ci Proceedings of the Rational Education <• Association 1935 / ' > NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES PROCEEDING OF THE SEVENTY-THIRD ANNUAL MEETING HELD IN DENVER, COLORADO JUNE 30 TO JULY 5 1935 VOLUME 73 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES WASHINGTON, D. C. . FOREWORD This book comprises the seventy-third annual volume of Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association of the United States. It contains the papers delivered at the Denver convention of the National Education Association and those delivered at the Atlantic City convention of the Department of Superintendence. In the preparation of this volume it has been necessary to abstract many of the papers, particularly those delivered before departmental sessions, owing to the abundance of material and the limited space avail¬ able. Wherever abstracting has been done every effort has been made to preserve the essential ideas the speaker conveyed in his complete address. Where the material for a given department exceeded the space avail¬ able for that department, the officers of the department zvere asked to indicate which addresses to include. In a few cases addresses were received too late for inclusion in the volume. A number of the addresses, of which only abstracts could be pub¬ lished in the Proceedings have been printed in full in other publications. In cases where such information zvas available, it has been indicated by footnotes attached to the addresses concerned. Contents of previous volumes of Proceedings of the National Education Association may he found by consulting the Education Index. CONTENTS GENERAL SESSIONS The Higher Leadership . — McConnell _ Address of Welcome . — Stapleton . Address of Welcome . — Threlkeld. The Place of the Educational Profession in the National Life . — Newlon . . . Forum Discussion — Needs of Adult Education A State Program of Adult Education . — Burnett . Art in Adult Education . — Bryson . The Place of the Library in Adult Education . — Eastman . The Place of Radio in Adult Education . — Hale . The Place of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers in Adult Education . — Pettengill . Public Affairs Forums as Agencies for Adult Education. — Studebaker . . . Looking Ahead in Education . — Smith . Address of Welcome . — Johnson . Address of Welcome . . . — Lewis . The School and the Present Social Situation . — Kilpatrick .... Functions of the School in This Democracy . — Stoddard . Education and the General Welfare . — Costigan . Cooperation with this Generation . — Voigt . Forum Discussion — Needs of Youth Youth Bids for a Needed Opportunity . — Bush . Problems of Youth from the Standpoint of Social Studies . — Lewis . Problems of Youth as Seen among Freshmen in a State University . : . — Cowles . Problems Facing Young Women in the High Schools and Colleges of Today . — Stratton . The Youth Problem from the Point of View of the Children’s Bureau . — McConnell .... Problems of Youth as Seen in the Civilian Conservation Corps Camps . — Marsh . The Needs of Youth as Seen by the Office of Education. . — Kelly . Problems of Youth — What Does Youth Most Need?.... — Watson . Panel Jury Discussion Groups I. Academic Freedom . — Preble . II. The Economic Status of the Teacher . — Buckingham ... III. The Teacher as a Citizen . — Hand . IV. Education’s Oldest Challenge — Character . — Threlkeld . V. Credit Unions . — Orchard . VI. The Teacher’s Health . —Wood . Happiness, The Longer View . — Knight . Education’s Most Dangerous Rival . — Hunter . Address . — McNutt . Munitions Investigations by the United States Senate . — Nye . [5] 17 21 21 23 28 30 31 33 34 35 39 54 56 57 66 73 83 89 90 92 93 96 99 102 104 106 108 110 113 115 116 118 118 125 130 6 National Education Association LIFE MEMBERSHIP DINNER Historical Note . Crabtree Life Membership Dinner . Early Recollections . Building thru Life Memberships . Mrs. Crabtree’s Contribution to a Successful Career Now It Can Be Told . Appreciation for Headquarters Staff . Presentation of Volume of Tributes . Address . • — Chase . . — Joyner . . — Saunders — Mears . . —Hale ... — Morgan — Givens . — Crabtree . 132 . 133 . 135 . 137 . 139 . 141 . 146 . 147 . 147 REPORTS OF COMMITTEES Introduction . 150 Report of Committee on Amending Charter . — Shaw . 151 Report of American Library Association Committee on Co¬ operation with the National Education Association. - Kennedy . 153 Report of Committee To Cooperate with the National As¬ sociation of Teachers in Colored Schools . — Newbold . 156 Report of Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher. . — Buckingham ... 159 Report of Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education. . — Wood . 162 Report of Committee on International Relations . — Woodward .... 164 Report of Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education. . — Norton . 166 Report of Joint Committee of the National Education As¬ sociation and the National Congress of Parents and Teachers . — Langworthy ... 167 Report of Legislative Commission . — Hall . 168 Report of National Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life . i . — Moyer . 172 Report of Committee of Seven on Reorganization of the Na¬ tional Education Association . — Oberholtzer ... 175 Report of Committee on Retirement Allowances . — Force . 204 Report of Committee on Resolutions . — Avery . 207 Report of Cooperative Committee on Rural Education . — daggers . 216 Report of Committee on Social-Economic Goals of America. . — Kelly . 218 Report of Committee on Tenure . — DuShane ...... 221 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Historical Note . The Future of the National Education Association as En¬ visioned by its President . — Smith .. The Future of the National Education Association . — Doudna The Future of the Association . . — Givens Academic Freedom in a Period of Transition . — Childs . Should the Profession thru the National Education Associa¬ tion Provide for the Protection of Teachers and Administrators Who Are Unjustly Treated? . — Kelley . Concluding Discussion on the Future of the National Edu¬ cation Association . — Crabtree Teachers Colleges Versus Liberal Arts Colleges in the Edu¬ cation of Teachers . — Davis . Secretary’s Minutes . 226 227 229 230 233 237 238 240 243 DEPARTMENT OF ADMINISTRATIVE WOMEN IN EDUCATION Historical Note . . 252 Secretary’s Minutes . 253 Contents 7 DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION Historical Note . 256 Panel Discussion — Education of Leaders for Adult Education An Interpretation of Basic English . — Guyton . 257 A New Emphasis in Education for Citizenship . — Guyton . 261 Panel Discussion — Education of Leaders for Adult Education What of the Future of Democracy? . — Cherrington ... 263 The Challenge of Leisure . — Braden . 265 Secretary’s Minutes . 266 DEPARTMENT OF ART EDUCATION Historical Note . 272 Social Aspects of Art . — Cheskin . 273 DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION Historical Note . 276 Training beyond High School To Meet Requirements of Present Employment Levels . — Odell . 277 Guidance in the Selection of Subjects in Junior and Senior High Schools . — Hughes . 278 Placement of Graduates in the Commercial Field . — Maclean . 279 Senior High School — Curriculum Content . — Washburn .... 280 Junior High School — Curriculum Content . — McCormick ... 281 Junior College — Curriculum Content . — Jones . 282 Secretary’s Minutes . 282 DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS Historical Note . Around the Year with the President . — Lord, ... Panel Discussion — What Next in Legislation ? Discussion . — Wyatt . Discussion . — Hayes . Discussion . — Jones ... Progress of Public Education in Texas . — Caldwell Discussion . — Couch . Address . — Roche . Report of 1935 Committee on Academic Freedom . — Tarbell Secretary’s Minutes . 286 287 290 292 293 295 296 297 300 302 DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN Historical Note . The Place of Women in the Community . — Roosevelt . The College Woman in the World Community . — Woolley . The Facts as Employers Find Them . . . — Shepard . The Expedition of Youth . — Samuelson .... 312 313 316 319 324 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Historical Note . Education in the Tennessee Valley Authority . Problems in the Measurement of Teaching Ability — Reeves — Betts . 328 329 336 8 National Education Association The Measurement of Teaching Ability . — Barr Reading Interests . — Jordan Secretary’s Minutes . 337 342 346 DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Historical Note . Greetings . — Givens . . The Principal’s Participation in Politics . — Tivitchell Report of the 1935 Yearbook Committee — Socializing Ex¬ periences in the Elementary School . — Clement . Can Character Be Taught? . — Jenkins .. The Principal’s Responsibility for Teacher Growth . — Hartman What’s It All About? . — Michael .. Count For One . — Adams . . . A Plea for Sanity . — Coffman . Panel Discussion — The Principal’s Job Today . — Morrison Panel Discussion — The Environment and Its Relation to the School . — Shankland Some Implications of Progressive Education . — Stoddard Greetings . — Palmer .. Some Aspects of the Program of the Elementary School as It Is Planned To Meet the Challenge in this Period of Social Change . — Bland ... The Place of the Moving Picture in a Building Activity.... — Herrington Music Appreciation — Its Contribution to Leisure-Time In¬ terests . — Lind . Report of Resolutions Committee . — Kline .... Report of Professional Relations Committee . — Stratton .. Secretary’s Minutes . . ... 350 .... 351 . ... 352 .... 353 . ... 354 . . . . 355 .... 357 . ... 358 .... 359 . . . . 362 . ... 363 . . . . 364 . ... 365 366 368 369 370 371 371 DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY EDUCATION Historical Note . The Junior School — Its Plan and Purpose. The Gospel of Beauty . The Purpose of the Junior School . Skills and' Drills in the New Junior School Secretary’s Minutes . . 380 — Lane .... . 381 — Dobbs . . . . 382 — Smith . . . . . 385 — Smith . . . . 386 . 387 DEPARTMENT OF LIP READING Historical Note . Greetings . — Cushman Greetings . — Palmquist Mental Hygiene as Related to the Problem of Deficient Hearing . — Rees .... Conservation of Hearing . — Carmody Secretary’s Minutes . 390 391 391 392 393 394 DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION — Burns Historical Note . Pioneering in Music Education Secretary’s Minutes . 398 399 402 Contents 9 DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION Historical Note . Redirecting Rural Education thru a Better Understanding of and Wider Participation in County and Local School Programs in Rural Areas by State Depart¬ ments of Education . More Effective County and Local School Organization . Choosing the New Road . The One-Room Rural School in a Redirected Program . A Twelve-Grade Program in a County System of Schools. . Consolidated and Village Schools as Avenues for Redirect¬ ing Learning Programs in Rural Areas . The School Plant in a Redirected Program . Redirecting the Training Program of Teachers of Rural Children . Redirecting the Training Program for Rural Youth . Redirecting the Training Program for Teachers of Adults in Rural Areas . Redirecting the Training Program for Rural School Ad¬ ministrators . How May the State Staff Aid in Redirecting the Program Rural Education in Terms of Presentday Needs thru Supervision? . Improvement of Rural Education thru Coordination . Leadership of the Department of Public Instruction for Rural Education . Report of the Committee on Resolutions . Improved Methods of Financing Rural Education . Betterment of Rural Education thru Improved Leadership.. Larger Units of Organization . 404 — Snyder . ... 405 — Robinson . . . . . . 406 — Plenzke . . . . . . . 407 — Tye . . . . 408 — Dunn . . . . 409 — Clark . . . . 411 — Brooker . . . . . . 412 — Heyl . . . . 413 — Stewart .... . . . 415 — King . . . . 416 — Frazier .... . . . 417 — King . . . . 418 — Dakin . 1 . . . 419 i — fVieland . . . . . . 420 — Powers .... . .. 422 — Carr . . . . 424 — Anderson . . . . . 426 — Elder ...... . . . 427 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION Historical Note . 430 What Is a Program of School Health Service Adequate To Meet Presentday Needs? . — Bailey . 431 Health and Physical Education for the New Era . — Hinman . 432 The Program of Girls’ Athletics from the 1935 Viewpoint.. — Cave . 433 Avocational Training for the New Leisure . — Braden . 435 Secretary’s Minutes . 436 DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Historical Note . A Coherent Science Teaching Program . — Caldwell Science in the Elementary Schools of Cleveland . — Melrose The Preparation of Teachers of Science To Meet the Needs of the New Program . — Jean .. The Social Significance of Science Teaching . — Bayles . Secretary’s Minutes . 440 441 443 445 446 447 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Historical Note . 450 The Dean Looks at Youth Problems of Today . — Stratton . 451 The High-School Principal Looks at Youth Problems of Today . — Chalmers . 451 10 National Education Association How Much Flexibility in Secondary Education Is Needed in the Face of Youth Problems of Today? . — Fleming Creating Character Values thru High-School Education.... — Loper A Commission Plan for Youth . — Marsh Germany and Its Youth . — Norlin Youth and the Present Crisis . — Small Secretary’s Minutes . 453 453 454 455 457 458 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Historical Note . 462 Implications of Present Trends in the High-School Program. . — Stoddard . 463 The Harmful Effects of Propaganda and Their Avoidance. . — Jordan . 464 Facing the Future in Secondary Education . — Schwegler .... 467 DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL STUDIES Historical Note . 472 A Background of Significant Information . — West . 473 A Social, Economic, and Political Philosophy . — Graham . 473 An Inspiration toward Worthy Character and Good Citizenship . — Rosenlof . 475 What the Social Studies Have Done for Me . — Eskildson . 476 Recent Experimentation in Social Studies Teaching . — Michell . 477 A Practical Program for the Social Studies . — Sexson . 478 Making the Program Fit the Needs of Individual Pupils. . . . — Batch . 480 Ideals for the Future Development of the Social Studies Program . — Rugg . 481 Secretary’s Minutes . 482 DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Historical Note . Needed Legislation in the Interest of all Types of Exceptional Children . • The Psychology of Exceptional Children . ■ Meeting the Needs of Exceptional Children in Rural Schools. . - Speech Curriculums From a Personality Approach . Auditory Deficiency and Delayed Speech . - The Stammerer — Whose Responsibility? . ■ The Deaf Child and Public Responsibility . • Mental Hygiene and Education . ■ Emotional Training in the Rural School . • The Gifted Child and His Education . ■ The Education of Exceptional Children in a Rural . State . ■ The Education of the Retarded Child . ■ 484 -Nutter mile .... 485 -Hawk . 485 -Hcffernan . 486 -Murray . 488 -Hawk . 489 -Willsea . 490 -Davis . 491 -Nash . 492 -Wait . 493 -Taylor . 495 -Sholty . 496 -Ballenger . 497 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE Historical Note . Governmental Planning in the United States . The Quest for National Security . The Double Crisis of the Schools . The Economy of Abundance . Social Change and Education, The 1935 Yearbook — Jury- panel Discussion . . 500 — Merriam . 501 — Beard . 510 — Frank . . 515 — Chase . ! 526 — Studebaker . . . 534 Contents Educational Leadership in a Troubled World . Public Education as a Force for Social Improvement . Education and Public Service . The Child in Relation to the Twentieth Century . What Do We Mean by Adapting the Schools to Social and Pupil Needs? . Looking Ahead toward Educational Recovery . The Need for a Unifying Purpose . The City Room and the School Room . So Conceived and So Dedicated . Report of the Committee on Resolutions . Message from President Roosevelt . Secretary’s Minutes . 11 — Strayer . 559 — ■Kilpatrick . 567 — -Coffman . 575 — Woolley . 580 — W eet . 583 — Norton . 590 — Wallace . 595 — Broun . 604 — Russell . 609 618 622 623 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERVISORS AND DIRECTORS OF INSTRUCTION Historical Note . What Constitutes Socially Useful Activities for Early Ele¬ mentary Pupils? . Activities of the Curriculum Commission of the National Council of Teachers of English . Symposium — Issues in the Supervision of English The Problem of Grade Placement . The Problem of Vocabulary . An English Curriculum Built Cooperatively . The Place of Science in the Elementary-School Program.... The Question of Science Equipment and Materials . The Integration of the Curriculum thru the Arts . Civic Institutions and Interests as Source Material in Art Education . The Art Problems of the General Supervisor . The Integration of the Child — The Goal of the Educational Program . Directing the Activities of the Classroom toward the Mental Health Objective . Panel — The Distinction between Course of Study Writing and Curriculum D evelopment . Secretary’s Minutes . The Place of Home Economics in Developing Better Panel Discussion — Integration of Education for Better . . . 628 — Power . ... 629 — Hatfield . . . ... 629 — Cutright . . . . . . 630 — Gosling . . . . ... 631 — Lincoln . . . . ... 632 — Simpson . . . ... 633 — Carpenter . . ... 634 — Irwin . ... 635 — Jacobs . ... 636 — Harney . . . . ... 637 —Wile . ... 638 — A verill . . . . ... 640 — Gumlick . . . ... 641 ... 642 HOME ECONOMICS — Smith . ... 647 — Broome . . . . ... 647 — Gosling . . . . ... 648 — Raitt . . . . 651 — Smith . ... 653 — Oberholtzer ... 654 —Hill . ... 655 — Smith . ... 657 Secretary’s Minutes . 658 12 National Education Association DEPARTMENT OF TEACHERS COLLEGES Historical Note . 1% . 660 Our Next Order of Business . — Donovan ...... 661 What Has Happened to the Finances of the Teachers Col¬ leges during the Depression ? . — Frasier . 662 The Ways and Means of Arousing Public Interest in the Financial Needs of Teachers Colleges . — Pittenger . 668 Adventures in Faculty Cooperation and Participation in the Training School . — Gregory . 675 Characteristics of Successful College Teaching . — Scott . 681 Teaching Is a Social Grace . — Butterfield .... 688 Presentday Reasons for Requiring a Longer Period of Pre- Service Preparation for Teachers . — Counts . 694 Inter-Institutional Relationships in Developing a State Pro¬ gram for the Education of Teachers . — Klonower .... 702 The Teachers College in the Service of the State and Nation. . — Donovan . 709 List of Accredited Institutions — 1935-36 . 714 DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION Historical Note . 720 The Noon-Day Movies, Education’s New Tool . — Meola . 721 Visualized Education in Appreciation of the Arts . — Bishop . 721 How To Prepare and Present a Science Night Program.... — Collier . 722 Characteristics in Still Pictures for Instructional Use in the Classroom . — Trolinger . 723 The Use of Cartoons and the Chalk Talk in the Classroom. . — Ream . 723 The Adaptation of Art to Classroom Work . — Hellstern . 724 Culminating Activity in Visual Education Using the Opaque Projector . — Larson . 725 A Wide Area of Visual Instruction Service . — Fox . 725 DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Historical Note . 728 Vocational Training in the CCC . — Marsh . 729 Vocational Education and the TVA . — Reeves . 730 Technological Changes in Industry and the New Apprentice. . — Adams . 732 Vocational Education and the NRA . . — Patterson . 733 Secretary’s Minutes . 734 WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS Historical Note . Biennial Report . — Crabtree Augustus O. Thomas . — Miller .. ASSOCIATION AL RECORDS AND INFORMATION Act of Incorporation . Bylaws . Calendar of Meetings . Officers — 1934-35 . Headquarters Staff . Officers — 1935-36 . Committees of the National Education Association — 1934-35 . 736 737 740 745 750 762 764 766 770 777 Contents 13 Minutes of the Fifteenth Representative Assembly . 793 Minutes of the Meetings of the Board of Directors . 848 Minutes of the Meetings of the Executive Committee . 879 Minutes of the Meetings of the Board of Trustees . 892 Report of the Board of Trustees . 897 Report of Auditors . 900 Report of Treasurer . 917 Report of Budget Committee . 920 Annual Report of the Secretary . 929 Report of the Committee on Necrology . 941 The Fifteenth Representative Assembly . 948 Index . 973 The work on this volume , including the gathering of materials, planning of the general design , editing, proof¬ reading, and makeup, has been done by the following members of the Division of Publications staff: Lyle W . Ashby, F . Erie Prior, Hazel Arrington Brown, Mildred Bunch, Louise Murray, and Thelma F. Camp. Joy Elmer Morgan, Director Division of Publications gENERAL Sessions THE HIGHER LEADERSHIP REVEREND FRANCIS J. MCCONNELL, RESIDENT BISHOP, METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, NEW YORK, N. Y. A few years ago A. D. Lindsay, principal of Balliol College, Oxford, delivered at Swarthmore College a remarkable course of lectures on the essentials of democracy. Among other conceptions Principal Lindsay made it clear that in democracies as large as England and the United States today, the old type of leadership which a single leader could win on his own account is no longer possible. A Burke in England or a Webster in America spoke to comparatively few people, and those people for the most part homogeneous and like-minded groups. When a democracy grows in number to one or a hundred million persons such a power cannot be wielded by one individual, unless he has back of him a fairly well-organized group of persons large enough to give numerical weight to his ideas. There are, of course, elementary passions and desires to which a single pastor with a radio can appeal, but even such leaders fail unless some social crisis has of itself created the atmosphere which lends power to the speaker’s words. Such crises themselves make for like-mindedness. Lindsay was presumably speaking of the ordinary process of democracy in ordinary times. In such times, if democracy is not to wallow about in futility there must be groups enough like-minded to furnish at least a basis for organization. Among such groups Lindsay intended, for example, workers associations, the aim of which is to see that the rights of workers are kept before the public; churches whose task it is to hold on high normal and human ideals to be realized in social contacts ; and the more or less general but powerful classes who have been trained to rely on experts, to believe in and further scientific methods; those who have in the schools come close enough to scientific method to know it when they see it. Both the church and the school have an interest in all the alive social crises, so that it becomes the duty of both types of institution to create and foster an organized public opinion in which the leadership that looks toward the large social aims gets its chance. It is true that in society all advance depends upon the leadership of individuals but that leadership in time de¬ pends upon an atmosphere in which it can breathe. I do not think we have yet given enough honor, for example, to scientific clubs which have at various times supplied an audience and an intellectual climate. Everybody will concede that Sir Isaac Newton could not have given the world any¬ thing if he had been born into a Central African tribe, but not all of us realize that Newton could not have given the world much, if the England of his day had not developed far enough in scientific interest to make scien- [ 17 ] 18 National Education Association tific discussions and scientific clubs possible. It is not merely that the scientist can have a past created by the efforts of precedence on which he can build. None the less, the scientist needs a presentday interest in his themes to draw out of him the best that is in him. The higher leadership, then, for which we seek, is that created by the interest of groups deliberately set in making social conditions favorable to the individual who can lead on, inspiring the leader to utterance impossible to the group itself. We should all agree, I think, that all high leadership demands men who can see things as they are, and needs the creation of conditions in which men may look for facts in any direction. I remember years ago listening to a group of persons professionally interested in education who were making merry over a state university professor who was lecturing on mosquitoes. The conservatives of the group ended in an armed protest against the ex¬ penditure of public funds on insignificant themes. What the scientist was really aiming for was to find the effects of mosquitoes on human life. The conversations to which I listened occurred in the late eighties. Within ten years of that time investigation of mosquitoes had paved the way to success¬ ful attack on yellow fever and malaria. It is not the power to see things in the realm of the more strictly physical sciences of which I speak, however. The battle for the right to see in this field has been won. I have rather in mind the power to see in the social realms. One of the most outstanding facts in human life is the degree to which all sorts of hardships are taken for granted. In a Latin-American city, I once came upon a church in what we shall call a “ red-light district.” I asked the pastor if the church was doing anything to improve conditions. His astonished reply was that he did not suppose that anyone had even thought of such a thing. The extent to which the human race has put up with remediable evils is almost beyond belief. This form of adjustment to evil conditions is, I suppose, a tribute to humanity’s inborn genius for adjustment. Human beings can makeshift to get along with almost any woe. Those of you who have traveled in China may recall your distress at the sight of the heavy wheelbarrow loads pushed by human beings. The creaking of the wheels was at first a torture to you, but the torture did not last more than ten days. Perhaps the wheelbarrow pusher himself did not think of torture. His acceptance of his plight is the worst feature of that plight. The old adage tells us that the worm will turn, but the adage is more striking than true. It is not true that when conditions become unspeakable the sufferers rise against them. The sufferers get too benumbed to rise. It is the enlightened onlooker who has the power to see things as they are who prompts the rising. If we could ask the innumerable hosts of past ages why they endured the hardships the description of which makes us ill today, they would probably answer with a shrug of the shoulders that they never thought about them. Of course we can say as to all such problems that the hardships were inevitable, that they were part of the common lot, that General Sessions 19 people were not as sensitive then as now, that there was nothing any indi¬ vidual could do. All of this would retain enough in a way, but it would not meet the fact of the heavy dullness that was not awakened earlier. The most depressing fact about the present depression has been the cheerfulness of the people. The glaring contradiction and absurdity of a crisis in which hosts are in danger of starvation because there is too much food is treated almost with amusement. It seems a sort of joke on the social order. Yet while we say all this we must not allow ourselves to fall into distrust of humanity. Men may be dull but they can be sharpened. Professions like those of the physician and the teacher have to do with that miraculous power we call human vitality. It is sometimes said with a sneer that the strength of the medical profession is grounded in the fact that 85 percent of the patients who go to doctors will get well anyhow. This seems to be good fun, but if the statement is scientifically trustworthy it comes from doctors and does hint at the fact that any sensible physician builds on the forces inherent in the human organism. Likewise the discerning teacher discovers a mental vitality in the successive incoming generations on which he can build. Those of us whose memories have a span of a half-century or even considerably less, realize the change toward the greater hopefulness in present educational methods. Years ago even preparatory schools boasted of the number of students they flunked out in the course of a year. Excessive flunking is a peculiarity of inexperienced instructors and of institutions — aside of course, from technical institutions calling for a special¬ ized talent — which do not realize that too much of an educational waste- heap is a disgrace. When I was a schoolboy I was regarded by my teachers as a total loss in mathematics. I had a defect which seemed to the teacher fatal — I could not get the answers right. In a rather frantic effort to get me ready for college my father sent me for a special course to Phillips Andover Academy, where I was placed in the mathematics classes of Pro¬ fessor Eaton — revered thru fifty-four years of teaching at Andover. One day Professor Eaton announced that he expected all students in a course in algebra to take a certain number of hours a week extra in working at original problems. I asked to be excused on the ground that I was “ no good ” in mathematics anyhow. Then the professor pointed out to me that my failure was not in mathematical method at all, but in ability to calculate. He said that in tests where all my answers were wrong all my methods were usually right. Now what that interview did for me was to open a great door. It made possible an interest in mathematical reading which has followed me thru the years. I never became a mathematician. In after days I told Professor Eaton of this experience. He did not remember it, or remember me probably, because he had talked in the same hopeful way to students too numerous to recall. Nevertheless, that need of encouragement was an intellectual life-saver to me. Leave me alone today with a mathe¬ matical problem in any field that I have studied, leave me long enough and I’ll find a way to solve it — and ninety-nine chances out of a hundred, if any actual calculating is involved, the answer will be wrong! 20 National Education Association The educational system today is abounding in hope. It makes the at¬ mosphere of experiment a social as well as a scientific one. It goes without saying that such an atmosphere must be one of freedom. The schools of the United States today are doing more for real freedom of the land than the scores of blazing patriots who infest legislative halls calling for oaths of devotion to the Constitution — or to whatever the patrioteer thinks sacred. It is said that nationalism is today the deadliest foe to Christianity. It is also the deadliest foe to anything worthwhile, especially intellectual growth. That reported denouncement of the Einstein theory by German university professors is from one angle a joke, but from another a menace. The cause of the denouncement was that Einstein was a Jew. We have an anti-alien sentiment in this country which would go to equal lengths, not against Jews especially but against anything alien. The duty of freedom is however wider than that of fighting against strangulating oaths of allegiance. It is that of creating a social atmosphere in which the man whom we call the prophet gets his chance to win a hearing. Of course, there is no good reason for making a pet of a prophet. He has to take his chances of gaining a hearing with the other seekers for public attention. He is not likely to be the best-balanced mind in the community, if by balance we mean conventional and sane. But he is the “ feeler ” of the social organism. His sensitiveness is of the antenna type — catching im¬ pulses and messages too fine for ordinary detection. It is the height of social lunacy to persecute prophets. It is social wisdom to give them their chance. To be sure, this freedom does involve some social cost. If the church is to open the door to free-thinking about divine values, free-thinking about atheism comes thru. If the nation is to allow criticism of anything it must allow criticism of itself. All this is inevitable — but it is the path to progress. If we are to have free speech we must listen to much that is dangerous and some that is foolish but we shall find wisdom after a while. Democracy cannot be established finally by undemocratic means. If the school cannot teach democracy to defend itself in discussion it has failed, for democracy cannot defend itself in any other way and remain democratic. Against one current phase we should be especially on guard. All sorts of vested interests today are telling us that we should not rely on any agencies of change except the slow and gradual processes of education. Of course educational processes are slow and gradual, but their aim is to train minds to act quickly. The educational system should make possible this quick thinking and quick acting. The fact that the schools exert their molding power over pupils for eight or ten years might not mean that they turn out pupils who will need eight or ten years to make up their minds on social questions. The object of the long training is to beget the power to move by the short path to just conclusions. One sound object of the much abused examination system is to teach pupils to marshal and state their knowledge quickly. In dealing with industrial, national, and international problems the higher leadership calls for a social temper and social self-mastery that will enable the forces which stand for the supreme human values to act quickly. The only argument for dictatorship is that dictators are faster than democratic General Sessions 21 agencies. It is possible however, to develop an alert public mind — a mind which can develop only in a society of that clear intellectual air where men are trained to see things as they are, to believe in themselves and their fellow men, and to insist upon the largest and finest intellectual and moral freedom. ADDRESS OF WELCOME BENJAMIN F. STAPLETON, MAYOR OF DENVER, DENVER, COLO. I am not here as an individual, so I will have no advice to give. I am here as a representative of the citizens of Denver. We want to express to you our appreciation of the fact that you are honoring us with this conven¬ tion at this time. We want to assure you that we are at your service. We want you to enjoy yourselves. Travel is education and we have a great many things for you to see. Within the boundaries of Colorado there is probably more scenery than there is in all Europe combined. More than half of the peaks of the Rockies or of the United States, over 14,000 feet in height, are in Colorado. We have spent considerable money trying to make the scenery of Colorado and surrounding Denver territory available to ourselves and our guests. We want you to enjoy it. Now any trip that you have on your plans no doubt will be worthwhile. We haven’t any trips to sell, but if you want to know something about the surrounding country we will be glad to have somebody give you correct information so that you can see at the least expense of your time, the things that are worth seeing. As I say, we are your hosts. We want you to realize that and not to be timid, and if we can serve you in any way possible, just call upon us. The city of Denver is yours to enjoy. Let us help you enjoy it. ADDRESS OF WELCOME A. L. THRELKELD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DENVER, COLO. I have met several of my friends on the street in the last two days who have said, “ I suppose this convention is giving you a lot of hard work to do.” The only honest answer I could give to that was a negative one. The thought came to my mind, of course, that one of the principles of school administration is to call upon others to do the work. When one of us superintendents is made chairman of a committee to help to make arrange¬ ments for entertaining a convention such as this, that is the first principle under which we operate. But in Denver it is not necessary for a superin¬ tendent of schools to call upon anybody. The only problem I have had has been that of finding enough to do for those who have called up and have wanted to do something. 22 National Education Association The plans for your entertainment that are being worked out, and which we hope will add to your pleasure, are in the hands of such organizations as the Denver Classroom Teachers Association, the Principals and Directors Association, the Clerks and Secretaries Association, the Custodians Asso¬ ciation, the Parent-Teacher Association, the Board of Education, and vari¬ ous other groups. You will see that we believe in organizations. As the superintendent of schools I believe in the employees of the school system being organized as a way of functioning and as a way of expressing them¬ selves, and when it comes to an occasion of this kind, it is indeed convenient for these organizations immediately to take over the enterprise and go ahead with it, and that is what they are doing this week. We are enjoying your presence with us. While I know it is true that , any city would enjoy having the National Education Association with it, in Denver perhaps we have a peculiar reason for it. This is a wonderful city, and while I am not venturing adverse comment about it at all because I do not feel that I honestly could, it is one of our physical facts that we are somewhat isolated. Of course that has both advantages and disad¬ vantages. We are several hundred miles from another city of comparable size. Notwithstanding all of our modern methods of transportation and communication, we still feel the effect of that isolation. Perhaps that adds something to the avidity with which we approach this week, a week in which the educational world is being brought right to our doors. And we enjoy it. It is a great pleasure to us to do what we can to make your week with us a pleasure to you. I shall not go into any of the details of the program of entertainment that has been vcorked out for the week. You will find it generally outlined in the pamphlet in your envelope entitled “ For Your Pleasure.” If you will follow the suggestions in that pamphlet by going to the information booth at registration headquarters, people from the various organizations I re¬ ferred to a moment ago will be there to explain in detail. We only hope that you take advantage of the various opportunities that we are trying to offer for your pleasure this week. We especially hope you will be with us for the trips on next Friday. Comprehensive arrangements have been made with reference to these trips. We are prepared to take several thousand people into the hills, up toward Estes Park, up around Boulder, west of Denver, on that day and we are looking forward with especial pleasure to these trips. I do not believe any¬ thing gives a Denver citizen more pleasure, or a Colorado citizen more pleasure, than to take guests into the mountains and show them our scenery. Now on behalf of these school people of Colorado and this region, and especially on behalf of the Denver school people, I want to extend to you a most cordial welcome to this meeting and we sincerely hope you will enjoy every minute of it. General Sessions 23 THE PLACE OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROFESSION IN THE NATIONAL LIFE JESSE H. NEWLON, DIRECTOR, LINCOLN SCHOOL OF TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. ; AND PAST PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION This morning I wish to speak of one aspect of the role of the educational profession in the national life, of the responsibilities placed upon teachers by the fact that popular education is the cornerstone of democracy. The self-styled patriots, the social and economic reactionaries, who give lip service to democracy while opposing all social change, should remember the important fact that free schools were the product of the eighteenth cen¬ tury political revolution that brought the principle of democracy into gov¬ ernment. The great statesmen who were the founders of our nation — Jefferson, Madison, Washington, Franklin, and others — saw that popular education was essential to the successful functioning of a republican govern¬ ment, that, as Madison said, “A people who mean to be their own governors must arm themselves with the power that knowledge gives.” After the Revolution the people demanded education as a necessary guarantee of their liberties. No one can read the history of the fight for free schools without realizing that it was essentially a fight by the common people for political freedom and equality. In 1830 a group of working-men in Philadelphia ex¬ pressed this conviction in a resolution to the effect that there can be no real liberty without a wide diffusion of real intelligence; that the members of a republic should all be alike instructed in the nature and character of their equal rights and duties, as human beings, and as citizens .... that until means of equal instruction shall be equally secured to all, liberty is but an unmean¬ ing word, and equality an empty shadow. It is true today, as it was in 1830, that the people cannot have liberty and equality unless they are informed concerning social conditions and social problems, and the possibilities of life on this continent. The forces that would cripple education by cutting school budgets or by the suppression of teaching designed to give youth knowledge of social conditions are the most dangerous influences in America today. It is also significant that the industrial revolution was gaining its first great momentum at the very time that national systems of education were being established in Western Europe and America. A wide dissemination of general and technical knowledge is essential not only to the democratic process but to the technical and economic processes of the twentieth century. It is not a mere coincidence that in Russia today the building of an industrial system and the building of an educational system are being carried on simultaneously. Education is the life blood of industrialism, whether in capitalist or socialist countries. The fact that the United States is rapidly approaching universal education thru the secondary school, while a million youths attend publicly supported universities and technical schools, is due 24 National Education Association to the necessities of industrialism and to the wealth which modern technology has created, as well as to the faith of the people in education. The industrial revolution has wrought the most profound social changes in the recorded history of the race. Far greater changes have come in ways of living and thinking in the brief span of our national existence than occurred in the eighteen centuries from the beginning of the Christian era to the days of George Washington. It is difficult to comprehend how differ¬ ent is the complex industrial civilization of today from the relatively simple agrarian and handicraft culture of only a century ago ; and the extent to which political, economic, and social institutions have lagged behind indus¬ trial advances in this period. This social lag has brought us to one of the great crises of civilization. Despite man’s growing mastery over his natural environment, and despite the almost unlimited natural resources of our country, ten million workers are today unable to find employment, while more than half of the families of the United States have incomes below the minimum required for the maintenance of the bare decencies of life. Poverty stalks in a land of potential plenty because we have not the character and intelligence to manage our resources in the interests of all. It is this situation that presents the great challenge not only to statesmen but to the educa¬ tional profession today. As we look about us in the Western world we can see clearly what will happen if the people are not placed in possession of the facts that will enable them to find solutions for their economic problems consistent with the ideals of their democratic tradition. Under the guise of patriotism, with much flag-waving and fair promises to the people, a reac¬ tionary, predatory, and ruthless minority will come into complete control of government and industry, and will operate both solely in their own interests. All liberty will be trampled underfoot. That will be Fascism, however it may be disguised by the forms of constitutionalism. The United States, in our day, stands at the parting of the ways. Tre¬ mendous choices are being made. The age of laissez faire individualism is closing, altho the National (so-called) Liberty League and the so-called “ grass rooters ” may not know it. Before the age of machinery, laissez faire individualism released the creative abilities of men. In America an abun¬ dance of free land and of natural resources awaited development and offered opportunity to all. But the frontier is now closed, and a century of exploitation of resources and of ruthless competition in a market that in the beginning was relatively free has brought us to the age of great industries and corporations, of giant industrial combinations and monopoly. The strong crowd out the weak. Whoever talks of equality of economic oppor¬ tunity, of “ opportunities for every poor boy of ability and industry to suc¬ ceed ” in the America of today, indulges in fantasy or, if informed, de¬ liberately misrepresents the facts. Youth today is without the opportunities that awaited youth a hundred years ago, or even a generation ago. We live in a closely integrated economy, in an age of corporate and collective enter¬ prise. Labor is displaced by an ever-advancing technology more rapidly than it can be absorbed into new occupations, while, according to the most com- General Sessions 25 petent authorities, a few hundred men, directors of great corporations, actually control nearly half of American industry. Again America faces the age-old question of democracy, but today the problem is primarily eco¬ nomic. Are the resources and the industries of this country to be controlled and operated for the benefit of a few, or in the interests of all ? How can our complicated economy and industrial system be managed in the interests of the people? Economic security for the individual has been and always will be essential to his freedom. Without economic security there can be no equality and no liberty. An economic system, subject to paralyzing periodic depressions and in which millions are unable to find employment, even in periods of pros¬ perity, will make of democracy a mockery and a byword. Democracy de¬ mands that human welfare be put above profits. To this end, economic and social planning under democratic control is essential. Social control of in¬ dustry must be carried to the point of an equitable distribution of work and income, if democracy is to endure. A look at the federal income tax returns is revealing. In 1933 less than 1,800,000 of the 27,500,000 families of the country had incomes above $2500, on which federal income taxes were required to be paid. But of these, some 325,000 reported incomes of more than $5000 while 46 reported incomes of one million or more. Such a mal¬ distribution of wealth is undemocratic and un-Christian, and should be regarded as utterly intolerable in the twentieth century. But the most tragic aspect of this situation is found in the fact that it is so unnecessary. Every study that has been made by competent engineers and economists has shown that, beyond peradventure, thru planning and coordination the national income can be very greatly increased, that a generous economic security for all is easily within our reach so far as technology and national resources are concerned. I repeat that America stands at the parting of the ways. Many proposals for economic and social reconstruction are bidding for our allegiance. These proposals range all the way from Fascism to Communism, and include, be¬ tween these extremes, continuation of the old system that has brought us to the verge of disaster, reformed capitalism, state capitalism, socialism, and many others. The present situation cannot continue. In the next genera¬ tion the most fundamental decisions since the American Revolution will be made by our people. The great task of the school, then, is no longer that of preparing the indi¬ vidual to compete for pecuniary success in a highly competitive society, for we no longer live in a highly competitive society. The primary task of the school is to give the individual a realistic understanding of society and its problems, to examine critically and to test by the democratic ideal the various proposals that are being brought forward for economic and social reconstruc¬ tion. Education should be deliberately employed for the preservation and for the realization of democracy. Lest someone raise the bogey of indoctrina¬ tion, let me emphasize that this does not mean that a detailed blueprint of a new social order should be taught in the school, or that the school should 26 National Education Association be employed as an instrument of propaganda. Propaganda involves with¬ holding vital information, deliberate misrepresentation of facts, appeals to stereotypes, and is the very antithesis of education. On the other hand, the school cannot , should not , and will not he neutral in the struggle of social forces now going on in this country. Either the school will be employed as an instrument of enlightenment and social progress and thus of democracy, or as an instrument of reaction. There is no neutral ground. The million teachers of the country are concerned with the most critical social issues in American life, for education is inextricably interwoven with economic and social processes and cannot be considered apart from them. Furthermore, teachers are citizens, and have individual and col¬ lective responsibilities as citizens. How can we best discharge our collec¬ tive responsibilities? To