association of procedure as adopted the first thing this forenoon. May we have unanimous consent to take the other matter up now? Mr. L. Frazer Banks (Alabama) : I may have gotten a little confused in the par¬ liamentary tangle there, but it seems to me that this proposal by the Committee at the bottom of Page 7 was never adopted, as amended. We adopted the amendments to it, but I do not believe we adopted the whole motion. Mr. Taylor: Mr. Chairman, I was under the impression that it had passed. If not, I move that Section G at the bottom of page 7 be adopted as amended. President Pratt: Request is made for the unanimous consent for the adoption of this section as amended. Hearing no objection, it is adopted. We are ready now to proceed in the matter of election of officers. The secretary will call the roll of the states, for nominations for president. Secretary Givens (calling roll of states) : Alabama. Alabama: Alabama yields to South Dakota. Mr. R. L. Hunt (South Dakota) : I deem it a great privilege and honor to present to you a candidate for the president of this Association for next year. I am not introducing to you this lady, because I am sure that she is well known to the people of this group. She is one who has had broad training and experience, a life member of our organization; graduate of the University of Tulane, with master’s degree from Boston University, and further graduate study at Tulane University, of Vir¬ ginia, Boston, Harvard, and Columbia University. Therefore, I say that her training has been broad and she knows about the great work of our organization and of education in our United States. Her experience includes that of elementary- and high-school teacher and principal. She has been president of her own state association. She is the president of the Amer¬ ican Association of University Women of her city. She has served this organization as secretary, vicechairman, and chairman of the Resolutions Committee, and it is in this connection in the past years that I have learned to know' and appreciate the worth and ability of this leader in our group. In addition to that, she has also been one of the vicepresidents of the Association. I feel that I can present to you people a lady who is capable of fulfilling the responsibility, a tireless worker, a vigorous worker, and a courageous leader. To give her platform, to say what she stands for, I think could be summed up best by this simple, short statement: She has been the guiding hand in forming the resolu¬ tions of this organization for the past several years, so that she is the one who has formed the policies for which you and I stand, for which we have been fighting, and for the things for which we expect to continue to fight. Therefore, I take pleasure in presenting the name of Amy H. Hinrichs of New Orleans, for president. Secretary Givens (continuing the roll call) : Alaska. Alaska: Alaska yields to Vermont. Mr. Francis L. Bailey (Vermont) : This is an important year for the National Education Association. Plans are being made for enlarging its activities and in¬ creasing its effectiveness. Many vital problems such as state and federal support of education, academic freedom, teacher tenure, the status of the teacher, and an enlarged educational program are being considered. A vast amount of work is being done in all the departments of our national organization. Great progress has been made in our Association during recent years. With increased membership and more definite objectives have come greater influence as well as increased pride in the pro¬ fession. If education is to gain and hold its rightful place in this country, its leaders must take the initiative and fearlessly face its problems. We must work together for larger objectives and avoid factions and sectional rivalry. There must be no North, South, East, or West when it comes to the consideration of our problems and the welfare of the larger group we are serving. The presidency of our Association requires leadership ability of a high order. It is our hope that only the ablest of our leaders will be selected. In order to be successful, a candidate must have a vast amount of plain common sense and intelligence. Along with native ability are needed a thoro preparation and a wide experience. Associational Records and Information 749 The woman whose credentials I wish to present is worthy in every respect and is well qualified. Those who are acquainted with her believe she measures up to the highest standards in every way. Her academic preparation is adequate. She is a woman with a dynamic personality, gracious and friendly; courageous in the face of many odds ; hopeful and with ability to inspire others with her hope ; possesses boundless energy and endurance; is filled with zeal for her profession; has clear, far-reaching vision and is fair and loyal in all her dealings. She has an unfailing zest in living. To her, life never loses its thrills or its challenge. Every day is a new beginning. Those with whom she comes in contact are aware of this spirit and catch some of its fervor. She refuses to be daunted by disappointment, discouragement, or even seeming failure. It makes no difference how unfortunate circumstances may appear to be or how inevitable frustration of hopes may seem, her optimism and determination never lag. She is an inspiring leader whom groups of people naturally follow. She has a wonderful gift of looking ahead toward the big ultimate goal of any enterprise and not being daunted or fretted by small obstacles in the way. She presides over all situations to which she is called with good sense and ease. She is alert to the demands of changing situations and quick to make needed adjustments. She is a woman of rare vision, courage, and power. She loves life, people, activity, and to a very high degree her profession. All people admire her and her students trust her. She has served for more than twenty years as a classroom teacher. Has served as elementary principal, superintendent of schools, and during the last seventeen years she has been engaged in the professional education of teachers and is at the head of a state teachers college. At the president time she is president of the New England Teacher Training Asso¬ ciation. She has been a vicepresident and state director of the N.E.A. and an able president of the National Council of Administrative Women in Education. She was a delegate to the World Federation of Education Associations. She is a member of the International Relations Committee, the Legislative Commission and others. She is a consultant of the Educational Policies Commission. She is a life member of the National Education Association. She is a member of the Executive Committee of the National Education Association. You will find copies of her plat¬ form in your state headquarters. She thinks straight, works hard, plays fair, loves much. She interprets life in terms of truth, beauty, reality, freedom, and efficiency. It gives me great pleasure to present to this Delegate Assembly as a candidate for the presidency of the National Education Association the name of Caroline S. Woodruff of Vermont. Secretary Givens (continuing roll call) : Arizona — Arkansas. Arkansas : Arkansas seconds the nomination of Amy H. Hinrichs. Secretary Givens: California — Colorado. Colorado: Colorado seconds the nomination of Caroline S. Woodruff. Secretary Givens: Connecticut. Connecticut: Connecticut votes unanimously to endorse and wishes to second the nomination of Caroline S. Woodruff. Secretary Givens: Delaware — District of Columbia. District of Columbia: Seconds the nomination of Amy H. Hinrichs. Secretary Givens: Florida. Florida: Florida seconds the nomination of Amy H. Hinrichs. Secretary Givens: Georgia — Hawaii — Idaho. Idaho: Idaho seconds the nomination of Miss Hinrichs. Secretary Givens: Illinois — Indiana — Iowa — Kansas — Kentucky — Louisiana. Louisiana: Louisiana seconds, and wishes to thank sincerely South Dakota for the nomination of Miss Hinrichs. In the state of Louisiana the name of Amy Hin¬ richs is a symbol of education. We in Louisiana hold her in the highest esteem. She is one of our noted educators. She has fostered many causes for education in our state thru the Legislature, and thru her high ideals which she has stood for. I believe that if there is anyone in the state of Louisiana that deserves any promotion, it is Miss Hinrichs. We have given to her in the state of Louisiana every honor possible to our teachers of that state. She has been accorded that honor, and I hope in pre- 750 National Education Association senting her case that the National Education Association, where she is well known, where she has worked so hard, will accord her the same honor that we have. We thank you. Secretary Givens: Maine. Maine: Maine seconds the nomination of Caroline S. W oodruff. Secretary Givens: Maryland — Massachusetts. Massachusetts : Massachusetts heartily seconds the nomination of Miss Woodruff. Secretary Givens: Michigan — Minnesota. Minnesota: Minnesota seconds the nomination of Amy Hinrichs. Secretary Givens: Mississippi. Mississippi: Mississippi seconds the nomination of Amy Hinrichs. Secretary Givens: Missouri — Montana. Montana: Montana seconds the nomination of Miss IVoodruff. Secretary Givens: Nebraska — Nevada. Nevada: Nevada seconds the nomination of Miss Hinrichs. Secretary Givens: New Hampshire. New Hampshire: New Hampshire seconds the nomination of Miss IV oodruff. Secretary Givens: New Jersey. New Jersey: New Jersey takes pleasure and pride in seconding the nomination of Miss fV oodruff . Secretary Givens: New Mexico. New Mexico: New Mexico takes pleasure in seconding the nomination of Miss Hinrichs. Secretary Givens: New York — North Carolina — North Dakota — Ohio — Okla¬ homa. Oklahoma: Oklahoma seconds the nomination of the candidate from the South. i Secretary Givens: Oregon — Pennsylvania — Philippine Islands — Puerto Rico — Rhode Island — South Carolina. South Carolina: South Carolina takes pleasure in seconding the nomination of Miss Hinrichs. Secretary Givens: South Dakota — Tennessee — Texas. Texas: Texas has no special choice as a delegation in this 1937 election. Secretary Givens: Utah — Vermont — Virginia — Washington — West Virginia — Wisconsin — Wyoming. President Pratt: We will now have the roll call of states for 11 vicepresidents. Secretary Givens: Roll is now being called for the nomination of 11 or more vicep residents. Alabama — Alaska — Arizona — Arkansas. Arkansas: Arkansas nominates Miss Willie Lawson. Secretary Givens: California. California: California nominates Evlyn Chasteen. Secretary Givens: Colorado — Connecticut. Connecticut: Connecticut presents Daisy Lord, past president of the Department of Classroom Teachers. Secretary Givens: Delaware — District of Columbia. District of Columbia: District of Columbia nominates R. L. Hunt of South Dakota. Secretary Givens: Florida — Georgia. Mr. M. D. Collins (Georgia) : I take great pleasure in placing before you the name of a man for the vicepresidency of the National Education Association, who does not know any better than to take his responsibilities seriously, and deliver the goods, express charges prepaid. This young man has held this responsible position during the past year. He has responded to every call which came to him. He did not wait for the call. He has paid his expenses to Washington several times, in behalf of legislation furthering the educational opportunities of the children and teachers thruout this nation. He is a young man, one of our county superintendents of schools, able, efficient, alert, always doing the right thing, in the right way, and at the right time. He is a member of the Georgia Association of School Superintendents; he is a member of the Georgia Education Association. He is a member of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association. He is a member of the Associational Records and Information 751 Elementary School Principals Association; he is a live member of the National Education Association; he is tremendously interested in every phase of education, and I take great pleasure in nominating or presenting to you the name of Superin¬ tendent Andrew Avery of Georgia, for one of the places of vicepresident of the National Education Association. Secretary Givens: Hawaii — Idaho. Idaho: Idaho nominates Raymond Snyder. Secretary Givens: Illinois. Illinois: Illinois nominates Frank Jensen. Secretary Givens: Indiana — Iowa — Kansas — Kentucky — Louisiana — Maine — Maryland — Massachusetts. Massachusetts : Massachusetts places in nomination the name of N. Eliot IVillis, life member of N. E. A. and president of the state teachers association. Secretary Givens: Michigan. Michigan: Michigan nominates Harley Holmes. Secretary Givens: Minnesota — Mississippi — Missouri — Montana — Nebraska. Nebraska: Nebraska places in nomination the name of J. J. Guenther. Secretary Givens: Nevada — New Hampshire. New Hampshire : New Hampshire nominates E. IV. Butterfield. Secretary Givens: New Jersey — New Mexico. New Mexico: As a gesture from the South, we would like to second the nomina¬ tion of Mr. IVillis of Massachusetts. Secretary Givens: New York. New York: New York places in nomination one of her favorite sons and out¬ standing superintendents in this country, a loyal worker for the N. E. A. — Claude H. Hardy. Secretary Givens: North Carolina — North Dakota. North Dakota: North Dakota nominates E. C. Tighe. Secretary Givens: Ohio — Oklahoma — Oregon — Pennsylvania — Philippine Islands — Puerto Rico — Rhode Island — South Carolina. South Carolina: South Carolina nominates Mrs. Louise Carson. Secretary Givens: South Dakota — Tennessee — Texas — Utah — Vermont. Vermont: Vermont is glad to second the nomination of Mr. IVillis of Massachusetts. Secretary Givens: Virginia — Washington — West Virginia — Wisconsin — Wy¬ oming. President Pratt: We will now have the roll call of states for the office of treasurer. Secretary Givens: This is the roll call for treasurer. Alabama — Alaska — Arizona — Arkansas — California — Colorado — Connecticut — Delaware — District of Columbia — Florida — Georgia — Hawaii — Idaho — Illinois — Indiana — Iowa — Kansas — Kentucky — Louisiana — Maine — Maryland — Massachusetts — Michigan — Minnesota — Mississippi — Missouri — Montana — Nebraska — Ne¬ vada — New Hampshire — New Jersey — New Mexico — New York — North Carolina — North Dakota — Ohio. Mr. B. F. Stanton (Ohio) : I am sure no speech is necessary in making the nom¬ ination that I do at this time. It is my pleasure and I am sure yours, too, that I name again the man who has served you so well for a period of three years in this capacity. I refer to R. E. Offenhauer of Lima, Ohio. I take pleasure in presenting Mr. Offen- hauer, as candidate for this office. Secretary Givens: Oklahoma — Oregon — Pennsylvania — Philippine Islands — Puerto Rico — Rhode Island — South Carolina — South Dakota — Tennessee — Texas — Utah — Vermont — Washington — West Virginia — Virginia — Wisconsin — Wyoming. President Pratt: May I ask your indulgence for a minute or two longer. We will have next the list of the state directors as already nominated by states. The secretary will read the list. Secretary Givens: Mr. Chairman, unless they want to hear the list, I would suggest that it is submitted to the Representative Assembly as given to me by the respective states, on regular forms, yesterday. There is the list. President Pratt: Any desire to have the list read? 752 National Education Association The list was not read, but the names are as follows: Alabama — L. Frazer Banks, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham; Alaska — Everett R. Erickson, Assistant Professor in Education, University of Alaska, College; Arizona — Harold IV. Smith, Superintendent of Schools, Glendale ; Arkansas — W. E. Phipps, State Commissioner of Education, Little Rock; California — Helen F. Holt, Teacher, 1543 Santa Clara Avenue, Alameda; Colorado — IV. B. Mooney, Executive Secretary, Colorado Education Association, Denver; Connecticut — Helen T. Collins, Principal, 41 Fifth Street, New Haven; Delaware — H. V. Holloway, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Dover; District of Columbia — Hugh Smith, Principal, Jefferson Junior High School, Washington, D. C.; Florida — James S. Rickards, Executive Secretary, Florida Education Association, Tallahassee; Georgia — M. D. Collins, State Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta; Hawaii — Earl L. McT aggart, Executive Secretary, Hawaii Education Association, Honolulu; Idaho — W. D. Vincent, Super¬ intendent of Schools, Boise; Illinois — John IV. Thalman, Superintendent, Township Secondary Schools, Waukegan; Indiana — Charles O. Williams, Secretary-Treasurer, Indiana State Teachers Association, Indianapolis; Iowa — Fred D. Cram, Associate Professor of Education, Iowa Teachers College, Cedar Falls; Kansas — F. L. Schlagle, Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City; Kentucky — D. Y. Dunn, Superintendent, Fayette County Schools, Lexington; Louisiana — J. N. Poche, Supervisor, St. Charles Parish Schools, Hahnville; Maine — W. B. Jack, Superintendent of Schools, Port¬ land; Maryland — Eugene W. Pruitt, County Superintendent of Schools, Frederick; Massachusetts — Annie C. W oodward, Teacher, High School, Somerville; Michigan — Grover Stout, Principal, Winegert School, Detroit; Minnesota — Daisy Brown, Teacher, 407 South Sixth Street, Stillwater; Mississippi — H. V. Cooper, Superin¬ tendent of Schools, Vicksburg; Missouri — Thomas J. Walker, Editor and Associate Secretary, Missouri State Teachers Association, Columbia; Montana — M. P. Moe, Executive Secretary, Montana Education Association, Helena; Nebraska — Alice Robinson, Dean of Women, Kearney Teachers College, Kearney; Nevada — C. Lay- ton Galbraith, Superintendent of Schools, McGill; New Hampshire — Lyle Wilson Ewing, Head, English Department, Claremont; New Jersey — Lester A. Rodes, Super¬ vising Principal of Schools, South River; New Mexico — D. N. Pope, Executive Sec¬ retary, New Mexico Educational Association, Santa Fe; New York — Frederick Houk Law, Department of English, Stuyvesant High School, New York; North Carolina — Elmer H. Garinger, Principal, Central High School, Charlotte; North Dakota — L. A. White, Superintendent of Schools, Minot; Ohio — B. F. Stanton, Superintendent of Schools, Alliance; Oklahoma — Kate Frank, Teacher, Central High School, Mus¬ kogee; Oregon — C. R. Bowman, Superintendent, Jackson County Schools, Medford; Pennsylvania — J. Herbert Kelley, Executive Secretary, Pennsylvania State Educa¬ tion Association, Harrisburg; Rhode Island — James F. Rockett, Director of Educa¬ tion, State House, Providence; South Carolina — A. C. Flora, Superintendent of Schools, Columbia; South Dakota — S. B. Nissen, Editor, South Dakota Education A ssociation Journal, Sioux Falls; Tennessee — S. L. Ragsdale, Principal, Humes High School, Memphis; Texas — Rush Caldwell, Teacher, Woodrow Wilson High School, Dallas; Utah — N. Howard Jensen, Principal, Central School, Tooele; Vermont — Joseph Wiggin, Principal, High School, Brattleboro; Virginia — Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Principal, Washington-Gatewood Schools, Norfolk; Washington — Cora Oleson, teacher, Ridpath Hotel, Spokane; West Virginia — W. W. Trent, State Superintend¬ ent of Schools, Charleston; Wisconsin — Amanda H. Schuette, Director, Commercial Education, Green Bay; Wyoming—//. H. Moyer, Principal, High School, Rawlins. President Pratt: The three members of the Executive Committee will now be nominated in accordance with action taken previously this forenoon. We will have the roll call for nominations for three members of the Executive Committee. Secretary Givens (Calling the roll) : Alabama — Alaska — Arizona — Arkansas — California — Colorado — Connecticut — Delaware — District of Columbia — Florida — Georgia — Hawaii — Idaho — Illinois — Indiana. Indiana: Indiana nominates W. W. Wright. Secretary Givens: Iowa. Mr. Fred D. Cram (Iowa) : As a member of the Committee on Amending the Associational Records and Information 753 Charter, I have worked and played with the man who has carried the great burden. I have come out of three years of this campaign with the very greatest respect for him as a leader, as a man who can adjust himself to circumstances, and now as a man who deserves the recognition which I propose. I have pleasure in nom¬ inating Reuben T. Shaw, of Philadelphia. Secretary Givens: Kansas — Kentucky — Louisiana — Maine — Maryland — Massa¬ chusetts — Michigan. Mr. Grover Stout (Michigan) : Michigan nominates David A. Van Buskirk, a capable man, the type we are looking for. Secretary Givens: Minnesota. Miss Daisy Brown (Minnesota) : Mr. Chairman, if the 22,000 teachers of Minne¬ sota were here, every one would say we in Minnesota have given to the president of our Minnesota Education Association every honor of which we are capable. Now, in our great unselfishness, we are asking that you, too, present an honor to our candidate. I speak of Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl, classroom teacher of Minnesota, president of the Minnesota Education Association. Secretary Givens: Mississippi — Missouri — Montana — Nebraska — Nevada — New Hampshire — New Jersey — New Mexico — New York — North Carolina — North Da¬ kota — Ohio. Mr. Ralph Ii. W aterhouse (Ohio) : I would like to present the name of Eleanore Bowman of Akron. Secretary Givens: Oklahoma. Oklahoma: We present M. E. Hurst. Secretary Givens: Oregon — Pennsylvania — Philippine Islands — Puerto Rico — Rhode Island — South Carolina — South Dakota — Tennessee — Texas — Utah — Vermont — Virginia — Washington — West Virginia — Wisconsin — Wyoming. W yoming : Wyoming nominates Frances Harden of Illinois. President Pratt: This concludes the nomination of officers. Is it your desire to adjourn at this time or to continue with the items of business? Just a moment, please. There is one other item. The Publishing Committee still remains to be called. Secretary Givens: May I remind you that we decided to vote on it before we adjourn, or we have no Publishing Committee to go over the minutes of this morning’s meeting, tonight. Our ballots are all ready, we are going to pass them out to the state chairmen and have them voted on by the state delegations. They will be immediately collected. Any questions on that? If not, if you will have your state chairman come to the front, we will give you the blanks. President Pratt: Each candidate should name a teller, and the tellers are asked to meet in the corridor at Aisle 4, immediately after the ballots are collected. Secretary Givens: May I say a word about this election for those that have any questions in their minds? You have listed all the candidates. In voting by the Hare System, you put the figure 1 for the first choice; figure 2 for the second one; figure 3 for the third; figure 4 for the fourth; figure 5 for the fifth choice, and so on. That is all there is to it. President Pratt: If there is no objection, this nomination shall be in order. Miss Adair: I would like to place in nomination as a member of the Executive Committee the name of Mrs. Inez J. Lewis, state superintendent of schools of Colorado. (There was objection to the nomination.) President Pratt: In that case, it cannot be done. It is too late. (It was moved, and duly seconded, that the meeting adjourn at 12:50 p. m.) Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary Orville C. Pratt, President 754 National Education Association Second Business Session, Wednesday Morning, June 30, 1937 The Second Business Session of the Representative Assembly of the National Edu¬ cation Association was held in the Masonic Temple Auditorium. The meeting con¬ vened at 9:30 a. m., with President Pratt presiding. President Pratt: The delegates will please be seated. We shall open the program this morning with the invocation by the Right Reverend Frank W. Creighton, Bishop Coadjutor, Protestant Episcopal Diocese of Michigan. (The invocation was given.) President Pratt: Our last item of business yesterday related to election, and some ballots were prepared. However, because so many have not as yet arrived, it seems wise to postpone the issuance of these ballots until later in the forenoon. So we shall take up first today the items of business unfinished at yesterday’s session, but scheduled for yesterday. First of these is the report of the Committee on the Horace Mann Centennial Cele¬ bration. It was to have been given by Payson Smith of Harvard University, but in his absence he has asked that Mr. Morgan present this report. Mr. Joy Elmer Morgan (Secretary of the Commission on the Horace Mann Cen¬ tennial) : Dr. Smith was here yesterday, but was unable to stay over until today and he has asked me to present his report. Just one hundred years ago today, Horace Mann accepted the secretaryship of the Massachusetts Board of Education. There have been four addresses at this conven¬ tion on the life of Horace Mann, and on tomorrow, which is the hundredth anni¬ versary of the day when he took office, there will be another address by his suc¬ cessor, the President of Antioch College, and a play which will be presented in this hall. Horace Mann is one of the unique characters, not only of all American history but of all history. The other day I heard William C. Bagley, the author of that excellent book, A Century of the Universal School, remark that this centennial was not only one of the most important celebrations in the history of America, but one of the most important celebrations in all history, because of the work which Horace Marin did to dramatize to our young Republic, not yet established, the importance between education and democracy. He lives on in the hearts of succeeding generations, and places upon our people a debt which they can never pay. There stands by the State House in Massachusetts, a bronze statue in his memory. He was the first American educator to be elected to the great hall of fame. There stands on the campus of Antioch College a bronze statue in commemoration of his pioneer work in the field of higher education. But he has something more than fame. Today there are 30,000,000 young people in these high schools; there are 750,000 who graduated from them this year. We have in our own ranks a million teachers which recalls the day, ninety-eight years ago, when Horace Mann in one of the hardest battles of his life, founded and maintained the first normal school in the United States. It is a far cry from those three who gathered at the opening of that school, to the 70,000 college students who have grad¬ uated into teaching this year, and with a million teachers who are the lineal de¬ scendants of this great American, Horace Mann. He said when he took his office in Massachusetts, “Let the next generation be my client.” More than one generation has passed since Horace Mann worked and labored for the children of America, since he said, “Let the next generation be my client.” Let us see what the next generation thinks of Horace Mann. There are three thousand high schools, and more, this year that have given their commencement exercises in honor of this great leader. In Massachusetts they had such a commencement, and at that commencement, a poem was read by a member of the senior class of that city. I want to read that poem to you this morning, as an indication of wThat the next generation thinks of Horace Mann, and I wish you would remember, as I read it, that it is not by a professional poet, but by a student in one of the great senior classes of America, one of the 750,000 graduates of this year. Associational Records and Information 755 TO A GENTLE WARRIOR A Centennial Ode to Horace Mann by Mary Bodell There was a time, a restless, change-rocked time, A time of strife when Learning stood forlorn, Seeking a knight to raise her up sublime. Into that time, her champion was born. No iron-hearted conqueror was he, To fight ’mid smoke and clanging clash of steel, Avid for power, ruler of earth to be! His wras a greater goal, a nobler zeal. He battered at the mighty oaken gates Of minds fast-closed — besieged writh force the wall Of ignorance and prejudice and hate, Besieged it — till at last he saw it fall. For millions still to come, he paved the road. He glorified the common school and showed Wherein a nation’s powrer and greatness lay — Her wealth of youth, its growth from day to day. His visionary soul saw far ahead Clear vistas of the dream that might come true; Yet visions did not dim his eyes — instead He clearly saw the present labors, too. Then set him up with conquerors and kings He’ll glow above their glitter and their show! Their deeds live now in books, in temporal things; His deeds live in men’s sons; they thrive and grow7. So let us honor him today. As pilgrims We come to praise the masterpiece he wrought, A glorious one, since “we who did not know him Are moving to the measure of his thought.” The formal report of the Committee contains certain statements about the work of the Committee during the year, as well as the recommendations of the Committee. If there is no objection, I will not read the report. I want to call attention to three phases of it: (1) the great day of American Education Week, November 9, when the celebration comes to a climax; (2) the celebration of the Centennial of the Teachers Colleges, w7hich wTill come in 1939 ; and (3) the recommendation that Horace Mann’s birthday on May 4 shall become an annual event in the public schools. I move the adoption of the report. (Mr. Morgan was not a delegate, so Miss Adair is recorded as the maker of the motion to adopt the report. See page 767.) Seconded by Miss Woodward. President Pratt: You have heard the motion that the report of the Committee on the Horace Mann Centennial Celebration be adopted. Those favoring this motion will please say “aye.” (Motion carried.) (The report is printed on page 858 of this volume.) President Pratt: We shall have now the report of the Committee on Academic Freedom. The chairman of the Committee, Henry Lester Smith, found it necessary to leave for Tokyo, and Ruth West, of Spokane, a member of the Committee, will give the report in his place. Miss Ruth West (Washington) : The printed report contains a statement of the principles of academic freedom on which our Committee has been wmrking very 756 National Education Association steadily and very faithfully thruout the year. Our Committee has felt that the term “academic freedom” has frequently been misused and misunderstood. For that reason, it has given much time and careful thought to the preparation of a statement of principles which, the Committee hopes, will clear away some of the prevailing misconceptions. Each member of the Committee submitted an initial statement. Dr. Kilpatrick has had the difficult task of drawing up the statement of principles in the form in which you receive it in the printed report. At various stages it has been submitted widely to educators and laymen thruout the country. Most of the replies received were favorable; some were mildly critical. All suggestions and criticisms were considered carefully by the Committee and several of them were incorporated into the statement. The members of the Committee owe a great debt to Dr. Kilpatrick for his work in integrating and clarifying both their own ideas and suggestions and those submitted by others. They also owe it to him to explain that he is hoping further to perfect this statement of principles, which still fails to satisfy him. The second briefer statement should be accompanied by a brief explanation. It was felt that the first statement of principles was too long, and perhaps too technical, to be of service outside the profession itself. The second statement was an attempt to make a briefer, simpler, and less technical statement to be used for publicity pur¬ poses. It was not really the intention of the Committee that it should be included in the report; it was intended for laymen rather than for the profession. The Tenure Committee and the Academic Freedom Committee have found that their duties frequently overlap. Whenever tenure has been involved it has seemed best to allot the case to the Tenure Committee for investigation. Altho several other cases have been submitted which at first sight seemed to be violations of academic freedom, investigation has shown the violation to be more apparent than real. Two cases which seem to be real violations of academic freedom are now under investiga¬ tion. However, this Committee feels convinced that there are many such cases which never reach them. They are working now on a plan for closer cooperation with local units of the N. E. A., which they hope will result in more effective work by the Com¬ mittee in the future. Meantime, if each delegate to this Assembly could act as a con¬ necting link between the local unit he represents and this national Committee, much good would be accomplished. At this time, too, the Committee wishes to thank the members of the headquarters staff for their fine cooperation in research on teachers’ oaths in the various states; their work in helping to secure the repeal of the little “Red Rider”; and their excel¬ lent broadcasts and leaflets on academic freedom. The Committee regrets that it has nothing dramatic to report — not because it wants to see academic freedom violated but because it fears it has not done its part in preventing such violation. It feels, however, that the very fact that the N. E. A. has such a Committee helps to set in motion invisible forces for good. The Commit¬ tee wish to go on record as recommending that both the Committee on Academic Freedom and the Committee on Tenure be continued, as the principles which they represent are essential to the welfare of the teachers and the pupils of the nation. Mr. Chairman, I move the adoption of the report. ( Miss West was not a delegate, so Miss Adair is recorded as the maker of the motion to adopt the report. See page 767. The report appears on page 843.) Mr. W. P. Rayner (Michigan) : Seconded. (Motion carried.) President Pratt: We shall have next the report of the Legislative Commission. Sidney B. Hall, state superintendent of public instruction, Richmond, Virginia, is chairman of the Commission. He is unable to be present and Mr. Dawson will make the report. {Mr. Dawson read the report which is printed on page 866 of this volume.) Mr. Howard A. Dawson (Member of N. E. A. headquarters staff) : I would like to say that the Legislature of Montana also passed a resolution memorializing Con¬ gress to enact the Harrison-Black-Fletcher Bill and that information was not handed to the Commission at the time the report was written. I move the adoption of the report. Associational Records and Information 757 President Pratt: You have heard the motion. Is there a second? M. P. Moe (Montana) : Seconded. President Pratt: The motion has been made and seconded for the adoption of the report of the legislative Commission. (Motion carried.) {Mr. Dawson was not a delegate, so Miss Adair is recorded as the maker of the motion to adopt the report. See page 767.) President Pratt: At this time Secretary Givens will make some necessary announce¬ ments. Secretary Givens: First, I want to announce some appointments by President Pratt in connection with the Representative Assembly. The Committee on Drafting the Ballot for this morning’s election consists of Joseph H. Saunders and Frances Harden. President Pratt has also appointed Elizabeth Gregor, an elementary teacher, as chairman in charge of all voting by the Hare System of Proportional Representation. That system was used yesterday for the election of a Publishing Committee. The fol¬ lowing candidates were elected by the Hare System of Proportional Representation to be members of the Publishing Committee of the N. E. A. Detroit convention: Charles A. Rice of Oregon; C. B. Smith of Illinois; John Allan Smith of California; D. E. Temple of Oklahoma; IV. E. fV enner of Ohio. That Committee met last night at 8 o’clock and at 1:15 o’clock it had completed the minutes of yesterday’s business. Those minutes are now in my briefcase, ready to be printed. Tonight at 8 o’clock they will meet in the same room and go over the proceedings of this morning’s session. The World Federation of Education Associations came into existence fourteen years ago in San Francisco under the leadership of the N. E. A. Between four and five hundred delegates from the National Education Association, scattered thruout this great country of ours, are going to represent the United States at the confer¬ ence at Tokyo, August 2-7. It is not too late to join the group for this summer. Literature and information concerning the various tours planned may be obtained from J. IV. Crabtree, my predecessor, now giving his time to the World Federation in Washington, who is staying at the Statler Hotel, or from Reuben T. Shaw, who is leaving immediately after this convention and who is now staying at the Book- Cadillac. President Pratt: I believe at this time it would be advisable, now that we have a full attendance of delegates, to proceed with the matter of election left over from yesterday. Mr. Givens will make the necessary announcements in that connection. Secretary Givens: We have copies of the ballot here on the platform. I want to read the ballot to you. Shall the amendment to the bylaws proposed by the Committee on Reorganization worded as follows: (b) (e) The Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vice- president (the Executive Secretary), the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member from each State, Territory, or District to be elected by (the active members for the term of one year) the Representative Assembly for the term of three years or until their successors are chosen, and of all Life Directors of the National Educational Association. be amended as moved by Joseph H. Saunders and seconded by William H. Holmes, which proposes to add, after the words “National Educational Association” the following: and of all presidents of the National Education Association whose term of office expired prior to July 3, 1937. Then there are two squares — a place to mark “yes” and another one to mark “no.” In order to facilitate action in this matter, the president has asked me to appoint tellers from the group to help carry on the election. I took the first two states — wrote Alabama and Alaska on two separate pieces of paper, shook them up thoroly and let Mr. Pratt select one to see where we would start picking out these tellers, and he picked out Alaska. I, therefore, started with Alaska and took every other state. 758 National Education Association They will name the tellers and have those tellers come up here immediately just as they are selected. We will then proceed. Now, the first five are Alaska, Arkansas, Colorado, Delaware, and Florida. Will those states name a teller and send that teller down here? I am going to ask the first one on the list, and this happens to be Alaska, to be chairman of that group of five. And, if they will serve in passing out the ballots and collecting them back of the brass rail — I guess that is a good term now — back of the brass rail and around to Colorado, but not including Colorado. Those five tellers will see that one ballot is handed to each delegate and collected. The next group begins with Colorado. Hawaii will select one as chairman; this group is Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, and New Hampshire. They will all come down in front as soon as they are selected. New Mexico with North Carolina and Ohio will take this corner back of the brass rail. Oregon will select one as chairman who will be helped by Puerto Rico, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Vermont, Washington, and Wisconsin in handling this body in front of the rail. If the tellers will come down to the front, we will pass out the ballots and proceed immediately. President Pratt: We shall have a recess of five minutes while the vote is being taken. (Recess.) Secretary Givens: Will the tellers collect the ballots? Then the tellers will go out to their room where they will immediately count the ballots. President Pratt: May we now be in order, please? If there are any more ballots not collected, please bring them to Mr. Givens. We shall now have the report of the Committee on International Relations, this report to be given by the chairman, Miss W oodvuard. Miss Annie C. IVoodward (Massachusetts) : I am very happy to bring to you the report of the proceedings this year of the International Relations Committee. This Committee has been working thruout our country to educate the pupils and the public to a better international understanding. The type of work accomplished has varied because of the wide range of difference in our Committee members. We have a general cross-section of the entire educational profession. Our Committee is composed of one hundred and seventeen members, which is a credit to our president. There is a small core committee of five with a secretary. Our Committee has had two board meetings, one at the mid-winter meeting of this organization when the superintendents met and one at this summer meeting, and two general committee meetings, which likewise took place one in the winter and one at this session. We have: had one World Friendship Dinner which took place in New Orleans last February. It was the most representative of world affairs that we have ever had. Twelve foreign consuls cooperated. It was colorful and impressive, and the messages given were outstanding. The president of the World Federation, Paul Monroe, was present and he reviewed the work that has been accomplished. He told us of the World Conference, which Mr. Givens spoke of this morning. In every way possible we stirred interest at that time to increase the numbers that might be able to go. One of our members was so impressed with the need to have more go and more cooperate, that she went back to Wisconsin and took Tokyo as her thought, and this is what she wrote. We have had copies made and sent out as our contribu¬ tion to create interest in the World Conference. With your indulgence, I would like you to hear the thoughts she has expressed: Tokyo Across the broad Pacific Under the skies so bright There dwells a charming people Who are seeking for the right. Associational Records and Information 759 You’ll find a world of beauty Among these people fair, You’ll find the flowers gorgeous, Feel the freshness of the air. And isn’t it splendid, my people, To have one Father so dear — This makes us brothers and sisters In countries both far and near. It makes no difference whatever — If your eyes are black or blue — If your hair is straight or curly If only your heart is true. If you would know these people And see this beauty spot Just take the boat for Tokyo You’ll enjoy it quite a lot. That was written by Edna E. Hood. At our meeting in Detroit, we had over fifty in attendance. There was a great interest in the numbers that were to be at the summer conference, and because the chairman finds it utterly impossible to attend, it was voted that Henry Lester Smith would act as chairman and that IV. P. King wrould act as secretary to the United States Delegation in Tokyo. At this meeting there was stressed the tremendous need for the fullest possible information regarding world conditions in order that youth might have put into their hands the type of information that may broaden, strengthen, and create a better understanding. Civilization has produced democracy which preserves the rights of the individual. The Committee recommends that $1000 be appropriated by the National Education Association to this Committee for the following definite piece of work: To develop, collect, formulate, and print suggestive programs and projects, bearing on the development of goodwill and world understanding, which could be sent to superin¬ tendents and teacher education institutions for practical use in elementary, junior and senior high schools. Air. Chairman, I move the adoption of this report as a report of progress. President Pratt: The report as made includes a recommendation for the assign¬ ment of $1000 for the use of the Committee. It seems to me that so far as the assign¬ ment of $1000 is concerned, that that is a matter which ought to go to the Budget Committee for report back to the Representative Assembly. The chairman consents to that interpretation. A motion is, therefore, in order for the adoption of the report except for the recommendation as to the $1000. Miss Woodward: I so move. Air. H. V. Cooper (Mississippi) : Seconded. Mr. L. E. Frazar (Louisiana) : I also wish to second the motion. (Motion carried.) President Pratt: The report is adopted. I will now call on Air. Cram of Iowa to make a statement for the Board of Directors. Mr. Fred D. Cram (Iowra) : Due to the fact that we have had some misunder¬ standing as to the contacts between the Board of Directors and the Representative Assembly, the Board yesterday voted that hereafter a member of the Board will be appointed secretary at each session and that the person appointed will act in the Representative Assembly to bring to the Representative Assembly any action taken by the Board of Directors. The reason for my appearance on the platform this morning is that I was the one selected to be the contact man for this session. Now, if I make no suggestions in regard to any of these reports, it means they were accepted by the Board and are recommended to favorable action by you or any action you care to take. There are two reports in which the Board will have more remarks to make. 760 National Education Association Mr. Chairman, I should like to present two matters from the Board at this time with your consent and each will involve the making of a motion. At yesterday’s meeting, the Board of Directors voted to recommend to the Representative Assembly that state delegations in addition to the meeting held on Monday noon, hold a second meeting at 5 p.m. on Tuesday of each convention week. This motion was made by Superintendent Stanton of Ohio. I move, Mr. Chairman, that there be placed in the next publication of the program of the National Education Association a statement that state delegations will meet at 5 p.m. on Tuesday. President Pratt: You have heard the motion. Is there a second? Mr. Rush M. Caldwell (Texas) : Seconded. Mr. E. E. Oberholtzer (Texas) : May we have a statement from Mr. Cram as to the purpose of the second meeting? I understand the first meeting is for nominations. I would like to know the purpose of the second one. Mr. Cram: A number of state directors have been very anxious to carry back to their delegation the action of the Board of Directors and of the Representative Assembly. Of course, it will be impossible by holding a meeting on Tuesday after¬ noon to carry to our delegations anything that happens after that time but important measures come up on Tuesday morning. Important measures are presented by the Board of Directors on Monday and sometimes at the meeting before that. No state delegation need meet at 5 o’clock if there is nothing to be taken care of. But, these meetings will be placed on the calendar and will be taken advantage of by those who care to do so. We believe it is a step in the right direction. (The motion was put to vote, and was carried.) Mr. Cram: The Executive Committee recommends that hereafter committee chair¬ men be appointed for the life of the committee up to a limit of three years, after which a new chairman must be appointed if the committee is continued. Further, the Executive Committee recommends that one-third of the membership of each committee be changed each year, the retiring members being those of longest service on the Committee. One question immediately comes to your mind perhaps for the committee that has just been appointed. How are we to know who are the oldest one-third? I think we can leave that to the discretion of the appointing president. The Board of Directors voted favorably on the suggestion and now refers it to the Representative Assembly with the recommendation that the Assembly adopt the recommended procedure to date from adjournment of this meeting. Mr. Chairman, I so move. President Pratt: You have heard the motion made by Mr. Cram. Is there a second? Mr. Moe: Seconded. President Pratt: The motion is now before the Assembly for discussion. Mrs. Preble: Mr. Chairman, may we have the motion read again? Mr. Cram: I move that beginning with the close of this convention that the chair¬ men of future committees be appointed for a term of three years to be succeeded by a new chairman at the end of the three-year term; and further, that one-third of the members of the committees be retired each year, those retired being the oldest members of the committees in point of service. Mrs. Preble: Does that mean, Mr. Chairman, that if we have a committee now on which a chairman has served for three years, that he may not be reappointed for this coming year for a three-year term? President Pratt: As I understand it, it would not be for a three-year term in any event. Possibly a statement by me might clarify the situation, inasmuch as I made the recommendation. And, I am not going to argue about it, of course, one way or the other — just try to answer the question you have asked. The committees and the personnel of the committees have, in the course of years, become fixed, static, relatively unchanged. It seemed to me that a certain amount of injection of new blood would be desirable. There would be nothing in a change of chairman to prevent the chairman continuing on a committee but out of 200,000 teachers, it seemed to me that it might be in the interest of more active committees to have changes made from time to time. Associational Records and Information 761 ' Mrs. Preble: My question is not quite answered, I think, from what you have said. Let me put it this way: A certain chairman of a certain committee serves as chair¬ man for three years up to now. Is he eligible to be returned to that committee if this motion is passed? President Pratt: The suggestion is that one-third of the chairmen be changed each year. Mrs. Preble: The motion, I believe, in using the fraction “one-third” referred to the whole committee, not one-third of the chairmen of all committees. Am I right? President Pratt: It referred to both, Mrs. Preble. There are fifteen committees and that would affect five committees of the fifteen. Mrs. Preble: Then, may I say this? I am particularly interested and all teachers are particularly interested at this time in the Tenure Committee. We want to know whether the chairman of the present Tenure Committee who, if I am correct, has served in that position for three years, is eligible to reappointment on that committee if this motion passes. May he be reappointed as chairman? President Pratt: I am unable to answer that question because I have not gone over the list of committees and do not know which one of the fifteen has served longest. I recall that Mr. Wood, for instance, has served for twenty-five or twenty-six years. I do not know just how that would work out. I would like to have Miss Adair make a statement at this time. Miss Adair: As chairman of the Committee on Rules I would like to call attention to the fact that the motion under discussion would not be legal. The president is empowered to appoint all committees. This would be a restriction on the powers of the president. It seems to me that it could not come up in any way except as an amendment to the bylaws, which set forth the powers and duties of the president. As a past president of the National Education Association, it seems to me that those duties, the appointment of committees, are entirely in the hands of the president. While it may at times be a somewhat disagreeable duty to make changes in the committees, nevertheless it is a responsibility and when we accept responsibilities we have to carry them out, and the appointment of committees is the responsibility of the president, except in some instances, such as in the appointment of the Rules Committee, and then the president must appoint the chairman. So, I would suggest that the parliamentarian, if you so desire, might rule whether this motion is in order or not. President Pratt: The parliamentarian rules the motion out of order. That being the ruling, there is nothing really before us at this time. Mr. Joseph H. Saunders (Virginia) : I move that it is recommended to the incom¬ ing president that this action be taken. President Pratt: The parliamentarian rules that this motion is out of order because yesterday the motion was made for recodification of the rules and this matter can be taken up at the next convention a year from now. Mr. Everett R. Erickson of Juneau, Alaska, chairman of the Tellers Committee, is ready to report for that Committee. Air. Erickson: The Committee of Tellers which counted the ballot concerning the amendment proposed by the Committee on Reorganization, used the following process in counting the votes. There were three persons assigned to a group. First of all, the ballots marked “yes” were stacked. The ballots marked “no” were placed in a separate stack. After that work was done, one person of the committee of three served as a checker, one as a caller, and one as a recorder. There were some five or six committees, the work of which was recording the ballots. The results of the election are as follows: yes, 653; no, 422. Nine ballots were dis¬ qualified. A grand total of 1084 votes was cast. President Pratt: The amendment has been passed. Mrs. Preble: Mr. Chairman, I have a motion to present. I move that the vote on the adoption of Section (b) (e) Article II, as printed in Chapter III of the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, as amended, be taken by written ballot. President Pratt: Is there a second to the motion just made? Mrs. Ethel R. A schenbach (New York) : Seconded. 762 National Education Association President Pratt: In order for the vote to be taken by written ballot, it will be’ necessary now to have a rising vote on the motion. Those favoring the motion — A California Delegate: Mr. Chairman, we have not heard the motion. Mrs. Preble: I move that the vote on the adoption of Section (b) (e) Article II as printed in Chapter III in the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, as amended, be taken by written ballot. ( President Pratt called for an explanation from the parliamentarian.) Mr. C. A. Bottolfsen (parliamentarian) : You have adopted an amendment to the original motion which was carried by a majority. The motion now is that you decide the main question by printed ballot and the Chair rules that it will require a two- thirds vote of those cast to adopt the amendment to the bylaws. It will require at least two hundred by standing vote to demand the printed ballot. Mrs. Preble: May I speak to my motion? Mrs. Lindlof: A point of information! Did I understand the parliamentarian to say just now that it required a two-thirds vote to adopt an amendment? Mr. Bottolfsen: Yes, I so ruled. Mrs. Lindlof: Was the amendment carried by a two-thirds vote? Mr. Bottolfsen: I ruled the amendment to the amendment could be adopted by a majority vote. It was adopted by a majority vote. Mrs. Lindlof: Mr. Chairman, I do not understand why an amendment to the amendment is not as important as the amendment itself and why it does not require a two-thirds vote to adopt the amendment to the amendment. Mr. Bottolfsen: I am being guided by Robert’s Rules of Order. Mrs. Preble: My only interest in appearing before you just now is to be sure that everyone knows just the purpose of my motion and its effect if adopted. You have just voted by ballot to retain twenty-two past presidents on the Board of Directors of the National Education Association. Now, if that vote is sustained by a two-thirds vote, on the whole section which you have just amended in that way, then the past presidents will remain as life directors on the Board of Directors of the National Education Association. I believe that is a question important enough to deserve a written ballot. This written ballot will give us a chance to say again, perhaps in a more orderly way than we said it this morning, whether or not we want the past presidents to remain as life directors on the Board of Directors of the National Education Association. Mr. Martin Miller (Washington) : May I ask what the status of the Board of Directors will be if this, by any chance, fails to pass by a two-thirds majority? If I understand it correctly, the failure of this amendment to pass would then make it possible not only for the twenty-two past presidents but would continue the present organization of the Board and all those elected in the future. Is that correct or not? Mr. Oberholtzer: Mr. Chairman, may we have the original motion read before we take the vote ? President Pratt: What we are attempting to decide now is whether or not we are to have a written ballot for determining this motion. Mr. Saunders: Mr. Chairman, while I have no objection to the written ballot, it simply seems to delay procedure. But, I want to correct one statement made by Mrs. Preble. She said all presidents would be on the Board of Directors. According to the motion, only those who have served up to and including the present president would be on the Board of Directors. It does not mean future presidents. President Pratt: The parliamentarian rules that we are out of order in debating the merits of the motion. The motion is to determine whether or not we shall decide this matter by written ballot. Mr. Trent: A question of information, please! Are all former presidents life directors both under the former bylaws and charter and under the present bylaws not amended ? The Parliamentarian: That is a matter that has been decided already by the attorney for the Association and I do not believe that it is a parliamentary question. Mr. Trent: I shall state my understanding of it, if I may be permitted, Mr. Chair¬ man. Under the old bylaws, under the old charter, past presidents are and shall be Associational Records and Information 763 life directors. If no amendment is made, they will continue to be life directors. Mr. Saunders: No. No! That is not true. Mr. Trent: Let me state my position. I may be wrong, but I want to make one other statement. President Pratt: A statement or a question? Debate is out of order. We will try to answer your question if you have one. Mr. Trent: I want to ask a question. The proposed vote is on the amendment of Section (e) as amended for adoption or disapproval, yes or no? Miss Adair: The question right now is whether or not we should put that on the ballot. Mr. Trent: I thank you. The other question, Miss Adair, is if we vote not to ap¬ prove the amendment and to adopt Section (e), former presidents will continue to be life directors ? Miss Adair: There will be a legal action necessary, I think, in order to establish that right. The former presidents have a contract with the Association stating that they are life directors. It may be that it will be necessary to have legal action to establish that right. Nevertheless, that is the present status of the life directors. Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl (Minnesota) : I rise to a point of order? Are we dis¬ cussing this motion? President Pratt: We are discussing whether or not the determination shall be by written ballot. Mrs. Dahl: Then I think they are out of order! President Pratt: What we are trying to determine here is whether or not this matter shall be determined by written ballot. Your vote now does not have anything to do with the final action on this motion. If 200 wish it to be by written ballot, it will be decided that way. Delegates: Question! Question! Question! President Pratt: My belief is that debate is out of order. Mr. Saunders : Are we not entitled to know where we stand on a proposition! Miss Jessie Gray (Pennsylvania) : I have a question. The parliamentarian made a statement when he was asked if there was a legal opinion, that that was not a question for the parliamentarian to answer. May I ask the president of this Association what legal opinion has been given as to the point whether life directors shall be members of the Board of Directors of the National Education Association? President Pratt: I have no knowledge of there being a ruling on the matter at all. Miss Gray: I have heard that there is such a ruling that the legal adviser has made a decision that the past presidents of this Association have no place on the Board of Directors. President Pratt: I am unable to answer the question because I do not have the knowledge. Mr. Roscoe V. Cramer (Missouri): A point of order! I believe the motion as amended has not been stated and should be read according to the rules. President Pratt: I shall read again the motion that is now before the Assembly. It was moved by Mrs. Preble as follows: “I move that the vote on the adoption of Section (b) (e) Article II, as printed in Chapter III in the report of the Committee on Reorganization, Detroit, 1937, as amended, be taken by written ballot.” The motion is on whether or not it shall be determined by written ballot. Those favoring its determination by written ballot, will please stand. President Pratt: You will be seated. There are more than the necessary 200. Mr. Shaw: Mr. Chairman, there are two things that this body should know at this time. I should like first to ask unanimous consent to have the parliamentarian read to you our governing authority, Robert's Rules of Order, in reference to the rights of this Association in regard to changing or abolishing officers. President Pratt: Is there unanimous consent for this information? Hearing no objection, the parliamentarian will do that. Mr. Bottolfsen (Reading) : “A society can amend its constitution and bylaws so as to affect the emoluments and duties of officers already elected, or even to do away 764 National Education Association with the office altogether. If it is desired that the amendment should not affect officers already elected, a motion to that effect should be adopted before voting on the amend¬ ment; or the motion to amend could have added to it the proviso that it should not affect officers already elected. There is something in the nature of a contract between a society and its officers which either one can modify to some extent, or even termi¬ nate, but it must be done with reasonable consideration for the other party. A secre¬ tary, for instance, has no right to refuse to perform his duties on the ground that he has handed in his resignation. On the other hand, the society cannot compel him to continue in office beyond a reasonable time to allow for choosing his successor.” Mr. Shaw: Now, Mr. Chairman, I wish to comment upon that. It was carefully studied by the Charter Committee, it was carefully studied by the attorney, not in any brief or quick decision but thruout the past two or three years. In the report submitted by our Committee a year ago, the specific question was raised as to vested rights, and the attorney gave a written opinion which was pub¬ lished in that report that there were no vested rights in the usually accepted idea of contract, except where that had been paid for. That is the reason that we have con¬ tinued in there the case of a life director of the National Education Association. After the president had signed the bill on June 14, I understand that the secretary of the Association asked the attorney for an opinion on the status of life directors, and received one, and I ask that it be read to you at this time. May we have unanimous consent that it be read to you at this time? President Pratt: If there is no objection, the matter will be read at this time. Mr. Saunders: Mr. Chairman, I should like to know whether those who are favor¬ able to this motion have a right to discuss it on this floor. A motion presented here is debatable, and to put this on the ballot without giving us an opportunity to express our views for or against it, shuts off debate. You have allowed the chairman of this Committee to speak on it; I should like to speak on it. President Pratt: The parliamentarian says that tomorrow we will have the oppor¬ tunity before the ballots are passed. What we have before us now is a point of personal privilege by Mr. Shaw. The secretary will read the communication. Secretary Givens: May I say that this letter to our attorney was written by myself to him, because I had to answer a request from a state director which I could not answer without the legal advice. June 9, 1937 Mr. Ralph D. Quinter 815 Fifteenth Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. Dear Mr. Quinter: The bill to amend the charter of the N. E. A. passed the House of Represen¬ tatives on Monday, June 7, 1937. It now awaits the President’s signature, and I realize that it does not become a law until signed by the President. Section 6 of the amended charter reads: (a) The officers of the corporation shall be a President, one or more Vice- presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Com¬ mittee, a Board of Trustees, and such boards, councils, committees, and other officers as shall be prescribed in the bylaws. (b) Except as limited by this Act as amended, the bylaws of the corpora¬ tion shall prescribe the powers, duties, terms of office, and the method of elec¬ tion or appointment of said officers, boards, councils, and committees; and the said corporation may by its bylaws make other and different provisions as to the number and names of the officers, boards, councils, and committees. This Section formerly provided that: . . . The Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vice- president, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trus¬ tees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of one year, or until their succes- Associational Records and Information 765 sors are chosen, and of all Life Directors of the National Educational Associa¬ tion. The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former presidents of the said Association now living, and all future presidents of the Associa¬ tion hereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be members of the Board of Directors for life. . . . Several questions now arise, and I am asking you to write me your opinion on them. 1. Will past presidents of the N. E. A. have a legal right to participate and vote in the Board of Directors at the Detroit convention? 2. Can those who have served as past presidents be legally voted out of the Board of Directors? In other words, do they, by virtue of their having served as presidents of the Association with the understanding that they wrnuld become life directors on expiration of their terms of office as presidents, have certain vested rights ? 3. The Board of Directors votes the payment of expenses of each member to the annual convention. Can the Board of Directors legally vote to pay the expenses of past presidents to this convention? I have a letter to answer now which in¬ volves this specific item. Quoting from the letter: “I understand that as a life member of the Board of Directors, the expenses of (name of past president) will be paid to the Detroit meeting. We shall greatly appreciate it if you can advance the necessary fund to (name of past president).” I wish further to have your opinion on two questions relative to a secret ballot: 1. Is there anything in the constitution and bylaw's of the N.E.A. to prevent a secret ballot on any and every issue? 2. Is there anything in Robert’s Rules of Order to prevent deciding any ques¬ tion by secret ballot? In other words, if the group or body washes a secret ballot, is there any state¬ ment in Robert’s Rules of Order to prevent it? I shall appreciate your opinion on these questions at your early convenience. Very cordially yours, (Signed) Willard E. Givens June 14, 1937 Dr. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary National Education Ass’n of the United States 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. Dear Dr. Givens: In reply to your letter of the 9th instant, I beg to state that as soon as the Presi¬ dent of the United States signs the bill amending the charter of the Association as passed by Congress, the past presidents of the Association, as such, will have no legal right to participate and vote in the meetings of the board of directors of the Association. It will not be necessary to vote them out. Unless the Representative Assembly has appropriated money for the payment of expenses of past presidents as such, and other than as directors, I am of the opinion that a vote of the board of directors to pay the expenses of past presidents to a convention would be unauthorized. The amendment to Section 6 of the charter provides: “The bylaws of the corpo¬ ration shall prescribe the powers, duties, terms of office, and the manner of elec¬ tion or appointment of said officers, boards, councils, and committees,” etc. The present bylaws provide that “The Board of Directors shall consist of the Presi¬ dent, the First Vicepresident, the Executive Secretary, the Treasurer, the Chair¬ man of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member from each state, terri¬ tory, or district to be elected by the active members for the term of one year or until their successors are chosen, and of all Life Directors of the National Edu- 766 National Education Association cational Association.” The life directors of the National Educational Associa¬ tion are those of the former corporation of that name which was incorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, and not of the present corporation, whose name is National Education Association of the United States. It is undoubtedly within the power of a corporation to make bylaws prescribing the qualifications of its directors and other officers, provided that the bylaws are not inconsistent with the charter or general statutes. The present bylaws of the Association are not inconsistent with the charter as amended or any general statute. Past presidents have no vested right in the office of director. “The term ‘vested rights’ relates to property rights only, and does not apply to personal rights.” 