answer this question we must first ask how political and economic decisions are made in our society. Social policies are made by those classes and groups that wield the greatest political and economic power. However unpleasant it may be to some of the more romantic minds among us, the fact is that American society is characterized by sharp economic stratifica¬ tions, and is at the same time a welter of conflicting interest groups. Power is actually wielded by organized groups, and the great struggle for power centers around the vital industrial and economic interests of the country. Social policy eventuates from this struggle and, as we know, the greatest power is wielded by entrenched economic interests, by the classes that own and control business and industry and receive the lion’s share of the national income. The great mass of the people, those who actually do the productive work of the country on farm, and in mine, factory, and office, are virtually unorganized and inarticulate. However, the struggle of the people for power is far from hopeless. The achievement of political democracy has given us in the United States a form of government under which orderly social change is possible. The founding fathers, more statesmanlike than the ranting defenders of privilege today, in their wisdom provided for adjusting the Constitution itself to changing social conditions. They provided a method of amendment. And let no one tell you it is unpatriotic to advocate amendments to the Consti¬ tution. The democratic tradition is still a powerful force in this country. In all ranks of society, men and women of deep social sympathies are dis¬ satisfied with things as they are and are determined to build a more humane society. Many times since the American Revolution have the citadels of privilege been successfully assaulted — by labor, by farmers, by liberal polit¬ ical movements. The battle is by no means an unequal one. What is needed now above all else is a wide dissemination of facts concerning economic and social problems to serve as the foundation of a thoroly informed progressive political movement. In this process the profession of education has far- reaching responsibilities. For the better discharge of their professional responsibilities teachers have formed organizations that, in recent years, have begun to participate actively General Sessions 27 in the formulation of educational policy. These associations are already performing an important political function. This is inevitable, for every educational problem has its political and economic aspects. The curriculum, for example, involves the problem of controversial social issues, while financial support involves the problem of taxation. At the head of these professional organizations stands the National Edu¬ cation Association, with nearly 200,000 members, and direct contact with another 500,000 teachers thru affiliated state associations. It is impossible to recount here its history of three-quarters of a century of distinguished ser¬ vice to education and of support of social measures of far-reaching sig¬ nificance, such as the Child Labor Amendment. At the close of the World War, the N.E.A., in recognition of the fact that education is a vital national interest and that wealth is increasingly concentrated in the great centers of population, launched the movement for adequate federal participation in the support of schools and for the creation of a federal Department of Education with a Secretary in the President’s Cabinet. We have met here to consider the social and educational situation and our larger social responsibilities as teachers. Teachers organizations also stand at the parting of the ways. It is imperative that the National Educa¬ tion Association and all other associations of teachers should, in this time of decision, clarify their own social purposes. Teachers must choose definitely where their allegiance lies. They must decide whether their influence is to be used for the perpetuation of the economic and social status quo or as a genuinely constructive force for building a more enlightened and humane society. They must decide whether they will courageously throw the weight of their influence on the side of conserving the finest ideals of our democratic tradition. I repeat that we cannot be neutral with reference to the ideals of freedom of speech, of equality of opportunity, of social and economic justice, that are the unique contributions of democracy to civilization. Furthermore, we as teachers can discharge our obligations only if the principle of democ¬ racy is honored in our own profession. Classroom teachers and all members of the profession must share fully and freely, each according to his ability, in the formulation of educational policy. Great immediate tasks confront us. Our first task is to build a socially enlightened curriculum. Adequate educational services, nursery schools and kindergartens, good elementary and secondary schools, opportunities for adult education, must be made available in every community, with oppor¬ tunity for higher education free to every youth who has the desire and ability to avail himself of it. Instead of a million, we need not less than two million teachers in America today. Instead of a budget of less than two billion dollars for public schools, a budget of not less than four billion dollars is required now. The United States is amply able to provide, even in these depression years, four billion dollars annually for schools and can afford nothing less. Four billions for education would be wise social policy, and at the same time good business. Our system of financial support of educa¬ tion must be reconstructed, with state and nation sharing in the support of 28 National Education Association schools. The national government should, in the near future, assume one- half of the total cost of public elementary, secondary, and higher education. The contribution of the federal government should be fixed at not less than one billion dollars and increased over a period of years to two billions. And bear in mind that wars, past and future, are costing this country more than one billion dollars every year. Surely the federal government can afford as much for education as for war. Above all, the profession of education must stand as a unit against all the sinister forces that seek to repress freedom of teaching and thus to make it impossible for the school to serve its rightful purpose in giving youth and adults understanding and appreciation of contemporary society and its prob¬ lems. To quote the words of Willard E. Givens, the new secretary of the National Education Association, “ the schools must be kept open intel¬ lectually as well as physically.” The teachers of this country have as much right to be heard and as great an obligation to participate in the making of vital political, economic, and social decisions as have the organized farmers, or organized labor, or the United States Chamber of Commerce. We should cooperate as a demo¬ cratically organized profession with those groups and forces in society — with labor, farmer, consumer, and progressive political groups and movements — working to reconstruct, in the American tradition, our social institutions so as to realize for all the good life now within our reach. But our reliance must always be on the processes of democracy and education, on the goodwill and good sense of the American people. The American people have never been afraid of change. They will welcome all change that will bring a fuller realization of the American dream of liberty and democracy, of social justice, economic security, and a rich life for all. Forum — Needs of Adult Education A STATE PROGRAM OF ADULT EDUCATION MARGUERITE H. BURNETT, DIRECTOR OF ADULT EDUCATION, STATE DEPART¬ MENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, WILMINGTON, DEL.; AND PRESIDENT, N. E. A. DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION A functional state program of adult education is one that is developed in relation to the needs and resources of the state which it is planned to serve by those who will participate in such a program as consumers and directing agencies. The only thing that will be attempted in this discussion is to present certain guiding principles which have evolved out of the experience of those who have faced the problem of program building in other states and which may have some value for those who are meeting this problem in new situations. A state program of adult education is intended to provide direction and support of such educational activities as are necessary to enable adults to General Sessions 29 live effectively in a modern world. It conceives of effective living as being dependent upon education for the all-round development of the individual during a period of rapid social change. It considers that opportunities for this form of educational experience are necessary and desirable for all adults, and should not be limited to any single group. It is prepared to take the learner at his own level of interest, and to provide guidance that will enable him to move from there into a consideration of some aspect of wide social responsibility. It conceives of education as a process of growth thru learning that is meaningful to adults in situations in which they live and work. This implies a willingness to know what these situations are and to build a pro¬ gram that can be carried forward in relation to them. It recognizes that the adult population of any state includes people having a wide range of needs, interests, capacities, and experiences, and that no program is effective which fails to recognize these differences and to consider them in relation to its planning. It requires a flexibility that makes it possible to modify the nature and scope of its procedures in response to needs growing out of new and emergent problems and consumer-participation in the planning and directing of its procedures. The nature and the extent of the services which public education renders in connection with such a program will depend upon how adequately the need for these services is met by other agencies. This demands a knowledge of the educational offerings of such agencies and their contribution to indi¬ vidual and community living. It implies a willingness to provide facilities for giving whatever direction may be necessary to increase the educational significance of the offerings of these agencies, and to provide such additional offerings as may be necessary to insure an adequate educational program. The cost of leadership and support for such a program is a legitimate charge on the budget of public education. If the services which it offers grow out of the needs of the consumer, and prove functional in community living, the return on the investment in terms of an increased understand¬ ing will warrant whatever reevaluation and modification of the entire system of public education may be necessary. The desirability of such reevalua¬ tion and reorganization is emphasized by a psychology of learning which questions the value of trying to crowd the major portion of directed educa¬ tion into the lives of children between the ages of six and eighteen years and a need for absorbing a greater number of people in service occupations. Experience over a period of years has demonstrated that the educational system which has devoted a small percentage of its income to a program that is functional in the adult life of the community has found that whatever cur¬ tailment this may have meant in expenditures for other educational activities has been negligible compared with what has been achieved in terms of the more effective functioning of the whole educational program. This more effective functioning is the result of a closer cooperation between the home and school thru parent participation in activities, conducted under school auspices, and an intelligent and increased support of education by the adult public. 30 National Education Association Forum — Needs of Adult Education ART IN ADULT EDUCATION LYMAN BRYSON, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Adult education programs should always be practical. But sometimes the most practical results can be reached by going after something which appears to be a mere unnecessary luxury. Many people who do not study the experience of their own children in school think that music and drawing and dancing and drama are not really useful in education. Any good teacher can tell them that they are mistaken. All forms of art — or better, all things that encourage the appreciation of beauty in any form — have a proper place in adult education just as in the schools for our children. In fact, it is being noticed that many programs of adult education which started out to be intellectual only, or vocational only, have gradually become more and more cultural in character as in the case of workers’ education which is giving more and more attention to self-expression as a means of education. Why do we spend time and thought and money on educating grown men and women? It is generally agreed that adult education is worthy of sup¬ port because it makes better and happier citizens. We do not believe that people have to be unhappy to be good. The enjoyment of beauty in all its forms, whether in nature or in the things that men have made, is a way of being happy. But there is something more to it than just appreciation. American com¬ munities have been trying for years to make the lives of their citizens more rich in the satisfactions that come from gardens and parks, from music and pictures and fine buildings. We take that for granted. From an educational point of view something more can be sought, not only the enjoyment of beauty but also the achievement of excellence for its own sake which is fundamentally the artistic impulse — doing things well, better even than is necessary, for the fun of trying hard. Some people express this impulse in games, and it is genuine art there just as if they were trying to paint a picture or sing a song. Art is a form of play and to get the most out of any form of play we sometimes watch those who are great experts and sometimes try our best to do something for ourselves. Art in community life then — for the happiness of grown men and women * — must have in it two things, appreciation and self-expression. To have a great orchestra play for us, in our sight or over the air, is a great experience. But trying to make worthwhile music for ourselves is also a great experi¬ ence — for some people greater. We are in danger, in a world that is mechanical and reduced to a system, of losing what most people want, some sort of expression of themselves. The little theaters, the business men’s sketching clubs, the community choruses — all these are examples of an effort to achieve beauty. It is prac¬ tical for a community which wants better and happier citizens to provide for these things and encourage them. General Sessions 31 Forum — Needs of Adult Education THE PLACE OF THE LIBRARY IN ADULT EDUCATION LINDA A. EASTMAN, LIBRARIAN, CLEVELAND PUBLIC LIBRARY, CLEVELAND, OHIO We have a local printer with a national reputation for artistic craftsman¬ ship. His work was recently represented in a Graphic Arts selection of the fifty best printed books of that year. He has told me that the sum total of his schooling was just five months, and that his education was gained thru use of the Cleveland Public Library, having been started and encouraged in his reading by my predecessor. Another Cleveland man, highly successful in two lines of work, has averred that, tho he took his degree from one of our higher institutions of learnings, his real education was obtained thru the Library. Someone has said “ learning is a process of individual discovery.” We all know that self-education of adults thru reading has been going on ever since there have been books to read, and that there have been many librarians who gave direction and guidance to their readers. During the last dozen years, however, serious attention has been given to studying the relation of libraries to the general field of adult education. Dr. Learned’s book, The American Public Library and the Diffusion of Knowledge , published in 1924, was a clarion call to librarians. That same year a special commission was appointed by the American Library Associa¬ tion, “ to study the adult education movement, and the work of libraries for adults and for older boys and girls out of school, and to report its findings to the council.” That report and the series of bulletins issued by it and by its successor, the permanent board on the library and adult education, surveyed the field, analyzed the needs and objectives, outlined the potential services of the library and the methods of work. Three definite types of service have evolved and have been developed in varying degrees in libraries, according to the means at their command. I • must emphasize, however, that in all too many libraries the means have been lacking. One of the three types is an information service on opportunities in adult education, including: collecting and indexing of information concerning all organizations in the community having adult education activities, and their offerings; indexing cultural and vocational subjects and the schools and universities, local and countrywide, where courses in these subjects are given ; posting notices of forums, lectures, discussion groups, concerts, museum and other exhibitions, and dramatic productions of note. The public library seems to be the logical clearing-house for such information, and in publicizing it the library can also make occasion to suggest books which it can supply on the subjects mentioned. The second type of service is that to groups. This includes making con¬ tacts with organizations and groups of all kinds, conferring with their 2 32 National Education Association leaders or teachers, understanding their aims and interests, informing them of the new literature in their fields, and making books available for their use. The library may also provide meeting places and participate in their programs by offering book talks, and itself offer lecture courses and foster discussion groups. Thus the library can become an active and essential collaborator in every phase of education. With the public schools this relation should be increasingly close and fruitful. The third type of library activity is a specialized service to individuals, to those who come for help in systematic reading, having educational and cultural objectives. The term “ reader’s adviser ” is becoming a familiar one in many libraries, to designate the specially qualified member of the staff whose province it is to counsel with these individuals, learn their back¬ grounds, their interests and desires, suggest courses of reading adapted to their needs, provide the books in proper sequence, and so far as possible follow their reading. The many reading courses published by the American Library Associa¬ tion, the alumni reading lists of various colleges, and those from numerous other sources are assembled as aids, and lists are constantly being prepared to fit the peculiar requirements of the persons being served. These persons range all the way from the near-illiterate, conscious of his ignorance and groping toward knowledge, to the university graduate whose very success in his particular field is tending to narrow his interests and who, sensing this danger, comes for advice in mapping his reading to broaden his horizon. It is much easier to meet the needs of the reader in this upper range of education than of the ones on the lower levels, not only because he usually has a stronger self-motivation, but also because of the far greater wealth of literature suited to his intelligence. The dearth of books interestingly written, with an adult point of view but not too difficult for adults of limited schooling, is one of the greatest drawbacks to more rapid progress in adult education on the lower levels. I believe that most teachers of adult-elementary classes are aware of the importance of the experimental studies in vocabularies, reading abilities, and reading interests which are being made at Columbia University and the University of Chicago. Some of their results are given in Dr. Thorndike’s, book, Adult Interests , and in Dr. Gray’s What Makes a Book Readable , both published this spring. Librarians hope that these studies may pave the way for the writing of many of the kinds of books and pamphlets which are needed for a consider¬ able portion of our population — Dean Gray puts the proportion at 50 percent. I would place this need for more suitable reading material as one of the major needs in adult education today. It is our common problem to find the authors to write these books. Other specific and crying needs of the libraries, if they are to fulfil their proper functions in adult education, are the wherewithal to acquire enough of the good books which are available, and a larger personnel expertly trained in making our rich heritage of books serve its purpose. General Sessions 33 Forum — Needs of Adult Education THE PLACE OF RADIO IN ADULT EDUCATION FLORENCE hale, editor, The Grade Teacher , NEW YORK, N. Y. ; AND FAST PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION Who is the greatest educator in the world today? The answer is Radio. As a nationwide system it far exceeds that of our schools and colleges. It does not give an education organized in courses of study or along systematic lines but it covers almost every subject under the sun and is shaping the ideals of our great mass of citizens more than educators probably realize. As a factor in everyday adult education, it can even undo much of the teaching of the schools but, if properly conducted, it may greatly enrich and add to those teachings. My particular interest in radio in adult education concerns that great number of people who were obliged to leave school at the end of the ele¬ mentary grades or after a year or two in high school. Hundreds of thou¬ sands of these people are hungry for more education. Many of them have become successful in business thru native ability but find themselves handi¬ capped by their ignorance of history, geography, and other subjects which are of common knowledge to the well-educated person. From a special broadcast which I directed and in which the speaker appealed directly to such persons, we received a response of thousands of letters; more, in fact, than we have ever received from any other program. To me it was pathetic that we did not have the resources to help these inquirers as we might have done. In considering adult education we must not lose sight of the fact that a large majority of our voters never go beyond the grammar grades, and that another large percentage finish only the high school. These voters, as a result of misconceptions due to lack of knowledge, by virtue of their numbers can block the well-laid plans of educators and others, such, for example, as those who are trying to keep cultural subjects in the school curriculum. Such voters form the well-meaning audience of the several demagogs who, nowadays, are filling their minds full of political miscon¬ ceptions over the radio. Never has there been a time when a knowledge of history would be more helpful in offsetting such propaganda than at present. Consider, for example, the place of the Constitution in our government. The opinion of the great mass of voters on this subject would probably be quite different if they were all well informed. My impresson is that too much of our effort in adult education has been devoted to those who are already fairly well educated. I think many of our adult education broadcasters have failed to get the picture of this great, everyday audience whose needs are so pressing and who are so ready and eager to take advantage of the right kind of help, and I believe that the radio could and should give it to them. Doubtless those who are already well informed can profit by more education but if we really desire to elevate 34 National Education Association the general character and education of the mass of people in whose hands lies the welfare of our country, we must begin where the need is most apparent and that is with the less well informed. The right kind of a course of study given over the radio for adults with¬ out high-school or college training I believe would be very popular and would do a great deal of good. Its benefits, however, could be much in¬ creased if provision could be made for some sort of follow-up work with persons from whom letters come in as a result of the periods on the air. ' Forum — Needs of Adult Education THE PLACE OF THE NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS IN ADULT EDUCATION MRS. J. K. PETTENGILL, FIRST VICEPRESIDENT, NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACFIERS, LANSING, MICH. The program of service of the parent-teacher movement as interpreted by the National Congress of Parents and Teachers is embodied in the de¬ clared