12 C. J. 956 (Constitutional Law, Section 485). The courts in deciding questions involving amendments to charters have based their decisions on property rights, not personal rights. Most of the cases have arisen where it has been contended that a state statute amending the charter of a private corporation impaired the obligation of a contract, in violation of the constitutional provision that no state shall pass any “law impairing the obligation of a contract.” But the prohibition of the federal Constitution against laws impairing the obligations of contracts does not apply to the United States. Congress may therefore enact any legislation by way of an amendment to one of its charters which does not violate the rule that property acquired under operation of the charter cannot be taken away. The plan of eliminating life directors from the Association by the proposed amendment to the charter does not in any way affect the ownership of property. Further answering your letter, I beg to state that there is nothing in the con¬ stitution or bylaws of the Association to prevent a secret ballot on any and every issue, nor is there anything in Robert's Rules of Order to prevent deciding any question by secret ballot. Section 46 of Article 8 of Robert’s Rules of Order covers the subject of voting, and therein it is stated that “where the bylaws do not require the vote to be by ballot, it can be so ordered by a majority vote or by general consent. . . . The main object of this form of voting (voting by ballot) is secrecy.” Very truly yours, (Signed) Ralph D. Quinter Mrs. Preble: I move that the written ballot just ordered by standing vote be cast at the time and place of the balloting for officers. (Seconded by Frances Jelinek of Wisconsin.) President Pratt: It has been moved and seconded that the written ballot just ordered by a standing vote be cast at the time and place of the balloting for officers. Mr. W alls: I want to ask a question that has to do with this motion. Does this mean that we are now shutting off debate on this question? President Pratt: We are not debating this question at this time. The question now is on the time and method of balloting. Mr. W alls: I would like to ask that question that is not answered. Are you going to hand us the ballots and make us deposit them in the box without further debate? If so, this is a motion to shut off debate, and we ought to know it. The Parliamentarian: I shall rule this motion out of order for the reason that it does deprive the convention of that right to debate the question. Mrs. Preble: Mr. Chairman, I appeal from the decision of the parliamentarian. My purpose in proposing this motion was not to shut off debate. If you sustain my motion, Mr. Chairman, I believe I am right in saying that we can still continue to debate this question today, and cast our votes tomorrow, at the time that we vote for the officers. President Pratt: Is there a second to the appeal from the ruling? (Seconded by Nell Donovan, Spokane, Washington.) President Pratt: Shall the decision of the parliamentarian be the judgment of the Assembly? Those favorable to the decision will please say “aye”; those opposed, “no.” The motion has been approved and the decision of the parliamentarian is sustained. Associational Records and Information 767 Mrs. Preble: Mr. Chairman, do we have a vote by ballot at the time and place of the voting tomorrow for the officers? President Pratt: No. You have already arranged to vote by ballot tomorrow. At that time you will have full opportunity for discussion. Any further discussion now is out of order. We shall proceed with the business of this convention. Mr. Shaw: I rise to a point of personal privilege. President Pratt: Granted. Mr. Shaw: I should like to ask this question of the parliamentarian: Is it proper at this time for a motion to be adopted as to what shall be done with the opinion of the attorney of the Association? The Parliamentarian: I am sorry, Mr. Shaw, that I have no legal training, and I would suggest that the matter be referred to a committee with authority for that committee to act, so that if the directors wish to make a test case out of this that they may have that right. Mr. Shaw: I ask unanimous consent to speak for just two minutes on this question. President Pratt: Is unanimous consent given to Mr. Shaw? There is objection, Mr. Shaw. There is another matter now relating to business of this Association, on which Miss Adair will now speak. Miss Cornelia S. Adair (Virginia) : The Rules Committee noted in three instances reports were given by substitutes. These substitutes were not delegates to this body. Therefore, in the interest of pure legality, I would like to ask unanimous consent to move the adoption of those three reports, in order that the motion may be made by a delegate. The first report was that of the Committee on the Horace Mann Cen¬ tennial Celebration. I would like to be recorded as the person who moved the adop¬ tion of that report. The second report was that of the Committee on Academic Free¬ dom. I would like to be put in the record as the person who moved the adoption of that report. The third is the matter of the Legislative Commission. I would like to be the mover of the motions to adopt those reports, which you adopted by unani¬ mous consent. I would like to have the privilege of doing this, by unanimous consent. President Pratt: Is there unanimous consent for Miss Adair to substitute for the three who made motions, and who were not delegates? Hearing no objection, Miss Adair will thus substitute. Mr. A. C. Flora (South Carolina): Just a word in regard to voting tomorrow. Please take note as follows: voting will take place tomorrow from 8 a.m. — tomorrow, Thursday — until 6 p.m. The place will be in the vicinity of the registration desk. President Pratt: We are now ready for the report of the Committee on Tenure, of which Mr. DuShane is chairman. Mr. Donald DuShane (Indiana) : The report of the Tenure Committee has been in the hands of the delegates to this convention for several days. I shall, therefore, not read it in full, but will discuss important points. This report is not the work of the chairman but of the Tenure Committee as a whole. In the first of the report you will find some recommendations which the Committee is making, and which it asks to be adopted by this body. The printed report also contains a statement of the Committee on Tenure. There is no vital principle involved. There is also included the Principles and Purposes of Tenure. This is a restatement of the N.E.A.’s idea of the principles and purposes of tenure. In the report you will find an attitude toward the recertification movement by the Tenure Committee. It is the feeling of this Committee that where tenure existed, five-year recertification should perhaps be continued, as protecting the best tenure interests of such states. There is a section devoted to teacher welfare. Very briefly, the Tenure Committee, after several years of study as well as continued research and study by the N.E.A. Research Division, has concluded that there are three or four types of protective legislation needed in addition to tenure, such as retirement laws, minimum wage laws, and uniform contract laws. Our Committee has published a report on con¬ tracts which shows gross abuses of contract rights by employing officials. There is summarized the advice of the Committee on the question of securing tenure legislation and protecting such legislation after securing it. You will find 768 National Education Association a digest of the tenure legislation secured during the past year. There were more tenure bills introduced and more tenure laws passed than in any other one year in the history of the United States. In the latter part of the report we find a statement as to unjust treatment of teachers. The Committee has selected from its files twelve cases of such unjust treatment. It is not reporting these cases by name or state or city, but they are given as examples of what is happening all too frequently in many sections of the country. Following this begins a definite detailed report of the four case studies which the Tenure Committee made during the year. That, in brief, is the summary of our report, Mr. Chairman. I wish to recommend the adoption of the report of the Tenure Committee. (Seconded by Mr. IF alls of Ohio.) (The report is printed on page 910 of this volume.) President Pratt: It has been moved and seconded that the report of the Tenure Committee be adopted. Mr. Charles 0. If'illiams (Indiana) : I want to know if the $10,000 mentioned in this report should not be included in the Budget Committee report. President Pratt: Since it is an item in the budget, I would take it that it is imma¬ terial. Are you ready for the motion? Those favoring the motion, please indicate by saying “aye.” Mr. Cram: I am speaking now for the Board of Directors, and as directed by them. The Board commended very highly the work of the Tenure Committee. The suggestion was made, however - Mrs. Lindlof: A point of order, Mr. Chairman. The point of order I wish to make is this: The vote had been called for and the “ayes” taken, and I believe we have no right to interrupt the taking of a vote to allow a person to speak on a motion. President Pratt: The parliamentarian says that as the result of the vote has not been announced, it is in order for Mr. Cram to have the floor. Mr. Cram: The Board of Directors suggest to the Committee on Tenure that here¬ after there should not be so much publicity given in printed form to these case investigations. We are not suggesting that the Committee discontinue these investi¬ gations, altho there is some feeling running in that direction, but the Board feels that whenever we go into so much detail in regard to these cases, we very greatly endanger the future work of the Committee. I am simply passing on to you the judg¬ ment of the Board of Directors. President Pratt: Those favoring the motion will please say “aye”; those opposed “no.” (Report adopted.) President Pratt: Just a word of explanation. The process of balloting tomorrow on the bylaw amendment will be precisely the same as that of today. Mrs. Lindlof: Mr. Chairman, I would like to move a vote of deep gratitude and appreciation to the Tenure Committee for the very fine report which they have rendered here to us today. Mr. Frederick Schultz (New York) : I second the motion. President Pratt: It has been moved and seconded that we extend a vote of gratitude and appreciation to the Tenure Committee for their very fine work. (Motion carried.) President Pratt: I will now call on A. G. Crane, president of the University of Wyoming, chairman of the Committee on Higher Education, for his report. Mr. A. G. Crane (Wyoming) : I wish to thank the president and the other members on this program for the privilege accorded me of bringing my report in at this time. Unfortunately for myself, it is necessary for me to meet an important engage¬ ment tomorrow morning in Wyoming. I represent the Committee on Higher Education. This Committee was formed some years ago, and was given the commission of endeavoring to revive, if possible, the interest of college teachers in the National Education Association and its problems. It is a difficult commission. For many years, in this Association there have been evident disintegrating forces, working towards the formation of specialized depart¬ ments and interests. In reality the Committee is formed to work against these forces, Associational Records and Information 769 to endeavor to counteract them. Historically, higher education people were much interested in the N.E.A. and in the problems of this Association. They are now absent from many of the conventions. Your Committee was given the job, if you please, of going out and compelling them to come in. The sheep have wTandered from the fold. You may ask why should this Association, thru its officers, appoint a Committee of some fifty-one members lepresenting each state in the Union, and ask them to try to revive the interest of college faculties in the National Education Association. First, I think, because of the need of mutual understanding, it is well that you and I understand each other’s problems. For mutual counsel, it would be advisable for this Association to have participating in its programs and in its deliberations the college group in higher education. It is also desirable because of the need now and in the future for concerted action by the profession. There are battles ahead for a profession of teaching in America. In these battles it is going to be valuable, if not absolutely essential, that the profession of teaching shall have somewhere a spokesman that shall speak for all of American education; not a babble of voices, some from one department, some from another department, some from another group, possibly conflicting in their utterances. Your Committee, briefly, recommends: 1. A continuance of the Committee (not necessarily the same personnel) which will have for its commission the effort to revive interest and participation by college faculties in the National Education Association and its deliberations. 2. It recommends that topics of general interest be placed on the programs of this Association, and of the American Association of School Administrators and that on these programs, these matters of general educational professional interest be called to the attention of college faculties. 3. Your Committee recommends an aggressive, vigorous, concerted, and or¬ ganized campaign to aw’aken the interest of college faculties. 4. Your Committee recommends a small budget for the expenses of the Com¬ mittee. President Pratt: You have heard the report. What is your pleasure? ( Miss Adair moved the adoption of the report. Seconded by a delegate from Florida.) President Pratt: It has been moved and seconded that the report of this Committee be adopted. Those in favor wrill indicate by saying “aye”; those opposed “no.” (Re¬ port unanimously adopted. It is printed on page 857 of this volume.) Mr. John R. Rushing (Washington) : Mr. Chairman, I want to move that this con¬ vention go on record as favoring the full participation of our higher education teachers in the deliberations of this organization, the full cooperation of college teachers in the National Education Association. (The motion was seconded by Agnes Samuelson. Motion carried.) The meeting was adjourned. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary Orville C. Pratt, President Third Business Session, Thursday Morning, July 1, 1937 The third business session of the Representative Assembly of the National Educa¬ tion Association, held in the Masonic Temple Auditorium, Detroit, convened at 9:30 A.M., with President Pratt presiding. President Pratt: The Assembly will please be in order. The invocation will be given this morning by the Reverend Augustus P. Reccord of the Unitarian-Univer- salist Church. (The invocation wras given.) President Pratt: We have a number of items of business left over from yesterday and we shall start with reports of committees. First, the report of the Committee on Health Problems in Education. Dr. Thomas D. Wood, the chairman, cannot be here and the report will be given by Miss Whitney. 770 National Education Association Miss Anne Whitney (Director, School Health Education Service) : Mr. Chairman, the Committee on Health Problems in Education was created by the National Council of Education at San Francisco in July 1911. In the same year a cooperating commit¬ tee of the American Medical Association was appointed. These two committees were soon fused into the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education. Dr. Thomas D. JTood has been chairman of the Joint Health Committee since its organization in 1911. At the annual meeting in Des Moines, in July 1921, the Health Committee of the National Council of Education was formally adopted by the National Educa¬ tion Association and, in cooperation with the corresponding committee of the Amer¬ ican Medical Association, became the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Edu¬ cation of the National Education Association and the American Medical Association. Education and health officials, child health organizations, and many other organ¬ izations and individuals in our own and other countries have turned to this Com¬ mittee for information, advice, and leadership relating to literature and standards dealing with many phases of the health conditions and health programs of schools. The Committee has been a very active committee for twenty-six years. You have in your printed report a list of the publications of this Committee. It has published sixteen since 1911 and of these, ten are in use at the present time, being constantly distributed. I will not list these but I would like to call your attention to the fact that the Com¬ mittee has issued two new reports this year: the report on open air classrooms — ex¬ tending their benefits to all; and the report on home and school cooperation for the health of school children. The Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education is striving earnestly to give constructive service in proposing optimum essentials, in clarifying health pro¬ cedures, in conducting special studies, preparing reports, and disseminating knowl¬ edge for conserving and improving the health of school children and of teachers. Cooperation of national groups and organizations has been, and continues to be, indispensable to progress in our Joint Committee program. Such constructive and sub¬ stantial cooperation is being given to our Joint Committee in generous measure. For all of this splendid help our Joint Committee is deeply grateful. To continue the work of the Committee, and to provide for carrying thru and com¬ pleting the projects which have been approved by the Committee after careful de¬ liberation, the Committee expresses the hope that an appropriation of $500 for the work of the Committee during the coming year, 1937-38, will be approved and granted by the National Education Association, with the expectation that, as has been the custom for many years, an equal sum will be made available by the Amer¬ ican Medical Association for the expenses of the Joint Health Committee. Miss Adair: Mr. Chairman, I move the adoption of the report. President Pratt: The motion is made for the adoption of the report. Is there a second ? A. C. Olson (Oregon) : Seconded. President Pratt: It has been moved and seconded that the report of the Committee on Health Problems in Education be adopted. Are you ready for the question? (Motion carried.) (The report is printed on page 854 of this volume.) President Pratt: Next we shall have the report of the Committee on the Economic Status of the Rural Teacher, the report to be given by Kate V. Wofford, of the State Teachers College, Buffalo, New York. Miss Wofford does not seem to be here. Next will be the report of the Committee To Cooperate with the National Asso¬ ciation of Teachers in Colored Schools, Mr. Wilkinson presenting the report, in the absence of Mr. Neivbold, the chairman. Mr. Garnet C. Wilkinson (District of Columbia) : N. C. Newbold, director of the division of Negro education, Raleigh, North Carolina, chairman of the Committee To Cooperate wTith the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools, sub¬ mits the report of the Committee. This Committee, for reasons for which time need not now be taken to explain, has not been able to hold a satisfactory meeting this year; but we desire to offer the report as one of progress. Associational Records and Information 771 (Mr. W ilkirison read the report which is printed on page 846 of this volume.) Mr. Nevubold submits further the action of his Committee at a meeting February 12, 1937: Resolved, That the Executive Committee of the Department of Superintendence of the N. E. A. be requested to adopt as a fixed policy of that body, that future meetings of the Department of Superintendence of the N. E. A. be held only in cities where all members of the N. E. A. and the Department of Superintendence may attend all meetings of the Department of Superintendence and its various subdivisions without any restriction or reservation whatsoever. Resolved, Further, That these resolutions be communicated to the proper officers and committees of the N. E. A. and the Department of Superintendence, and that the Executive Committee be requested to present this resolution on the floor of the Department of Superintendence meeting at the appropriate time, in case the Executive Committee finds itself unable to give the assurances requested. Mr. Chairman, I move the adoption of this report. (Seconded by Mrs. Ethel Harris Grubbs, of the District of Columbia.) President Pratt: A motion to adopt the report of the Committee To Cooperate with the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools has been made and seconded. Are you ready for the question? Those favoring the adoption of the report, indicate by saying “aye”; those opposed, “no.” (Motion carried and the report adopted.) We shall take up next the report of the Educational Policies Commission, this report to be made by Mr. Sutton, of Georgia. Mr. Willis A. Sutton (Georgia) : Mr. Chairman, the Educational Policies Com¬ mission is very happy to report to the National Education Association some, and as many as possible, of its activities. It will be impossible, within the time limit, to give you a complete survey of this Commission’s activities. This Commission was appointed by the National Education Association and the then Department of Superintendence. It is composed of those whom the executive committees of these organizations designated. Its personnel is as follows: Appointed members: Cornelia S. Adair, Lotus D. Coffman, George S. Counts, J. C. Edmonson, Frederick M. Hunter, Charles H. Judd, John K. Norton, Agnes Samuelson, John A. Sexson, Payson Smith, A. J. Stoddard, George D. Strayer, Willis A. Sutton; ex-officio members: Willard E. Givens, Charles B. Glenn, Orville C. Pratt, S. D. Shankland, Albert M. Shavu; advisory members: J. W. Studebaker and George F. Zook. (Mr. Sutton read the report which appears on page 849 of this volume.) President Pratt: This, I think, we will accept as a report of progress by the Educational Policies Commission, without formal adoption. We shall have next the report of the Committee on Equal Opportunity, the report to be given by Miss Mallory, chairman of the Committee. Miss Gertrude Mallory (California) : Mr. Chairman, the report is in printed form. I shall make some very brief statements and read a paragraph or two which do not appear in the published copy. The Committee was organized in 1935. The 1936 report brought to the attention of the National Education Association that there is a distinct and serious problem to be solved — that of equal opportunity. Experience of the first year convinced the Committee that a program of education was necessarily its first work. The question of equal opportunity, of discrimination, of women’s rights, not to mention the Equal Rights Amendment, and now the Women’s Charter, has apparently received little attention. We have tried to suggest the scope of the Committee and to formulate a definition. We believe that democracy is a way of living that will permit individuals equal opportunity for experience which will develop their varying abilities. Accordingly, democracy itself means that each individual shall have the right to enjoy political, economic, and social equality limited only by his abilities and capacities. How are we to arrive at the goal of equal opportunity for all? To some the Equal Rights Amendment is the answer: “Section 1. Men and women shall have equal rights thruout the United States and every place subject to its jurisdiction. Section 2. 772 National Education Association Congress shall have the power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.” The argument for it is contained in the statement itself — that men and women shall have equal rights in our country. What are some of the inequalities? One city not far away pays its women teachers $40 less per month than its men teachers. States and cities can be named that make marriage a barrier against women working for wTages. Witness the appointment of a man as president of a woman’s college that has always had women for presidents. Note that few teachers, men or women, are ever members of commissions or boards that have to do with community affairs. We have tried to follow the advice of the Educational Policies Commission in its recommendations as to how to proceed for the protection of members. We do not expect to become an investigating committee but rather to stress the education of the public to the rights of the teacher and to show that the recognition of these rights is in the interest of public welfare and effective education. And then we have sum¬ marized, and asked for a small budget appropriation. One further addition: the program recommended for next year is to be one of intensive study; to publish a bulletin that will answer the question, “What is equal opportunity? and how shall it be accomplished?” The second statement I wish to make is that at the Portland Convention several of the delegates asked the California delegation if they would send them some information. The pamphlet on justice that is now being distributed is the work of a committee of Los Angeles women. I move the adoption of this report. (The report is printed on page 852 of this volume.) President Pratt: Miss Mallory moves the adoption of the report. Is there a second? Mr. George Skewes (North Dakota) : Seconded. (The motion carried.) President Pratt: Next we shall call for the report of the National Council on Teacher Retirement of the National Education Association, this report to be given by Mr. Allen, the chairman of the Committee. Mr. T. T. Allen (Pennsylvania) : Mr. Chairman, because of the importance of the establishment and successful operation of sound teacher retirement systems in the United States, as emphasized so forcefully on Monday by the president and the secretary of this Association, it is a real pleasure and a privilege for me to report regarding the activities of the new National Council on Teacher Retirement, which, tho it may seem paradoxical, is the infant department of the National Education Association, the National Council on Teacher Retirement having actually come into existence on Wednesday, February 24, 1937. As you know, the National Education Association had for several years supported a Committee on Retirement Allowances, sometimes called the Committee of One Hundred. Under direction of this Committee, the Research Division from time to time published pamphlets to keep the profession informed as to the progress of retire¬ ment matters thruout the United States. Meetings of the Committee were held at the time of the annual meeting and at the time of the meeting of the then Depart¬ ment of Superintendence. In 1924 a meeting of officers of going retirement systems was held in Chicago and it was decided to make the organization a permanent one, thereafter to be known as the National Council of Teachers’ Retirement Systems. This body has met annually ever since and beginning with 1926 has published reports of its meetings. As early as 1927 suggestion wras made that this body and the Committee of One Hundred combine their efforts and annually thereafter the two bodies have met at luncheon and worked together in the most friendly spirit. At a meeting held in St. Louis in 1936, a motion was adopted looking toward the permanent consolidation of the two bodies and a committee was appointed to effect the arrangements, and an agreement for the purpose of uniting the National Education Association’s Committee on Retire¬ ment Allowances (the so-called Committee of One Hundred) and the National Coun¬ cil of Teachers’ Retirement Systems was formulated. This agreement was formally approved by the Executive Committee of the National Education Association on Saturday, December 12, 1936, and was also approved by the National Council of Associational Records and Information 773 Teachers’ Retirement Systems on Tuesday, February 23, 1937. The reorganization combining the two groups was finally effected on Wednesday, February 24, 1937, and now constitutes the new National Council on Teacher Retirement of the National Education Association. The purposes of the new Council may be stated briefly as an attempt to continue the work of the old National Council and also the work of the old Committee of One Hundred. Officials of going retirement systems have met year after year to discuss the problems of administering their various systems. The new Council will become a clearing-house for all retirement information. Requests for help and assistance can be addressed to the Council at the headquarters of the National Education Association and these requests will always be relayed to the proper parties. I want to call your attention to the Research Bulletin of the National Education Association, issued under date of May 1937, the subject of which is “Teacher Retire¬ ment Systems and Social Security.” We would comment briefly upon the influence of the Social Security Act as it affects the development of sound teacher retirement sys¬ tems in those states in which there are none. Fear has been expressed that some may reduce their efforts toward the establishment of such systems. However, it would seem that the opposite should be true. However, it does seem that the existence of the Social Security Act means that we no longer have to fight alone in trying to bring about the better understanding on the part of the public. Officials of the Social Security Board have expressed the opinion that among the most likely and most immediate results of the development of interest in problems of Social Security will be a rapid growth in the number of teacher retirement systems. Only about 65 percent of all of the teachers of the nation are included in such systems. It is toward this end that all the efforts of your National Council wfill be aggressively directed this coming year. Miss Adair: I move the adoption of tke report. Daisy Brown (Minnesota) : Seconded. (The motion carried.) President Pratt: Next is the report of the Joint Committee of the National Educa¬ tion Association and the National Congress of Parents and Teachers. In the absence of Mrs. Langworthy, the chairman, this report will be given by Mr. Bristow, general secretary, N. C. P. T. Mr. William H. Bristow (Washington, D. C.) : This report is made as the result of two committee meetings on the part of the Joint Committee of the National Educa¬ tion Association and the National Congress of Parents and Teachers. The Committee, wrhich is composed of representatives of both organizations, has given much consideration to the problem of relationships between parents and teach¬ ers, parent-teacher associations, and education. The Committee has given particular consideration this year to the need of parents to understand education, their need to understand and appreciate the problems of teachers and problems of education. In behalf of the Committee, this report is being submitted by the chairman, Mrs. Langworthy , with the hope that the report may serve as a basis for future delibera¬ tions. President Pratt: May we have a motion on this report? Miss Annie C. Woodward (Massachusetts) : I move its adoption. Miss Agnes Samuelson (Iowa): Seconded. (The motion was carried. The report is printed on page 864 of this volume.) President Pratt: We are ready now to take up the matter of balloting left over from yesterday, and in the interest of economy of time, I ask the unanimous consent that the debate on the question be limited to twro speakers, one presenting the one point of view and the other presenting the other. If this should be done, Mr. Shaw will open the debate for seven minutes and Mr. Saunders will have a period of ten minutes and then Mr. Shaw will close wdth three minutes. May we have unanimous consent to present the matter in this way? Hearing no objection - The New York D elegation: No. Mr. W. A. Walls (Ohio) : I move that we accept this recommendation that has been worked out. 774 National Education Association Mr. M. D. Collins (Georgia) : Seconded. President Pratt: It has been moved and seconded that we accept this recommenda¬ tion that has been worked out. I am told by the parliamentarian that this can be done by a two-thirds vote. Delegates: No! President Pratt: Call the roll, Mr. Secretary. Mrs. Johanna M. Lindlof (New York): A point of procedure! I believe that any motion put before the house is entitled to discussion before the vote is called for. President Pratt: If you wish the plan to be carried out, as explained twice already, you vote “yes”; if you do not wish it to be carried out. you note “no.” We are voting now simply on the plan. We are not debating the merits of the proposition. It re¬ quires a two-thirds vote to carry. Mrs. Bridget C. Peixotto (New York) : May I ask what will happen if a state delegation is not unanimous? President Pratt: The same thing happens that always happens — how many in favor and how many not in favor. Mrs. Peixotto: Do we merely report numbers and not “yeses” and “noes.” President Pratt: You report numbers, and “yeses” and “noes.” Secretary Givens: You understand that on this roll call you are voting “yes” or “no” and voting by state delegations and voting only those present. Alabama? (Alabama announced its vote: yes, 11; no, 0.) President Pratt: Mrs. Lindlof. lilrs. Lindlof: May we have time to canvass our state delegations? President Pratt: We shall be glad to give a recess for that purpose. (Recess.) President Pratt: The roll call will now proceed. Secretary Givens: I will now call the rolL Alabama — 11 yes, 0 no; Alaska — 3 yes, 0 no; Arizona — 10 yes, 0 no; Arkansas — 1 yes, 0 no; California — 100 yes, 4 no; Colo¬ rado — 27 yes, 0 no; Connecticut — 14 yes, 0 no; Delaware — 2 yes, 0 no; District of Columbia — 9 yes, 0 no; Florida — 1 yes, 0 no; Georgia — 7 yes, 0 no; Hawaii — 21 yes, 0 no; Idaho — 5 yes, 0 no; Illinois — 57 yes, 0 no; Indiana — 10 yes, 0 no; Iowa — 25 yes, 0 no; Kansas — 12 yes, 0 no; Kentucky — 6 yes, 0 no; Louisiana — 7 yes, 0 no; Maine — 13 yes, 0 no; Maryland — 1 yes, 0 no; Massachusetts — 18 yes, 1 no; Michi¬ gan — 57 yes, 0 no; Minnesota — 35 yes, 0 no; Mississippi — 5 yes, 0 no; Missouri — 27 yes, 0 no; Montana — 5 yes, 0 no; Nebraska — 7 yes, 0 no; Nevada — 0 yes, 5 no; New Hampshire — 1 yes, 0 no; New Jersey — 33 yes, 0 no; New Mexico — 3 yes, 0 no; New York — 11 yes, 27 no; North Carolina — 2 yes, 0 no; North Dakota — 1 yes, 0 no; Ohio — 74 yes, 0 no; Oklahoma — 17 yes, 0 no; Oregon — 22 yes, 0 no; Pennsylvania — 62 yes, 0 no; Rhode Island — 2 yes, 0 no; South Carolina — 0 yes, 2 no; South Dakota — 6 yes, 0 no;Tennessee — 5 yes; 0 no; Texas — 22 yes, 0 no; Utah — 14 yes, 0 no; Vermont — 7 yes, 0 no; Virginia — 16 yes, 0 no; Washington — 29 yes, 3 no; West Vir¬ ginia — 13 yes, 0 no; Wisconsin — 32 yes, 3 no; Wyoming — 2 yes, 0 no. President Pratt: The vote was 915, yes; 45, no. Two-thirds of the votes having been in the affirmative, the plan is adopted. In carrying out the plan, Mr. Shaw speaks first for seven minutes. Mr. Shaw: The issue before you is whether or not we shall amend Article II, Sec¬ tion 1 (b). The Committee on Reorganization recommended certain changes in that section or paragraph which deals with the set-up of the Board of Directors. The pro¬ posal was made to amend the report of the Committee on Reorganization by adding a provision which was adopted yesterday by the Representative Assembly. Now, in presenting the matter, to clarify exactly what is before us, I should like to call your attention to the fact that since 1906 we have had a charter, a constitution, and a set of bylaws. The charter and the constitution, however, were identical when the amendment passed in 1920. It became necessary for the Association to consider how it would handle that amendment to the charter and it was accepted as an amendment to the charter and adopted as an amendment to the Constitution, so again the two were identical. When we came to this year, on June 14, the President of the United States signed the bill providing for amendments to the charter, thereby making them effective at once as amendments to the charter. Associational Records and Information 775 The adoption on Tuesday morning of this week of those amendments to the con¬ stitution as well as accepting them as amendments to the charter, make them effective as a part of our constitution. At the present time the interpretation of the attorney, of the parliamentarian, and by the action yesterday of this house itself, recognizes that the provisions for life directors of the National Education Association — please note I have left off the syllable “al” — are not provided for in either charter or con¬ stitution and bylaws, and, therefore, so far as those three articles or groups of articles are concerned, they are non-existent. The very fact that a motion was pre¬ sented to the report that our past presidents should be made life directors is an indi¬ cation of recognition of that situation. The issue, then, that you have before