purpose of the organization — the welfare of the child in home, school, and community. In this all-inclusive program the child is the focus of inter¬ est — the whole child in the total environment in which he lives, without limitation as to locality or race or creed, or social, financial, and educational background. It is a program which endeavors to meet all the needs of all the children of all the people. The scope of activity of the organization in realizing this objective is in three fields: parent education, home and school cooperation, and com¬ munity development. Within the organization parents, teachers, and other interested adults unite to safeguard and protect the rights of young citizens in whatever direction their interests lie, whether it is their health, their homes, their schooling, their safety, their play, their vocations, their char¬ acter, or their right to the security of an environment in which they may meet the great adventure of living intelligently, courageously, confidently. The progress of a democracy is dependent upon the quality of its citizen¬ ship. In a democracy, all adult citizens are eligible to participate in the affairs of government. Hence, universal education of a kind which will prepare all citizens to understand the ideals and responsibilities of a self- governing democracy and the institutions essential in such a form of govern¬ ment is the first requirement for its successful operation. Participation in an educational program which will meet the needs of life, under conditions more difficult than ever have been known before, necessitates some kind of organization which will reach all citizens in each community and will enlist their interest in support of good government and the social and educational institutions considered essential for successful living. This nationwide organization of parents and teachers to improve the environment of children and young people and safeguard their interests has possibilities for raising the standards of citizenship to an extent not yet General Sessions 35 dreamed. Efforts directed toward the conservation of the welfare of chil¬ dren have ramifications which penetrate to the very foundations of the individual and collective life of adults. Such an organization must be nationwide, and its membership must be on a basis of complete equality in spirit and practise. Its purposes are of compelling and universal appeal. It provides for participation by any and all members and an opportunity for their growth and development as social beings thru such participation. It enlists the interest and active cooperation of all adult citizens in the community. Thus participation in the programs and activities of the parent-teacher movement as developed thru the organization becomes an important phase of adult education which reaches hundreds of thousands of individuals. The origin, the purpose, the plan of the parent-teacher movement falls within the scope of a planned and functioning program of adult education. The National Congress of Parents and Teachers, which presents and in¬ terprets the parent-teacher movement in American life today, is its own unique contribution to adult education. Forum — Needs of Adult Education PUBLIC AFFAIRS FORUMS AS AGENCIES FOR ADULT EDUCATION J. W. STUDEBAKER, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF education, Washington, d. c., Leader I believe, as I am sure you do, that the biggest problem facing America, and, therefore, the largest problem facing American education, is to make democracy work. If we are to make it work, if we are to win in making America what it should be, we must do so thru education. And I think that we must find the way really to develop adult education if we are to make democracy work. We must not be beaten back by forces which thru education we can bring under control. I like a story that comes out of my own experience and I will tell it here. When I was a young lad I undertook to learn a trade. I did learn a trade. I learned a hard trade. It was the trade of bricklaying. I was apprenticed to a bricklayer and finally became a full-fledged member of the Interna¬ tional Bricklayers Union. I laid brick in many places and I got some of my education in that way. I picked up a bit of philosophy from an old Irish bricklayer, Pat Mullin. He was the most expert bricklayer I ever saw. He was always assigned the responsibility of laying up the leads to which the line is attached. If the leads or the corners are not plumb and true, the entire wall will be out of plumb. Pat would run a corner up two feet high without using a level or plumb rule. When he tested his work with the plumb rule every brick touched it, both edges of every brick touched it. “ He had an eye like an eagle.” I said to him one day admiringly, as 36 National Education Association any young man would who was trying to learn a trade, “ Pat, did you ever see anybody who could beat you laying brick? ” He said, “ Yes, but I never let ’um do it.” Because of destructive forces, we have seen social orders operating de¬ mocracies lose in the race to win freedom for their citizens. We are not going to let those forces overcome American democracy. I believe the only way in which we can save and improve American democracy is by improving very, very much our whole system of education running into adult life. It sounds trite to repeat the famous statement of H. G. Wells in which he said, “ Civilization is a race between education and catastrophe.” I wish to rephrase it and say, “ Democracy is a race between education and the chaos of ignorance, which destroys democracy and supplants it with dictatorship.” In a few days we shall celebrate our first declaration for democracy. I like in that connection to think of two immortal sentences uttered by George Washington in his farewell address. These sentences ought to be burned into the consciousness of every American citizen. Look them up if you do not remember them. The first one is: In proportion as the structure of government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion be enlightened.” And the second one is: “ Promote, therefore, as an object of primary importance institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge.” T hose statements ought to be on the wall of every schoolroom and on the bulletin board of every chamber of commerce in the United States. We have built a great system of public schools, and we boast about it, but nevertheless, we are not well schooled in the United States, not even in terms of years of schooling. We have 75,000,000 adults over twenty-one years of age, 64,000,000 of whom have not finished high school ; 32,000,000 of whom have not finished the eighth grade of the common school ; and only 2,100,000 of whom graduated from college. We all know how poor many of those years of schooling were, given at the hands of little girls of pre-marriageable age, in the rural schools particularly of the country, girls who themselves were only two or three years older than the students under their instruction. In such schools, thus inexpertly managed, millions of our citizens were given the last bit of formal education they ever had. I say that in terms of years of schooling we are not well schooled. I am also willing to say that in the race between the growing complexity of our modern society and the extension and adaptation of adult education, I suspect education is lagging. Something has to be done about it on the level of the adult education for and in citizenship. For fifteen years I administered a system of public schools in one place. I came to feel a real responsibility for the product of that public school system and I recall very vividly the naive attitude I had, with my attention glued, so to speak, upon elementary and secondary education largely, with respect to the power of elementary and secondary education to solve this great problem of citizenship in a democracy. I came definitely to the conclusion that the lower schools alone cannot do it. General Sessions 37 I, therefore, secured some funds with which to experiment, beginning two and a half years ago, with a system of public forums for adults. Per¬ haps the most helpful thing I can do in my few minutes is to bring that subject before this group by describing that scheme which is being worked out in Des Moines, Iowa, in which we have employed a number of very competent forum leaders. Mr. Bryson was one of the first ones. He re¬ mained two years. We have paid each of these forum leaders approxi¬ mately $6000 for thirty-six weeks of service. The leaders are a part of the teaching staff of the public school system. It has been their responsi¬ bility to work with adults in the evenings. Each leader conducts five forums each week. The whole plan was as much under the management of the board of education as was any other public school function. In a single year we held in that city of 150,000 people, 578 forums, every one of them competently managed by scholarly leaders, who were devoting their full time to that particular kind of educational service. Last year 70,000 citizens walked into those public forums, largely held in elementary schools scattered all over the city. All meetings are open to the public, free of charge. As chairman of the executive committee of the Washington Town Hall, I have been very much interested during the past year in helping to organize and operate a forum in Washington. We have a splendid town hall there. About 20,000 people attended it during the season. But we had only twenty meetings in a city of half a million people. Now that isn’t scratching the surface in the civic education of the adults of the city of Washington. Having been there seven months, I believe they need it, too. And if they need it, the entire country certainly does. This scheme of public forums, with adaptations and improvements, must be the contribution of the twentieth century to American education, and, therefore, to American democracy. I just do not believe anybody in this audience can successfully defend the thesis that even the most progressive methods of teaching can teach sixteen-, seventeen-, and eighteen-year-olds all they ought to know to be competent American citizens in adult life. And if they could be taught that much, a great deal of it would be out of date by the time they are really in adult life. I have been disillusioned with respect to the academic obsession that we can adequately teach children in childhood to be effective adult citizens. We must help adult citizens at the point where the motive is strongest for learning about adult problems and being good citizens. That we learn most effectively when motives are strongest for learning is the most axiomatic of the simplest philosophies of education. Motives for learning about adult problems of citizenship are not strong in childhood. Lest I forget it, I want to say out of experience that one of the most wholesome reactions upon progressive education in elementary and secon¬ dary schools has come from an attempt on the part of adults in this forum enterprise to learn more about how to create in America a happy place in which to live. 38 National Education Association To get another point before you, let me say here that this thing about which I am talking will not be created for the millions of American adults in the thousands and thousands of American communities without federal financial stimulation. I believe that the first responsibility of the American federal government, as George Washington indicated in his farewell address, is to see to it that American adults become intelligent participants in politics. I was born and reared and lived all my life in the Middlewest, the home of the Agrarian Revolt, and I have caught its spirit. I suppose I am as much a rugged indi¬ vidualist as the average person from my section of the country. I want to retain for the individual, the maximum of personal liberty that is compatible with the general welfare. I would be the first one to oppose pestiferous, objectionable federal control of education in our local communities. But I know perfectly well that it is possible to write legislation into the national statutes that will make of the federal government a fiscal agent to distribute equitably some of its wealth to the American communities for the conduct of public affairs forums without carrying along with this responsibility an objectionable federal control. Why isn’t it possible to write into such national legislation specific pro¬ visions against objectionable control? Does not all government imply governing? In a democracy, self-government is exactly the process of determining how much control we are willing to assent to. Is it not probable that the American people in general are today relatively so ignorant about the way American government operates and about its possibilities that they are not in a very good position to determine when the federal government is really enacting legislation that will be destructive of human liberties? I want to comment upon an editorial in the Denver News apropos of a talk I made at the American Library Association. I want to read it and make a few brief comments. It is headed : “ So They Don’t Think! ” and is as follows: American voters are not qualified to cast their ballots on complicated issues of modern government. The federal government must assume the task of instructing them, thru trained, paid leaders of public forums. That is the idea laid before the American Library Association in its final session in Denver, by John W. Studebaker. He is the United States Commissioner of Education. Undoubtedly Commissioner Studebaker is correct in saying that a great number of our citizens have not sufficient information nor understanding of complex public questions, to vote intelligently on them. We might go further and suggest that quite a few state and national legislators are likewise handicapped. In fact, this writer has suggested that it might be well to submit our candidates for public office to thorough tests, not only as to their information, but as to their intelligence quotient. That Studebaker’s proposal for trained forum leaders, paid by the gov¬ ernment, is the solution, we are not ready to concede. In fact, it looks to us as if there are already too many molders of public opinion on the government payroll. They are not hired for that ostensible purpose, it is true. But they seem to spend more time in that activity than in any other. Those who would teach the public to think should first of all be impartial, dis¬ interested. And unfortunately under our political system appointees of such quali¬ fications in the public service are considerably rarer than icicles in Death Valley. General Sessions 39 Now I agree with all the implications of that editorial. It is because I want American adult civic education kept on the plane of education and impartiality that I want organized public education and not politicians to manage the civic education of adults. I don’t want to see a flock of federal government agents wandering around over the country at your expense and mine, under the guise of the performance of some duty other than education, but really undertaking to propagandize those of us who are gullible enough to be propagandized with regard to certain great concepts of American life. I think the only way in which a democracy can operate safely is to keep its education out of politics and face the problem squarely of educating American citizens impartially. Out of an exacting experience in managing a system of public forums, I can say to you that when a man stands before a group of adult citizens as a forum leader, as a public school teacher of citizenship, you see democracy at work. Those adults can get up and walk out of the meeting any time they want to; they can tell the leader anything they have on their minds and wish to express; they are not there to secure promotion, high marks, or jobs. And if it is suggested that we must close up public education which undertakes to conduct that kind of discussion because it is likely to become propagandistic, then I say that we ought to close up our secondary schools and all publicly supported universities and college^ because there the students do acquiesce in the opinions of the professors far more than they ever do in anything that re¬ sembles a public forum. JLOOKING AHEAD IN EDUCATION HENRY LESTER SMITH, DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, INDIANA UNIVERSITY, BLOOMINGTON, IND. ; AND PRESIDENT, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Our erstwhile era of tranquillity, of confidence, of exuberant hope has been temporarily veiled. For six years now the curtain has been run up on a scene of strains, uncertainties, indecisions, reversal of emotions, dis- creditings, panicky fears. Another change of scenes is now felt to be in the offing. Its promise is obscure but expectantly awaited. For some time now social and civic surgings have beaten against our institutions. The surgings are the cries for freedom and for control. The lashed barriers are the controls that struggle for authority in the exercise of guidance, and the urge for individual initiative. This breaking regime, with which we have been harried, has been the battleground of a reawakened conflict as old as the ages, the conflict between initiative, originality, imagination, invention, freedom on the one hand ; and guidance, education, indoctrination, control, government on the other. In this struggle there has been revived the false assumption that victory for one or the other of these factors represents the key to success and satis- 40 National Education Association faction. History teaches and faith reinforces the thought that individual and social welfare develop not upon the ascendancy of revolution, not upon the victory of a crushing authority, not upon a hurried compromise between the two, but thru a new creation resulting from an integration of these vitally necessary seeming contradictions. Guidance contributes the struc¬ ture of individual and social stability. Initiative contributes the necessary vitality of freshness of vision and ingenuity of attack. The proper amalga¬ mation results in a social order definite enough in structure to insure a degree of stability that holds the social life intact while maintaining that degree of flexibility that invites, harbors, protects, and nurtures promising innovations until they demonstrate their strength or their futility. Un¬ bridled ideas wreck institutions and pull down the house upon the heads of the iconoclasts. Lack of control means individual and social disintegra¬ tion. Stricture in control chokes the sprouts of necessary change and leads to individual and social decay. A proper balance between these two must be sought and maintained. It is not that this balance should be the same for all time and for all peoples. Varying conditions call for reestablishment of the fulcrum of balance. In the wake of any realignment must come supporting educational readjustments, and new educational insight must be depended upon also to usher in new alignments of the forces of freedom and control. Society today faces the problem of evaluating these forces and of establishing the proper balance between them. Education as a vital social agency faces the twofold task of ushering in new insights and of supporting the newly-launched venture. Education must bind and education must loose. Education should at no time drop the rein of either responsibility. Freedom and control are not separate entities. They are a fabric. They are a coalition. They are a unity without which neither is possible. Edu¬ cation must seek to rescue each from the threatening grip of the other. Education must do its share to convert these antagonists to supplemental, mutually supporting cooperatives. In order that the problems arising from the independent operation of the forces of control and freedom may be appreciated more fully and in order that the blessings arising from an integrating fusion of these two into a new entity may be made clearer in its implications for our future society and its educational program, reference is next made to historic illustrations, in various fields, of the struggle between freedom and control for dominance or for integration into a harmony. A masterpiece in painting, sculpture, music, literature, historical episode, in the very art of living itself is a masterpiece because these two forces of initiative and guidance operate to support the proper balance in the organ¬ ized whole pattern of the product. The masterpiece, because of this adjust¬ ment, commands universal appeal, the supreme test to which any creation must submit. The artist may exercise freedom without regard for the rules of control — the result, a blurred, monotonous smudge of color or of drabness, without appeal to the delicate sensitiveness of man. He may exercise control so that General Sessions 41 individualism is completely lost in the harsh straight lines of form, perfect in precision, but nevertheless distasteful to the eye of man. In neither case does a masterpiece result. The span between the critical points of too much freedom and too much control is wide and flexible. The length of this span in any case depends upon the amount of coordination and of combining that is feasible and upon whether it is possible to discard undesirable elements in either or both of the contending forces. In the masterpiece which results from the fusing of competing forces, every essential element is included, every extraneous element is discarded. Not all masterpieces are in the field of the arts. A true leader is a master¬ piece, for is he not a resultant of that perfect conflict between the forces of freedom and control? Does he not exercise that freedom which produces initiative, stimulates imagination, invites and attracts followers, and yet stops short of disorganizing and disintegrating influences of too much free¬ dom ? Does he not exercise that control which produces balance, establishes confidence, insures permanence, and yet stops short of the stultifying and narrowing influences of too much control ? Men and institutions are leaders. A state, a people, a social institution, a political party, a race, an organization, an association — all these may be leaders, may be masterpieces. Masterpieces have universal appeal ; and survive the age in which they were created, and have both a physical life and a spirit life. The physical life, whether it be that of man or of insti¬ tution, is but the beginning, the leaven which spreads outward in ever- increasing bands to touch and change and improve the society of man thru time everlasting. Masterpieces are never lost — they may be stored in attic or cellar, like the painting of an old master, or like the teachings of a schoolmaster they may be buried in a mass of humanity — they need to touch the soul of but a single man to be created anew. But the regeneration of the spirit of the masterpiece involves change ; a new combination of forces is grafted upon an old one. At one time the fruits are satisfactory. They are balanced and adjusted to the ideals of man. At another time they are bitter with disturbing conflicts of primary forces, they are formless with the lack of control and adjustment, or they are dwarfed and dried-up for want of nutrition. Let us travel again the highway of man. We shall look not for the customary landmarks, for they too often represent the bitter, formless, and dwarfed fruits of conflict. We shall look instead for masterpieces, for they alone truly represent the progress and forward march of civilization. From the earliest history to the present time man has shown the tendency to keep himself free from restraint and from authority. Even the first man and woman were willing to risk all in defiance of a command given by the only authority they knew, and soon experienced what it means to break the laws of an authority that has power to punish. Freedom for oneself perhaps comes first in man’s thought, but authority over others seems to have been the second desired goal of individuals since society was first formed. 42 National Education Association The authority which some men seek and against which others rebel may be of many kinds: ecclesiastical, political, educational, industrial. It may be merely social custom. Whatever the type of dominant authority, the majority of men sooner or later swing away from it toward an individual or group independence. On the other hand, when individualism has had its fling and men begin to see the desirability of settled order, mutual helpfulness, and group control they begin another trek toward authority. Then when authority grows strong the cycle begins again. Studied care and persistent endeavor should provide insights and motive power sufficient to check these iconoclastic or stultifying extremes and to promote a constantly growing adjustment to the necessities of growth and progress. In the field of philosophy ever since man began to portder over the origin and composition of the universe, there have been many theories advanced in explanation : theories as to man and the cosmos and of the relation be¬ tween these two; theories of being, of knowledge, of freedom of the will, of immortality, of destiny; theories of the supernatural and of man’s rela¬ tion to it. On all subjects that have interested the mind of men the theories have been widely variant. When philosophical speculation began among the ancients, such as the Persians, the Hebrews, and the Greeks, it was not long until rival groups along all lines of thought began zealously to present the claims of various interpretations of life and matter. One of the most interesting and instructive phases of the history of philosophy has been the swing of the pendulum from one interpretation of life to another as the leaders of thought came and went and as the popu¬ larity of certain theories waxed and waned. So far as we know, no theory in explanation of either mind or matter has consistently held its place either among philosophers or in popular acclaim. Practically all interpretations of life and matter, of man and his universe have gone thru the many cycles of presentation, partial acceptance, full acceptance, doubt, denial, and rejection. In order to show how men in different ages have been able to build up worthwhile and practical systems of thought and courses of conduct from conflicting ideas and practises, and to keep a fair balance between such opposites as authority and freedom, realism and idealism, religion and atheism, classicism and romanticism, a few illustrations may be given. Since the time of the early Greek philosophers the question of the source and ground of the universe has been of great interest to speculative thinkers. Two theories, materialism and idealism, which are almost mutually exclu¬ sive, have held the field for many centuries. Materialism is a philosophic system which ignores the distinctions be¬ tween matter and mind, and refers all the phenomena of the world, whether physical, vital, or mental, to the functions of matter. All qualitative varieties and changes in the world of human experiences are reducible to quanti¬ tative terms. All perceptions, feelings, thoughts — the whole content and General Sessions 43 activity of mind — are reducible to the motions of mass particles in space. There is no purpose or guide for the mass particles in motion ; the desires and intents of men have no more significance than a breath or a sunbeam. Over against the view of materialism in explanation of the universe stands the opposite view of idealism. Instead of believing that all existence or being is either matter or energy, those who accept idealism state as a counter-thesis that all being, so far as given in experience, is mental. What we know to be present— that is, the data of nature and history — are all the content of the mind. They are things perceived. Philosophers of ideal¬ ism have definitely stated that matter is merely a mental illusion. The mechanistic materialistic theory of life and matter as defined above makes of man a mere automaton. He is at the mercy of matter without any court of appeal. He is under an authority which is worse than that of human rulers, for it is blind and cruel and insensate. Defiance and revolt are futile, for matter knows no master and recognizes no individual. There is no transcendent spirit above and beyond nature or matter to whom man can look for deliverance. Man therefore is bound by the limits of a me¬ chanical system from which all escape is impossible. * It is little wonder that men turn from this view of the world to the opposite view of idealism where mind reigns supreme. If all is mind then the life of man, the spiritual entity, becomes free from the shackles of matter. Man becomes a free agent, no longer the slave of nature’s un¬ changing laws. He becomes responsible for his actions and can work out his own spiritual destiny. These two views of the universe — of mind and matter — can perhaps never entirely be refuted, but may be harmonized. There is a commonsense view of the problem which has always appealed to the practical man. The view of those philosophers who try to account for everything in terms of mind seems as inadequate as that of the scientists and philosophers who try to account for all existence in terms of matter. It is therefore practical to accept things as they appear to be and as they are found to be workable. We have found it impossible, except in imagination, to resolve mind into matter or matter into mind. We are practically forced, whatever be the basic analysis of mind and matter, to make provision for each of them in our framework or scheme of life. In our daily experiences we find that mind and matter are constantly in vital relationship — acting, reacting, and interacting. The plain man therefore — the layman as regards philosophy — is neither a materialist nor an idealist, but accepts both matter and mind as given realities and deals with them accordingly. By selecting from each of these views the elements that seem to be true, he finds himself in possession of a sensible and satis¬ factory viewpoint. In the field of ethics we find an example of a unified course of conduct which resulted from harmonizing conflicting ideas. On the subject of morality men are usually divided into two groups: One favoring a mo¬ rality of authority, the other believing in a morality of freedom. Today, as 44 National Education Association has been the case in nearly every age, the contest between authority and freedom is clear-cut and sometimes acrimonious. We have many illustrations of the point of view of authority in ethics. Here again there are two groups who favor authoritative ethics. First, those who may be called moral zealots, who want laws and power to enforce things in which they are selfishly or particularly interested. The second group is composed of those who seek to make other people good by law. It may be made up of reformers or uplifters; it may be made up of ecclesi¬ astics, who believe that authority in ethics belongs to. church members. They may burn the witches or burn the heretics under the guise of moral indignation, or the plea of “brother’s keeper.” Conduct in all cases is to be determined by what the authorities have decreed, whether the authority be God Himself, or society, or parents, or merely style and fashion. Moral¬ ity consists in compliance with authority; immorality is to defy authority and break its commands. In opposition to the idea of authoritative morality stands a group which advocates personal moral freedom. This group is radically iconoclastic with a flair for the spectacular; it mocks at absolute authority and an absolute philosophy. It affirms constantly that old bottles are not suitable for new wine. Freedom must be given a new meaning even tho there are disturbing elements in it. Liberty is a better word, even tho it may be more vulgar and associated with revolutions. Much emphasis is placed by this group on the inviolability of personality. All plausible claims to dictate morally, they would say, are subject to a large discount. Youth should be utterly free to choose its own moral paths. No man has the moral right to say that the thing that I choose as of value to me personally has no real value because it has no meaning to him. Each individual has the right to evaluate things whether in the spiritual or in the physical realm. Both of these views on morality contain elements that are desirable. These can be selected out and worked into a harmony that will be most acceptable and beneficial to society. In matters of morality one need not be bound by the choices and judg¬ ments of dead souls or by the customs set by minds still bound by yesterday’s ideas. Consciousness of self and the dignity of personality should lead one to make his own analysis of situations and to make his choice according to wisdom and not according to the dictates of the past. Where this is not possible and where we are forced to act as other men direct, the essential ele¬ ment of morality is lacking. On the other hand, to choose a course of conduct merely to express our independence and to show disdain and defiance for established ways and social standards is not a mark of wisdom. Nor is it moral to choose erratically without a critical analysis of the points involved and an appraisal of the probable results of an action. Every individual and every association of individuals should appreciate the fact that tho the hand of the past is heavy at times, it nevertheless is a weight that prohibits a too-rapid gamble with untried fields. The rules and customs and laws that society has thoroly tried out and found useful should not be General Sessions 45 lightly discarded in order to give freedom to irrational, slavish passions or to untrammeled self-expression. The erratic man might not choose what would meet the demands of a good moral life and therefore needs the restraint of authoritjL We must neither dispense with intellectual caution when deal¬ ing with new views nor fail in showing moral tolerance and human sym¬ pathy with those who hold these views. The field of thought and action is too big and man’s nature too complex for any human verdict to be final. The controversy between those who would hold to the authority of the past and to conditions as they are, and those who believe in changes and betterment, in experimenting with new plans, and in seeking to reach an ideal, is found in many fields of human activity. In the industrial field today, the idealist is one who dislikes present in¬ dustrial conditions and seeks to remodel and better them. The realist, how¬ ever, is one who accepts — whether reluctantly or gladly, we cannot tell — present conditions as inevitable. Many business and professional men line up with the realist claiming that the present moral tone and present levels of conduct are facts and must be recognized as such. It is useless, they argue, to rebel against industrial barons, against capitalistic leaders whom Providence has given both money and power; useless to turn against the present moral order as found in business. Conservatism is the safer path, for history shows that what has always been must always be. The idealist replies that no special form of organization, no particular form of value or of satisfaction, and no specific condition is final. There is always the possibility of change and betterment. We must always be suspicious, he says, when men prefer to leave things as they are, that there is a selfish or political motive in the background. In matters of education, the realist is the conservative and stands on authority and custom. Here again, he says, we must face the facts ; condi¬ tions are inevitable. We are in the grip of age-long practises. We must not experiment on human personalities. Conditions are bad ; politics has a hold on the schools — but we cannot afford to deny the demands of politicians. We must cater to present authorities and let well enough alone. The ground we have gained in the past must not be lost or put in jeopardy by radical steps or untried sources. The idealist on the other hand is convinced that in education we have allowed too much stagnation. We have stayed in the ruts and walked in circles. We have looked so steadily at the past that our vision has become blurred. We must turn our face to the future and set more worthy goals and higher ideals; break away from customs and traditions and let faith lead us out into something new and better. Let us experiment, that we may discover and invent. If necessary let us revolt from the present authorities and begin to turn the wheels of progress. In this controversy between realists and idealists it is possible to create a harmony out of the conflicting views. The staid conservative realist and the idealist each has his place and can contribute much to social plans and social progress. The realist is right in contending that we must face the 46 National Education Association facts and conserve the right and good that society has built up. We cannot afford to turn society’s interests over to a group of irresponsible idealists. We must not let a vivid imagination run riot and carry us away from our moorings. The idealist is right in urging that we need to be awake to new methods and progressive ideas and put them into use. We always have the privilege of seeing to it that changes are not fortuitous or aimless, but that they are progressively taking into account the realities of life as experience teaches us to know them better. It should be our intention, then, both to try out hopeful suggestions and ideals, and to hold fast that which is good. By the careful blending of the real and the ideal we may find a course of conduct which will be universally sound. Two views found in philosophy which are in decided opposition are those of fatalism and free will. Fatalism is the belief that man, with all his interests, is in the hands of a power outside himself. What man does, what is done to him, and the results of all action by and toward him are all beyond man’s control. The Fates may be God, or the gods, or mechanical forces — it matters little as far as man is concerned, for he is fettered body and soul. Whatever takes place in the world is by decree, and man’s actions have no bearing upon results. Wherever found, the essential point of fatalism is that man has no hand in anything — he is merely the tool or instrument of a force which animates him for the purposes of its own, and drops him as soon as those purposes have been fulfilled. The great events of life — birth, love, and death — are not the choice of man but are imposed upon him. In opposition to this fatalistic philosophy is the belief in free will. Man may be a part of nature and may exist in the same life stream but he is able to steer his own life course, and even obstruct nature’s plan. The spirit of freedom grows up within us strengthened by exercise and propagated by precept and example. As choices are made each day and battles are fought and won the will to strive and achieve takes on new strength. Man is a conscious personality. Fie knows the events that are transpiring ; is satisfied or dissatisfied and conscientiously chooses what he believes to be the best. In the field of education, in which we are especially interested, we need the free will optimist to counteract the fatalistic philosophy that was greatly emphasized during the World War. We seemed then and seem now to be in the hands of forces utterly beyond our control. It is just as true in the field of education as in any other field that at times it appears as tho we are the helpless men on the checkerboard of Fate. We live for a time in high hopes of accomplishing a definite good or making an advanced step in school affairs but find ourselves thrown back by a relent¬ less power of old conservatism or mass ignorance, or superstition or of selfish interests. Fate is against us and we come near the borders of despair. It is impossible, we feel, to break the stranglehold of custom and therefore useless to reach out toward ideals. But human nature as found in school leaders is remarkably resilient. Hope is easily revived, for teachers love youth and imbibe its optimism and its General Sessions 47 ability to rebound. It is not for long that educational leaders camp in the valley of despair. The philosophy of free will soon asserts itself and a posi¬ tive progressive reaction sets in. New goals are proposed, new ideals are set, and the schools begin again their march of progress. Fatalism is deadening, stultifying, hope-destroying. A belief in capricious choice and an utterly free will leads to reckless irresponsibility. The rational man however takes neither extreme but, acknowledging his limitations, asserts his moral freedom and acts according to practical judgment. In the field of religion there are also many illustrations of a harmony that has been worked out between church control and individual freedom. The tendency has been for men at times to shift too far toward control and at times to shift back to too great a demand for individual freedom, or even to a denial of religion and ecclesiastical rights. But history proves that only by combining certain features of ecclesiasticism and individualism can success¬ ful religious work be carried on. A splendid example of working out a satisfactory course of action from two conflicting religious attitudes is given us in the account of Jesus’ dealing with the views and practises of the Pharisees and Sadducees. He was able as few others have been, to select and conserve the good of competing opinions and to discard what was irrelevant and what was unethical. The formal life of the Pharisees, controlled by authority and tradition, appealed to him as little as did the skeptical liberalism of the Sadducees. The Scribes and Pharisees in the days of Jesus formed the conservative group in the church. They were sticklers for the law, for ceremonies and forms. They occupied the place of authority in the church. They laid burdens upon the people too grievous to be borne. This authoritarian group in the church oppressed the helpless, devoured widows’ homes, and at the same time, for a pretense, made long prayers in the public streets. In the name of religion they posed as legal guides of the people — but were blind leaders of the blind who “ strained at a gnat and swallowed a camel.” Jesus did not take the attitude of the Pharisees, who based their teaching on the authority of tradition. Neither did he take the attitude of the Sad¬ ducees in a liberalism which manifested itself in skepticism and doubt. He said, “ Think not that I came to destroy the law or the prophets. I came not to destroy, but to fulfil.” He accepted fully the law and the prophets but discarded altogether the field of tradition. He believed and taught that there is a resurrection. But He concerned Himself more with the things at hand than with the things beyond. He did not engage in political or religious controversies but went about healing the sick, comforting the sorrowing, feeding the multitudes, and preaching the Gospel. He suggested a common principle of action for all groups and all individuals in His incomparable Golden Rule, “ Whatsoever ye would that men should do unto you, do ye even so to them.” Shakespeare stands out in literature as one who found a way to use the best factors in two opposing views and by the method of integration devel¬ oped his masterpieces in the drama. 48 National Education Association Shakespeare refused to be led into casting aside completely the classical ideals and methods, and taking up with utterly new erratic and untried methods in his writing of tragedies. Nor would he follow the old conserva¬ tive and traditional lines, blindly and stubbornly. He worshipped no fetish of the past nor did he fear to try out new paths. Marlowe allowed himself to go great lengths in the direction of utter freedom. He wrote full-bodied plays like the classical tragedies but with a freedom that was far from classical. This freedom was the result partly of the general character of the English drama which was created by actors themselves and for mixed audiences, and partly of the genius of Marlowe himself who refused to be bound by rulers. Marlowe went so far as to omit the chorus, subordinate the messengers, and allow violent action on the stage. He paid little heed to the unities of time and place. He used meter according to his fancy and put his own spirit into his characters. On the other hand he failed to furnish a sustained and complicated action and to relieve high tension with humor. His declamations were too bombastic and he failed to give to his characters those finer touches of human nature which would have made them less like creatures of our passion and more like natural men and women whose lives we daily share. Jonson on the other hand set himself strongly against the tendency toward unlimited individualism and freedom in art which is called romantic. When the reaction against classicism set in Jonson refused to bend. He battled all his life against what he felt was the ignorant preference of the public for the romantic. He stood firm for classical unities and constantly made war on extravagant, fantastic qualities expressed in the imaginative romanti¬ cisms. But Jonson failed as Marlowe did to see the good in both classicism and romanticism and to harmonize the two. His fault was chiefly in being unable to portray real character, naturally and vividly. Instead he set forth personalities possessed merely of “ humours ” rather than of character. Shakespeare unified these two conflicting forces. He was lax with the unities, but he interspersed tragedy with humor. He was a master hand in portraying character in its true porportions. He was able, as no others have been, to develop a proper balance between freedom and so-called classicism. The products of this balance are his wonderful masterpieces in English drama. We have illustrated at some length the manner in which men in times past have been able in many different fields to harmonize opposing and con¬ flicting ideals and to create a new and better program which is a composite of these ideals. It is our purpose now to point out some of the problems in education to which this principle of integration may be applied. Because of rapid disorganization and disintegration of old forces and methods, the stage is set for the creation of something better. An unprecedented number of problems exist and furnish abundant opportunity to make use of any principle that gives promise of furnishing solution to these problems. Many agencies are today at work locating and isolating these problems. The Office of Education, our National Education Association, the American Council General Sessions 49 on Education, many and varied teachers associations and professional organi¬ zations thruout our land are busy with one or more phases of this tremendous task of survey to determine the needs of the nation in education and the methods and technics by which those needs can be met. We must not only continue what has already been begun ; we must hasten and expand the scope of these investigations so that we may more quickly begin our programs of readjustment to satisfy the new needs demanding immediate attention. A survey of the secondary schools of the nation, a survey of the land-grant colleges, and a survey of the education for teachers have been undertaken and they serve to throw light upon what materials are available with which to build a new educational masterpiece. A survey of youth and youth’s prob¬ lems has been suggested by a number of organizations and leaders and definite steps to finance and carry out such a survey have been made. We must not stop with these surveys. They show what the problems are. They give little indication of what might be done about the situation discovered. They are but a part of the complete set of tools and materials from which we can set about to work out a solution. Some of the problems of education in 1935 have already been located and to a certain extent isolated. I shall point out only a few of the out¬ standing ones. First is the problem of what to do with the products of our schools as they are sent out by the hundreds of thousands year by year. Chiefly because of the depression there is a failure of society to absorb the product of the school and to give it an opportunity to do what it is prepared to do. Youths are graduated from high schools and colleges with no place to go — trained, sparkling with life and energy, eager to express their hopes and ambitions thru work, curious to test their strength against the competition of the world, burning with the desire to live up to the ideals and principles garnered from home, church, and school ; flaming youth, flaming not with the red of vice but flaming with the desire to be of service, to utilize talents, to be men and women. For five years now we have turned out of our secondary schools and higher institutions of learning thousands of such youths, ar¬ rested and jailed on commencement day, by a social order inflexible and insensible to the loss of creative power and human ambition. Charge the loss where you may, we, the educators of today, the teachers, the superin¬ tendents, the principals, the schoolboards, the college and university facul¬ ties, cannot escape a fair share of responsibility if we allow the condition to continue, for ours is the business of education. We shall be to blame if there is no restitution. We must even now accept some of the blame for the stifling influences of lethargy and tradition and for the suppression of the freedom of opportunity for our youth. Truly we have before us the essential factors necessary for the creation of a masterpiece in education. Who among us have the courage to meet the challenge? A second problem with which education is faced has been pointed out and calls for immediate attention. We have gradually passed over to the schools more and more responsibility for the moral welfare of school