you is, what you wish to do with that par¬ ticular resolution. When I was first called into this particular work in 1934-, I was present at Washington where the Representative Assembly, by an overwhelming vote, voted to remove from the Representative Assembly as delegates a large number of ex officios including life directors. By a special and separate motion they moved that steps be taken as far as legally possible to amend the charter so that the ex-officio life directors, including past presidents and past United States Commissioners of Education, be eliminated from our Board of Directors. This was approved in substance at the Denver convention by the Representative Assembly and again by the Portland convention Representative Assembly. I believe, therefore, that anything in the way of a motion of this character is a step in oppo¬ sition to the action taken by those three Representative Assemblies and, in effect, your action taken here the first morning. I do not believe it is necessary for me to reread into the record today the opinion read yesterday from the attorney and the quotation read into the record from Robert’s Rules of Order, and yet there is one sentence which I believe I should read in at this time : “A society can amend its constitution and bylaws so as to affect the emoluments and duties of officers already elected, or even to do away with the office altogether.” And life directors are listed as directors in the old charter and in the old constitution. “If it is desired that the amendment should not affect officers already elected, a motion to that effect should be adopted before voting on the amendment; or the motion to amend could have added to it the proviso that it should not affect officers already elected.” Please note the next: “There is something in the nature of a contract between a society and its officers which either one can modify to some extent, or even termi¬ nate. . . .” Now, it seems to me that in all the talk I heard at those various Repre¬ sentative Assemblies in favor of this proposal, there was one big issue in mind, namely, the good of the Association and how we could bring in the 800,000 who were not members. I should like you, in considering this matter, to imagine yourselves as members of a membership committee facing a group and having someone in that group ask, “How do you explain a set-up where a large number of ex officios have such a prominent place in an organization as they will if you say ‘yes’ to this amend¬ ment?” I, therefore, feel that much as I love and admire our past presidents as such, I feel the best good of the Association will be met when you vote “no” on this pro¬ posal and thereby help to enable us to satisfy such inquiries from prospective mem¬ bers. President Pratt: Mr. Saunders will now have ten minutes. Mr. Saunders: In order to see exactly what we are doing, I shall take a minute or two to rehearse the history which has partially been given to you and in order that you may prove everything I say to you, I would like you to refer to your Delegates Manual on the first proposition where the charter adopted in 1907 by this Representative Assembly as its constitution, set up a Board of Directors, and in that charter, it is stated that “The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former presidents of the said Association now living, and all future presidents of the Association hereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be members of the Board of Directors for life.” Then, if you will look at the point where we have amendments to the charter, you will find this statement: “That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or 776 National Education Association modify this act of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired.” I want you to remember that as I go along. In Washington three years ago we removed from this Representative Assembly all of these past presidents and a great many other ex-officio delegates and all the good done, as far as I can see, is that we deprived some states of one vote and many of more than one vote. And then we amended this charter the other day, accepted the amended charter which left out these life directors from the charter. Now, formerly, they were not in the bylaws because they were in the charter. In order then to maintain this provision of Section 11 of the old charter guaranteeing this right, we must now incorporate them in the bylaws and your vote yesterday of some six hundred to some four hundred, shows you intend that right once granted by this Association to be maintained. Formerly they were in the charter. Now they are out of the charter. Formerly they were not in the bylaws. Now we shall vote them back into the bylaws so we shall keep faith with the promises we have made. It affects only twenty-two individuals. It cannot affect anybody in the future. It affects twenty-two who have given a year of their life without any compensation. You are willing to concede three people who paid $100 the privilege of remaining on the Board of Directors but these men and women who have given a year of their time, which service is worth $10,000, are not equal to those three who have paid $100. You heard the opinion of the attorney. May I say that is the opinion of the attorney and is not a court decision. His opinion was on vested rights, a question I raised at the Denver convention — life members and not life directors. Life members have not any vested right but have an individual guarantee to them by the section of the charter I read to you. And, outside of all legal right, the moral right still remains. Is this great National Education Association willing to repudiate its moral obli¬ gations even tho it has the legal right? I do not believe as teachers and as leaders of the moral life of this nation that you are willing to put yourselves in any such position. What I say to you is let us settle this question now and for all ! Let us get away from this bickering and devote our time to improvement of education for the benefit of our children. And so, this morning I appeal to you to put in the bylaws this provision which will keep faith with these people and with ourselves and when this ballot is handed to you, I hope you will vote “yes.” It will take a two-thirds’ vote to carry. If you believe we have a moral obligation, regardless of the legal obliga¬ tion, put a check in the corner where it says “yes.” President Pratt: Mr. Shaw will close the debate within the three-minute period. Mr. Shaw: Mr. Chairman, I should like to clear first the question of what we con¬ cede. We concede that the matter of the charter is a matter of law and that an at¬ torney, selected by the Executive Committee, who advises the Association should be followed so far as advice is concerned. He has advised that the three who paid $100 each must be retained as life directors and he has advised that the Association may thru its bylaws revise its set-up of the Board of Directors in whatever way it may see fit. On the question of moral obligation, I heartily join in feeling and asking you to join in feeling they are most respected and we are indebted to our past presidents as past presidents, and I ask you also in the moral obligation to the teaching profession of America to face this issue and decide which is best for the upbuilding of our Association in getting additional members, in solidifying the profession of the coun¬ try and eliminating one of the issues in our set-up which opens us to the attacks of our rivals — if I may put that specifically and openly! And, I feel just one additional thing should be said, as a repetition of what I said before, and that is that three Representative Assemblies, not one, have passed upon this thing and have indicated their belief as to the ultimate outcome of what it should be. There remains for you to exercise your judgment as to what is best for this Asso¬ ciation and I can only conclude with my own personal belief, with all due respect to my friends, the past presidents, that the vote should be “no.” Miss Frances Jelinek (Wisconsin) : Mr. Chairman, I request that the opinion of the attorney be read to us so that we may refresh our memories. Associational Records and Information 777 President Pratt: A request has been made that the opinion of the attorney referred to be read. Will the secretary read that opinion? Mr. Walls: To save time, may we have the part of the opinion that has to do with this question and not the entire thing again? President Pratt: The only part that would need to be read here is the part that has some application here. Secretary Givens: “The present bylaws of the Association are not inconsistent with the charter as amended or any general statute. “Past presidents have no vested right in the office of director. ‘The term “vested rights” relates to property rights only, and does not apply to personal rights.’ 12 C. J. 956 (Constitutional Law, Section 485). The courts in deciding questions involv¬ ing amendments to charters have based their decisions on property rights, not per¬ sonal rights. Most of the cases have arisen where it has been contended that a state statute amending the charter of a private corporation impaired the obligation of a contract, in violation of the constitutional provision that no state shall pass any ‘law impairing the obligation of a contract.’ But the prohibition of the federal Constitu¬ tion against laws impairing the obligations of contracts does not apply to the United States. Congress may therefore enact any legislation by way of an amendment to one of its charters which does not violate the rule that property acquired under operation of the charter cannot be taken away. The plan of eliminating life directors from the Association by the proposed amendment to the charter does not in any way affect the ownership of property.” Miss Florence Hale (New York) : Mr. Chairman, may I ask a question of Mr. Givens thru you ? President Pratt: Yes. Miss Hale: Referring to the letter Mr. Givens read, did the attorney who wrote that letter see my certificate? Secretary Givens: He did not. Miss Hale: To your knowledge, was that attorney ever aware of the existence of such document? Secretary Givens: No. Miss Hale: Then that opinion was based on incomplete and insufficient knowledge 1 Delegates: Out of order! President Pratt: We will now proceed with the balloting. The secretary will ex¬ plain the procedure. Secretary Givens: In order that we may save time in this balloting, I am going to ask the same people who served as tellers yesterday, to please serve again today. If they are not present, will the state delegations whom I call, name somebody in their place ? Also, we will take the same layouts by divisions we took yesterday, but ask that the tellers who pass out these ballots give no vote to anyone unless that individual has his delegate ribbon. Delegate: Instead of the delegate ribbon, may a delegate card be presented? Secretary Givens: Yes. President Pratt: We are asking that the directors see that no one except those who are known to be delegates, with a card or a badge, vote. We will now have a ten- minute recess. (Recess.) Secretary Givens: In addition to the official committee of five, the president has asked the states that have candidates for offices on the Executive Committee, to give me the name now, if they will, of the one they wish to have serve as teller on that special committee. I will read the states that have candidates for the Executive Committee: Ohio — Earl F. Bopp; Minnesota — Walter M. Englund; Oklahoma — Elizabeth Traut- man; Pennsylvania — William Laramy ; Michigan — Jesse McCallum ; Indiana — Paul Hartley; Illinois — Susan Scully. President Pratt: We will now have a five-minute stunt, to be put on by the Pennsyl¬ vania delegation. 778 National Education Association Mr. Charles F. Maxwell (Pennsylvania) : I have the privilege and the honor to present to you Mary B. McAndrew, of Carbondale, vicepresident of the Pennsylvania State Education Association, who will present this program. Miss Mary B. McAndrew (Pennsylvania): Pennsylvania has delegated me to come to the platform this morning and extend to you a cordial invitation to be our guests in Pennsylvania for this annual convention next year. We feel there are many reasons why you should come to Pennsylvania. The National Education Association was organized in Pennsylvania in 1857. The Department of Superintendence of that organization was organized there in 1865. Pennsylvania has the largest state organ¬ ization of teachers in the United States of America, over 63,000 of us. Pennsylvania has the largest enrolment in the National Education Association — 20,000 of us. Pennsylvania has enacted into law more legislation that means something to the social welfare of teachers than has any other state in the Union. Many of you know about our retirement law, and you know about our minimum salary law, but in the last session of the legislature, under the leadership of the Governor of Pennsylvania, and our very capable superintendent of public instruction, who worked with our state organization, we have succeeded in having now enacted into law the greatest tenure law, perhaps, that has ever been enacted in the United States. In addition to that we did not like the minimum salary for the teachers in the small boroughs and in the rural districts, so we enacted into law something that would give them a greater minimum salary and annual increments like the other teachers of Pennsyl¬ vania have. We have just enacted into law a sabbatical leave, so we feel now that there is every reason for us to rejoice, and we would love to have you come to Pennsylvania and rejoice with us next year. The city that wishes you to be their guests is Pittsburgh. Have you ever been to Pittsburgh? If you have not, then you have missed one of the great opportunities of a lifetime. When you go there, they say it with orchids. I know — I have been there during 1936 on several occasions, and when they were so generous with these rare and beautiful and refined flowers, I have said to myself and to them that these orchids remind me of the culture and the beauty that is Pittsburgh’s. That cathedral of learning, reaching to the skies, that city, the only city where the annual art exhibit of the world takes place; that city — why, I could go on and talk about that city for the next hour, but time forbids. Now, I am not from Pitts¬ burgh. I am farther away from Pittsburgh than you who live in West Virginia and Ohio. I live in the northeast section of Pennsylvania, four hundred miles away, but I have been to Pittsburgh, and I have caught their spirit as others have, and it has been that spirit that has helped us in Pennsylvania to step forward in a way of which we are so proud. I want to say, too, that Pittsburgh has just dedicated to the great Stephen Collins Foster a memorial that cost almost a million dollars. It is the greatest memorial to a musician in America, Stephen Collins Foster, who was born there and who lies buried there, he who wrote, not for Pittsburgh, nor for Pennsylvania nor for America, but for the world! We have asked the Foster Quartette to come this morning and give to you two songs, “My Old Kentucky Home,” and “Swanee River,” to put you in mind of that warmth and sentiment and beauty that is Pittsburgh’s. Won’t you come to Pittsburgh next year? (Songs by Foster Quartette.) Miss McAndrew: That typifies the warmth and sentiment that is Pittsburgh’s. Thank you. We hope to meet you in Pittsburgh next year. President Pratt: We wish to thank Pittsburgh for this welcome intermission which has relieved the tension a little. We will proceed now with the matter of reports. I am going to suggest something which may or may not meet with your approval. That is what we want to find out. These reports are in printed form and available. I should like to ask for unanimous consent to dispense with the formal reading of the reports, leaving it to the chairman to present such highlights as the chairman may wish to present orally. Do I have unanimous consent for that procedure? Hearing no objection, you have given unani¬ mous consent and we will proceed in that way. Associational Records and Information 779 Miss Batchelder, of Chicago, will comment on the report of the Joint Committee of the National Education Association and the American Library Association. Miss Mildred Batchelder (Illinois) : This Committee, made up of five members of the National Education Association and of five members of the American Library Association, has endeavored by various methods to interpret the activities of each Association to the other. The interpretation has been especially concerned this past year with a better understanding of school libraries — of their contribution to the educational program, and of factors essential to their satisfactory functioning. The Committee invites you to our booth to see the evidence of some of its work this year. Since you hold the printed report, I merely present the report to you as printed. This I do in the name of the chairman, Margaret R. Greer , of the Joint Committee. {Mr. Williams, of Indianapolis, moved the report be adopted. Seconded by Mr. Rushing.) President Pratt: It has been moved and seconded that the report be adopted. Those favoring the adoption of the report, signify by saying “aye.” (Motion carried.) (The report is printed on page 862 of this volume.) Mr. Erickson: As chairman of the Tellers Committee, I want to report that the method of counting the ballots was the same as that used yesterday. The Tellers Committee wishes to announce the following results: yes, 467; no, 585 ; disqualified votes, 5. A total of 1049 votes was cast. President Pratt: The motion is lost. Mr. Shaw: Air. Chairman, I ask unanimous consent at this time to bring out a point made yesterday where there is a little inconsistency between two sections of the bylaws. (“No,” from the audience.) President Pratt: Are you willing to give unanimous consent? I have heard some expressions of “no.” Mr. Shaw: I rise to a point of personal privilege. There is a serious point here that can be stated very quickly and I hope will bring the withdrawal of those who said “no.” Yesterday you adopted a bylaw that provided for a three-year term for the Board of Directors. Your rejection of this amendment this morning reads back into that section that they are elected for one year. I wish to make the proposal and ask the unanimous adoption which will make the two parts consistent. May I have unanimous consent? President Pratt: Is there unanimous consent to remove this inconsistency? Hearing no objection, unanimous consent is given. Mr. Shaw: Then I move that Article II, Section 1 (b) of the bylaws be amended by striking out the words “the active members for the term of one year” and inserting in lieu thereof the words “the Representative Assembly for the term of three years” so that the paragraph will read as follows: The Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Yicepresident, the Executive Secretary, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees; and one additional member from each State, Territory, or District to be elected by the Representative Assembly for the term of three years or until their succes¬ sors are chosen, and of all Life Directors of the National Education Association. Moved by myself, and seconded by Dr. Taylor. President Pratt: May we have unanimous consent to adopt this motion? Hearing no objection, the motion is adopted by unanimous consent. Air. John R. Rushing (Washington) : In the interest of harmony and good feeling. I want to offer a motion at this time, that we designate the past presidents, including the one now retiring, as honorary directors of this organization, of course, inactive. I offer that as a motion, Mr. Chairman. (Seconded by L. D. Golson, of South Carolina.) President Pratt: The motion is that the past presidents be named as honorary direc¬ tors of the Association but inactive. It will require a majority vote for this to be done. Is there any discussion? As many as favor the motion please signify by saying 780 National Education Association Mr. Walls: We have indicated by our vote that we are thoroly against it. I move the motion be laid on the table. (The motion was seconded by Miss Jelinck.) Mr. Rushing: Mr. Chairman, I would like, with the consent of the one who seconded my motion, to withdraw it since there is opposition. President Pratt: If there is no objection, the motion is withdrawn. (Mr. Golson, the seconder of the motion, agreed.) President Pratt: The next Committee is the Committee on Necrology, H. V. T empel, of Kentucky, chairman. (Mr. T empel read the report of the Necrology Committee, after which the audi¬ ence stood in silence for one minute. The report is printed on page 881 of this volume.) Mr. T empel: Mr. Chairman, I move that the report be adopted. (Seconded by Mr. Cram.) President Pratt: All in favor of adopting the report just read by Mr. T empel, signify by saying “aye.” (Report adopted.) President Pratt: Next is the report of the Committee on Resolutions, which will be given by Mr. Hunt, the Chairman. Mr. R. L. Hunt (South Dakota) : I am not going to refer to any particular parts of this report except to call your attention to one grammatical error in the printed report: “s” should be omitted from “stands,” in paragraph 7, and under “Red Rider,” it should be “the National Education Association,” instead of “Education#/.” Mr. Chairman, I move the adoption of this report. (Seconded by Robert C. Keenan, of Illinois.) President Pratt: Those favoring the adoption of the report just presented by Mr. Hunt, signify by saying “aye.” (Report adopted.) (The report is printed on page 890 of this volume.) President Pratt: We will now have the report of the Board of Trustees. Mr. Joseph H. Saunders (Virginia) : The Financial Report contains an analysis of the Permanent Fund, which, you will note, consists of Cash on Hand, something over $4000; of Securities, stocks, and bonds, etc., $110,000, book value. That $110,000 worth of bonds is necessary for us to keep as a liquid asset because frequently when the money stops coming in in the spring in order to keep our staff operating, it is necessary to borrow from that, and this $110,000 enables us to borrow that money by hypothecating these securities. Next is Life Membership Notes, amounting to $175,000. That you cannot count on because, very frequently, the people die or lose their jobs and fail to pay. In this session of the Assembly we have had to write off more than $4000 worth of this asset. In the next asset, Real Estate, is $624,000 worth of real estate on which we owe $115,000, which leaves us $509,474.17, as that asset. That is on our headquarters property in Washington. We have just made an additional purchase there of $63,000, which gives us the whole plot, and on that there are two debts, one of $50,000 drawing 6 percent in¬ terest, and another of $65,000 on the main building, drawing 5 percent at present. Since we have been here in session, we have negotiated with the Penn Mutual of Philadelphia a new loan on that $115,000 which after it is reduced to $100,000 will draw only 4J4 percent. In addition to these assets, which total $850,952.85, we own an equity in our retire¬ ment fund, amounting to $51,085.81, which we do not set up as a permanent asset. Our present building is now entirely filled with our activities. We need further space so we have bought next door to us, a two-story brick garage building at a price of $63,167.50. This was offered to us before the depression at $110,000. The operating fund, which is not controlled by the Board of Trustees, except to safeguard it in the banks, is set up in the report also. I will call your attention to the fact that the $25,000 profit in the operating fund is not a balance that we can use, because it took $9000 of that to pay off last year’s loss. The remaining $16,000 of that is hypothecated for other activities. If you will notice in the report where it is set up in detail as to our earnings, the Board of Trustees collects from the Association to whom we rent the building, as Associational Records and Information 781 that is a part of the Permanent Fund, $43,000 for rent. But we turn our profits back to the Association, and we turned back to the Association $42,763.69, as profit on the Permanent Fund, and then the Association rented part of the building for over $8000, so they got $50,000 back for the $43,000 rent which they paid us. All thru the depression we have failed to set aside any depreciation on our build¬ ing. Good business men will tell you that a building of that type would ordinarily last satisfactorily about fifty years, and, therefore, 2 percent annually should be set aside for depreciation. We have only set aside in the whole history of the building the sum of $8000, less than 1 percent depreciation, and our auditors have called our attention to that, and while the depression was on they made no great point of it. Now that we are coming out of the depression they make a very strong plea that we should begin to be businesslike, and from now on set up this reserve. I move the adoption of this report. (Seconded by Miss Helen T. Collins, of Connecticut.) President Pratt: Those favoring the adoption of this report, please indicate by saying “aye.” (Report adopted.) (The report is printed on page 812 of this volume.) President Pratt: We have one report left over from yesterday. The chairman is not present. It is the report of the Committee on the Economic Status of the Rural Teacher. There is nothing controversial in the report. I think I should like to have a motion for its adoption. Mr. IV alls: I so move. (Seconded by Mr. Collins.) President Pratt: Those favoring the adoption of the report, please indicate by saying “aye.” (Report adopted.) (The report is printed on page 847 of this volume.) President Pratt: We will now have the report of the treasurer, Mr. Offenhauer. Mr. R. E. Offenhauer (Ohio) : This is a cash report, and I want to call your at¬ tention to just a few items, some of which Mr. Saunders has already mentioned. We received last year $366,306.94 for memberships. This is the big item of income, an item that we should give every attention to. We received for advertising, $46,334.68, quite a considerable offset to the cost of the Journal. We received for exhibits, $30,218.76. As Mr. Saunders has pointed out, we received from the Perma¬ nent Fund, $42,763.69. The next item, I think, is not generally understood. When field workers go out from the headquarters staff, they receive no honorarium for their work, from the headquarters staff. Their expenses are paid, and their services are free. If, thru the goodness of your heart you pay them, they turn the check in to the treasury at headquarters, and during the last year checks to the amount of $3431.69 were turned in as honorariums earned by the headquarters staff. Lastly, the Association does not use all the building, and the building is sub¬ rented by the Association to the extent of $8710.08. Mr. Chairman, I move the adoption of this report. (Seconded by Charles O. Williams.) President Pratt: Those favoring the adoption of this report, please indicate by saying “aye.” (Report adopted.) (The report is printed on page 832 of this volume.) President Pratt: Miss Lawson, chairman of the Audit Committee, will give the report of that Committee. Miss Willie Lawson (Arkansas) : For the first time, a woman turns back willingly four and a half minutes of the five minutes allotted to her to make a report. The Audit Committee has examined the financial report of the National Education Association for the fiscal year ended May 31, 1937, including (1) general accounts of the Association; (2) Permanent Funds; and (3) cash report of treasurer as certi¬ fied to by the auditing firm of Wayne, Kendrick & Company, and is satisfied that it is an exact statement of the financial condition of the Association. The Audit Commit¬ tee urges you to examine the financial statement. For those of us on the rim of thi* 782 National Education Association great educational wheel, it gives an expanding faith in the hub — our N. E. A. I move the adoption of the report. President Pratt: You have heard the report. Is there a second to the motion? (Re¬ port adopted.) President Pratt: The report of the Budget Committee, Miss Collins, chairman. Miss Helen T. Collins (Connecticut) : In presenting the report of the Budget Com¬ mittee, I am presenting the result of many hours of conscientious work of the Com¬ mittee and I should like to pay this tribute to them. Nobody is more conscious of the limitations of the budget than is the Budget Committee. We are also conscious of the fact that no budget is infallible. We present this with our best thought, and hope it will meet with your approval. On the first page, may I call to your attention: 1. Budget appropriations for 1937-38 are recommended for a total amount not exceeding income for 1936-37. 2. Appropriations recommended do not anticipate enlargement of Association activities beyond those of normal growth. 3. Appropriations for Divisions are based on elimination of present 5 percent salary deduction and restoration of normal salary schedule as of September 1, 1937. 4. Budget data in full detail was studied and discussed at meeting of Budget Committee in Washington, June 12. Before proceeding now to the budget report, may I report that our Committee considered the exigencies which exist and which Mr. Saunders called attention to on this platform. We must have an adequate reserve for depreciation on the head¬ quarters building and emergencies which will arise. However, in the last budget, no provision was made, and in discussing this matter with the Board of Directors, they came back with this recommendation which I think Mr. Cram is here to explain to you. Mr. Cram: Mr. Chairman, you have already had the explanation as given by Mr. Saunders and Miss Collins, either one of whom will be glad to answer ques¬ tions if you have any. You have read item five. Therefore, I wish to move for the Board of Directors that as early as possible the budget shall provide (1) for a surplus to meet possible emergencies forced upon the Association, such as the recent depression; and (2) that an adequate reserve for depreciation on the headquarters building be set up from year to year. Miss Collins : I second the motion. (Motion carried.) Miss Collins: Proceeding with the budget, we shall follow the procedure of the last several budgets and I shall ask the secretary to give you a detailed report, and we shall then be glad to answer any questions. ( Secretary Givens explained the report as requested. For full text, see printed report on page 834 of this volume.) Miss Collins: I move the adoption of the budget. Delegate from Delaware: Seconded. (Motion carried.) President Pratt: We have now only one item of business as far as I know, and that is under the head of New Business, and I wish to bring up one matter there which is of importance. We had this year a goal of 10 percent increase. This goal was undoubtedly of value in raising memberships. Do you not think it advisable that we again have a 10 percent goal, an increase for this coming year over the current year, the year just closing? If so, I would like to entertain a motion to that effect. Miss Birdine Merrill (Oregon) : I make a motion to that effect. Mr. L. E. Frazar (Louisiana) : Seconded. (Motion carried.) President Pratt: Are there any other items of New Business? Mr. Fred Bailey (Michigan) : I think we have a need in the National Education Association for a committee on credit unions and cooperatives. We know credit unions have grown tremendously and I think in the N. E. A. we should be interested Associational Records and Information 783 in them and assemble material for this purpose. Therefore, I want to make this motion that the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee take proper steps toward the establishing of credit unions and cooperatives, and that proper steps be taken to appoint such a committee this year. President Pratt: You have heard the motion that we appoint a committee on co¬ operatives and credit unions. Air. Tern pel: Seconded. President Pratt: Are you ready for the question? Mr. IV alls: Mr. Chairman, does that make it incumbent on the Executive Com¬ mittee to organize this year when there is no provision in the budget? President Pratt: The committee, I should think, might be organized and perhaps the Executive Committee can allot them some small amount. Mr. Keenan: Mr. Chairman, may we have the motion read again? Mr. Bailey: The motion is that the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee take proper steps toward the establishing of credit unions and cooperatives and that proper steps be taken to appoint such a committee this year. (Motion carried.) Air. Clyde R. Aliller (New York) : May I ask your permission to read a telegram received this morning, and to make a brief motion? The telegram is: Works Progress Administration has just discharged 30 percent of all workers on educational projects New York and I believe thru the nation. Dismissals destroy teaching and research projects of great value to millions of American school children. Also deprive thousands of jobless teachers of their positions. It is my suggestion — and I so move — that we send a communication to the President of the United States, approving the educational projects under WPA and expressing the hope that these projects will be restored. President Pratt: You have heard the motion. Is there a second? Airs. Lindlof: Seconded. President Pratt: The motion has been made and seconded that we express our approval of WPA projects and send a message to the President embodying that approval - Airs. Lindlof: And hoping for continuance of the work. President Pratt (Continuing) : And hoping for continuance of the work. Are you ready for the question? Those favoring the motion, please indicate my saying “aye”; those opposed, “no.” I am unable to determine the vote. May we have, a division? Those favoring the motion, please stand. Be seated. Those opposed, please stand. (The motion was carried.) President Pratt: Miss Jelinek has an item to bring before us, I understand. Miss Jelinek: Yesterday the Board of Directors, thru its spokesman, Mr. Cram, advised the Committee on Tenure not to give so much publicity to the question of cases and tenure. Now, we do not know just how much “so much” is. You know, Browning said, Oh, the little more, and how much it is And the little less, and how far away! If you do not approve of so much tenure publicity, do not applaud. But, if you do approve, let me hear it. Yesterday morning the tenure bill was passed in Wisconsin. (Applause.) President Pratt: Thank you, Miss Jelinek, for an item of interesting information of progress made. Miss Adair has an item to present. Miss Adair: Yesterday you adopted two amendments to facilitate the passage of the report of the Committee on Reorganization. One of these amendments dies with this Assembly but it is necessary to have unanimous consent to take it out of the bylaws: “That amendments to the bylaws proposed by the Committee on Reorganiza¬ tion may be adopted with or without amendment at the annual meeting of the Repre¬ sentative Assembly in 1937 by a two-thirds’ vote without previous notice.” I ask unanimous consent to strike it out of the bylaws since it is no longer operative. 784 National Education Association President Pratt:' Do we have unanimous consent to clarify the record? Hearing no objection, unanimous consent is given. (Announcements.) President Pratt: Is there any other item of new business that should come before us? If not, we are now adjourned. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary Orville C. Pratt, President Fourth Business Session, Thursday Evening, July 1, 1937 The fourth business session of the Representative Assembly convened in the M asonic Temple Auditorium following the general session of that evening. President Pratt: We shall now have the report of the Elections Committee by the chairman, Mr. Flora, who is also the N. E. A. state director for South Carolina. Mr. A. C. Flora (South Carolina) : I want to express my appreciation to you for your courtesy at the voting today when crowds were there and also my extreme appreciation to the members of this Committee for the work which they have done since 8 o’clock this morning. I shall not name the state directors because there was no contest, as you know, in the election and the list is too long to read. I shall name now the three members elected by you to the Executive Committee: Reuben T. Shaw of Pennsylvania, Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl of Minnesota, and David A. Van Buskirk of Michigan. Treas¬ urer — R. E. Offenhauer. No contest. Vicepresidents: Andrew Avery of Georgia, Evlyn Chasteen of California, J. J. Guenther of Nebraska, H. Claude Hardy of New York, Harley W . Holmes of Michigan, R. L. Hunt of South Dakota, Frank A. Jensen of Illinois, Daisy Lord of Connecticut, Raymond H. Snyder of Idaho, B. C. Tiff he of North Dakota, and N. Eliot Willis of Massachusetts. For president — Caroline S. Woodruff. President Pratt: It now becomes my happy duty to introduce to you your new president, Caroline S. Woodruff. Mr. L. E. Frazar (Louisiana) : We feel that the N. E. A. convention has elected a splendid person to head it for the 1938 session. To those who supported our candidate from Louisiana, we thank you most heartily. To those who saw fit to support Miss Jf'oodruff, we congratulate you on your selection. Miss Woodruff, on behalf of Miss Hinrichs, the charming lady from Louisiana whom we sSw fit to run, we present this little token with our sincere congratulations, and we pledge our full cooperation and support in your coming administration. (The convention arose and applauded as Mr. Frazar presented Miss Woodruff with a bouquet of flowers on behalf of the Louisiana delegation.) President Pratt: This gavel, Miss Woodruff, which I am now to present to you, you probably will not need to use very often but none the less it is the symbol of your authority. I rather think that some of the most knotty questions came up this year — I am sure I feel that way about it now — and I trust that with the aid of this gavel you will be able to keep control of the situation thruout the coming year. I know you have had experience on the Executive Committee and that you are not a stranger to the N. E. A., and I extend to you my very best wishes for a successful year as its president. President Caroline S. Woodruff (Vermont) : It is a solemn moment in the experi¬ ence of any person assuming the leadership of this great organization, the largest national body of educators on earth and the most significant group in many respects. I am deeply conscious of the signal honor you have bestowed upon me and the confidence you have reposed in me in choosing me as your representative for the coming year. The president of this great organization has no party constituency. He is the recognized choice of the group. It does not mean that he is the one person in this great body better fitted than any other to assume this position. Far from it. There are countless others who could occupy the position as well. It only signifies that circumstances have so shaped themselves that he is brought forward by his fellow workers as one in whom they place their confidence. Associational Records and Information 785 My conception of the function of the president of this Association may differ from yours. As I interpret the bylaws, he is not a police-maker or even a policy- director. Such a program, were it so construed, would be utterly impossible and in¬ effectual in one short year. The president may suggest and promote procedures, but he is the executive of the program promulgated by the organization thru the decisions and resolutions of its authorized organs — the directorate and the Representative Assembly. He is, in short, your representative on occasion. I come from that little state in a remote corner of America, one of the smallest in area and population but one that has played no mean part in the nation’s history. The state of Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain boys; of Justin S. Morrill, father of the land grant college; of Samuel Reed Hall, founder of the first normal school in America in 1823; of John Dewey, greatest living educational philosopher; and from the state of Calvin Coolidge. And I come from that section of the United States known as New England, cradle of the public school system of America; with Horace Mann, whose life educational America has been celebrating, and which was so graphically portrayed this afternoon; the land of Charles IV. Eliot; of Mary Lyon; and of Francis Parker. But I am here as a representative of no commonwealth, of no section of this country. I come as a representative of the public school. To this position I shall give my highest thought and effort during this coming year. California, Minne¬ sota, and Florida are as much the center of my thought and interest as Vermont. I I shall strive to be no unworthy representative of you who have placed me here. The National Education Association is facing a new day and I believe with all my heart, a better day, along with the social and industrial world. New conditions con¬ front us, commanding the best thought and judgment of every member. Questions are already arising that call for consummate wisdom on the part of its leaders. In this new day, the National Education Association must assume its part, a big part, in shaping the New America. In any organization of this magnitude there are, there will always be, widely differing opinions on many subjects. It should be so. That makes for democracy. But if we hold firm and unsullied the great objective of us all — the highest welfare of all the children in America, out of whom shall come a finer citizenry in this coming generation — our work will constitute a harmonious year of action, however widely we differ in procedures. And, may I here publicly express appreciation of the high professional attitude of my opponent, Miss Hinrichs of Louisiana, a strong woman whom I have come to know and with whom I have shared many courtesies these last few days. Mr. Pratt, you of the far West, and I, of the far East, have worked together side by side in the various committees of the N. E. A., and our relations have always been friendly. We turn to you tonight in appreciation of your constructive service this past year. The way will be easier for your successor because of your steadying hand. Again let me say, this is not an hour of triumph to the one on whom this leader¬ ship rests, but an hour of great solemnity, an hour of consecration to the interests of the highest educational position in the hands of the teachers of America to bestow. God give us wisdom and a balanced judgment in all our actions. Miss Elizabeth Murphy (Michigan) : Miss IV oodruff , these flowers are an ex¬ pression of the congratulations and best wishes of the Detroit Teachers Association. May you have every success as president of the National Education Association. Miss Amy Hinrichs (Louisiana) : I want to express to Miss Woodruff, as I have already done privately, my hearty and sincere congratulations and my pledge to work with her and all of our officers and all of you for the greatest upbuilding, the greatest service, the greatest growth in the name of the children of America, of this Association. Chairman Pratt: Now, may I extend to each and every one of you my very sincere and hearty appreciation for the cooperation and the help which you have given me thruout this year. The gavel now falls upon the end of the seventy-fifth anniversary session of this Association. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary Orville C. Pratt, President 786 National Education Association MINUTES OF THE MEETINGS OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS Detroit, Michigan Monday Afternoon, June 28, 1937 The meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Education Association con¬ vened at 2 p.m. in the Chapter Room of the Masonic Temple. The meeting was called to order by President Orville C. Pratt. Secretary Givens called the roll which showed the following present: State Directors: Alabama — J. D. Williams, Alaska — Everett R. Erickson, Ari¬ zona — T. G. Grieder, Arkansas — JV. E. Phipps, California — F. A. Henderson, Colo¬ rado — IF. B. Mooney, Connecticut — Helen T. Collins, Delaware — H. V. Holloway, District of Columbia — E. C. Higbie, Florida — absent, Georgia — M. D. Collins, Hawaii — absent, Idaho — JV. D. Vincent, Illinois — John JV . Thalman, Indiana — Charles O. JVilliams, Iowa — Fred D. Cram, Kansas — F. L. Schlagle, Kentucky — JVilliam S. Taylor, Louisiana — J. N. Poche, Maine — JVilliam B. Jack, Maryland — Eugene JV . Pruitt, Massachusetts — Annie C. JV oodward, Michigan — Grover Stout, Minnesota — Daisy Broken, Mississippi — H. V. Cooper, Missouri — Thomas J. JValker, Nebraska — George F. Knipprath, Nevada — J. R. JVarren, New Hampshire — Lyle JV. Ewing, New Jersey — Raymond B. Gurley, New York — H. Claude Hardy, North Carolina — absent, North Dakota — L. A. JVhite, Ohio — B. F. Stanton, Oklahoma — M. E. Hurst, Oregon — Austin Landreth, Pennsylvania — J. Herbert Kelley, Rhode Island — absent, South Carolina — A. C. Flora, South Dakota — N. E. Steele, Tennessee — iS. L. Ragsdale, Texas — Rush M. Caldwell, Utah — N. Howard Jensen, Vermont — Joseph JViggin, Virginia — Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Washington — Ernest JV. Campbell, West Virginia — JV. JV. Trent, Wisconsin — Amanda Schuette, Wyoming — H. H. Moyer. Past presidents: Cornelia S. Adair, Florence Hale, Carroll G. Pearse, Joseph Rosier, Henry Lester Smith, JVillis A. Sutton. Directors ex officio: Orville C. Pratt, president; Agnes Samuelson, first vicepresi¬ dent; Joseph H. Saunders, chairman, Board of Trustees; JVillard E. Givens, execu¬ tive secretary; R. E. Offcnhauer, treasurer; Samuel Parry, representing the Teachers Institute of Philadelphia. The question was raised as to the legality of past presidents meeting with the Board of Directors. President Pratt ruled that so far as this particular afternoon was concerned, these people had the right to vote. R. T. Shaw, chairman of the Committee on Amending the Charter, gave his re¬ port, stating that the bill to amend the charter had passed the Senate on February 11 and the House on June 7 and was signed by the President on June 14. JVilliam S. Taylor, chairman, presented the report of the Committee on Reorgani¬ zation of the N. E. A. He read thru the report and offered explanations before actual motions were considered. In Article X, “Amendments” under Chapter II, Mr. Cram suggested changing the word “these” to the word “the,” which would make that part of Section 1 (b) read: “provided, however, the bylaws. . . .” President Pratt asked for unanimous consent to accept Section 1 as it was altered together with the material dealing with Article I on “Membership.” It was so approved. Mr. Taylor moved the approval of Section 1, Article II, “Officers. ”Mr. Moe seconded the motion. Discussion followed on the advisability of a division of the United States into 12 districts for the election of vicepresidents. A vote on the ques¬ tion resulted in 22 affirmative votes and 24 negative votes. The motion was lost, thus deleting this section from the report. Section 3 under Board of Directors was moved for adoption by Mr. Taylor. Seconded by Mr. Stanton. Mr. Saunders amended the motion to include the clause “and of all past presidents whose term of office expires beyond July 3, 1937.” Miss JV oodward seconded the amendment. Carried. Mr. Taylor moved the approval of Section (f). Mr. Vincent seconded the motion. Carried. Associatioxal Records and Information 787 Mr. Taylor moved the approval of Section (g). The motion was seconded. After considerable discussion the motion was voted upon and lost. Mr. Taylor moved that Section 8, Article II, under “Qualifications of Delegates” be approved. Seconded by Mr. Stanton. Carried. Then followed unanimous disapproval of Sections 2, 3, and 4 under Article II, “Duties of Officers.” Motion was made by Mr. Taylor to approve Section 7 (a), Article III. Seconded by Mr. Moe. Mr. Saunders amended the section to include the phrase “when in ses¬ sion.” By unanimous consent the section was approved as amended. Motion was made by Mr. Taylor to approve Section 9 (b), Article III. Seconded by Mr. Walker. The motion was lost by a negative vote of 22, affirmative, 3. Mr. Taylor moved the approval of Section 2, Article X, as amended by Mr. Shaw. Seconded by Mr. Collins. Carried. Payson Smith, chairman, presented the report of the Committee on the Horace Mann Centennial Celebration. Harold A. Allan, business manager, presented two blanks to the Board of Direc¬ tors at this point in the meeting — one outlining proposals for the 1938 summer con¬ vention and the other the directors’ expense blanks. Henry Lester Smith, chairman, presented the report of the Committee on Academic Freedom. Cornelia S. Adair, chairman, presented the report on Bylaws and Rules. Annie C. Woodward, chairman, presented the report of the Committee on Inter¬ national Relations. Anne Whitney gave the report of the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education for the chairman, Thomas D. Wood, who was not present. Secretary Givens discussed with the Board of Directors the policy involved in duties, responsibilities, and obligations of the Department of Secondary School Principals and the Department of Secondary Education, calling on Ernest D. Lewis, president of the Department of Secondary Education, and Mr. Bacon, who spoke for M. G. Jones, president of the Department of Secondary School Principals, to state their views on the proposed changes. Mr. Law and Mr. Kelley voiced opinions regarding the matter. Mr. Mooney made a motion that the two departments con¬ cerned consult further with Secretary Givens and that the Board of Directors dis¬ pense with discussion on this matter. Seconded by Mr. Williams. Carried. The meeting adjourned at 4:45 p.m. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary Orville C. Pratt, President Tuesday Afternoon, June 29, 1937 The second meeting of the Board of Directors convened at 2:10 p.m., President Orville C. Pratt presiding. The following responded to roll call: State Directors: Alabama — J. D. Williams, Alaska — Everett R. Erickson, Arizona — T. G. Grieder, Arkansas — W . E. Phipps, California — F. A. Henderson, Colorado — W . B. Mooney, Connecticut — Helen T. Collins, Delaware — H. V. Holloway, Dis¬ trict of Columbia — E. C. Higbie, Florida — absent, Georgia — M. D. Collins, Hawaii — absent, Idaho — W. D. Vincent, Illinois, John W. T halman, Indiana — Charles 0. Williams, Iowa — Fred D. Cram, Kansas — F. L. Schlagle, Kentucky — William S. Taylor, Louisiana — J. K. Poche, Maine — William B. Jack, Maryland — Eugene W. Pruitt, Massachusetts — Annie C. W oodward, Michigan — Grover Stout, Minnesota — Daisy Brown, Mississippi — H. V. Cooper, Missouri — Thomas J. Walker, Nebraska — George F. Knipprath, Nevada — J. R. Warren, New Hampshire — Lyle W. Ewing, New Jersey — Raymond B. Gurley, New York — H. Claude Hardy, North Carolina — absent, North Dakota — L. A. White, Ohio — B. F. Stanton, Oklahoma — M. E. Hurst, Oregon — Austin Landreth, Pennsylvania — J. Herbert Kelley, Rhode Island — absent, South Carolina — A. C. Flora, South Dakota — N. E. Steele, Tennessee — S. L. Rags¬ dale, Texas — Rush M. Caldwell, Utah — N. Howard Jensen, Vermont — Joseph Wig- gin, Virginia — Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Washington — Ernest W. Campbell, West Vir¬ ginia — W. W. Trent, Wisconsin — Amanda Schuette, Wyoming — H. H. Moyer. 788 National Education Association Directors ex officio: Orville C. Pratt, president; Joseph H. Saunders, chairman, Board of Trustees; JVillard E. Givens, executive secretary; R. E. Offenhauer, treasurer; Samuel Parry, representing the Teachers Institute of Philadelphia. Mr. Cram moved that a secretary be appointed by the Board of Directors to pre¬ sent the point of view of the Board to the Representative Assembly. Mr. Jensen seconded the motion. Carried. A motion was passed to have Mr. Cram act in this capacity. Mr. Saunders discussed the Financial Report for the fiscal year ended May 31, 1937, and then moved the adoption of this report. Mr. Taylor seconded the motion. Carried. Mr. Sutton next reported on the Educational Policies Commission. Considerable attention was given the Beard report, Unique Function of Education in American Democracy. In the absence of the chairman of the Joint Committee of the N. E. A. and the A. L. A., Miss Batchelder presented the report. The Report of the Joint Committee of the N. E. A. and the N. C. P. T. was pre¬ sented by Mrs. B. F. Langworthy , chairman. President Pratt, at the request of Mrs. Langworthy , gave the N. C. P. T. permission to print this report. Mr. Collins moved the adoption of this report. Mr. Stanton seconded the motion. Carried. At this point, Mr. Allan made another request for expense accounts of directors. Helen T. Collins , chairman of the Budget Committee, asked Secretary Givens to discuss the budget with the Board of Directors, which he did. Mr. Law pointed out the need for a larger appropriation for the Department of Secondary Education. There was strong feeling that a depreciation fund should be set up at once. Mr. Saunders explained that this was to be done from money still on deposit in the Com¬ mercial National Bank. Mr. Mooney made a motion that the secretary make a state¬ ment regarding this depreciation and contingent fund in the final report of the Com¬ mittee. Seconded by Mr. Collins. Mr. Mooney accepted an amendment that this be presented orally to the Representative Assembly by Secretary Givens. The motion was seconded and carried. Mr. Saunders moved that the report of the Budget Com¬ mittee be accepted. Seconded by Mr. Law. Carried. Mr. Mooney introduced discussion of the action of the Board of Directors in the meetings of the Representative Assembly. He said: “I believe, if thru the Journal of the N. E. A., a chart showing the function of each body of the N. E. A. were in the hands of members before the convention, there would not be any question of duties.” Gertrude Mallory, chairman, presented the report of the Committee on Equal Opportunity. T. T. Allen, chairman, reported for the National Council on Teacher Retirement of the N. E. A. Donald DuShane, chairman, presented the report of the Tenure Committee. Ensuing discussion stressed the Jerome Davis case and the Committee’s action thereon. Mr. Cram recommended that the Board of Directors advise the Tenure Committee not to give these studies the type of publicity as shown in this report. Miss Brown commended the Committee for the accuracy with which the Minnesota case was reported but suggested that the details not be reported to the Representa¬ tive Assembly. Mr. Mooney moved that the Committee keep up its good work but not report so much orally. The motion was seconded and carried. Mr. Trent moved that the report of the Tenure Committee be received and filed. Seconded. Carried. Since discussion was resumed, Mr. Mooney moved that this case be left in the hands of Mr. Cram and previous order of business be resumed. Seconded and carried. A. G. Crane, chairman, presented the report of the Committee on Higher Educa¬ tion. In the absence of William McKinley Robinson, chairman, Kate V. IV offord pre¬ sented the report of the Committee on Economic Status of the Rural Teacher. In the absence of N. C. Newbold, chairman, Garnet C. Wilkinson presented the report for the Committee To Cooperate with the National Association of Teachers of Colored Schools. Associational Records and Information 789 The recommendation of the Executive Committee regarding changing member¬ ship of committees was presented by Secretary Givens. The recommendation is that hereafter committee chairmen be appointed for the life of the committee up to three years, after which a new chairman must be appointed if the committee is continued; and that one-third of the membership of each committee be changed each year, the retiring members being those of longest service on the committee. Charles O. Williams moved that this recommendation be passed to the Represen¬ tative Assembly. Seconded and carried. B. F. Stanton made a motion that the Board of Directors recommend to the Repre¬ sentative Assembly that there be two stated meetings of state delegations, one on Monday noon and one at 5 o’clock on Tuesday afternoon. Seconded by Miss Collins. Carried. The meeting adjourned at 6:25 p.m. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary Orville C. Pratt, President Friday Morning, July 2, 1937 The newly elected Board of Directors held a breakfast meeting in the Henri II Room of the Statler Hotel at 7 :40 a.m. The meeting was called to order by the newly elected president, Caroline S. W oodruff. Secretary Givens called the roll which showed the following in attendance: State Directors: Alabama — L. Frazer Banks, Alaska — Everett H. Erickson, Arizona — Harold W. Smith, Arkansas — W . E. Phipps, California — Helen F. Holt, Colorado — W. B. Mooney, Connecticut — Helen T. Collins, Delaware — H. V. Holloway, District of Columbia — Annie Keliher (substituting for Plugh S. Smith), Florida — absent, Georgia — M. D. Collins, Hawaii — Earl L. McT aggart, Idaho — absent, Illinois — John W. T halman, Indiana — Charles O. Williams, Iowa — Fred D. Cram, Kansas — F. L. Schlagle, Kentucky — absent, Louisiana — J. N. Poche, Maine — William B. Jack, Maryland — Eugene W. Pruitt, Massachusetts — Annie C. W oodward, Michigan — Grover Stout, Minnesota — Daisy Brown, Mississippi — H. V. Cooper, Missouri — Thomas J. Walker, Montana — M. P. Moe, Nebraska — Sarah Muir (substituting for Alice Robinson) , Nevada — absent, New Hampshire — Lyle W. Ewing, New Jersey — Lester A. Rodes, New Mexico — D. N. Pope, New York — Frederick Houk Law, North Carolina — Elmer H. Garinger, North Dakota — L. A. White, Ohio — B. F. Stanton, Oklahoma — Kate Frank, Oregon — Austin Landreth (substituting for C. R. Bowman) , Pennsylvania — J. Herbert Kelley, Rhode Island — absent, South Carolina — A. C. Flora, South Dakota — Olive Ringsrud (substituting for S. B. Nissen ), Tennessee — S. L. Ragsdale, Texas — Rush M. Caldwell, Utah — N. Howard Jensen, Vermont — Joseph A. Wig gin, Virginia — Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Washington — Harriett Carmody (substituting for Cora Oleson ), West Virginia — W. W. Trent, Wisconsin — Amanda IJ. Schuette, Wyoming — H. H. Moyer. Life Directors and Director ex officio: Teachers Institute of Philadelphia — Samuel Parry ; president — Caroline W oodruff ; first vicepresident — Orville C. Pratt; treas¬ urer — R. E. Offenhauer; chairman, Board of Trustees — Joseph Saunders ; executive secretary — Willard E. Givens. Mr. Saunders made a motion that the resignations of members of the Board of Directors be accepted and substitutes be elected as members of the Board. Seconded and carried. The invitations from cities for the 1938 summer convention were next considered. Charles O. Williams read a letter from the teachers of Indianapolis withdrawing their invitation to the N. E. A. because of the death of their city superintendent, Paul Stetson. Robert C. Keenan presented Chicago’s invitation. Frances Jelinek presented Milwaukee’s invitation to the convention, introducing John Callahan, state superin¬ tendent, Amanda Schuette, state director, and Edgar G. Doudna, member of the Board of Trustees, to enlarge upon her remarks. Frederick Houk Law extended the invitation from New York City and Clyde Miller of Columbia University, Miss Nicol, assistant superintendent of schools, and Mr. Nichols, director of the Conven¬ tion and Visitor’s Bureau, stressed the facilities of the city. Superintendent Ben G. Graham of Pittsburgh introduced Helen Wilson, president of the Pittsburgh Teach- 790 National Education Association ers Association, who extended an invitation from her city. Superintendent Henry J. Gerling of St. Louis invited the N. E. A. to his city. Since no representative was present from Toronto, Secretary Givens read the invitation from that city. B. F. Stanton presented an invitation from Columbus, Ohio. Invitations for the 1939 summer convention were then received from Helen F. Holt, San Francisco; Lester A. Rodes, Atlantic City; and Daisy Brovin, St. Paul, Minne¬ sota. The president then appointed an Elections Committee with Harold IV. Smith, as chairman. Secretary Givens explained the voting procedure. The first report of the Committee gave the three following cities the highest votes, New York, Milwaukee, and Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh was eliminated on the second ballot, leaving New York City and Milwaukee. The third ballot gave New York City the preferential vote. President Woodruff explained that the selection of the convention city would go to the Executive Committee for final action. The next order of business was the election of one member for the Board of Trus¬ tees to replace Joseph M. Gwinn whose term has expired. Charles O. Williams opened nominations with the name of Florence Hale. Helen Holt nominated Mr. Gwinn. Mr. Saunders moved that nominations be closed. Mr. Collins seconded the motion. Carried. By vote of the Board of Directors, Florence Hale was elected a member of the Board of Trustees. Nominations were then in order for two members to the Executive Committee. The following nominations were made: Joseph A. Wig gin nominated Annie C. Wood- viard; B. F. Stanton nominated Fred D. Cram; Frederick Houk Law nominated Amy H. Hinrichs; and Mrs. Edith B. Joynes nominated W. A. Wall. Secretary Givens explained that the vote was for the two highest and asked the members to put two names on the same ballot. Mr. Saunders made a motion that the person receiving the lowest number of votes be dropped and a second vote be taken with the persons receiving the two highest votes being declared elected to the Executive Committee. Seconded and carried. The first report resulted in Mr. Wall’s name being dropped and a second ballot being taken with the names of Miss Woodward, Miss Hinrichs, and Mr. Cram. The final vote resulted in the election of Mr. Cram and Miss Hinrichs as newly elected members on the Executive Committee. Under new business D. N. Pope made a motion that the same arrangements for having state hotel headquarters for all states on one floor be made for next year. Seconded and carried. Mr. Saunders moved that the Board of Directors appropriate for the coming year the sums of money as set up in the budget and as adopted by the Representative Assembly on Thursday afternoon. Seconded by Mr. Collins. Carried. The next point to be decided was the number of years each member of the Board of Directors will serve. Mr. Mooney made a motion that the secretary draw the slips from a hat — 17 each having been numbered 1, 2, and 3 respectively — and read the number after the name of the member. Seconded and carried. The drawing resulted as follows: Directors for one year: Hugh S. Smith — District of Columbia; M. D. Collins — Georgia; John W. Thalman — Illinois; Charles O. Williams — Indiana; F. L. Schlagle — Kansas; D. Y. Dunn — Kentucky; H. V. Cooper — Mississippi; Thomas J. Walker — Missouri; C. Layton Galbraith — Nevada; Lester A. Rodes — New Jersey; Frederick Houk Law — New York; L. A. White — North Dakota; B. F. Stanton — Ohio; J. Herbert Kelley — Pennsylvania; A. C. Flora — South Carolina; S. B. Nissen — South Dakota; N. Howard Jensen — Utah. Directors for two years: Llarold W. Smith — Arizona; W. E. Phipps — Arkansas; Helen F. Holt — California; Helen T. Collins — Connecticut; James S. Rickards — Florida; Earl L. McTaggart — Hawaii; Fred D. Cram — Iowa; William B. Jack — Maine; M. P. Moe — Montana; Lyle Wilson Ewing — New Hampshire; D. N. Pope — New Mexico; Kate Frank — Oklahoma; C. R. Bowman — Oregon; S. L. Ragsdale — Tennessee; Cora Oleson — Washington; W. W. Trent — West Virginia; H. H. Moyer — Wyoming. Directors for three years: L. Frazer Banks — Alabama; Everett R. Erickson — Alaska; W. B. Mooney — Colo¬ rado; H. V. Holloway — Delaware; W. D. Vincent — Idaho; J. N. Poche — Louisiana; Associational Records and Information 791 Eugene JV . Pruitt — Maryland; Annie C. Woodward — Massachusetts; Grover Stout — Michigan; Daisy Brown — Minnesota; Alice Robinson — Nebraska; Elmer H. Garinger — North Carolina; James F. Rockett — Rhode Island; Rush M. Cald¬ well — Texas; Joseph A. Wiggin — Vermont; Mrs. Edith B. Joynes — Virginia; Amanda H. Schuette — Wisconsin. Election of two members of the Budget Committee was then considered. John W. Thalman nominated Thomas J. Walker and Mr. Wiggin nominated Miss Wood¬ ward. Mr. Mooney moved that the nominations be closed and that the secretary be instructed to cast the vote for the candidates named. Seconded and carried. Mr. Saunders moved to accept the resignations of members of the Board of Directors who had substituted for this meeting and to accept elections of the Rep¬ resentative Assembly. Seconded and carried. A motion to adjourn was seconded and unanimously carried. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary Caroline S. Woodruff, President MINUTES OF THE MEETINGS OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Crawford House, New Hampshire Friday Morning, August 21, 1936 (In Brief) The Executive Committee met at Crawford House, August 21, 1936, with the following members present: Orville C. Pratt, president, Agnes Samuelson, R. E. Offenhauer, and Willard E. Givens, executive secretary. Caroline S. W oodruff joined the Committee later in the morning. Joseph H. Saunders was unable to be present because of duties incident to the opening of schools. The minutes of the Portland meeting were read and approved with certain corrections. The Representative Assembly of the Portland convention appropriated $14,750 for the use of N. E. A. committees. From this amount the Representative Assembly appropriated $500 for the Legislative Commission, $100 for the Committee on Resolutions, and $10,000 for the Committee on Tenure, leaving a balance of $4,150 available for “other committees in amounts as determined by the Executive Committee.” The following recommendations for N. E. A. committee appropriations for 1936-37 were unanimously accepted on motion of Mr. Offenhauer, seconded by Miss Sam¬ uelson: Committee on Academic Freedom . $500 Committee on Amending the Charter . 750 Committee on Economic Status of the Rural Teacher . 1,200 ($400 to be transferred from Secretary’s Contingent Fund) Committee on Equal Opportunity . 100 Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education . 200 (An equal amount to be appropriated by the American Medical Asso¬ ciation) Joint Committee of N. E. A. and A. L. A. . 50 Committee on Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency and Crime . 200 , (New committee. Appropriation to be transferred from Secretary’s Contingent Fund) Committee on Reorganization . 750 Committee on Retirement . 400 Committee on Social-Economic Goals . 600 (For printing the report which completes Committee’s work) Total . $4,750 792 National Education Association It was recommended that the National Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life be absorbed by the Department of Adult Education as a committee of the Department in order to coordinate the work in this field. The Representative Assembly of the Portland convention appropriated $13,650 for the use of N. E. A. departments. From this amount the Representative Assembly appropriated $10,100 for the Department of Classroom Teachers and $3,550 for “Secondary Education and other departments, in amounts as determined by the Executive Committee.” The following recommendations for N. E. A. department appropriations for 1936-37 were unanimously accepted on motion of Mr. Offenhauer, seconded by Miss Satnuelson: Adult Education . $400 Art Education . 250 Kindergarten-Primary Education . 200 National Council of Education . 100 Secondary Education . 1,500 Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics . 200 Total . $2,650 Available for emergency department needs . $900 After consideration of the relationship of departments to the National Educa¬ tion Association, Miss Samuelson moved that appropriations to departments be made contingent upon the willingness of the department to have its funds handled accord¬ ing to the bylaws thru the N. E. A. offices. Seconded by Mr. Offenhauer. Carried unanimously. The following departments are now on self-supporting basis and do not need an appropriation: American Educational Research Association, Business Education, Rural, and Science Instruction. In connection with the Department of Secondary Education, Secretary Givens stated that Ralph fV. Haller of the High School Teachers Association of New York City had asked to be present at the meeting of the Executive Committee in order that he might present a plan whereby the National Education Association would assume the responsibility of financing the bulletin of the Department which would be distributed to all high-school teachers who are members of the National Educa¬ tion Association. For this consideration the Department would conduct a member¬ ship campaign which would add many members to the National Education Associa¬ tion from this group. Under this arrangement the present Department membership fee would be discontinued. A letter was read from Ernest D. Lewis, president of the Department of Secondary Education. Ralph IV. Haller made a proposal concerning the Department of Secondary Educa¬ tion. Secretary Givens outlined to Mr. Haller the suggestion of the Executive Com¬ mittee for an all-inclusive Department of Classroom Teachers. After some discussion it was decided to present the idea to leaders of the groups involved, before the New Orleans meeting, and to have a conference at New Orleans to see if some logical plan could be evolved. Mr. Haller stated that he would be glad to do anything that he could to cooperate. President Pratt thanked Mr. Haller for appearing at the meeting and advised him that the Department of Secondary Education would receive $1500 for the com¬ ing year. Apropos of this discussion, a plan for an all-inclusive Department of Class¬ room Teachers was discussed. This Department would be composed of four sections: (1) young children from nursery school age to eight years; (2) elementary; (3) high school; and (4) higher education. The appropriation to the Department would be distributed to these various sections on the basis of membership in the National Education Association. Vicepresident Samuelson and Secretary Givens were asked Associational Records and Information 793 to study this matter and report further upon it at the December meeting of the Executive Committee. Secretary Givens read a letter from Superintendent Ben G. Graham, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in which he asked if the section of the report of the Committee on Tenure dealing with the Lock Haven case could be deleted. Since the report of the Tenure Committee was approved by the Representative Assembly at the Portland convention, the Executive Committee had no authority to make any change. Secretary Givens also read a letter from Frances Jelinek in which she transmitted a request from the members of the Tenure Committee for the printing and distribu¬ tion of the 1935-36 Tenure report to delegates of the Representative Assembly at Portland. The Executive Committee decided to have a summary of the report printed in the Journal. In this way it will reach not only members of the Representative Assembly but all members of the Association. It was also decided that the report be mimeo¬ graphed and made available to those who might request it. The secretary was in¬ structed to inform Miss Jelinek to this effect. A proposal was discussed for a Division of Teacher Welfare at N. E. A. head¬ quarters which would intensify the work of the following committees: Academic Freedom, Equal Opportunity, Retirement, and Tenure. In this connection Miss Samuelson made a motion that a Division of Teacher Welfare be established at N. E. A. headquarters to be staffed by Secretary Givens from the present personnel. Seconded by Miss Woodruff. Carried unanimously. A rider attached to the Appropriation Bill in the last session of Congress makes it no longer necessary for the National Education Association to pay the unemploy¬ ment insurance tax of the District of Columbia. The secretary therefore recommended that the amount of $720.23 used to pay this tax during the past four months be reimbursed to the Life Annuity Fund from which it was borrowed and that the remaining $2334.18 appropriated for this item for the coming year be transferred to the Secretary’s Contingent Fund. Miss Samuelson made a motion, seconded by Mr. Offenhauer, and unanimously carried, that this recommendation be approved. Secretary Givens read letters from Nelson L. Greene, president of the Department of Visual Instruction, and Grace M. Baker, president of the Department of Art Education, requesting that these departments be permitted to hold meetings in New Orleans in connection with the meeting of the Department of Superintendence. Inas¬ much as S. D. Shankland, secretary of the Department of Superintendence, advised that facilities are not available to take care of these departments, the secretary was instructed to write these officers to that effect and to suggest that they meet in some city near New Orleans in order that they may attend some of the sessions of the Department of Superintendence. Secretary Givens read a memorandum from H. A. Allan in which he recommended that the bill of the National Association of Student Editors to the Washington Mis¬ sionary College, amounting to $437.34, be paid by the N. E. A. since the activities of the Association have been discontinued and the bill left unpaid and that the amounts due the N. E. A., totalling $141.99, be charged off. A motion was made by Mr. Offenhauer that the recommendation be approved. Seconded by Miss Samuelson. Carried unanimously. The meeting adjourned for lunch at noon, reconvening at 2:15 p.m., at the same place. President Pratt called the meeting of the Executive Committee to order. Following a discussion of committee appointments for the coming year, Miss Woodruff made a motion that N. E. A. members serve on only one committee and in no case be assigned to more than two committees. Seconded by Mr. Offenhauer. Carried unanimously. It was suggested that the following plan for the appointment of committee chair¬ men and committee members be presented to the Detroit meeting of the Board of Directors: that chairmen be appointed for the life of committees, provided that the committees complete work within three years; and that one-third of the chairmen and one-third of the membership of committees be changed each year, beginning in 794 National Education Association 1937 — the replacement of chairmen and committee members to be on the basis of length of service. A letter to Secretary Givens from a representative of the Industrial Arts group was read concerning the possibility of affiliation with the National Education Asso¬ ciation as a department. The Executive Committee was favorable to this suggestion and felt that the affiliation of this and kindred groups should be encouraged. A report prepared by Joy Elmer Morgan concerning plans and policies for the Journal was read by Secretary Givens. After some discussion the following sug¬ gestions on Journal policy were unanimously adopted on motion of Mr. Offenhauer, seconded by Miss IV oodruff: Use the Journal to interpret and implement the purposes of the N. E. A. I. To advance the interests of the teaching profession II. To promote the welfare of children III. To foster the education of all the people. Hovu To Do It — General 1. Serve as official organ of N. E. A., present its ideals, policies, program. 2. Look to program of the year, committee work, resolutions, and platform for basis of leading articles and materials. 3. Program of emphasis for 1936 a. Equalization articles to reenforce the federal aid program. b. Teacher welfare material to show increased effort along this line. 4. Use direct, simple, clear language. Keep rank and file of profession and the public in mind rather than the educational seminar. 5. Do not include promotional material for other organizations or groups when said material is not a part of our accepted program. Use Journal for our own purposes. 6. Eliminate the series on civic education and “Plain Talk.” Substitute in lieu thereof a series on equality of educational opportunity and material on teacher welfare. 7. Encourage the president to give an occasional statement or message. Hovo To Do It — Specific I. Advance the interests of the teaching profession by: 1. Develop professional consciousness in new ways all the time. Show what other professions are doing to improve their performance and to raise their standards and to eliminate the incompetent and the unfit. 2. Continue to give ideas for improved faculty meetings, outlines for profes¬ sional study, including booklists and new items, such as the duties of dele¬ gates to the N. E. A., both before and after the convention. 3. Seek to get the profession to improve its own efficiency thru drives on given subjects, such as certification standards, for example. 4. Do more along the line of teacher welfare. 5. Have carefully planned statements on such subjects as the following: a. Tenure b. Retirement c. Academic freedom d. Equal opportunity e. Adequate compensation. Prepare short, terse statements in simple, clear, direct language and publish them in the Journal. Committee chairmen suggested as authors. Statements should be most carefully prepared, worded, and approved by the editor and president and the secretary before they are published. When they are so published, they become the record for ourselves and for the world. 6. Present the picture of what constitutes a competent teacher. Associational Records and Information 795 II. Promote the welfare of children. 1. For 1936-37 run a series of articles or materials bearing on the equality of educational opportunity for the purpose of reenforcing the federal aid legislative program. See that this is interesting reading which is useful to laymen. III. Foster the education of all the people. 1. For 1936-37 concentrate on glorifying the core school thru the Horace Mann Centennial. 2. Interest the public in the schools thru American Education Week material. 3. Build a stronger foundation thru emphasizing the equality of opportunity ideal and by presenting actual facts. 4. Turn attention to teacher welfare in an enlarged program. 5. Center upon the improvement of performance in a given line — for ex¬ ample, certification or the reading program. A statement prepared by Mr. Allan on the advertising policy of the Journal was read by Mr. Givens: A complete statement covering advertising policy for the Journal of the Na¬ tional Education A ssociation necessarily would cover many details. The follow¬ ing statement reviews briefly the general policies that have applied, and touches on variations from some of these policies that might be considered. It is sub¬ mitted with the thought that the Executive Committee may offer advice or take action that will be constructively helpful. The responsibility for Journal advertising has been placed in the Business Division of the Association and the Director of that Division, subject to the advice and approval of the executive secretary, is responsible for acceptance or rejection of advertising, methods of solicitation, accounting, relationships with advertisers and relationships with member-subscribers on questions that may arise regarding advertising. The advertising policy necessarily has been conservative. This, to a certain extent, has reduced the extent of aggressiveness in solicitation. Association rela¬ tionships wuth other educational publications, and especially with those of the state education associations, must be kept on a friendly and cooperative basis. Care has been exercised to avoid any risk of loss of such friendly relationships by advertising procedures which may be interpreted as overaggressive. Income from advertising is important in the cases of all educational publications, and any interpretation of advertising efforts for the Journal as being so conducted as to reduce income of other publications may easily result in a feeling on the part of those responsible for those publications that the Association is a factor in reducing their income. Another element affecting advertising policy in the Journal is that of the keen interest and feeling of ownership on the part of its member-subscribers. This element does not obtain in the cases of the privately-owned educational publications with which the Journal competes principally in the advertising field. Such publications may accept advertising within a wide range with slight con¬ sideration of criticism that may come from subscribers. In the case of the Journal, however, criticisms from Association members must be avoided. Many educa¬ tional leaders accept as a matter of course certain advertising published in privately-owned magazines, but would object if such advertising appeared in the Journal. The principal advertising competitors of the Journal — i. e., The Instructor and The Grade Teacher in the elementary field, and The School Board Journal and Nation’s Schools in the administrative field — are privately-owned publications. All of these have highly organized advertising staffs maintaining offices in both New York and Chicago and employing sectional representatives. Until last year, when a trial part-time arrangement was made with Frederic A. Moulton, all advertising effort for the Journal was confined to that given by the Director of the Business Division assisted by one clerk. Other Association duties of the 796 National Education Association Director distinctly limit the amount of time and effort that may be devoted to advertising promotion. Thru steady increases in amounts of space sold and occasional increases in rates, Journal advertising income reached its peak figure of over $87,000 for the year 1930-31. Advertising suffered perhaps as much in the school field as in any other field during the depression years, with the result that the low figure of slightly more than $32,000 was reached in 1933-34. The two following years showed gains, with income for 1935-36 slightly more than $42,300. As far as can be determined the Journal suffered no more than other educational maga¬ zines ; probably its net loss in advertising income was proportionally less than that of publications whose advertising promotional expense is so much higher. The general field covered in soliciting advertising has been that of publications, classroom tools, equipment, and activities related to the professional interest of the teacher or school administrator, including summer schools and travel. The many materials and activities related to the above provide a reasonably broad field for solicitation. From the major lines in this field there diverge a variety of minor lines in which efforts are made to obtain advertising. Comparatively little has been accomplished in the field of the teacher’s per¬ sonal needs. Occasional advertising of this type appears in competing magazines, but some of this is so personal that it is objectionable. Approaches made to na¬ tional advertisers indicate that they desire to reach the teacher as a woman, so far as her clothing and similar needs are concerned, thru the columns of women’s magazines of general circulation. This is a field, however, which might have some slight development. Occasional advertising is carried in the interests of food manufacturers, canners, and soup producers. Advertising campaigns in this group have had a tendency to violate the standards set by our Association committee on the use of propaganda in schools. Solicitation and acceptance of advertising in this field, therefore, is contingent on its type and its avoidance of too apparent efforts of promoting sales in the homes thru the teacher and the children in the schools. The National Parent-Teacher Magazine, the advertising of which is now handled independently of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, is having some success in the field of foods and medicines of the “build-up” type, but it has the advantage of permitting its advertisers to direct their messages directly to the parents of the children. We shall make efforts to develop this field. Consistent efforts will be made to enlist interests on the part of advertisers in the insurance field. We have had a limited amount of patronage therein and at one time there were favorable indications that two or three of the large life insurance companies would use space. A condition developed to discourage this, however. Our close relationships with the Metropolitan and the Equitable have provided opportunity for reaching the key persons and we are always optimistic as to final developments. Advertising sometimes is tendered on the basis of trade or exchange, particularly in the hotel field. Magazines with the highest advertising standards do not accept advertising on any basis except the payment of rate card costs. There might be occasions when we could depart from that policy and obtain office equipment or hotel due bills in exchange for advertising. Experience of others has shown that there are real complications in this. Some educational magazines accept financial advertisements, particularly those of small loan organizations. Unless we are equipped to make careful in¬ vestigation of financial proposals advertised, we risk being involved in dubious financial schemes. Should we accept advertising from reliable brokerage or in¬ vestment concerns, our difficulties are increased in rejecting proposals from those of which we are uncertain. Such well-known organizations as Household .Finance Corporation use space in some state publications, but we have not felt it wise to accept such advertising in the Journal. In the “Help Wanted” field there are risks that we have sought to avoid by refusing all such advertising except from reliable publishers seeking vacation Associational Records and Information 797 workers. Some educational magazines publish advertising encouraging qualifying for government positions, for canvassing or other undescribed positions of the “blind ad type.” These we have strictly avoided. Advertisements for individuals seeking positions are not carried. Needless to say, the Journal has not solicited or accepted advertising for patent medicines, personal hygienic devices or material, tobacco, or liquor. It is also obvious that all advertising submitted within a general legitimate field cannot be accepted as the matter of the reliability and the credit of the advertiser must be considered. It is probable that we have satisfactorily pro¬ tected our readers from unreliable advertising and certainly our record of uncollected advertising accounts will stand close inspection. The rejection of advertising in a field in which there is general acceptance is a delicate matter, to say the least. Our rate card gives us the right to “reject any or all advertisements” and the courts, generally, have upheld this as a publisher’s right. Every piece of advertising submitted is scrutinized. Not in¬ frequently requests are made that the advertiser amend the copy submitted. Ef¬ forts are made to eliminate overstatements, implications of “endorsement” by the Association or its officers, and many other items which may be misleading. No advertising is solicited, and probably none is proffered to the Journal, purely as a gesture of goodwill to the Association. All of our advertisers fully expect to view the results of their expenditure with the Journal with the same critical eye as that for any other publication. Text and advertising interests are independent. No concessions in the form of special articles or reviews are granted to any advertiser. Special reader lists or mailings are not provided as is the case with some other publications. The Journal advertising rates, when reduced to the cost per thousand readers per unit of advertising space, are relatively low when compared with those of some other educational publications. Such is likely to be the case, however, with any publication of large circulation when compared with those having lesser circulation. Any immediate revision of rates upwards, however, is not desirable. These rates were increased at the time when our income was greatest and the increase then provided remained unchanged thruout the depression period. It may be understood also that actual circulation of the Journal is not quite as large as it was at the time when rates were increased. Rates as carried on the rate card are strictly followed. No special discounts or reductions are allowed. To the larger users of space, however, favorable placements, of their own selection, are provided. According to some manufacturers and distributors active in both fields, the educational equipment field is lagging behind the general equipment field in recovery. Prospects for immediate improvement are not overbright altho our recent experience at convention exhibits indicates a tremendous improvement in optimism and effort. We are hopeful that thru groundwork already laid and increased cooperative effort with Mr. Moulton we shall make substantial gains in advertising volume and income for 1936-37. On recommendation of Secretary Givens a motion was made by Mr. Offenhauer that Mrs. Louise B. Sease, research assistant in the Research Division, be transferred from her present classification of 2B to 2A since she has reached the maximum of her present classification — the classification of 2A to be tentative pending a study of the classification plan during the year. It was understood that the classification of Mrs. Sease under the new plan would be the same as all other research assistants. Seconded by Miss Woodruff and carried unanimously. Secretary Givens read a letter from C. S. Marsh of the American Council on Education, announcing the First National Conference on Educational Broadcast¬ ing, December 10-12, 1936, in Washington, D. C. The next meeting of the Executive Committee was set for Wednesday, December 9, 1936, at 10 o’clock at N. E. A. headquarters, Washington, D. C. The meeting adjourned at 4:45 p. m. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary Orville C. Pratt, President 798 National Education Association Washington, D. C. Saturday, December 12, 1936 The Executive Committee met at 2:05 p. m., at N. E. A. headquarters, with all members present: Orville C. Pratt, president; Agnes Samuelson ; Joseph H. Saunders ; R. E. Offenhauer ; and Caroline S. W oodruff . Willard E. Givens, executive secre¬ tary; Harold A. Allan, business manager; and Harriett M. Chase, chief assistant to the secretary, were also present. The minutes of the meeting at Crawford House wTere approved with one correc¬ tion. The tentative drafts of the three teacher welfare leaflets on retirement, tenure, and salaries were approved and Secretary Givens stated that these would be printed at once. He discussed and received general approval of the leaflet on local teachers associations. The secretary also explained that leaflets are being prepared in the fields of academic freedom and equal opportunity, which will soon be ready to sub¬ mit to the Executive Committee for approval. After some discussion on the suggested bill to amend the charter, Mr. Offenhauer made a motion that this bill be approved and that the executive secretary, with the cooperation of the Committee on Amending the Charter, proceed with this bill in Congress. Seconded by Miss IV oodruff. Carried. The next item of business was the proposed plan for uniting the work of the National Council of Teachers’ Retirement Systems and the N. E. A. Retirement Committee. Miss IV oodruff moved that the name or title of the organization be changed from National Commission on Teacher Retirement of the N. E. A. to National Council on Teacher Retirement of the N. E. A. Seconded by Miss Samuelson. Motion carried. Mr. Offenhauer made a motion that the proposed plan be approved. Seconded by Miss IV oodruff. Carried. H. A. Allen, business manager, discussed the financial report as of November 30, 1936, which showed an encouraging increase in income, particularly from memberships. The Committee voted an expression of appreciation to the headquar¬ ters staff for the fine showing. Secretary Givens then read the membership report which was approved. The secretary read a letter from Dean Henry Lester Smith, chairman of the Com¬ mittee on Academic Freedom, and a letter from Dean William S. Taylor, chairman of the Committee on Reorganization, in which they requested additional funds to enable these two committees to hold meetings at New Orleans in February. Mr. Saunders made the following motion: I move that we appropriate out of expenditures for committees $500 for the Committee on Reorganization and $600 for the Committee on Academic Freedom. Seconded by Miss W oodruff . Motion carried. The request next discussed was that of Albert M. Shaw, president of the Depart¬ ment of Classroom Teachers, for reimbursement of a substitute in his teaching position in the amount of $170.40 while Mr. Shaw was on official business for the Department of Classroom Teachers. Since there is an item in the budget of the Department of Classroom Teachers which is for the use of the president, a motion was made by Miss Samuelson, amended by Mr. Saunders, to allow this reimburse¬ ment from that fund, provided the amount allowed in the budget is not exceeded. Seconded by Miss W oodruff . Carried. A letter was also read from Robert C. Keenan of Chicago, Illinois, requesting reimbursement in the amount of $17.85 for a substitute while he was attending a meeting of the core committee of the Tenure Committee. Miss Samuelson made a motion that this expenditure be allowed and that Mr. Keenan be notified that no further substitute pay will be given unless approved beforehand by the Executive Committee. Seconded by Mr. Offenhauer. Carried. It was suggested that Donald DuShane, chairman of the Tenure Committee, be notified of this action. Associational Records and Information 799 A proposal of the Department of Science Instruction that the N. E. A. con¬ tribute funds (tentative estimate, $5000) to enable the Department to set up a national committee to write a plan of philosophy of science teaching for the ele¬ mentary, junior, and senior high schools and possibly junior colleges was felt to be unwise at the present since no such item was included in this year’s budget. It was the consensus that the project has merit but that the Department should be en¬ couraged to carry most of the costs of such an undertaking. It was suggested that the Department further study the proposal to see how it might help in financing it. Because of the serious situation in Ohio resulting from inability of the majority of cities to pass their levies, Secretary Givens spoke of plans to prepare a radio broadcast bringing out the underlying factors. Mr. Offenhauer explained the situation further and expressed the opinion that the fundamental things to stress are the removal of the present 10-mill limit from the state constitution and to cite examples of the folly of attempting to meet school needs, if dependent on a property tax. The Committee felt that such a nationwide broadcast would be very helpful. It was discussed whether or not the Association should have a committee on guid¬ ance which would include the question of prevention of juvenile delinquency and crime or whether the latter should be set up as a separate committee. The Executive Committee favored the idea of having one committee on guidance — the personnel to include those working in the fields of mental hygiene, juvenile delinquency and crime, vocational guidance, and kindred subjects. The secretary was instructed to prepare and bring to the New Orleans meeting a list of people who would ade¬ quately cover the guidance field to submit for the consideration of the Executive Committee. Miss Samuelson made a motion that J. E. Buttervoorth be reappointed to the Na¬ tional Conference Board on Rural Education. Seconded by Mr. Offenhauer. Carried. Mr. Offenhauer made a motion that Mr. Buttervjorth be supported by the Executive Committee in any action taken by the National Conference Board to request President Roosevelt to call a conference on rural education. Seconded by Miss Samuelson. Carried. The matter of department publications carrying advertising was next discussed. All departments having very close relationships with the N. E. A., with the ex¬ ception of the Department of Secondary Education, have refrained from carrying advertising on the theory that Association advertising activities should be confined to the Journal. The Department of Secondary Education does carry paid advertis¬ ing. Miss IVoodruff made a motion that if the Department of Secondary Education is to receive an appropriation from the N. E. A., its publication should not carry advertising — this to become effective June 1, 1937. Seconded by Mr. Offenhauer. Motion carried. In regard to the School Health Education Service, the previous action in this connection was sustained — that the N. E. A. is very glad to cooperate and house this project until School Health Education Service has been able to complete its program, but it will be impossible to take over the budget when it has exhausted its funds. The secretary stated that the Committee on Economic Status of the Rural Teacher needs $1500 to carry on a certain phase of its work in addition to the appropriation of $1200 received from the N. E. A. The secretary was instructed to draft a letter to be sent to the General Education Board asking for $1500 to be used by this Committee. The Harrison-FIetcher Bill was discussed. The Committee expressed general approval of the bill as drafted but expressed the hope that it would be clearly stated that the funds would be for public schools only. The possibility of a federal Department of Education and Welfare was discussed. It was the consensus that the Association has only one course, which is to stand for the past action of the Representative Assembly which favored education being in a department by itself. The meeting recessed at 6 P.M., reconvening at 8 p.m. at the same place. President Pratt called the meeting of the Executive Committee to order. 800 National Education Association In regard to the National Conference of Jews and Christians, it was felt that the N. E. A. should not be officially represented on this Conference, due to the fact that education and religion are naturally separated by laws and statutes. Miss Samuelson made a motion that a letter be sent to the director of the National Con¬ ference of Jews and Christians, stating that the N. E. A. would be glad to co¬ operate and would be very glad to be represented informally if a Conference is called, but that the Association does not feel that it is within its jurisdiction to go further in such matters. Seconded by Miss W oodruff. Carried. Mr. Off enhauer made a motion that all life memberships received during 1937 should be designated “Horace Mann Life Memberships.” Seconded by Miss Samucl- son. Carried. The suggestion was approved that Horace Mann be used as the cen¬ tral theme for the Life Membership Dinner at the Detroit convention. Secretary Givens gave a brief report on the proposed plan for an all-inclusive Department of Classroom Teachers to include four sections: (a) early childhood education; (b) elementary; (c) high school; and (d) higher education. Miss Sam¬ uelson stated that Mr. Givens’ report summed up what she had in mind in regard to this plan. Certain leaders in these fields will be called together for a conference at the New Orleans meeting. Willis A. Sutton, superintendent of schools, Atlanta, Georgia, was reappointed to represent the National Education Association on the National Committee on Edu¬ cation by Radio during 1937. The matter of the establishment of an N. E. A. committee on radio was postponed for discussion at the New Orleans meeting, since material sent for consideration to N. E. A. headquarters by Boyd F. Baldwin, chairman, State Radio Committee, Terry, Montana, arrived too late to be gone over before the opening of the meeting of the Executive Committee. Secretary Givens was instructed by the Executive Committee to gather material again in regard to the dates of the summer convention, in an effort to see if it might be possible to open future conventions a week later. Complaints have been received because the dates for the Detroit convention will conflict with the closing date of some western schools. It was decided that all N. E. A. members who send in their names as going to the Biennial Conference of the World Federation of Education Associations in Tokyo are to be named as delegates of the National Education Association. Since the Association has only fifty votes, it seems best to have the chairman of the delegation call a meeting of all the delegates after reaching Tokyo and have them choose fifty who will cast official votes. U el W. Lamkin and Paul Monroe will be asked to join the Executive Committee at its next meeting in New Orleans to discuss the future of the World Federation of Education Associations. Mr. Saunders made a motion that the executive secretary of the N. E. A. be appointed a delegate of the National Education Association to the World Federation of Education Associations in Tokyo next summer. Seconded by Miss W oodruff . Carried. A motion was also made, seconded, and carried that the retiring president of the N. E. A. should be appointed as an official delegate to the Biennial Conference. Miss Samuelson made a motion that the incoming president be appointed as a delegate to the meeting of the World Federation of Education Associations in Tokyo. Seconded by Mr. Saunders. Carried. The secretary was instructed to notify those interested in the Golden Gate Inter¬ national Exposition to the effect that the National Education Association will be unable to participate actively in this project, but will be interested in cooperating in every way possible for the furtherance of the Exposition. In regard to the chairman of the Committee on Bylaws and Rules, it was decided that this Committee should hold a meeting prior to the opening of the Detroit con¬ vention and elect its own chairman, since there will be very little work for this Committee to do before the time of the convention. Secretary Givens discussed briefly the outside activities of the members of the headquarters staff in attending conferences, conventions, sectional meetings, panel Associational Records and Information 801 discussions, etc. The Executive Committee expressed the opinion that this is a very important line of endeavor and should be continued and enlarged. President Pratt outlined briefly the tentative set-up of the program for the Detroit convention. Mr. Saunders made a motion that the Executive Committee extend an official invitation to the teachers of Canada to attend the Detroit convention. Seconded and carried. The next meeting of the Executive Committee was set for Saturday, February 20, 1937, at 10 a.m. in New Orleans, Louisiana. The meeting adjourned at 10 p.m. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary Orville C. Pratt, President New Orleans, Louisiana Saturday, February 20, 1937 The Executive Committee met at 10 A.M. in President Pratt’s suite in the Jung Hotel writh all members present: Orville C. Pratt, president; Agnes Samuelson; Joseph H. Saunders ; R. E. Offenhauer ; and Caroline S. Woodruff. The following members of the Board of Trustees were present on invitation: Edgar G. Doudna, J. M. Gvuinn, and A. L. Whittenberg. Willard E. Givens, executive secretary, and Harriett M. Chase, chief assistant to the secretary, were also present. The minutes of the meeting held in Washington, D. C., wrere approved. Secretary Givens reviewed the financial part which the N. E. A. has had in the W. F. E. A. w'hich includes: (a) $1000 annual membership fee; (b) time of Mr. Crab¬ tree; (c) office space and equipment. It was reported that the bill to Amend the Charter had passed the Senate on February 11 and that there was every reason to believe that it would pass the House on the Consent Calendar. In discussing how much space in the Journal should be devoted to Horace Mann, Miss Samuelson made a motion that not more than sixteen pages be used and that the material supplement and tie in with American Education Week. Seconded by Mr. Offenhauer. Carried. The question of the use of so-called propoganda features in the Journal, which was discussed at the meeting at Crawford House, New Hampshire, in August, was again brought up. It was the sense of the Committee that a definite policy should be considered in this field at the Detroit meeting. The question of increasing the size of the Journal was next discussed. Secretary Givens stated that the cost of an increase of from thirty-two pages to forty-eight pages of text would be approximately $2800 for one issue. Following some dis¬ cussion, Mr. Offenhauer made a motion that the text be limited to thirty-two pages unless there was a very decided need for an increase to forty-eight pages for some particular issue and unless sufficient additional advertising could be secured to cover the added cost. Seconded by Miss Woodruff. Carried. The request to adjust the budget in the Division of Publications by decreasing the allowance for American Education Week promotion from $2250 to $1000 and by increasing the allowance for American Education Week material from $3000 to $4250 was approved. The request of the State Normal and Training School, Cortland, New York, to permit all its students to participate in the Student Membership Plan by paying a membership fee of one dollar wras discussed. The present plan of giving a six- month membership to senior students would be continued. Mr. Saunders made a motion that the one-dollar student membership fee be approved and extended to such schools as desired to benefit by it. Seconded by Mr. Offenhauer. Carried. Secretary Givens stated that after considering all angles it seemed the wise policy to continue opening the annual convention on the last Sunday in June. This plan is the least conflicting with the close of public schools and the opening of 802 National Education Association summer schools, with the exception of the last week in August which would be impractical from the standpoint of the attendance of teachers. The next item for discussion was the proposal for the appointment of a Committee on Guidance which would cover the entire field. Miss Samuelson made a motion that a Committee on Guidance be appointed at the discretion of the president. Seconded by Miss Woodruff. Carried. At this point, Paul Monroe, president-general of the World Federation of Educa¬ tion Associations, Henry Lester Smith, and Annie C. Woodward, directors of the World Federation, joined the Committee. Uel W. Lamkin, secretary-general, came in later. Mr. Monroe called attention to the fact that the World Federation was created by the N. E. A. and he urged continued interest and support by the Asso¬ ciation. He pointed out that the World Federation is almost entirely dependent upon the National Education Association of the United States and the National Union of Teachers of England for its financial support. One aim of the World Federation is to arrange for personal contacts with the teachers of the various countries. Our own country is the only one allowing propaganda in the schools to any extent, so that personal contact is necessary in order to receive fullest benefit from the trip. As one means of bringing this about, the W. F. E. A. is considering the establishment of a travel bureau which would also provide a source of income for the Federation. Under this plan a teacher from one country would be given contact with a teacher in another country into whose home she would go as a “paying guest.” She would learn first-hand, methods and proceedures of education in that country. In arranging for the Tokyo conference, the various steamship lines on the Pacific Coast were contacted and booking arrangements made. The cost of the trip booked thru the W. F. E. A. is cheaper than thru any other agency. If the plan proves profit¬ able, the Federation plans to arrange world tours and others for the summer vacation period. In adding to the remarks of Mr. Monroe, Mr. Lamkiji stated that the Federation is clear of indebtedness with the exception of two unsettled accounts. All four of the representatives of the W. F. E. A. urged that the N. E. A. be represented at the Conference in Tokyo by responsible administrators and expressed the hope that the executive secretary and the outgoing and incoming presidents be sent. The question was raised by Miss Samuelson as to whether conflicts might not arise in the field of advertising should the plan for a travel bureau materialize, but Mr. Lamkin was confident that there would be no such difficulty. The request next discussed was that of George F. Zook regarding the deficit resulting from the First National Conference on Educational Broadcasting. It was felt that since the N. E. A. had participated with a definite understanding that there would be no financial obligation it was not wise to help in wiping out this deficit. Mr. Saunders made a motion that because we have no item in our budget to cover this and because we are endeavoring to make further economies this year the Association cannot make a contribution. Seconded by Mr. Offenhauer. Carried. A letter was read from Ira C. Davis, president of the Department of Science Instruction, outlining a plan for a yearbook in this field and asking for substantial financial support from the Association. The Committee was greatly interested, but did not feel that funds could be advanced to do it. It was also the feeling that dues in the Department should be raised. Mr. Offenhauer made a motion that the Depart¬ ment be urged to take steps for an increase in the membership fee from twenty-five cents to one dollar and to advise Mr. Davis that the N. E. A. would then give careful consideration to a budget allowance. Seconded by Miss W oodruff. Carried. Secretary Givens explained the retirement of Mrs. Harriet Thatcher a year pre¬ vious to the retirement age of sixty. Airs. W oodruff made a motion that the action of Secretary Givens be confirmed. Seconded by Air. Offenhauer. Carried. After considering the request of Mrs. Bertha Robbins, who has been retired for four years and who has received one increase on her retirement, a motion was made by Air. Offenhauer, seconded by Air. Saunders , that it was the sense of the Committee that nothing could be done. Carried. i Associational Records and Information 803 A letter was read from the Collector of Internal Revenue, Baltimore, Maryland, advising that the N. E. A. is exempt from the payment of Social Security Taxes. The Committee adjourned for lunch at 12 o’clock reconvening at 2 p. m. Discussion followed on the confusion resulting from the similarity of names of the Department of Secondary Education and the Department of Secondary School Principals. There was an understanding that before the re-establishment of the Department of Secondary Education that no new department should be formed. Because of this understanding, the Executive Committee felt that the name of the Department of Secondary Education should be changed to a term less confusing. No action was taken. Secretary Givens reported that the Harrison-Black-Fletcher Bill has been intro¬ duced into the Senate, that hearings have been held for three and one-half days, and that it is now before the Senate Committee where it will probably be favorably reported out with slight changes. Mention was made of the opposition of the Southern Jurisdiction of Scottish Rite Masons which want the words “tax-supported free” to precede the words “public schools” and of the National Association for the Advance¬ ment of the Colored Race which asks that provision be made for a proportionate division of the funds. The definition for a “public school” in most legal cases is that a public school is “a publicly-supported and publicly-administered elementary or secondary school.” A letter was read from Helen Bauman, secretary of the Minneapolis Board of Education, asking that the N. E. A. withdraw its support of the Harrison-Black- Fletcher Bill and join them in the support of the Ryan-Lundeen Bill which is also a bill for federal aid but which asks for a much larger sum of money, the funds to be apportioned on a basis of average daily attendance. Mr. Saunders made a motion that receipt of the letter be acknowledged and that Miss Bauman be advised that in view of all the circumstances the N. E. A. cannot withdraw its support of the Harrison-Black-Fletcher Bill. Seconded by Miss JV oodruff. Carried. Secretary Givens reported that the Senate has twice voted for straight repeal of the “Red Rider” which is a clause in the District of Columbia Appropriation Bill requiring that all teachers in the District sign a statement each month before receiv¬ ing their salary that they have neither taught nor advocated communism. The House offered an amendment which would eliminate only part of the clause. This amend¬ ment was not accepted by the Senate. The N. E. A. has been active in contacting Sen¬ ators and Representatives, urging them to vote for straight repeal. It was announced that plans are well under way for uniting the Committee on Retirement and the National Council of Teachers’ Retirement Systems during the convention. It was announced that the request for $1500 from the General Education Board for the use of the Committee on the Economic Status of the Rural Teacher had been granted. The membership count for December 31 shows a total membership of 205,114, a gain of 14,170. The paid membership is 156,192, a gain of 14,243. In discussing N. E. A. committees, Secretary Givens explained that at present all committees come under three headings: (a) creative, (b) cooperative, and (c) or¬ ganization. If the committees are to be useful, there must be a staff member at headquarters who is entirely familiar with the subject and who can help the chair¬ man when necessary. An example of the need was pointed out in the Tenure Com¬ mittee. The chairman, who has a full-time job, cannot possibly answer, without help, all demands made upon him. The Executive Committee approved the plan. President Pratt referred again to the need for a plan which would permit a reasonable change in committee chairmen and in committee personnel each year. Action was deferred. The survey made by Boyd F. Baldwin, state chairman of radio in Montana, indi¬ cated a favorable reaction to the appointment of a radio committee, but no action was taken at this time. Secretary Givens reported having had a conference at which Miss Samuelson, 804 National Education Association Mrs. Edna W. Bailey, and President Pratt, representing the N. E. A., and Dr. Mc- Cloy, representing the American Physical Education Association, participated. The Executive Committee agreed, without motion, that the report of the Educa¬ tional Policies Commission, The Unique Function of Education in American Democ¬ racy, should be given necessar\r space in the Journal. The skeleton outline of the Detroit program was presented. The meeting adjourned at 5 o’clock, subject to the call of President Pratt. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary Orville C. Pratt, President Tuesday, February 23, 1937 The Executive Committee met at 10:35 p.m. with all members of the Committee present with the exception of Joseph H. Saunders: Orville C. Pratt, president; Agnes Samuelson ; R. E. Offcnhauer; Caroline S. Woodruff. Edgar G. Doudna and J. M. Gveinn were present on invitation. Willard E. Givens, executive secretary, and Harriett M. Chase, chief assistant to the secretary, were also present. The following representatives of the Department of Classroom Teachers were present: Albert M. Shave, president; Frances Jelinek, secretary. There were present, representing the Department of Secondary Education, Ernest D. Levels, president; Frederick Houk Lave; and •Martin Wilson. Elphe K. Smith was present representing the Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education for Mrs. Ada J. Farmer, president of the Department. William S. Taylor, chairman of the Committee on Reorganization, was present and stated that it is the plan of the Committee to make its final report at the Detroit convention. He requested that funds for the expenses of the Committee to the meeting in New Orleans and also expenses for the Detroit meeting be allowed. Dean Taylor also stated that there would probably be a meeting of two or three members of the Committee in Washington during the spring. He estimated that $1+50 would cover the expenses for all of the meetings. After making this request, Dean Taylor with¬ drew. The Executive Committee then discussed with the representatives of the depart¬ ments present — namely, Classroom Teachers, Secondary Education, and Kinder¬ garten-Primary Education — the best organization for a Classroom Teacher Depart¬ ment. The question was also raised concerning the confusion resulting from the similarity in the names of the Department of Secondary School Principals and the Department of Secondary Education. The officers of the Department of Classroom Teachers believe that the interests of all groups would best be served if their efforts were united, pointing out that there is a weakening effect when an organization is broken down into too many parts. Miss Smith stated that she had been advised by Mrs. Farmer that the Kinder¬ garten-Primary Department would be willing to become a section of the Department of Classroom Teachers whenever such a move would seem best. The representatives of the Department of Secondary Education felt that their pro¬ gram would be greatly weakened if they were to go in as a section of the Department of Classroom Teachers, pointing out that the Department of Secondary Education includes many who are not classroom teachers, such as principals and supervisors. It was felt by this group that there should be a place for all persons engaged in secondary-school work where their ideas might be pooled. After much discussion, the representatives of these three groups withdrew. The next item of business considered by the Executive Committee was the matter of material for the teacher welfare leaflets on academic freedom and equal oppor¬ tunity. It was agreed that copy of the final draft of the material for these leaflets, particularly the one on academic freedom, should be mailed to each member of the Committee. Miss Woodruff made a motion that the Committee give general approval of the material with the opportunity to see the leaflets in final form before printing. Seconded by Mr. Offenhauer. Carried. Association al Records and Information 805 Secretary Givens announced that the representatives of the Department of School Health and Physical Education and the American Physical Education Association have proposed a five-year merger with the understanding that the new department would hold meetings every other year as the A. P. E. A. has been doing and that a registration fee of one dollar would be charged all who attend the meetings. The Executive Committee gave unanimous consent to this proposal without formal action. The executive secretary was authorized to send telegrams in the name of the Executive Committee to Representative Norton, Air. Kennedy, and Senator Wheeler, expressing approval for the work they have done and urging complete repeal of the “Red Rider.” A motion was made by Aliss Woodruff that a statement be prepared before the Detroit convention and which would be presented to the Board of Directors to the effect that one-third of the chairmen of committees and one-third of the personnel be changed each year. Seconded by Air. Offenhauer, and carried. In considering the request of William S. Taylor, chairman of the Committee on Reorganization, Air. Offenhauer made a motion that the Executive Committee ap¬ prove whatever funds are necessary to complete the work of the Committee by the time of the Detroit convention, these funds to be taken out of committee appropria¬ tions. Seconded by Aliss W oodruff. Carried. It was announced that the Retirement Committee of the N. E. A. and the National Council on Teachers’ Retirement Systems have merged and are now the National Council on Teacher Retirement of the N. E. A. The meeting adjourned at 12:15 a.m. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary Orville C. Pratt, President Detroit, Michigan Friday, June 25, 1937 The Executive Committee met at 10 a.m. in President Pratt’s suite in the Statler Hotel with all members present: Orville C. Pratt, president; Agnes Samuelson; Joseph H. Saunders ; R. E. Offenhauer ; and Caroline S. W oodruff . Edgar G. Doudna, member of the Board of Trustees, was present on invitation. Willard E. Givens, executive secretary, and Harriett AI. Chase, chief assistant to the secretary, were also present. The minutes of the meetings held in New Orleans, Louisiana, were approved. H. A. Allan, business manager, gave a report of progress in the field of advertising, showing that the income from this source is encouraging. He recommended the con¬ tinuance of part-time service and assistance by Frederic A. Aloulton. The policy of soliciting and accepting ads was outlined. The report was given general approval by the Executive Committee. Joy Elmer AI organ, editor of the Journal of the National Education A ssociation, gave a report on Journal plans for 1937-38 with suggestions for further growth. There was much discussion on the tentative monthly schedule of Journal content. Aliss Samuelson suggested a concise, readable article on the Beard report, The Unique Function of Education in American Democracy. President Pratt suggested a simplification of language used in the Journal. Air. Saunders suggested that each issue of the Journal carry on its page of con¬ tents the following statement — “The articles herein printed are the expressions of the writers and not a statement of policy of the N. E. A. unless set by resolution.” All members concurred. The printing of 100 percent schools each month in the Journal was discussed. Secretary Givens pointed out that the publishing of this list is a great incentive for 100 percent membership. Miss Samuelson asked if a committee might not be ap¬ pointed to work on the advisibility of having an editorial policy commission. Secre¬ tary Givens suggested that either a committee of Executive Committee members, the entire Executive Committee, or a committee appointed for a year made up of some people who are acquainted with the N. E. A. and some acquainted with journalism 806 National Education Association might compose the aforementioned editorial committee. Miss Samuelson moved that a committee of this board consult with other people. Miss Woodruff seconded the motion. Carried. At the conclusion of his report, Mr. Morgan distributed a statement on “The General Relationship of the Press to Democracy.” The meeting adjourned at 11:40 A.M., reconvening at 1:30 p.m. Secretary Givens announced that the bill to amend the charter had been signed by the Senate on February 11, 1937, and by the House on June 7, and was signed by the President on June 14. The Report of the Committee on Reorganization was discussed, but no recommen¬ dations were made. At this point, Mrs. Edna W . Bailey, president of the Department of School Health and Physical Education, joined the meeting to discuss with committee members the merging of the American Physical Education Association with the aforementioned organization. Mrs. Bailey outlined all that had taken place during the past year to bring about the merger. After a motion to the effect that this proposal, agreed upon by the Legislative Council of the A. P. E. A. and the Executive Committee of the Department, be accepted together with a statement of appreciation to Mrs. Bailey and colleagues was made by Miss Samuelson, seconded by Miss Woodruff and carried. Mrs. Bailey stated that an announcement of its acceptance by the Executive Committee of the N. E. A. wTould be made at the Tuesday morning meeting of the group. The next point under discussion was the report of the Tenure Committee. This report was partially read and reviewed by Secretary Givens. Specific mention was made of the recommendation that the Tenure Committee be given authority to in¬ vestigate tenure cases in federal courts and to engage counsel as seemed necessary. It was agreed that such a recommendation should not be made since federal court cases involve too much money. Miss Samuelson felt that the N. E. A. should not take sides in specific cases. All members were in concurrence. Secretary Givens proceeded with the report of the Legislative Commission. He announced that the Harrison-Black-Fletcher Bill for federal aid to education is on the calendar of the Senate for either this session or the next. The basis for calculation of delegates to the Representative Assembly from local and state associations was next discussed. It was moved, seconded, and carried unanimously that this should be on the basis of paid membership. In discussing the Division of Teacher Welfare at headquarters it was the general opinion that this service in the field of salaries, tenure, retirement, and taxation should be worked out by the executive secretary in the best possible way. Secretary Givens presented two solutions to the problem of the conflict between the Department of Secondary School Principals and the Department of Secondary Education because of a similarity in names. The first proposal would be to abolish the Department of Secondary Education but to assign the same amount of the time of Mr. Ashby to the field of secondary education as he has given to Mr. Lewis. The second suggestion would be to handle secondary education the same as Kindergarten- Primary, i.e., no dues and no journal, just a convention organization with the necessary appropriation made for convention program. Miss Samuelson felt that solution No. 1 was the better of the two; however, action was deferred until later in the meeting. Miss Collins, chairman of the Budget Committee, entered the meeting at this time. Mr. Offenhauer asked if the first recommendation regarding appropriation of a total amount for 1937-38 not to exceed the income for 1936-37 were adopted, would there be danger of embarrassment. Mr. Saunders gave a detailed explanation of the proper construction of a budget, stressing the importance of appropriating for the oncoming year a sum considerably less than the revenue for the past year. Mr. Allan felt that the budget should include an item for depreciation which need not be invested until the end of the year. Secretary Givens explained that the majority of increases in divisional sections was due to the 5 percent pay increase and restoration of back salaries. Associational Records and Information 807 In discussing the payment of dues to the World Federation of Education Associa¬ tions, it was agreed that this was not the time to drop membership. Miss Collins then read a letter from Albert M. Shaw, president of the Department of Classroom Teachers, regarding a budget allowance of a sum to cover payment of one year’s salary to the president of the Department while he devotes all of his time to membership promotion and conferences. She then read his requested budget figure of $15,500, a net increase of $5400 over the sum stipulated for 1937-38, $10,100. Miss Samuelson voiced the opinion that membership promotion was the duty of the N. E. A. state director. Miss Samuelson made the suggestion that Air. Shaw be in¬ vited to meet with the Executive Committee to discuss this matter. Thereupon President Pratt called a meeting of the Executive Committee for Saturday evening, June 26, at 7:30 P.M., in Room 1236, Statler Hotel, to which Mr. Shaw would be invited. Miss Collins was also invited to be present. Miss Collins then explained the reason for the additional $4000 asked for tenure for 1937-38. Mr. Offenhaucr moved that this amount for tenure be approved. Mr. Saunders seconded the motion and it was carried. A motion wras carried that if any money is restored from the Commercial National Bank that it be put in a Restoration Fund. The meeting adjourned at 5:45 P.M. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary Orville C. Pratt, President Saturday, June 26, 1937 The second meeting of the Executive Committee wras held at 7:30 P.M., in Presi¬ dent Pratt’s suite in the Hotel Statler. The following members were present: Orville C. Pratt, Agnes Samuelson, Caroline S. Woodruff, Joseph H. Saunders, and R. E. Offenhauer. Edgar G. Doudna and A. L. Whittenberg , members of the Board of Trustees, and Helen Collins, chairman of the Budget Committee, were present on invitation. Willard E. Givens, executive secretary, and Harriett AI. Chase, chief assistant to the secretary, were also present. Secretary Givens discussed letters from five organizations wanting him to par¬ ticipate on their committees. These organizations were: National Council on the Social Problems of Youth, Advisory Committee on Motion Pictures, National Com¬ mittee for Adult Civic Education, National Social Work Council, and the Committee on Highway Education. Miss Samuelson moved that either Secretary Givens himself or someone on his staff cooperate with these organizations. Aliss W oodruff seconded the motion. Carried. The next item under discussion was the annual convention date. Secretary Givens suggested writing letters to summer schools asking those that can to plan the open¬ ing of summer sessions immediately following the week after the last Sunday in June at the close of the convention. Miss Samuelson made a motion that the 1938 summer convention open on Sunday, June 26. Seconded by Air. Saunders. Carried. The membership situation was next discussed by Secretary Givens. He stated that membership plans for the fall include sending out different letters to county and city superintendents. Mr. Givens made the recommendation that the Executive Committee pass on the suggestion to the Board of Directors to adopt a goal of at least a 10 per¬ cent increase in membership in each state. Aliss Samuelson put this suggestion in the form of a motion which was seconded by Aliss W oodruff. Carried. Secretary Givens gave a report to showr the inconsistency of the policy of payment of expenses of committee chairmen to committee meetings during the year and to the summer meeting. In discussing the Detroit program Secretary Givens stated that there were 498 speakers and 565 speeches scheduled. Personnel and salary classification for the headquarters staff was next presented. Air. Offenhaucr moved the adoption of the schedule and Miss Woodruff seconded the motion. Air. Saunders made a motion that the maximum for item BB under section II “Good Stenographic or Clerical Work” to read $1600 instead of $1700. Motion carried. The following is the schedule adopted: 808 National Education Association NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Personnel and Salary Classification for the Headquarters Staff I. Directors of Divisions AA. Administrative and Creative Divisions . A. Associate Director, Research . BB. Assistant Directors, Creative Divisions B. Other Divisions . II. Head Assistants and Research Assistants A. Outstanding Directive or Creative Work BB. Excellent Directive or Creative Work B. Outstanding Directive and Secretarial Work . III. Clerks, Stenographers, and Technical Workers AA. Outstanding Secretarial Work . A. Excellent Stenographic Work . BB. Good Stenographic or Clerical Work. . . B. Satisfactory Stenographic or Clerical Work . Annual Basic Maximum Increment $5000 $7500 $250 4500 7000 250 3500 5500 200 2500 4500 200 1800 3000 120 1600 2500 120 1500 2250 120 1400 2000 60 1300 1800 60 1200 1700 60 1200 1500 60 IV. Unclassified, Temporary Employees A. Clerks, Stenographers, Typists . $16 weekly and above B. Messengers, Mailers, Building Service, etc . $12 weekly and above Note: Before receiving consideration for appointment to permanent list one year of service on temporary list is required in Section II and two years in Section III. Miss Woodruff moved that the recommendations of the executive secretary for salary classification for 1937-38 be approved. Mr. Saunders seconded the motion. Carried. At this point Albert M. Shaw, president of the Department of Classroom Teachers, entered the group meeting and was introduced by President Pratt. Mr. Shaw pre¬ sented the following proposed budget: DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS BUDGET FOR 1937-38 Items Allowed Proposed Proposed increase this year budget for next year 1. Full time for president $1,000 $2,600 $1,600 2 Conference and field work . 1,700 4,350 2,650 3. Convention . 2,200 2,500 300 4. Clerical assistance 300 300 5. Yearbook committees 1,200 600 600 (decrease) 6. Printing 1News Bulletin (5 issues) $1,800 Ninth Yearbook . 1,800 Folders, miscellaneous 200 2,500 3,800 1,300 7. N. E. A. Office Expense. . 1,100 1,100 8. Rural teacher at summer meeting 100 100 9. Committee expenses . . . none 150 150 Totals . $10,100 $15,500 $5,400 (net _ increase) 1 No yearbook has been published for three years, but one probably will be ready nest year so pro¬ vision in the budget for publishing it should be made. Associational Records and Information 809 Discussion followed with numerous suggestions offered by committee members, particularly that Secretary Givens assign a worker in this field from his staff. Secretary Givens suggested that he meet with Mr. Shave to see if something could be worked out by 4 o’clock Monday afternoon for the Budget Committee. Mr. Saunders made a motion that should any money be received in this budget year from the funds now on deposit in the Commercial National Bank that they be applied to the depreciation fund. Seconded by Miss Samuelson. Carried. Miss Samuelson moved that the executive secretary be instructed to look over the budget with the chairman of the Budget Committee to see if there are any other available funds which might be transferred to a depreciation fund. Seconded by Mr. Offenhauer. Carried. Mr. Saunders moved that the Executive Committee approve the report of the Budget Committee as submitted with whatever changes may be necessary, provided that the limit of $515,000 is not exceeded. Following action on the budget, Donald DuShane, chairman of the Tenure Com¬ mittee, joined the committee on invitation. Attention of Mr. DuShane was called particularly to the recommendation in the tenure report regarding participation of the committee in court cases. Mr. DuShane explained the purpose of this recommen¬ dation, but agreed that it was not well worded. Mr. Saunders suggested that the Tenure Committee recommend to the Delegate Assembly that every possible step be taken compatible to its interest to sustain tenure laws. The recommendation that an appropriation of $10,000 be given the committee again this year was also discussed. The Budget Committee had allotted $4000 to the committee and $3000 to the Legis¬ lative Commission leaving an unappropriated balance of $8500 for all other com¬ mittees and commissions. Chairman DuShane agreed to the appropriation as set up in the budget report provided some of the unappropriated funds would be made available if needed. Secretary Givens stated that the Music Educators National Conference is anxious to come in as a Department, somewhat as the A. P. E. A. has done. He asked for approval to work with the American Association for Vocational Education to tie them in more closely, with the possibility of this Association becoming a Department of the N. E. A. Unanimous approval was given. The meeting adjourned at 11:30 p.m. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary Orville C. Pratt, President Friday, July 2, 1937 The meeting of the new Executive Committee was called to order at 11 a.m. in Mr. Pratt’s suite in the Hotel Statler. Members present were: Caroline S. IVoodruff, Orville C. Pratt, Joseph H. Saunders , R. E. Offenhauer, Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl, Fred D. Cram, D. A. Van Buskirk, Amy H. Hinrichs, and R. T. Shave. Secretary Givens and Harriett M. Chase were also present. Secretary Givens discussed with the Committee the problems involved in holding the N. E. A. convention in New York City in 1938. Mr. Pratt made the suggestion that negotiations be carried on with both New York City and Milwaukee so that when a decision is finally reached, every detail will be in hand. Mr. Offenhauer made a motion that the Committee reserve confirmation of the action taken by the Board of Directors until such a time as the president, executive secretary, and business manager, after thoro investigation, feel that conditions are satisfactory in New York City. Seconded by Mr. Cram and carried. The president then announced that appointment of committees would be made during July and lists of proposed names would be gratefully received. At this point in the meeting Miss Adair, representing the Rules Committee, joined the group and asked permission to have C. A. Bottolfsen act as parliamentarian for them in preparing a recodification of the charter and bylaws as authorized by the Representative Assembly. President IVoodruff is to consider this matter and advise later. 810 National Education Association Secretary Givens then advised the Committee of the possibility of cooperation with the Columbia Broadcasting Company in having weekly programs during the coming year. Mr. Cram moved that this matter be left to the discretion of the execu¬ tive secretary with full power to act. Seconded by Mr. Saunders. Carried. After some discussion, it was decided to set the tentative date for the next meet¬ ing of the Executive Committee for October 2 at N. E. A. headquarters in Wash¬ ington. Mr. Shavo made a motion that expenses of past presidents be paid for this year since they were not advised before leaving home regarding action on the new charter. Mr. Saurtders seconded the motion. Carried. The meeting was adjourned at 11:50 a.m. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary Caroline S. Woodruff, President MINUTES OF THE MEETINGS OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES New Orleans, Louisiana Saturday Afternoon, February 20, 1937 The Board of Trustees of the National Education Association met in President Pratt’s suite in the Jung Hotel at 5:10 P.M., pursuant to the call of the chairman of the Board. Members present: Joseph H. Saunders, chairman; Edgar G. Doudna, secretary; J. M. Gvoinn; A. L. Whittenberg ; and Orville C. Pratt. The meeting was called to order by the chairman of the Board who first gave a report on the Permanent Fund of the Association, showing a balance in the savings account of $12,404.87, total assets of $841,380.02. All bonds have paid interest promptly with the exception of the St. Louis and San Francisco Railway Bonds, which are in litigation. The chairman pointed out the present difficulty of making invest¬ ments on which there is a good return. The Washington Clearinghouse Association is reducing the interest rate beginning March 1 to 2 percent on accounts of $2500 or less and 1 percent on accounts above $2500. On motion of Mr. Gvoinn, seconded by Mr. Doudna, the following resolution was passed. Resolved, That Joseph H. Saunders, chairman, and Willard E. Givens, executive secretary, be, and they are hereby authorized, to borrow from the National Metro¬ politan Bank of Washington, or from any other bank or banker, the sum of $40,000, or as much thereof as may be needed, for current obligations of the insti¬ tution, when and as such needs occur. It was pointed out that the owner of the property adjacent to the headquarters building on M Street is willing to sell. This property has a 42' frontage on M Street with a depth of 167.8' and includes a two-story reenforced concrete brick wall, fire proof garage, and salesroom. It is under lease until 1938 at $400 per month and from 1938-40 at $425 per month, the lessees being under contract to maintain repairs on the property. The total assessed valuation of the land and building is $60,788. The taxes at current rate amount to $1,077.12 per year. Air. Doudna made a motion that the proper officers be instructed to buy the ad¬ joining property on M Street to the alley at a price not to exceed $67,000. Seconded by Mr. Gvoinn. A roll call of the Board resulted as follows: President Pratt, aye; Edgar G. Doudna, aye; A. L. Whittenberg, aye; J. M. Gvoinn, aye; Joseph H. Saunders, aye. On motion of Mr. Doudna the meeting adjourned. Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman Edgar G. Doudna, Secretary Associational Records and Information 811 Detroit, Michigan Friday Afternoon, June 25, 1937 The Board of Trustees met at 4:45 p.m. in President Pratt’s suite in the Statler Hotel. Members present were: Joseph Ii. Saunders, chairman; Orville C. Pratt; Edgar G. Doudna, and A. L. W hittcnh er g ; absent, J. M. Gvcinn. Chairman Saunders presented the printed report of the Permanent Fund and other finances of the Association for the fiscal year 1936-37. It was moved, seconded, and adopted that the Report on Finance as printed be approved. (See page 813 of this volume for copy of the report.) The chairman reported the purchase of the M Street property in accord with the resolution adopted at New Orleans. The purchase price was $63,050. By unanimous vote the purchase was ratified. The chairman reported that he and Mr. Allan had negotiated with the Penn Mutual Company of Philadelphia a refinancing of the loans of $65,000 on the 16th Street property and $50,000 on the M Street property. The New Loan of $115,000 to bear 5 percent interest until the debt is reduced to $100,000 and thereafter the rate of interest to be 4^4 percent, $5000 on the debt to be paid semiannually with the privilege of curtailing 20 percent of the loan in any one year. Mr. Pratt offered the following resolution: Resolved, That for the necessary uses and purposes of this Corporation, a loan of one hundred and fifteen thousand dollars ($115,000) be obtained and, in the negotiation of said loan, such notes for such amounts payable at such time or times and with such rate of interest and upon such terms and conditions as may be agreed upon shall be issued by and in the name of this Corporation, under signature of its president, attested by its secretary and its corporate seal; and to secure the payment of the principal of and interest on said notes, the said president is hereby authorized to execute and deliver in the name of this Cor¬ poration a deed of trust in the usual form upon the following described property owned by this corporation and situated in the City of Washington, D. C., namely: No. 