chil- 50 National Education Association dren. This responsibility has, because of the changes wrought in the family thru changed economic and industrial life, been delegated to the school. However, there has not been delegated along with this responsibility of moral education the authority to set up proper procedures to bring about a satisfactory efficiency in moral instruction. We have had little control over the environment of the child except for the few hours of the year when the child is in school. And, furthermore, the schools because of certain restraints placed upon them by society have not taken seriously enough their delegated responsibility. There exist in our society outside the control of the school a number of agencies which exert a powerful influence on the child either for good or bad. The picture theaters, the radio, the press, the church, the social organizations of adults, the liquor establishments, the advertising agencies, various organizations for youth such as Boy Scouts, high-school fraternities, 4-H Clubs — all of these agencies have little direct connection with the constituted educational authorities of a city or state. Some are contributing very creditably to the proper education of youth not only in the matter of moral guidance and instruction but in many other ways. Some are tearing down whatever is upright and beneficial in the interest of commercialism, greed, and political favor. Certainly there is need for a revising of our social order so that the agencies which influence the lives of the children of the city or state may cooperate to exercise the proper amount of control that will eliminate those factors in any agency which are of known detriment to youth. Yet each agency that has benefits to give to chil¬ dren should maintain the exercise of freedom and initiative in the program by which those benefits are given. During the last two years there is evidence that semi-educational agencies have brought about thru a well-organized campaign a creditable improve¬ ment in the nature and type of photoplays exhibited thruout the country. A profitable use of silent pictures is common in the schools of many sections of the country. A start has been made. We must continue our progress in this direction. We must recognize the moving picture as a powerful method of instruction and we must work steadfastly to assure that the instruction given to youth by this agency is worthwhile and beneficial. We must no longer sit back with indifference to the presentation of pictures of ques¬ tionable character. Picture producers claim that they produce that for which there is a market. We must crystallize the public opinion of our communities to the point where that public opinion will demand that w’hich is creative and refuse to patronize that which is destructive. We must also use our influence to limit the possibilities of degradation to which the lure of commercialism in the hands of unscrupulous agencies may lead. The prohibition amendment to our Constitution has been repealed. But even before its repeal we in education were conscious of the need for more effective social control of the liquor question. Today we find conditions in many places in a deplorable state for our children and for adults as well. Certainly there is need for social control, certainly there is need for the educational forces of the nation to throw off the deterring shackles, to stand forth for the protection of the children for whom they are responsible. General Sessions 51 The need for coordination of all the agencies in education is a third problem which has increased in importance during the past two years. Previous to the depression, the schools had spent their funds freely to provide training on the kindergarten and nursery school level, to provide thru night classes for adult workers in various fields, to provide thru ex¬ tension classes and lectures in service training, general training, and cul¬ tural training for adult men and women. But, since these additions to the program of the school were the most recent in time and the most variant from tradition, they were the first to be eliminated when the loss of financial support demanded severe budget reductions. The loss of jobs by thousands of youth and the accompanying loss in opportunity for further vocational courses in evening and night classes turned loose thruout the country great numbers of young people to become a problem of society. Education did not solve the problem. Not only were funds unavailable for the inclusion of many of these people in the secondary schools of the country, but in addi¬ tion teachers and school officials were unprepared to provide the proper type of training to attract such youth suddenly thrown out of work. Fortunately for the schools, the federal government and other agencies expanded their program to help out in the emergency. The federal govern¬ ment established young men’s training camps to take care of thousands who were out of employment. Vast programs of city, state, and federal recreation projects have been developed. It is true that public libraries, museums, art galleries, and other agencies for education have been estab¬ lished for years, but there has not been a sufficiently close relationship estab¬ lished between the regular schools and these varied outside educational agencies. The result has been a duplication of effort and a loss in effective social service. An integration of these various forces into a unified organi¬ zation is highly desirable, and entirely possible under the principle we have been advocating. One of the difficult problems confronting educational leaders and school communities just now is that of providing a curriculum broad enough to include the social and vocational studies necessary to meet presentday needs. It is increasingly evident that modern changes in home and community life call for a new type of studies. Those who advocate the old-style high- school curriculum centering around the classics and the tool subjects fail to appreciate the modern student’s dilemma as he tries to apply such a conservative course to presentday life. On the other hand, those who urge throwing out the classics and teaching only vocational subjects fail to see that the spirit cannot develop without the aid of the more spiritual subjects. The principle we have been advocating offers the practical solution of this problem, namely, to select from each of these fields unified courses that will include the best and that will develop the student into a well- rounded character able to meet any exigency of life. A problem which is a corollary of the foregoing is that of preparing our youth to meet the onslaught of radical social views that constantly threaten essential social stability. The teachings of those who would undermine our 52 National Education Association social institutions often become both bold and insidious. Because of present distressing conditions such propagandists get a ready hearing and find it easy to enlist the enthusiasm and support of many young people. They pre¬ sent a plausible and even an attractive utopia where all shall be equal sharers in the wealth and the powers of the country and where all shall have an opportunity to work and no capitalist shall be their master. While this radical element is striving to gain the attention and support of youth, another group is advocating holding fast to old ideas and old methods. The old days, they claim, were the best ; the days when capital had a free hand and gave everybody employment. What if the wealthy aris¬ tocracy did pay low wages and oppress the employees? Everyone had work and there was no depression. But these opposing views go too far from a well-balanced ideal in the solution of this vexing social question. The problem and the duty of our schools today is to teach our youth that it is the part of wisdom to avoid either one of the plans that shifts too far to one side of the central span of safety. Thru the social studies in the schools the students should be brought to see that ideals which are subversive of our government are false ideals ; that such types of political government as are advocated by certain groups are utterly destructive of the democracy which has been our source of strength and freedom. However, certain features of these radical view¬ points may be of great service to our country if they can be made to fit into a pattern where freedom and authority — where liberty and control — are brought into harmony. As a part of the program of providing adequate social studies, there is urgent need for the inculcating of ideals of peace and goodwill. The solu¬ tion of social problems, whether local, national, or international, awaits the spirit of mutual understanding and goodwill which can come only thru definite planning and definite teaching. It should be our nationwide pur¬ pose to make provision in every school curriculum to develop in every child the spirit of goodwill toward himself, his neighbors, other nations, and races. In this way a splendid basis will be laid for the integration of the conflicting forces that are so prevalent in every country today. The successful solution of the problems just discussed will be of great assistance in a further problem — that of the proper training of teachers to meet the present needs. Teachers are themselves the product of the schools which they now attempt to direct. The ideally equipped teacher therefore is, speaking generally, yet to come. He will be the resultant of the methods and courses that have been suggested. He will not only have the technical training but also the spirit of goodwill which will be demanded of those who are to guide our youth along the pathway already suggested. In order to develop the type of teacher who will be able to meet the situation in school life today there is need for improved teaching conditions. It is true that for seventy-eight years the National Education Association, with the help of thousands of teachers, leaders in education, and auxiliary agencies interested in educational improvement, has worked untiringly to General Sessions 53 build public confidence in education, to improve the effectiveness of school administration, and thus to improve the environment of the teacher. Teach¬ ers today are profiting immeasurably by the efforts of courageous leaders of the past who did everything possible that teachers might be happier in their work. But this organization, and every other professional educational organization, and every teacher, and every auxiliary agency interested in the improvement of education, must work unceasingly for improved teach¬ ing conditions. We must insure to those teachers who follow us a greater degree of comfort in salary, in tenure, and in social and civic leadership, than we ourselves have enjoyed. We must insure them the right of expres¬ sion and the opportunity to reach independent and courageous conclusions. Unwise repression and control along this line invariably result in injury to the teacher and to society as a whole. The whole discussion of this paper up to this point emphasizes two essential social demands. One is flexibility for progress and the other is a sufficient stability to encourage and protect the initiative back of progress. These two needs call for indoctrination on the basis of our best present knowledge, and for the creation and perpetuation of an open mind toward promising change. These objectives call for loyalty to the best we know and also for a courage and an independence of thought in the constant search for something better. It is important, therefore, that our schools develop within us a respect for our institutions and a burning desire for their improvement. This latter motive presupposes a sincere, earnest, questioning mind. It is naturally proper that the schools should somewhere along the line make clear the answers that have been proposed for these problems and aid in a wholesome way the gathering of data that bear on a solution. These problems which concern our educational program especially call for our deepest interest and most careful study. We can never expect that all the different groups of school people will see these problems from the same viewpoint or seek to solve them in the same way. But it is possible and greatly to be desired that all shall attain to that breadth of mind and spirit and reach that altruistic attitude, in which it will be possible to bring together the facts and present the different viewpoints with their various implications. Then from all these facts and viewpoints, by a process of selecting and discarding, and by combining and unifying opposing ideas, there should evolve a practical solution that will meet the needs of the situation. Progress in every line of endeavor always awaits the elimination of violent conflict and discarding of notes that are too discordant. The only possible way by which opposing forces may be harmonized is thru conference. In a conference where goodwill is the prevailing note, those ideas which are dominantly egoistic, or which favor too decidedly either a repressive control or an erratic freedom, will be submerged ; and those ideas which fall within the limits of sound common sense and meet the tests of feasibility and practicality, will be accepted. Out of such conferences will come a new hope, a stronger faith in men, and a greater vision of service. 54 National Education Association In conclusion, the problems of the individual and of society are the prob¬ lems of growth and development — the fruition of inherent powers directed toward individual profit and the general welfare. The function of educa¬ tion is to contribute both to the release and the nurture of these powers and to the insights that serve as the safest guides in the process. This individual or social growth involves a life urge framed in a structural pattern. The urge represents the flow of freedom. The pattern represents the channel of guidance. As far as possible there should be freedom. As rapidly as is consistent with safety the external crutches of support should be removed so that the individual spirit may develop in the wholesome atmosphere of an internal urge and in an environment that will give opportunity for growth. Shelley, in his ode “ To a Skylark,” has well expressed the desirable union of the two forces of control and freedom. Hail to thee, blithe spirit! Bird thou never wert, That from heaven or near it, Pourest thy full heart In profuse strains of unpremeditated art. In the expression “ pourest thy full heart ” and “ strains of unpremedi¬ tated art ” freedom is as open as the sky. The guidance is in the environs of the blithe spirit — “ from heaven or near it.” What purpose is more com¬ plete than to have a flexible free heart nurtured in the “ heavens or near it.” What tragedy is more devastating than the choking of a free heart or being anchored in the hells of life. Akenside in the “ Epistle of Curio ” has drawn this picture well. Can art, alas! or genius, guide the head Where truth and freedom from the heart are fled ? Can lesser wheels repeat their native stroke, When the prime function of the soul is broke? Education is drafted in the present emergency to create the wholesome heavenly atmosphere and in such surroundings to release and swell the flow of freedom from the heart. ADDRESS OF WELCOME HONORABLE ED. C. JOHNSON, GOVERNOR OF COLORADO, DENVER, COLO. I want to tell you how glad we are you have chosen Denver, and chosen Colorado as the place for holding this very notable convention. We sincerely hope, and we fully believe also, that you are going to gain great inspiration and new enthusiasm for your life’s work in this convention that is being held here in Denver. We hope, and we believe too, that you are going to enjoy a little vacation out here. We hope that you take full advantage of all that is being offered to you in the way of recreation and sightseeing, and that you get at least a small glimpse of this great state out here at the very General Sessions 55 top of the Rockies. And when you look upon the mountains, you can say as the prophet of old, “ From whence cometh my wisdom.” I have been reading the papers, and I have been quite alarmed by the terrible controversy that is rocking this convention — that great issue of free¬ dom of speech that you are so much concerned about, and as I understand it, is likely to cause great disturbance before you get thru. Freedom of speech on the part of teachers! Well, I have always thought the teachers had all the freedom of speech that they wanted. I never knew before that they were suffering from that ailment. I know some of our governors, or some other people, who have to be pretty careful about what they say, but I supposed teachers just spoke right out in meeting and had it over with. There is a time, as I have observed in watching my own children grow up and in watching other children, a time in their lives when the teacher represents all that is good, and pure, and sweet, and right in the world. Parents always become jealous at that particular time when the little one first starts to school and comes home with great praise for the teacher. Teacher said this, and therefore, it is absolutely just that way, and there is no room for any argument whatsoever. Then I have watched them as they have grown a little older, and they become, I suppose, more realistic, and they become skeptics to a certain extent, and they find out that teachers are made of common clay just like the rest of us, and teachers lose their influence, perhaps, and they come to feel that everything that the teacher says is not necessarily the law of the land. But I think that is all well. I was glad to note what President Smith said tonight, especially that part of his very scholarly address in which it seemed to me that he was indicating that teachers should not be preachers. It is a fine thing for teachers to encourage the children to think and raise these controversies for the student to think about. That is all very find and splendid, and very whole¬ some and good in every direction. I do not think much of a teacher who arrives at his conclusions and tries to force them down the throats of his students. I do not think that that means very much to the student, and after all it is the students with whom we are concerned, not the teachers. Hence your job is the students, and what they are doing, and how they are doing, and if in being prepared to teach you can cause them to think and reason, you have done your work very well indeed. After all, these depressions and these troubles that come to us can be solved only by one human element, and that is thinking. If we cannot think our way out of a depression, if we cannot think our way out of any other difficulty in which we find ourselves, then we will forever remain in that dilemma of fog. So when the teacher teaches the child to think, forgets all about himself, does not glory in making speeches or in taking strong positions, but is intent upon giving to that child that has been entrusted to his care the purpose of causing the child or student to think, then, as I say, his work has been well done. You are very welcome to Colorado. We hope you will spend other vaca¬ tions here. 56 National Education Association ADDRESS OF WELCOME MRS. INEZ JOHNSON LEWIS, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, DENVER, COLO. Because of the lateness of the hour, I suppose that I should say “ You are very welcome,” and then run home. But the Governor has just said he be¬ lieved in the freedom of speech, and we stand for freedom of speech, and so I want to take about two minutes to tell you you are very, very welcome ! So it is on behalf of the teachers of Colorado that I do welcome you most sincerely to this convention. We are keenly conscious of the honor and the privilege it is to have you with us. I hope that your stay will be profitable and happy. More than anything else I hope, however, that out of the results of this convention there will come a new enthusiasm and faith in education as a factor in directing the world’s affairs, and when you return to your homes thruout the nation, you will feel a new strength, and a new consciousness of your personal importance in world affairs. Unless the teacher feels his importance, he will not be as dynamic a factor as he is entitled to be. This is a rare moment in history. We are passing thru various crises in human experience. There is conflict between the old and the new, and it is becoming increasingly clear that education must play a greater part in the planning of greater social and economic stability. 1 glanced at this year’s program, and of course you have experienced already in the programs that you have heard, you have become aware that this program is not built around glittering generalities of bygone days, but it shows that educators are evaluating social trends and movements, and instrumentalities of good government and human welfare. It is evident also that the teachers of this country are attempting to set up concrete activities that will make for more intelligence in human relationships. The teachers of youth feel a sacred responsibility in the face of the changing aspects of the cultural, social, and economic fields of the world. The pro¬ gram this year, you will note, will bring a new type of thinking and higher statesmanship into the educational processes and nearer to the world of actual living. This convention assembled will rejoice, and I imagine this point has been mentioned before, at the important news that has come out of Washington. Fifty million dollars has been set aside for the benefit of thousands of boys and girls in the land, who have been the innocent victims of economic collapse. I claim that the securing of the earmarking of this vast sum of money for youth is a signal victory for the education of the country. It was thru the constant and persistent efforts on the part of our educational leadership that our statesmen were made to realize the intolerable situation of thousands of the youth of the land. This is a concrete example of the translation of an idea into action for human value by an educational group. I plead for more examples of the direct influence of educators of this country in their influence for common good. If this is to come, however, this Association must be more aggressive in its demands. General Sessions 57 I hope that after this convention you will not hurry away but that you will stay and spend some of your vacation days, after the arduous days of this convention. Colorado offers many recreational opportunities. As the Governor has already suggested, it begs you lift your eyes up unto the hills; from there will come strength for your body and soul. We want you to enjoy our highways, our mountains and our canyons, and our sunsets. We invite you to fish in our streams so that you may have a basis for tales that will satisfy your wildest imaginations. The state department is at your service. Any time we can do anything for your comfort, let us know. The latch string is out at the State House, and we are at your command. THE SCHOOL AND THE PRESENT SOCIAL SITUATION WILLIAM H. KILPATRICK, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. What shall the school do with reference to our present social-economic situation? How shall it teach? That our economic situation has been, and still is, very bad, none would deny. What should be done about it, however, is very much in dispute. There are many who think that the whole social-economic system should be radically reconstructed. To this proposal, opinion in this country responds over a wide range, from an emphatic yes at one extreme to an equally emphatic no at the other extreme, with all gradations in between. Among those most anxious to bring about this social-economic reconstruc¬ tion, there are many who urge the school to take an active part in helping to build the new social order. To this proposal opinion likewise responds over a wide range, from an extreme yes thru many intermediate positions to an qxtreme no. It is, then, this problem of the school that we are here to study: Granted the wide range of varying opinion as to the need for a new social order, what shall the school do ? Especially, what is right, proper, and feasible for the public school to do? In what follows it is the public elementary and secondary schools that are most in mind, tho higher education and adult education are not excluded. Fairness to you demands that I state at the outset my own position on the underlying social problem in order that you may the better pass judg¬ ment upon my discussion as to what the school should do. I believe that thru modern technology the people of this country have become economically interdependent and this to such a degree that we should now consciously set up the inclusive public economic welfare as the prin¬ cipal prerequisite to the individual’s personal economic welfare. This I believe largely because I believe very thoroly in democracy and count this new social program to be henceforth the only feasible way in which to bring genuine equality of opportunity to all. 58 National Education Association I believe, further, that all decisions, either for bringing about this recon¬ struction or for the subsequent essential management thereof, should be made by majority vote of all the people after free discussion. I reject all forms of dictatorship or minority rule. I believe, still further, that the effecting of the desired social-economic changes will have to be a matter of decades, so that education broadly con¬ ceived can and must be a significant factor in the process. I believe, finally, that, as with human affairs generally, the outcome of the situation before us is in doubt. The result for good or ill and the degree thereof is still in the making and will depend on the public intelligence that we can bring effectually to bear on the devising and executing of our social policies. It is by way of building this intelligence that the education of all concerned becomes an essential factor in determining the outcome of the situation. Before entering upon the discussion of our precise problem there are cer¬ tain underlying conceptions to which we must give prior attention. If these can be clearly understood, the solution of our problem is much facilitated. First, we ask as to how the culture educates; and how effectual intelli¬ gence is a cumulative cultural product. Each human is born into a cultural group, with its language, its customs, its tools, its thought forms and distinctions — all with their implicit group outlook on life. Participation in the use of these cultural products is the correlative of group living. Continued existence for the individual depends on it. As each one learns to use the group culture and live the group life, his mind is built on the group model. In static societies, the elders stand guard over the culture. To vary is taboo. Conservatism is a cardinal virtue. What is thus learned unquestion- ingly sticks tenaciously. Still, even in static cultures, improvements do come, albeit slowly. In the Stone Age man made no significant improve¬ ment for 30,000 years, yet eventually worked out of it. However, improve¬ ments once accepted are conserved. Culture thus accumulates. But culture by its very nature is human contriving embodied in a form suitable for sharing with others; it is in fact communicable intelligence. The normal individual growing up to share in a culture that has thus accumulated a greater amount of intelligence becomes himself in turn more effectually intelligent. He can actually apply more thought. So, for example, any ordinary surgeon among us can now apply intelligence to surgical cases far more effectually than could the utmost genius among the ancients. Even a child at play will today use electricity in a fashion beyond the ken of the great Newton. Such are the possible results from the communicable intel¬ ligence accumulated in culture. When then as now with our social-economic situation, man faces a peculiarly difficult problem, the forward path is thus indicated. We must accumulate the requisite intelligence. It may take time, but we have a right to hope. What man has done, man can do. General Sessions 59 Second, we must consider the strategic factor of change in modern times and the varying attitudes which men take toward it. In former times when the accumulation of cultural changes was so slow as to go unnoticed, men thought of change either as trivial or as evil. The hitherto dominant western philosophy, springing from Plato and Aristotle and popularized thru medieval theology, founded itself on the effort to deny and thwart any significant change. The model conception here was the timelessness of truth that seemed to inhere in geometry. Accepting this as final and basic, Plato taught that back of all human contrivings there were perfect and unchanging archetypes or models “ laid up in heaven.” It was the duty of man to base and shape his doctrines, his institutions, and his conduct on the perfect and unchanging models thus provided. If this were done, change would be thwarted at least for essentials. But modern change is different. It is obviously cumulative and increas¬ ingly rapid. It can no longer be either denied or thwarted. No one can any longer, then, look on change as either evil or trivial ; it must be accepted as normal and fundamental. No philosophy can henceforth deal with the actualities of life unless it founds itself essentially on the factor of change. Now a curious and most important fact emerges. Those among us who would defend against change either their cherished doctrines or their cherished privileges invoke, in the main unwittingly, this older and once dominant philosophy of no-change. They appeal to it as a bulwark against unholy attacks. So we see generals and admirals defending the permanency of war on the grounds that war is embedded in unchangeable human nature. Similarly, defenders of the existing economic-business system seek to defend that system by saying that the “ profit motive ” is an inherent part of human nature and so furnishes the necessary basis for any economic arrangements, also that efforts at economic recovery must found themselves upon the abso¬ lute “ law ” of supply and demand. They conveniently overlook, if they ever knew, that science has given up the conception of absolute natural laws. We can then distinguish three attitudes toward change. First, static tribal life opposes any change. The static culture, assisted by ritual, repeats itself religiously. In this state of affairs, life itself is indoctrination. Change is in fact taboo. Any change that may happen is both accidental and clandestine. Second, is the attitude favorable to instrumental changes. When culture accumulates sufficiently, and ritual abates, man welcomes those changes that help him do better what otherwise he would do only less well. So even our vested interests now welcome natural science and its inventions. Such ser¬ vice or instrumental changes call for a minimum of reconstruction and of means only, not of goals. In this stage, philosophy and religion, hand in glove with vested interests, rationalize the status quo goals and count any fundamental change unthinkable. A third attitude, that favorable to fundamental criticism, seems coming now into existence. With the growth of science, philosophy escapes from 60 National Education Association theology and becomes now increasingly critical even of goals. Science has brought technology, and this greatly changes the modern world. Now at last even the common man, partly from science, partly from social changes, partly from economic turmoil, is learning to criticize the fundamental struc¬ ture of his culture. Criticism of the culture is thus now in process of be¬ coming a recognized part of the culture itself. It is in this region that our problem lies. We can now the better understand our present need with its resulting dilemma. Technological developments introduce social changes which call in question our old system of life and thought. Further changes seem demanded. We must introduce better order. Intelligence is our only reliable hope of dealing with this situation. We must apply constructive criticism. Intelligence, as we have seen, is socially built thru cultural accumulation. Moreover, intelligence, as psychology teaches us, is relatively specific. To learn to deal with social change we must study social change itself and this at least partly while the change is in process. A changing civilization must then provide the means for building the social intelligence needed to deal with the fact of change, else our civilization is doomed either to ignorant blunders or perhaps to angry violence. We must provide for the wide¬ spread and popular study of social changes. And thus results our present dilemma. Changes already in effect demand further and significant changes in goals and beliefs ; but deep-rooted cul¬ tural conservatism opposes any adequate proposals for social reconstruction. This is partly mere cultural conservatism, the result of cultural indoctrina¬ tion, and partly the self-protective efforts of selfish vested interests. Our essential problem is then psychological and educational : How can a nation that does not yet believe in needed changes bring itself to accept the idea, and find and make the changes demanded by the situation? The problem becomes the more difficult because the existing economic-business system, under which we must meanwhile live, educates by its very operation both against the idea that changes are needed and against the cooperative atti¬ tudes and habits that seem indubitably needed for the new state of affairs. With this introduction, let us now take up in serial order the criticism of the more definite and outstanding proposals as to what position the school should take as it faces the existing social-economic situation. 1. The school must be suspicious of social innovation, must indeed throw its weight against change. This position was well stated by the Lusk Committee of New York in 1920: “No person who is not eager to combat the theories of social change should be entrusted with the task of fitting the young and old of this state for the responsibilities of citizenship.” It is easy to recognize the group that supports this position. Most of them are simply unthoughtful conservatives, opposing any change as such, espe¬ cially such changes as call for reconstruction of thinking. These are easily aroused by demagogic appeals to aggressive reaction. Many others, how- General Sessions 61 ever, are consciously anxious to maintain their existing special privileges. These may be active in using their wealth and power to thwart and ridicule the discussion of existing evils. However, the most militant and vocal of all in this group of reactionaries are those who profess to speak in behalf of patriotism. With their lips these praise the name and deeds of our revolu¬ tionary fathers, but in their hearts despise and reject their spirit of daring to think new thoughts and enact revolutionary changes. Underlying this general negative position, it is easy to distinguish certain characteristic conceptions : a. There is a clear denial of any significant place to change in human affairs. It would be hard to contrive a clearer statement of partisan opposition to the intelligent study of change than the Lusk Committee pronouncement quoted above. This, we may add, is exactly the kind of reactionary attitude which, in the degree that it succeeds, leads by the straightest path to violent and unintelligent change. b. This group accepts the idea that things must be either black or white, with no intermediate uncertainties to call for thinking. These people recognize nothing but certainties. For them all essential doctrines are already known, authoritatively known, along with all needed distinctions clearly defined. All that now remains is to hand these out, or down, to the rest of us. And the upholders of this position count themselves competent to formulate and declare these authoritative doctrines ; in fact, they insist upon it. c. There is also in this group a further but less well-defined belief that teaching is properly a handing down of such fixed beliefs and attitudes, that is, that all teach¬ ing is essential indoctrination. These people do not conceive a modern type school. 2. The school must teach the socially accepted culture, not try to be a factor in changing it. This position is respectably held and demands serious consideration. We must admit that historically the school has existed to teach the established culture. However, because the school has hitherto so acted, is no sufficient argument that it must forever do so. If we do only what has been done, no existing institution would ever take on new functions, and no new institu¬ tion would ever come into existence. Clearly the factor of change is not only not taken into account, but is by implication denied. This position assumes an accepted culture so clearly defined that the school knows what to hand down. But in a changing civilization the culture must always be in process of change ; some things are going out, while others are coming in. There would have to be between these two a no-man’s-land where things were uncertain. So again, and more clearly, the fact of change is disregarded. The school is to act as if change and uncertainty did not exist. Moreover, if the school is to hand down beliefs, it must either itself choose what to teach or be so told from the outside. For the school to decide what to teach would be a denial of this position. If the state is to tell, there are difficulties that we discuss next. If not the state, the source is usually custom, the status quo. And this, I believe, fundamentally defines this position : It means in effect to uphold the status quo with its privileges and injustices. 62 National Education Association And still further, if on this theory any intelligent attempt were made to hand down a dynamic and changing culture, it would destroy this posi¬ tion. The fact of contemporary change would have to be noted, and the proper treatment of it discussed. But this is no longer mere handing down. Intelligently done, this would be preparation for better change. The position is thus finally self-consistent only on a theory of no change. It may be added that this position likewise assumes that teaching is primarily a handing down of fixed content. There is no apparent apprecia¬ tion of the give-and-take of study and discussion leading to ever better inde¬ pendent judging such as is sought in the best modern schools. 3. The school is the agent of the state; it must therefore teach as the state directs. To do less is dereliction of duty, to do more is malfeasance. The objections to this position appear weighty and conclusive. So far as the state would act on this theory, it would fix and hand down an official orthodoxy. For higher education, this would destroy the conception of research and inquiry at least in any controversial areas. Academic freedom would then go. To this extent, this position would bring the totalitarian state to America. For elementary and secondary education, there would be no academic freedom, no genuine discussion of controversial issues, no con¬ ception of creative study wherever the orthodoxy had spoken. Teaching would be execution of orders; supervision would be inspection to enforce orders. Initiative, creation, experiment — except within orthodox bounds — would be denied. Such a position seems an almost total denial of all the democratic and humane trends of modern life and education. Omniscience is thus ascribed to state house officials, leaving only docile obedience to the rest of us. This position, finally, either denies significance to the factor of change or denies to education any intentional part in making change more intelligent. There seems in it no acceptance of the need to base the state and society, on the one hand, or the school, on the other, on the fact of continuing change. In opposition to such a position I should wish to maintain that the state schools from the bottom up have as a chief function the bringing up of youth into a citizenship able and disposed to bring intelligence to bear upon public problems — in fact, to help create an ever higher and finer social intelligence to control and direct social change. And this is impossible unless the idea permeates the school thru and thru from top to bottom. And the idea will not be realized unless there is genuine discussion of controversial issues founded on an increasing development of personal responsibility to share in bringing about the changes that intelligent study approves. 4. In marked contrast with the foregoing is the extreme European-bred revolutionary position, namely, that the class war is inherent and inevitable ; and, being war, all available means are justifiable, including violence and deceit ; victory is predestined to the workers, the owners, clinging to their privileges, will so resist as to force their own violent overthrow ; for this the general strike is the all-sufficient means ; and meanwhile right-thinking people will drill all workers and available youth in strike tactics. General Sessions 63 I will not comment on this further than to say that to me such a posi¬ tion seems for this country false and wrong in almost every detail : The class conception does not fit, nor the class war ; nor is any one outcome fated ; always also must means be chosen with due regard to consequences ; our democratic tradition of discussion and voting seems far more promising of good results; to condition youth to any fix-in-advance and undehatable posi¬ tion is abhorrent. 5. Quite antithetical to the two immediately preceding positions is one which holds that the teaching profession must accept responsibility for building up an intelligent citizenship, and do this by having pupils study as fully and impartially as possible the various sides of the current con¬ troversial issues. The school and the teacher, however, are to take pains to remain neutral as between the opposed sides. There is so much here in keeping with our historical traditions that we must examine it at length. It accepts the fact and factor of change and pro¬ poses a way of caring for it. The way provided lies commendably along the line of building vital social intelligence in the learners by study into the merits of current controversial questions. The hope is that this will build up youth for subsequent intelligent self-direction. Also the teacher com¬ mendably takes the part not of conditioner to prior chosen positions, but as helper to more intelligent thinking. These things seem so far good, but there are counter considerations. Will the kind of teacher we wish be able and content to remain neutral ? If he is in fact neutral in his own mind, what kind of study has he done? Is not something lacking in the working of his mind? Is one who cannot make up his mind or does not reach some pertinent convictions the kind of person we wish to put in charge of our classes? For myself, I have to answer these questions in the negative. I cannot conceive how a good leader of youth can be the kind of person to study and not conclude. But suppose the teacher does have honest and growing convictions, can he as a rule so teach as really to conceal his convictions? Again for myself, I have to say no. I believe the effort would so often fail that to pretend to follow it would be a sham ; and therefore, like all shams, would prove hurtful. We seem therefore forced to say that we cannot make a program of neutrality work and should not try. For myself, I wish every teacher to have convictions. These should not be so fixed that he cannot and will not be sensitive to the possibilities of reexamining them upon proper evidence. We must then somehow build our teaching program on honesty of avowal. Just how to do this, the further discussion will perhaps sufficiently show. 6. A position somewhat like the foregoing is that we should recognize the need that each one build a philosophy of life as inclusive and consistent and helpful as we can effect it. In so doing, I as teacher will have my own philosophy and will not hesitate to avow it, but I shall do all I can to force each student to think for himself. I will bring to his attention the unsus¬ pected inconsistencies of his position. If he uses what I deem had logic, I shall argue with him. But I will respect the integrity of his thinking and 3 64 National Education Association leave him to conclude for himself. In particular, I shall shun any and all pressures to have him conclude on other than personally seen merits. If I can succeed in helping my student thus to build a philosophy that really integrates him within himself and with his environment, then I can feel that I have done all I could do to make him intelligently self-directing. There is so much in this position to accept that one hesitates to criticize it, but certain limitations will assert themselves. This program seems to contemplate college and university students and not to take sufficient account of the elementary- and secondary-school situa¬ tion. Tho, of course, beginnings can be made there. Also the program seems to isolate the intellect as if it could function alone apart from feeling and acting, and to separate learning from the living situation — all in a way that seems highly questionable. In particular, it seems not to concern itself directly with the actual social situation as something to concern oneself constructively about. We have now passed in review most of the positions proposed for the American school as it faces our social situation. There remains to be examined one that either includes positive indoctrination of a prior chosen situation or sounds very like it. Possibly we can in the few remaining minutes take due account of this position as we try to bring the discussion together to some kind of conclusion. From our study, some things seem to stand out as necessary constituents of any satisfactory conclusion. 1. We must take effectual account of the facts of change and the precariousness of any social planning that may be undertaken. Provision must be made for continual intelligent review, criticism, and change as regards both means and goals. 2. We must — so I believe and hope — hold to essential democracy and must educate accordingly. These two taken together dispose of the indoctrination of any prior chosen plan or scheme of social reconstruction. It is a planning society we wish, not a once-for-all planned society. Democratic planning means that all must be as socially intelligent as possible in order to pass on essential policies involved. The inherent precariousness of human affairs means that intelligence must expect change and be prepared to direct it. 3. The school has to take both prudential and considerate account of the present attitudes of parents and citizens. Prudentially so, lest we be dismissed and others less progressive take our places. Considerately so, because parents love their children and have rights and feelings in connec- tion that we must in both kindness and justice consider. Only on the basis of such a decent consideration can school people expect to interact educa- tively for the social good with the members of the community. These things do not mean that the school must not work for the right of full discussion of all appropriate topics without interference from the com¬ munity. In my judgment, school people should not only work for freedom from interference but should organize to protect themselves in their just General Sessions 65 rights, especially to protect against meddlesome busybodies who profess patriotism but really mean obscurantism and unjust privilege. 4. The discussion of controversial issues must be recognized as being on a different footing from the treatment of ideas and positions that have won recognized standing with the group. There can of course be no sharp distinction here, but the differentiated treatment for the clearly distin¬ guished areas is easy to state. For matters now accepted by the group, as for example common honesty, democracy (accepted at least professedly), geology (which was once con¬ troversial), we teach as follows: Whenever necessary with those too young to study specifically any one of such matters, we refer to it as definitely true and accepted. We raise no unnecessary questions. It is different, however, when we come to teach such matters explicitly. While we contemplate in each case a definite outcome, we develop so much conscious criticism of the matter being taught and knowledge of its limitations and possibly uncertain basis as will do two things: First, give intelligent control over its use, for which one must know why and wherefore and how as well as how far and how far not (on no other basis can one use anything intelligently) ; second, prepare for such later intelligent review and criticism and, if need be, revision or remaking as a rapidly developing world may demand (few things, be it remembered, stay fixed forever). Both first and second of these con- siderations mean that indoctrination is from a practical point of view both ineffective and hazardous. Nor need we fear for strength of conviction. Character is stronger and more intelligently dependable when built on the conscious why rather than on unreasoned prejudices. The latter may give fanaticism but not the steady dependability of intelligent action. The treatment of the controversial has perhaps been sufficiently set out in discussing positions (5) and (6) above. Here we need only add that a rapidly developing world must and will abound in unsettled questions. Many of them, as affecting varying interests differently, will be highly con¬ troversial. In a democracy it becomes increasingly necessary to know how to deal intelligently with such, and in group discussion. The school has a definite task here to build ever better the technics of creative discussion (poles asunder from formal debating, which is probably immoral). For this the schools should be free to examine critically any problem felt as such by the pupils. To refuse this freedom is to hamper education, maim the pupils, and hurt society. 