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., and Nos. 1533-43 and 1529 M Street, N. W., known as Lots Thirty-two (32), Eight Hundred Twelve (812) and Eight Hundred Thirteen (813) in Square One Hundred Ninety-six (196). And the said president and secretary of the Corporation are also hereby author¬ ized and directed to do and perform all acts necessary to effect the purpose of this resolution. Seconded by Mr. Doudna and adopted by the following vote: “Ayes,” Pratt, Doudna, IV hitt either g , Saunders; “noes,” none. Secretary Givens presented the report on life memberships. He recommended a new form of life membership card and certificate. Mr. Doudna moved that the neces¬ sary changes to carry out the secretary’s idea in the form of life membership card and certificate be made. Mr. Pratt seconded the motion. Carried. The executive secretary recommended that the form of life membership notes be changed to a negotiable instrument. Mr. Pratt moved that recommendation of the secretary be approved. Mr. Doudna seconded the motion. Carried. On the recommendation of the secretary, Mr. Doudna moved and Mr. Pratt seconded that new life members shall not be listed until they have made a cash payment of ten dollars. Carried. Mr. Pratt moved that the delinquent members be furnished Journals, Research Bulletins, etc., up to five dollars per annum on the payments made. Mr. Doudna seconded the motion. Carried. Secretary Givens read letters from life members delinquent in their payments, and list of amounts paid. Mr. Doudna moved that the life membership as reported by the executive secretary be canceled. Seconded by Mr. Pratt. Carried. It was moved by Mr. Pratt that eighty-six life membership notes, amounting to $2836, be canceled on account of the deaths of the makers. Mr. Doudna seconded the motion. Carried. 812 National Education Association Secretary Givens gave a report on the campaign to get money in from delinquent members. Of 1277 letters written, 465 were answered, 251 paid, and 11 were deceased. The report of Mr. Allan on building repairs and improvements was approved. This included painting of the entrances, porticoes, and vestibule, and the office of the Field Division. The meeting of the Board of Trustees adjourned at 6 P.M. Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman Edgar G. Doudna, Secretary Friday Morning, July 2, 1937 The meeting was called to order by the chairman, Mr. Saunders, at 10:40 A.M., in Mr. Pratt’s suite in the Hotel Statler. Those present were: President Woodruff, Edgar G. Doudna, A. L. W hittenherg , Florence Hale, and Joseph H. Saunders. Mr. Doudna nominated Joseph H. Saunders as chairman of the Board of Trustees for the ensuing year. Hiss Hale seconded the motion. Carried. Miss Hale nominated Mr. Doudna as secretary of the Board for the ensuing year. Mr. IV hittenherg seconded tlie motion. Carried. On motion of Mr. Doudna, seconded by Miss Hale, the following resolution was passed : Resolved, That Joseph H. Saunders, chairman of the Board of Trustees, and Willard E. Givens, executive secretary, shall be and they are hereby authorized to borrow from the National Metropolitan Bank of Washington, D. C., or from any other bank or banker, the sum of $40,000, or as much thereof as may be needed, for current obligations of the institution when and as such needs occur. The meeting adjourned at 11 A.m. Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman Edgar G. Doudna, Secretary FINANCIAL REPORT 1936-37 Submitted herewith is a complete financial statement for the fiscal year ended May 31, 1937. It is prepared for the information of the Representative Assembly, the Board of Directors, and the Officers of the Association. Included in the Financial Report is the Report of the Board of Trustees (financial), the Report of Auditors, in the form submitted by Wayne Kendrick and Company, Public Accountants, and covering completely the financial records of the Secretary’s Office and the Permanent Funds in the custody of the Board of Trustees, and the Report of the Treasurer. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary Associational Records and Information 813 Report of Board of Trustees — Financial Your Board of Trustees submits for your consideration the following report of your finances and properties for the fiscal year ending May 31, 1937. The Permanent Fund Cash on Hand . $ 4,744.85 Securities . 110,704.66 Life Membership Notes . 175,508.20 Real Estate, Less Mortgages ($115,000.00) . 509,747.17 Elementary Principals Fund . 8,070.86 Superintendents Research Fund . 22,215.07 Teachers Welfare Fund . 6,818.03 Equipment . 13,144.01 $850,952.85 The corresponding total in 1935 was $827,124.30, a net gain for the year of $23,828.54. In May we purchased the property at 1529 M Street, adjoining our headquarters building, at a cost of $63,167.50 including title guarantee fee of $117.50. This property is a two-story reenforced concrete building with brick facing and is used as a garage and showroom. It has a ground area of 7416 sq. ft. and a floor area of 14,100 sq. ft. The building is under lease until March 15, 1940. The lease requires tenant to repair and maintain the building and the rental is more than sufficient to pay the interest and taxes. The property is assessed for tax purposes at $60,788 and is mortgaged for $50,000.00. Our investment in this property gives us possession of the entire M Street frontage from 16th Street to the intersecting alley and provides the necessary office space for the future expansion of our activities. In addition to $12,434.17 paid on this M Street property we paid $15,000 during the current year on the mortgage on the headquarters building reducing this debt from $80,000 to $65,000. Our headquarters building is in excellent condition and the expense of operation is kept at a minimum. Interest on our securities has been promptly paid with the exception of the bonds of the Manhattan Railway and of the St. Louis and San Francisco Railway; the latter has been in default since 1933. The average yield is in excess of four and one-half percent. The income of the Permanent Fund was $48,377.42. The disburse¬ ments covered interest on the mortgage $3,750.00, repairs and improvements to the building $1,179.97, attorney fees and deposit box rental $538.50, leaving a net income of $42,763.69 paid into our operating account. This is an increase of $1,600.61. The net income from the Permanent Fund paid into the operating fund for the past six years is as follows: 1931- 32 . $32,077 1935-36 $41,413 1932- 33 . 34,410 1936-37 42,764 1933- 34 . 36,165 - 1934- 35 . 41,143 Six year period . $227,972 In our operating account there was an increase of income for year ended May 31, 1937, over that of last year of $38,993.65. Increase of expenses for current year over last year is $3,440.90. Excess of income over expenditures, $26,004.40, which, after adjustment for provision for bad debts and protested checks, becomes a net operating profit for the year of $25,494.24. During the past five years we have made no increase in our fund reserved for depreciation. Our auditors recommend that any excess of income over disbursements during the next year be transferred to the Depreciation Fund. Not set up in the above assets is an equity in our Retirement Insurance amounting to $51,085.81. The itemized statement follows: 814 National Education Association Permanent Fund — Principal Account Cash Report — May 31, 1937 General Funds Cash on hand, May 31, 1936 . $6,033.23 Receipts from Life Members . 25,959.36 Refund on Paving Tax . 425.43 32,418.02 Disbursements : Reduction on Mortgage, 1201 16th St., N. W., Washington, D. C., held by Penn. Mutual Life Insurance Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania . 15,000.00 Purchase of New Property — 1529 M Street, N. W., Washington, D. C . 12,434.17 Purchase from Income Account of State of Arkansas Bonds received in lieu of cash . 210.00 Adjustment of Life Memberships . 29.00 27,673.17 Cash on hand, May 31, 1937 $4,744.85 Elementary School Principals Fund Cash on hand, May 31, 1936 . $1,259.37 Receipts: Life Membership . 758.00 2,017.37 Disbursements : Purchase of Two U. S. Treasury bonds — $1,500.00 . 1,546.14 Cash on hand, May 31, 1937 $471.23 D epartment of Supcrinteyidcnce — Educational Research Fund Cash on hand, May 31, 1936 . $735.92 Receipts : Memberships . 2,356.36 $3,092.28 Disbursements : Purchase of Three U. S. Treasury bonds — $3,000.00 . 3,092.28 Teachers Home and IV el fare Fund Principal Cash on hand, May 31, 1936 . $1,667.32 Receipts : Redemption of Pacific Gas and Electric Bond $1,000.00 Payment of Principal — Guettrich-PIisgen Note 600.00 Premium — Pacific Gas and Electric Bond . 49.25 1,649.25 Cash on hand, May 31, 1937 $3,316.57 Association al Records and Information 815 Teachers Home and Welfare Fund Income Cash on hand, May 31, 1936 . $1,007.00 Receipts: Interest . 275.38 1,282.38 Disbursements : Taxes Paid on Real Estate held in Assets of Estate of Manila Z. Parker . 89.26 Cash on Hand, May 31, 1937 . 1,193.12 TOTAL CASH, MAY 31, 1937 . $9,725.77 Deposited in American Security and Trust Company: Checking Account . $9,706.53 Savings Account . 19.2+ $9,725.77 Permanent Fund — Income Account — May 31, 1937 Receipts : Interest on Bonds . $4,320.32 Interest on Bank Deposits . 447.10 Rent for Headquarters Building for Year ended May 31, 1937 . 43,000.00 Rent for New Property for Month ended June 15, 1937 . 400.00 48,167.42 State of Arkansas Bonds received in lieu of Cash . Disbursements : Interest for One Year on Mortgage of Head¬ quarters Building to Penn. Mutual Life In¬ surance Company, Philadelphia, Pa . $3,750.00 Alterations and Repairs on Building . 1,179.97 Ralph D. Quinter — Retainer Fee — 1936-37 . 500.00 Rental of Safe Deposit Box . 38.50 Insurance and Taxes on New Property — 1529 M Street, N. W., Washington, D. C . 145.26 To Treasurer of National Education Associa¬ tion for Income — 1936-37 . 42,763.69 210.00 $+8,377.42 $48,377.42 A full statement of the Permanent Fund is shown in Exhibit “D,” page 17. The list of securities owned by the Permanent Fund is shown in Exhibit “E,” pages 18 and 19. The Parker Estate properties are shown in Exhibit “F,” page 20. Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman Board E. G. Doudna, Secretary of . J. M. Gwinn Trustees A. L. Whittenberg Orville C. Pratt, President June 16, 1937. 816 National Education Association Report of Auditors WAYNE KENDRICK & COMPANY CERTIFIED PUBLIC ACCOUNTANTS RUST BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D. C. June 14, 1937. Dr. Orville C. Pratt, President, National Education Association of the United States, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: We have examined the books and records of account of the National Education Association of the United States for the fiscal year ended May 31, 1937, and submit herewith our report consisting of the following exhibits and comments: Exhibit “A” — Statement of Assets and Liabilities as at May 31, 1937. Exhibit “B” — Condensed Comparative Statement of Income and Expense for the Fiscal Years ended May 31, 1936 and 1937. Exhibit “C” — Income and expenses for the Fiscal Year ended May 31, 1937. Exhibit “D” — Assets of Permanent Funds as at May 31, 1937. Exhibit “E” — Investments in Securities — Permanent Funds Bonds as at May 31, 1937. Exhibit “F” — Properties held for the credit of the Teachers Home and Wel¬ fare Fund as at May 31, 1937. Comments Our examination consisted principally of the verification of assets and liabilities of the Association as at May 31, 1937, but we made sufficient tests of income and expense accounts to substantially determine the accuracy thereof. Cash in banks was verified by a comparison of all checks paid by the banks with the amounts entered in the books of account. We also inspected the checks as to payees and endorsements. All bank accounts were verified by direct correspondence with the depositories, and where statements were furnished by the banks, the balances shown thereon were reconciled to the amounts shown by the books. Cash on hand was verified by actual count. Permanent Fund Income Checks were verified by in¬ spection of the checks showing payments to the Regular Account. Accounts Receivable amounting to $11,178.09 w7ere verified by inspection of the individual accounts in the ledger. The greater part of these accounts are for current exhibit space and advertising, and were verified through inquiries in the Business Manager’s Office. Protested Checks, $1,056.37, were examined by us so far as possible. The majority of checks returned unpaid prior to February 1932, however, had been sent to the makers, and the only evidence available for our inspection was the letter of trans¬ mittal to the makers of such checks. Postdated and Foreign Checks Receivable (Time Checks), $489.11, were verified by inspection of the time checks and by inspection of bank pass books for foreign checks entered for collection. Such checks as were returned by the books unpaid at maturity date are included in “Protested Checks.” After a careful check of these accounts, we increased the Reserve for Doubtful Accounts by $510.16, to $902.40, which we believe to be sufficient to take care of any loss from this source. Associational Records and Information 817 Commercial National Bank Receiver’s Certificates were verified by inspection of the certificates. The amount received is 60 percent of $74,111.42, the total amount on deposit in the General Fund at the time the bank was closed in 1933, leaving a balance of $29,644.57 still held by the Receiver. State, County, and Municipal Warrants were verified by inspection of such warrants. Stamped Envelopes and Cards, $1,219.37, and Office Supplies, $578.78, were in¬ ventoried by your staff, and an inspection was subsequently made by us to determine the reasonableness as to quantities and prices thereof. We also checked calculations and extensions. We have adjusted the books to agree with the actual physical in¬ ventories on hand. Office Furniture and Fixtures, $24,063.94, is the net value shown by the records after deducting the Reserve for Depreciation amounting to $31,237.17. We verified the additions made during the year to this account by inspection of purchase invoices. A physical inventory was made by your employees, which we examined and compared with a similar inventory at May 31, 1936. It is our opinion that where an absolute physical inventory can be made of furniture and fixtures, this is the best method of determining the value thereof. Your present physical inventory which has been taken on a similar basis in prior years, is greater than the present book value and we have not, therefore, made a deduction against income for depreciation for the year 1936-1937. It is our recommendation that this procedure be followed in future years, and that depreciation be taken on furniture and fixtures only in a sufficient amount to reduce the book value to the physical value placed thereon at the close of each fiscal year. While depreciation on the building is recognized, if such a deduction were made, it would be necessary to set aside cash from income accounts to increase the “De¬ preciation Fund.” Depreciation has not been deducted for the past five years due to the fact that the income has been insufficient. If in the ensuing year the income should exceed the requirements of the Association, it is recommended that any such excess be withheld from transfer to the Operating Account from the Permanent Fund Income and invested in securities for the Reserve for Depreciation. Notes Receivable — Life Members, $175,508.20, as shown on Exhibit “D” were examined and found to be in agreement with the books. These are non-negotiable installment notes given in payment of Life Memberships. After deducting curtails on the original amounts of the notes, the above amount consists of notes on which the last payments were made during the fiscal years ended as follows: 1936-1937 . . 1935-1936 . . 1934-1935 . . Prior to 1934 $77,6 97.68 18,939.00 6,717.52 72,154.00 $175,508.20 An active campaign has been in progress during the past year in an effort to collect as much as possible on such notes, and to determine whether any such life members should be dropped from the rolls. So far as has been determined to the present time there are very few who do not desire to retain their membership. Investments in Securities were verified by actual inspection. It will be noted from Exhibit “E” that no interest was received on the St. Louis and San Francisco Rail¬ road bonds during the year, which are in default on interest due January 1, 1933, and subsequent thereto. Interest on Manhattan Railway Co. bonds due April 1, 1937 is also in default. It will be noted from Exhibit “A” that the total net equity value of the Permanent 818 National Education Association Fund Assets was $850,952.85 at May 31, 1937, as compared to $827,124.30 at May 31. 1936. The increase is accounted for as follows: Gross Value at May 31, 1936, as shown by Prior Audit Report . $907,124.30 Less: First Trust Payable — May 31, 1936 . 80,000.00 Net Equity shown above at May 31, 1936 . $827,124.30 To Which Add: Increase in Life Memberships . 19,453.39 Refund of Paving Tax . 425.43 Increase in Elementary School Principals Account — Net. . . . 758.00 Department of Superintendence — Transferred from Na¬ tional Education Association . 2,356.36 Teachers Welfare Fund . 835.37 NET EQUITY MAY 31, 1937— As shown by Exhibit A . . $850,952.85 Note that the first trust shown above is of the beginning of the fiscal year and that it has been reduced within the year to $65,000 as stated elsewhere in this report. Vouchers Payable, $28,995.74, were verified by inspection of invoices and state¬ ments from creditors and examination of the accounts in the voucher register. We also ascertained from the cash book that none of these liabilities had previously been paid. Inquiry was made of the Business Division to determine that no purchases had been made that were not recorded on the books. We checked the amounts due to the Elementary School Principals and Department of Superintendence (hereafter to be known as the American Association of School Administrators), with records kept by these Departments. Amounts due other Asso¬ ciated Departments were accepted as shown by the books. The total shown on Exhibit “A” consists of amounts due Departments as follows: Superintendence . $19,548.56 Rural Education . 886.67 Lip Reading . 158.10 Elementary School Principals . 2,144.29 Adult Education . 311.20 American Education Research . 8,615.98 Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics . 1,004.30 Supervisors and Directors of Instruction . 5,052.03 Science . 205.73 Kindergarten — Primary Education . 198.18 Art Education . 208.20 National Council for Teachers Ret. of N. E. A . 458.75 $38,791.99 Less: Secondary Education Overdrawn . 435.02 $38,356.97 Included in the liabilities of the Association are the amounts of unexpended balances of funds received for the support of the following: Educational Policies Commission . $1,698.34 School Health Education Service . 3,535.09 Horace Mann Centennial Fund . 1,916.63 Grant for Study of Economic Status of Rural Teachers . 750.00 The first trust note payable $65,000, against the real estate and building at 16th and M Streets, was verified by direct correspondence with the holder of the note. Associational Records and Information 819 This note was curtailed $15,000 during the year reducing it from $80,000 to $65,000 as shown above. The investment in Real Estate made in May, 1937, at a total cost of $63,167.50, against which there is a first trust of $50,000 wras verified by inspection of the settlement sheet prepared by the District Title Insurance Company. Your Association owns certain personal and real property received from the Estate of Manila Z. Parker, as shown in Exhibit “F” of this report. These assets have not yet been entered on the books, due to the uncertain value of some of the secu¬ rities. As values are established by exchange or otherwise they are being recorded on the books as an increase to the Teachers Home and Welfare Fund. This fund was increased during the current fiscal year by a payment of $600 on the note of Guettrich-Hisgan. A comparative summary of budgeted and actual expenditures showing the amounts under or over the budget figures is shown below: Over or Actual Budget Under Expenditures Allowance Budget Board of Trustees . Board of Directors . Executive Committee . President’s Contingent Fund . General Office — Operating Expense . Physical Plant . Annual Conventions . Journal of The National Education Association . Other Publications . Expenses of Delegates . Association Membership Fees . Retirement Annuities and Insurance . Unemployment Insurance Tax . Departments . Committees and Commissions . Executive Secretary’s Office . Division of Accounts and Records . Field Division — Legislative . Division of Business . Division of Publications . Division of Research . Division of Classroom Service . Division of Administrative Service . Division of Membership . Promotion and Maintenance of Membership Division of Rural Service . Publicity Section . Secretary’s Contingent Fund . $907.70 $750.00 $157.70 11,187.66 9,650.00 1,537.66 2,567.03 2,800.00 232.97 110.92 500.00 389.08 8,693.96 9,125.00 431.04 56,870.51 56,235.00 635.51 5,079.9 6 4,500.00 579.96 81,041.76 69,800.00 11,241.76 21,277.42 21,250.00 27.42 6,948.00 9,000.00 2,052.00 1,100.00 1,100.00 11,116.71 10,000.00 1,116.71 875.50 915.82 40.32 12,366.62 13,650.00 1,283.38 11,338.67 14,750.00 3,411.33 32,894.44 33,848.00 953.56 34,542.59 31,114.00 3,428.59 11,894.63 11,695.00 199.63 23,022.03 22,318.00 704.03 31,956.85 31,976.00 19.15 55,155.28 56,489.00 1,333.72 7,709.97 7,660.00 49.97 9,275.14 9,286.00 10.86 12,525.07 12,410.00 115.07 20,587.64 15,000.00 5,587.64 8,444.52 8,013.00 431.52 10,333.44 10,122.00 211.44 477.44 3,334.18 2,856.74 $490,301.46 $477,291.00 $13,010.46 It is noted that no cash value for the Retirement Annuities Insurance Policies owned by the Association on the lives of its employees is carried on the books. The Cash surrender value of all policies issued under this Insurance plan at May 31, 1937, aggregates $140,941.53 of which, under the operation of the plan, $89,855.72 belongs to employees and $51,085.81 belongs to your Association. Prepaid subscriptions and memberships have been treated as income at the time received. Likewise such items as costs of unprinted journals, prepaid insurance, pre¬ paid commission on renewal of first trust note payable, etc., have been treated as expenses at the time the invoices were received. 820 National Education Association The following is a summary of the Permanent Fund Income Account for the Current year: Income: Interest on Deposits . $447.10 Interest on Bonds . 4,530.32 Rent at Headquarters Building . 43,400.00 $48,377.42 Deduct: Expenses: Attorney’s Retainer . $500.00 Interest on First Trust Note Payable . 3,750.00 Insurance and Taxes . 145.26 Rent Safe Deposit Box . 38.50 Building Repairs . 1,179.97 5,631.73 Balance Transferred to Treasurer of National Education Association . $42,763.69 Subject to the foregoing comments, we hereby certify that in our opinion, the attached Statement of Assets and Liabilities, marked Exhibit “A,” reflects the true financial position of the National Education Association as at May 31, 1937. Respectfully submitted, WAYNE KENDRICK & COMPANY, By T. DELOS PAXMAN, Certified Public Accountant. Associational Records and Information Statement of Assets and Liabilities as at May 31 Assets GENERAL ACCOUNTS Cash Special Account — On Deposit and On Hand . $ 15,820.02 Regular Account On Deposit, In Transit and On Hand . 69,167.30 Petty Cash . 554.49 Accounts Receivable Advertisers, Publications, Exhibits, etc . $ 11,178.09 Postdated and Foreign Checks . 489.11 Protested Checks . 1,056.37 $ 12,723.57 Less: Reserve for Doubtful Accounts . 902.40 Commercial National Bank Receiver’s Certificates . $ 29,644.57 Less: Reserve for Unpresented Checks . 185.00 State, County and Municipal Warrants . Inventories Stamped Envelopes and Cards . $ 1,219.37 Office Supplies . 578.78 Volumes of Proceedings and Publications . 500.00 Travel Advances . Office Furniture and Fixtures . $ 55,301.11 Less: Reserve for Depreciation . 31,237.17 TOTAL GENERAL ACCOUNTS ASSETS . PERMANENT FUNDS ASSETS— From Exhibit “D” (Net) TOTAL ASSETS . Liabilities and Net Worth LIABILITIES: Vouchers Payable . $ 28,995.74 Due Associated Departments . 38,356.97 Educational Policies Commission . 1,698.34 School Health Education Service . 3,535.09 Horace Mann Centennial Fund . 1,916.63 Grant for Study of Economic Status of Rural Teachers. . . . 750.00 Real Estate Trust Notes Payable ($115,000.00 Contra Deducted from Assets on Exhibit “D”) . Suspense . NET WORTH— REPRESENTED BY: Permanent Funds — From Exhibit “D ’ General Fund . $813,848.89 Elementary School Principals Fund . 8,070.86 Department of Superintendence — National Educational Research Fund . 22,215.07 Teachers Home and Welfare Fund . 6,818.03 Surplus Balance June 1, 1936 . $ 58,503.96 Add: Net Profit for the Fiscal Year ended May 31, 1937 — From Exhibit “ B ” . 25,494.24 Adjustment for Reimbursement of 1935—36 D. C. Unem¬ ployment Tax . 720.23 Cancellation of Check No. 356 . 25.00 821 , 1937 EXHIBIT “ A ” $ 85,541.81 11,821.17 29,459.57 6,084.34 2,298.15 760.00 24,063.94 $ 160,028.98 850,952.85 $1,010,981.83 $ 75,252.77 32.78 850,952.85 84,743.43 $1,010,981.83 TOTAL LIABILITIES AND NET WORTH 822 National Education Association Condensed Comparative Statement of Income and Expenses for the Fiscal Years Ended May 31, 1936 and 1937 EXHIBIT “ B i) 1937 Increase or Fiscal Year Ended Mav 31, Decrease INCOME 1936 1937 Over 1936 Membership from Secretary’s Office . N. E. A. Journal — Subscriptions and Advertising... Commercial Exhibits (Net) . Research Bulletins . Honorariums . Rentals . Sales of Reports, Pamphlets, etc . Permanent Fund — Net Income . Sundry Income . Adjustment of Stationery and Postage Inventories. . Contributions — Legislative Commission for Federal Emergency Aid . TOTAL INCOME . $173,246.08 $186,911. .00 $13,664. 92 201,412.64 221,937 .73 20,525. 09 25,195.57 30,218. .76 5,023. 19 3,562.29 3,792. 89 230. 60 2,438.78 3,431. 69 992. 91 9,380.47 8,710. .08 670. 39 19,247.06 17,174 .42 2,072. ,64 41,163.08 42,763 .69 1,600. 61 864.58 517. .68 346. 90 847 .92 847. 92 801.66 801. 66 $477,312.21 $516,305 .86 $38,993. .65 EXHIBIT “B” 1937 Increase or Fiscal Year Ended May 31, Decrease EXPENSES Schedule 1936 1937 Over 1936 Board of Trustees . . . “B- -1” $ 556 15 $ 907 70 $ 351 55 Board of Directors . . . “B- -1” 8 ,263 25 11,187 66 2 ,924 41 Executive Committee . . . “B- -2” 3 ,564 21 2,677 95 886 26 General Headquarters . . . “B- -3” 8 ,635 44 8,693 96 58 52 Physical Plant . . . “ B-4” 57 ,702 92 56,870 51 832 41 Institutional Expense . . . “B- -5” 114 ,164 24 107,399 14 6 ,765 10 Special Appropriations . . . “ B-6” 23 ,156 33 24,580 79 1 ,424 46 Association Membership Fees . . . “B-6” 1 ,100 00 1,100 00 Financing of Delegates . . “B- -6” 6 ,610 50 6,948 00 337 50 Life Annuities and Insurance . . . “B- -6” 10 ,602 91 11,116 71 513 80 Executive Secretary’s Office . . “B- -7” 40 ,938 22 32,894 44 8 ,043 78 Division of Accounts and Records . . . “B- -8” 34,542 59 34 ,542 59 Division of Legislation . . . “B- -9” 11 ,502 88 11,894 63 391 75 Division of Business . . . “B- -10” 21 ,332 31 23,022 03 1 ,689 72 Division of Publications . . . “B- -11” 43 ,734 32 31,956 85 11 ,777 47 Division of Research . . . “B- -12” 61 ,150 40 55,155 28 5 ,995 12 Division of Classroom Service . . . “B- -13” 7 ,330 75 7,709 97 379 22 Division of Administrative Service . . . “B- -14” 8 ,560 18 9,275 14 714 96 Division of Membership . . . “B- -15” 12,525 07 Promotion and Maintenance of Mem- bership . . . “B- -15” 57 ,955 55 20,587 64 > 6 ,064 88 Division of Rural Service . . . “B- -16” 8,444 52 Publicity Section . . . “B- -17 ”j 10,333 44 j Executive Secretary’s Contingent Fund. . “B- -18” 477 44 477 44 TOTAL OPERATING EXPENSES . $486 ,860 56 $490,301 46 $ 3 ,440 90 Net Loss or Profit before provision for Bad Debts, Protested Checks, and Depreciation . $ 9,548.35 Deduct: Provision for Bad Debts . . Depreciation on Office Furniture and Fixtures .... 5,144.82 NET LOSS OR PROFIT FROM OPERATIONS FOR THE FISCAL YEARS ENDED MAY 31, 1936 AND 1937 . $ 14,693.17 $ 25,494.24 $40,187.41 $ 26,004.40 $35,552.75 510.16 510.16 . 5,144.82 Associational Records and Information 823 Income and Expenses for the Fiscal Year Ended May 31, 1937 EXHIBIT “C” INCOME Memberships from Secretary’s Office . $186,911.00 N. E. A. Journal Subscriptions (Part of Membership Dues) . $175,603.05 Advertising . 46,334.68 - 221,937.73 Commercial Exhibits . 30,218.76 Research Bulletins — Subscriptions . 3,792.89 Honorariums . ■ . 3,431.69 Rentals . 8,710.08 Sales of Reports, Pamphlets, etc . 17,174.42 Permanent Fund Net Income... . 42,763.69 Sundry Income . 517.68 Adjustment of Stationery and Postage Inventories . 847.92 TOTAL INCOME . $516,305.86 Schedule “B-l” EXPENSES Board of Trustees . Board of Directors . Schedule “B-2” Executive Committee Expense President 1936-1937 . President’s Contingent Fund 1936-1937 . President 1935-1936 . President’s Contingent Fund 1935-1936 . First Vicepresident 1936-1937 . First Vicepresident 1935-1936 . Treasurer . Chairman Board of Trustees . Member by Election . Schedule “B-3” General Headquarters Expense Auditing Association Accounts . Express and Freight . General Expense . Insurance . Interest and Discount Allowed . Repairs — Office Furniture and Fixtures . Surety Bonds . Telephone Service . Operators and Information . $907.70 11,187.66 - $12,095.36 $458.55 84.27 158.53 26.65 317.50 208.40 439.41 474.08 510.56 - 2,677.95 $500.00 213.33 177.52 592.14 1,137.53 403.66 293.55 1.603.61 3.772.62 - 8,693.96 Schedule “B-4” Physical Plant Rents . $43,000.00 Light and Power . 1,985.37 Heat . 1,275.26 Janitor Service . 8,332.12 Maintenance . 2,277.76 56,870.51 $24 National Education Association Schedule “B-5” Institutional Expense Annual Convention Registration Bureau . $351.21 Stenographers and Typists . 475.90 Publicity . 300.97 Printing . 1,225.14 Express and Freight . 895.19 Telephone and Telegraph . 3.25 General Program . 475.23 Badges . 225.62 Representative Assembly Expense . 1,127.45 Printing and Distribution N. E. A. Journal . $81,041.76 Volume of Proceedings . 7,699.16 Publications and Reports . 3,145.00 Research Bulletin . 5,209.82 American Education Week . 5,223.44 EXHIBIT “C” $5,077.96 102,319.18 $107,399.14 Schedule “B-6” Special Appropriations Committee on Economic Status of the Rural Teachers $1,038.58 Committee on Retirement . 64.10 Committee on Social-Economic Objectives of America 43.19 Committee on Tenure . 3,728.09 Health Education Department of School Health and Physical Educa¬ tion . 49.52 Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education. . 7.85 Department of Kindergarten — Primary Education . . 200.00 Legislative Commission . 3,049.50 Department of Adult Education . 400.00 Department of Classroom Teachers . 9,635.70 Department of Secondary Education . 1,500.00 National Council on Education . 27.66 Committee on Resolutions . 141.71 Department of Art Education . 250.00 Committee on Amending Charter of N. E. A. . 929.55 Emergency Needs of Other Departments . 103.74 Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics . 200.00 Committee on Reorganization . 1,198.85 Committee on Academic Freedom . 1,059.23 Committee on Equal Opportunity . 11.48 District of Columbia Unemployment Insurance Tax. 875.50 Library Committee . 82.24 $24,580.79 Association Membership Fees American Council on Education . $100.00 World Federation of Education Asso¬ ciations . 1,000.00 1,100.00 Financing of Delegates . 6,948.00 Retirement Annuities and Insurance . 11,116.71 43,745.50 Associational Records and Information 825 Schedule “ B-7 ” Executive Secretary’s Office Salaries and Clerical Services . Travel Expense . Stationery and Office Supplies . Postage and Stamped Envelopes . Telegrams . Schedule “B-8” Division of Accounts and Records Salaries and Clerical Services . Travel Expense . Stationery and Supplies . Postage and Stamped Envelopes . Telegrams . Graphotype Supplies . Schedule “B-9” Division of Field (Legislative) Salaries and Clerical Services . Travel Expense . Stationery and Supplies . Postage and Stamped Envelopes . Telegrams . Schedule “B-10” Division of Business Salaries and Clerical Services . Travel Expense . Stationery and Office Supplies . Postage and Stamped Envelopes . Telegrams . Advertising Expense . Mailing Section — Postage, Supplies, and Wages Multigraph Section . Addressograph Operation . Schedule “ B-ll " Division of Publications Salaries and Clerical Services . Travel Expense . ' . Stationery and Office Supplies . Postage and Stamped Envelopes . Telegrams . Cuts, Leaflets, and Packets . American Education Week . Schedule “B-12” Division of Research Salaries and Clerical Services . Travel Expense . Stationery and Supplies . Postage and Stamped Envelopes . Telegrams . Special Charts, Tables, and Legislative Reference Service . Books and Pamphlets — Library . EXHIBIT “C” $30,371.97 1,517.61 317.98 528.84 158.04 - $32,894.44 $31,763.98 344.03 701.76 841.25 4.00 887.57 - 34,542.59 $10,631.30 1,071.85 91.36 76.07 24.05 - 11,894.63 $19,381.65 1,041.66 335.61 495.08 18.92 290.19 1,428.61 8.70 21.61 - 23,022.03 $27,826.32 1,139.18 374.16 644.83 56.99 1,116.9 6 798.41 - 31,956.85 $50,325.59 855.32 932.14 1,204.49 62.11 1,252.07 523.56 55,155.28 826 National Education Association Schedule “B-13” Division of Classroom Service Salaries and Clerical Services . Travel Expense . Stationery and Supplies . Postage and Stamped Envelopes . Telegrams . EXHIBIT “C" $7, 095.9S 379.71 S7.68 144.53 2.07 - $7,709.97 Schedule “B-14” Division of Administrative Service Salaries and Clerical Services . Travel Expense . Stationery and Supplies . 8,961.53 226.67 86.94 - 9,275.14 Schedule “B-15” Division of Memberships Salaries and Clerical Services . $11,335.42 Travel Expense . 682.60 Stationery and Supplies . 154.88 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 337.80 Telegrams . 14.37 - $12,525.07 Promotion and Maintenance of Membership . 20,587.64 - 33,112.71 Schedule “ B-16 ” Division of Rural Service Salaries and Wages . $6,963.15 Travel Expense . 1,114.89 Stationery and Supplies . 110.53 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 193.34 Telegrams . 62.61 - 8,444.52 Schedule “B-17” Publicity Section Salaries and Wages . $8,398.64 Travel Expense . 1,097.19 Stationery and Supplies . 158.19 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 201.65 Telegrams . 100.47 Photos and Prints. . 264.08 Radio Broadcast . 113.22 - 10,333.44 Schedule “B-18” Executive Secretary’s Contingent Fund . 447.44 TOTAL EXPENSES $490,301.46 NET PROFIT BEFORE PROVISION FOR BAD DEBTS, PRO¬ TESTED CHECKS, AND DEPRECIATION . $26,004.40 Associational Records and Information 827 Assets of Permanent Funds as at May 31, 1937 GENERAL FUND Cash . . Notes Receivable — Life Members . , Investments in Securities (Book Value) Exhibit “E”. . . Equipment . General Office Real Estate, Building and Improvements Less: Reserve for Depreciation . $8,000.00 First Trust Payable . 65,000.00 EXHIBIT “D" . $4,744.85 . 175,508.20 . 110,704.66 . 13,144.01 $570,313.00 73,000.00 497,313.00 Garage Real Estate and Building . Less: First Trust Payable . $50,000.00 Liability for Interest Accrued at Time of Purchase . 733.33 $63,167.50 50,733.33 12,434.17 TOTAL GENERAL FUND . $813,848.89 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS FUND Cash . $471.23 Investments in Securities (Book Value) Exhibit “E” . . . 7,599.63 8,070.86 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH FUND Investments in Securities (Book Value) Exhibit “E” . 22,215.07 TEACHERS HOME AND WELFARE FUND Cash . $4,509.69 Investments in Securities (Book Value) Exhibit