5. We school people must become socially intelligent in the highest possible degree, and we must help all others within reach to grow in social intelligence. Again it is not indoctrination or propaganda that is contem¬ plated, but the building of intelligence. This means parent-teacher asso¬ ciations to study social problems; it means adult education on an unprece¬ dented scale to give conscious study to all problems affecting life ; it means that our schools must study social problems as never before. We who are now citizens must become more intelligent by much. The rising generation must be more socially intelligent by far than we now are. 66 National Education Association 6. This means, as I see it, both the study of social problems and the participation as far as feasible in cooperative community enterprises, all of course appropriately to the age involved. Only as study contemplates actual conditions is it real. Only as we are engaged socially in actual enterprises can we build proper social habits and attitudes. Only as we have contact with actual life conditions can we make our social generalizations real and defensible. To learn how to run our schools in this fashion will be no simple matter, but we must undertake it. In final conclusion it is greatly increased social intelligence that is needed, an intelligence adequate to deal with our complex and rapidly changing society; and our schools and universities must accept the major responsibility for effecting this intelligence. “ When this happens schools will be the dan¬ gerous outposts of a humane civilization. But they will also begin to be supremely interesting places.” And not only interesting but supremely im¬ portant. This is how the school can be a force for social improvement. FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOL IN THIS DEMOCRACY A. J. STODDARD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PROVIDENCE, R. I.; AND PRESIDENT, N. E. A. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE The history of man is the story of his long and persistent struggle thru the ages to attain certain inalienable rights. The purposes that impelled the establishment of this democracy were different from those that had dominated other governments up to that time. This new nation was estab¬ lished in the wilderness by our forefathers as a cooperative endeavor to secure for themselves and their posterity, as far as it might be practicable to do so, an unfettered opportunity for the pursuit of happiness. Other rights, such as life and liberty, were included in the objectives, but the right to pursue happiness transcended and included all others and, therefore, will constitute the major theme of this discussion. However, it should be noted that never before in the history of mankind have the rights to life and liberty been so secure as today in this democracy. Thanks to the age of science in which we live and the civilization of which we are a part, the average span of life has nearly doubled in the last two hundred years. And this is true despite our wars and high casualty record due to motor accidents and other dangers to life in this modern age. And the blessings of liberty! How seldom do we stop in our busy lives to count them. The right to think as we please, or even not to think at all, the right to worship each according to the dictates of his own conscience, or even not to worship at all, political freedom, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom to stay out of prison except when there is serious transgression of the rights of others, and even then to be judged by a jury of one’s peers; all these and many other related rights were regarded in the past as priceless General Sessions 67 because they had to be bought at such terrific cost. Today, in this democracy we take them for granted. It might be well sometimes if we would stop and count our blessings one by one and give thanks that we live in this country and in this day. It was understood from the beginning that no government could guaran¬ tee happiness itself, because ultimately each person must decide for himself whether he is to be happy. It is often true that happiness is conditioned by one’s environment, but it is never absolutely determined by it. In the final analysis whether an individual is happy or unhappy is to be decided on a subjective and not an objective basis. Therefore, the most that any government could be expected to do for the individual would be to insure the right to search for and to attempt to realize happiness if' he cared to do so. It may be well to emphasize that the term “ happiness ” as used here, and undoubtedly as conceived by our forefathers, does not refer primarily to that effervescent and transitory joy that comes merely from the exuberance of living, as frequently generated by the artificialities of life, altho it may at times include such gladness. Happiness, as we are conceiving it, refers rather to that deep and abiding contentment that comes from the abundant life, even tho such a life includes both joy and sorrow, success and failure, prosperity and adversity, sunshine and shadow, laughter and tears, cradle songs and funeral hymns. It is not that we would banish sorrow from our concept of happiness, if only we can have the ability to interpret the real significance of sorrow; we would not object to the shadows in the picture if we could but know their relation to the light. To be happy, we want to know the realities of life, whatever they may be, to be able to understand relative values in the midst of confusion, to be able to appreciate that which is good in the midst of that which is bad, to care for the deeper meanings in the midst of the shallow, to desire the worthwhile in the midst of so much that is trivial. It should be added that this pursuit of happiness should take place in the world’s busy life and not apart from it. True happiness cannot be realized in a vacuum. The individual attains his own best self only as he gives himself away for others. The story is told of two men who once tried to paint, each one, a picture of peace and rest. One painted a peaceful lake in the lonely mountain stillness — peace far away from every disturbance of trial and storm. The other painted a mother bird in her nest, hanging barely out of the reach of a mighty waterfall — peace in the midst of life’s turmoil — the happiness that is achieved by an inner conquest of the soul and by faith in the eternal goodness of things. Schools are established by nations in order to make effective the political philosophies which dominate them. It was natural that there should be established and fostered in this democracy, dedicated to the realization of certain inalienable rights in the lives of all and not alone of any par¬ ticular part of its people, a vast system of schools and other educational agencies thru which these rights might be attained in the life of every indi- 68 National Education Association vidual, each according to his several ability. It was not enough to guarantee the freedom to exercise the right to the pursuit of happiness ; there must be provided also the opportunity for realization of the right and a reasonable assurance of some degree of success in its exercise, or the guarantee of the right would be futile. Our system of schools has slowly evolved thru the last century and a half, coincident with the growth of the nation itself. Its function in the scheme of our government has been somewhat misconceived, or at least but partially understood. Certainly the schools exist to prepare the people to be better citizens, to so educate those who make up the democracy that they can understand its purposes and participate more intelligently and efficiently in its manifold activities. In other words, the schools help protect and perpetuate the government, and, in turn, the government maintains and promotes the schools. But why do they exist, apart from this circle of reciprocity? They are both means to an end and not the end itself. The purpose of the government is to guarantee certain rights to the people who compose it and the function of the schools is to fulfil this promise of the democracy. Or again, the democracy is the instrument of the people in providing certain opportunities for each individual thru the cooperation of all, while the schools exist not only to interpret and perpetuate the democracy itself, but more fundamentally as the instrument thru which its purposes may be realized. Those great thinkers who founded our nation a century and a half ago did not regard education merely as one of the incidental functions of the democracy. Time and time again they spoke of the schools as the primary means thru which the blessings of democracy were to become the common inheritance of all. An educational system can progress only as rapidly as the curriculum and methods of teaching are expanded to meet new needs. It was necessary for the early schools in our nation’s history to use the curriculum and methods of the past and to attempt as best they could to meet the problems and objectives of the new democracy. For more than a hundred years about all that could be done was to equip the children in the elementary schools with the common integrating facts, knowledge, and skills necessary in order that people might live together in an expanding pioneer society; to offer a limited pre-professional course to the small proportion who went on to high school, and professional preparation to the more limited few who attended college. Finally, the receding frontier reached the westward ocean, cities and towns and farms stretched across the continent, and the new country became established as one of the great nations of the world. The people began to turn their attention from building their homes and making a living to the attainment of those objectives of which their forefathers had dreamed a century before. Instead of a high-school education for a selected few, the curriculum was expanded to meet the needs and enrich the lives of an ever-increasing percentage of those of high-school age. Many types of colleges were established and the great state universities, the colleges of the people, offered a widening variety of courses to enable an enlarging General Sessions 69 proportion of the people to profit from higher education. Today, we are on the verge of a great adult education movement and the next half century will probably witness the expansion of the educational facilities in this democracy to all ages and practically to all types of ability. Coincident with this vast expansion in the program of the schools and colleges, other means of education have multiplied. Libraries and museums dot the land, every community of any size has its art associations and musical organiza¬ tions, newspapers and magazines abound, churches are an integral part of every community, the radio brings the world of entertainment and edu¬ cation to the very firesides of millions of homes, and innumerable other agencies, large and small, make the social inheritance and the culture of the race possible for every person who is fitted to claim them. This exten¬ sion of educational opportunity to all the people in a great nation is literally a dream coming true and constitutes the most significant social phenomenon in history. It has been emphasized that those who established the democracy realized that the mere guarantee of the right to pursue happiness would be but an empty gesture unless some means were provided to give effect to this promise and the schools were established as the agency of society for this purpose. But merely the establishment of the schools did not settle the problem. First occurred the struggle to make them free. Then came the battle, which has not been fully won to this day, to make the schools minister effectively to the varying needs of all the people. Other problems confronted each genera¬ tion and few if any have been finally solved because these schools must serve always a changing social order. But from the beginning the greatest chal¬ lenge has been to select and make effective those methods and procedures and that curriculum best adapted to make real for each individual his right to pursue happiness. The educational program of the schools is so broad that many phases or sectors might be selected for emphasis. Only three questions have been selected for this discussion as transcending all others in importance and as fundamental to the whole program. It is submitted that other questions are subsidiary to these three. The first two have to do with method and the third with the curriculum. In the first place, what will be accomplished by giving a person the right to pursue happiness without the development within him of that wellspring of action known as initiative, so that he will make an effort to realize his right? Initiative is that priceless quality of the soul, that most important of human attitudes, that causes one automatically to hunt for a solution to the problem that confronts him, that causes him to want to proceed from where he is, that leads him to want to be something better and nobler than what he is. How futile it would be for an individual to be a citizen in a democracy and lack initiative. The very essence of the right to pursue happiness is that the person be willing to do something for himself. There are governmental systems where initiative on the part of the citizens is not an asset, but this is not true in our democracy ! To paraphrase a famous question, “ What shall it profit a man to have the right to search for the 70 National Education Association riches of life and yet not have within himself the ambition, or the desire, or the will to spur him on, whatever may be the difficulties that beset his path ? ” Is it possible to develop initiative thru the educative process, and if so, how is it done in the schools? Without discussing the technical aspects of the question, it is sufficient for this treatment of the subject to know that initiative can be developed thru proper conditioning of the individual, just as any other attitude or tendency to react grows as the result of certain kinds of experiences. It has long been known that some races of people are more resourceful than others, that certain types of environmental conditions produce greater alertness in the people living under those con¬ ditions, and that the initiative of the same individual varies greatly with his own mental and physical condition, with what is called his “ morale,” and with many other factors that may be changed thru controlled experience. But how can initiative be developed thru education? In the same way in which other teaching takes place, that is, by confronting the learner with as many kinds of situations as possible that call for the exercise of initiative under the guidance of an expert teacher. It is the same pattern that is followed in teaching a person a foreign language, or to walk, or to swim, or to do problems in mathematics. Day in and day out, year in and year out, the growing child is surrounded by an environment that presents in¬ numerable problems for solution. These problems should be as real as possible. The educator in this modern civilization, where so much is done for the individual, sometimes longs for the return of those pioneer condi¬ tions when the individual had to find solutions to the problems that con¬ fronted him or perish. One criticism of the old curriculum was that its prob¬ lems were unreal and that the student was uninterested in their solutions and saw little use for the solutions when they were secured. The modern curriculum is more functional and its problems are more closely related to life as it is lived at each age level and as it will be lived in the future. The learner is asked to participate in the selection of the objectives of his study in order that the learning may mean more to him and be more directly related to his interests. The problems that constitute his curriculum are so chosen that he will want to solve them, will be challenged to put forth his best effort to do so, and will understand the practical implications of the solutions when they are found. Of course, the problems are simple and concrete in the early years of life and expand in complexity as the activities of the learner become more and more complicated and abstract. The educational method of the past was largely of the declarative and imperative sentence type. Today, the interrogative and exclamatory sen¬ tences have been added to the process. The learner is confronted by a situation that requires a solution ; under some circumstances, he may be told the answer, but usually he is required to find it for himself. He is asked questions such as, “What do you suggest as possible solutions?” “ What would you do about it? ” “ What do you think is the way out? ” “Where and how do you think the problem should be attacked?” Or, General Sessions 71 his training has been such that he automatically begins to hunt for possible solutions without any questions being asked. He begins to think, to act, to study, or, in other words, to use his initiative to start out on his search for happiness. The second question that confronts the schools in this process of educating the individual in order that he will be so equipped that he may attain success in his pursuit of happiness is equally important with this first one pertaining to initiative. This question is, What is to be gained by giving a citizen of the democracy the right to pursue happiness, by developing within him the desire and the tendency to begin the search, and fail to so educate him that he can and will make decisions as to which choices to make as he comes to the parting of the way time and time again as he proceeds? As a matter of fact, he will find as he grows older that life becomes more and more complex and that he only finds his way at all thru the maze of life by choosing as carefully as he can between an endless variety and succession of alternatives. This ability to pick and choose, to appraise and evaluate, has been called “ critical judgment.” As before, the question may be asked, Can critical judgment be developed thru the process of education, and, if so, how is it done in the schools? The answer is that this is an acquired ability which comes as the result of in¬ numerable opportunities to make choices, to arrive at conclusions, under the guidance of an expert teacher. In other words, critical judgment is developed just as is the ability to play a game, or to read a book, or to solve problems in geometry, that is, by long and continuous practise under the criticism of someone qualified to evaluate the decisions. This process of developing the ability to choose wisely is very complicated and not easily or briefly described. However, there are two or three phases of it that are of practical interest. The child must be taught the value of evidence and its place in judging. He must acquire a reverence for facts, must desire to find them, and must learn where they can most likely be secured. This is not the result of a special course of study or of a particular part of the educative procedure, but rather it must result from every phase of learning and characterize every step in thinking. There are certain sources of facts, certain repositories of knowledge, that have been authenti¬ cated thru the years. The student must learn what they are and acquire the technics of using them, and develop the tendency to turn to them when called upon to solve problems. He must learn to appraise evidence, to classify it, to array it on one side or the other of his question, and to pay attention to it in drawing his conclusions. So often a person is tempted to short-circuit his judgment, to reach his conclusion thru that most pernicious form of mental laziness, that universal cause of human misery, known as prejudice, which is a judgment that ripened too soon. Sometimes it almost seems as if the schools fall short of the development of critical judgment and produce instead a host of prejudices to burden the learner thruout his life. Some day, teachers may be examined as carefully concerning prejudices that unfit them for teaching 72 National Education Association as we now test their knowledge of subjectmatter and method. Anyhow, the point that concerns us in this discussion is that critical judgment, and not prejudice, must be the equipment of a person who sets out on his quest for happiness. An open mind and ability to judge relative values and to do independent thinking are necessary if the search is to be successful. It will be recalled that the expression, “ under the guidance of an expert teacher,” has been used twice in this discussion. Initiative and critical judgment must be developed as a result of the most careful teaching that possibly can be provided lest irreparable harm be done. The unwise teacher often makes the mistake of furnishing the initiative for the learner, making the choices for him, or robbing him of his opportunity for growth. Real teaching that knows how much or how little to help is the greatest of all arts. Initiative and critical judgment will often be developed thru the force of circumstances, but by the law of chance the wrong kind of individual may be produced just as often as the right kind. How often has society had cause to regret the ruthless individualism of that person whose initiative and judgment were formed by trial and error and who developed his own standards of action and sense of relative values. The third and final of the three questions that the schools must face in the preparation of the individual so that he can claim his right to the pursuit of happiness concerns the curriculum, that is, the types of experi¬ ences that will make probable the realization of this right. Somehow, the person must come to know what constitutes real happiness, must learn where it is most likely to be found, must desire to acquire it for himself and others, and must master the technics of claiming it when it has been found. For what is the use of establishing a democracy guaranteeing the right to pursue happiness, and then thru the processes of education to develop the initiative to search for it and the ability to evaluate courses of action and choose the right from the wrong path, and yet leave the person unable to recognize happiness when he does find it, or to interpret its deeper meanings if he recognizes it ? The first two of the steps in the educative process are insuffi¬ cient without the third. The ability to claim and live the abundant life is not innate in the human being but must be acquired thru long and patient study. Therefore, the curriculum of the modern school gives a large place to those subjects and those types of experiences that mankind has long found to include the eternal verities of life, to satisfy the deeper longings of the soul, and to inspire to noblest achievement. Many phases of the curriculum are planned to help the individual to supply his needs in relation to his physical existence; other phases include the skill subjects which enable one to use his environment and deal with his fellow-beings; still another phase has to do with the expressions of human beings in one way or another that constitute the cul¬ ture of mankind. It is the experience of the race that it is this last form of learning that has most to do with true happiness. It includes our religion, art, literature, architecture, music, games, drama, and all other forms thru which the noblest thought and emotions of each generation have been added General Sessions 73 to the social inheritance of the past and handed down thru the centuries as man’s tribute to his Creator and as his gift to posterity. It is the function of the schools to give to every person, as far as it is possible to do so, the key to unlock and claim the riches that are the common possession of all who are willing to pay the price. Unlike some other in¬ heritances, this one can be claimed only by those who will prepare them¬ selves to be worthy of it. Merely dotting our land with buildings that point their spires heavenward, or hanging the masterpieces of art on our walls, or making countless books available thru a thousand libraries, or bringing the drama of the ages into every city, village, and hamlet, or making the great music available to even the humblest man, does not mean that all will be able to claim the messages that these and a myriad other sources of happiness have for them. Only those who have acquired the technics of interpreting, who have learned the meanings of the various languages thru which the messages are spoken, who have attuned their eyes and ears, their thoughts and their emotions, to catch the messages that are all about us like the unsensed and uncaught radio waves which in the dead of night flood the world, only those can expect to succeed in this age-old quest for happiness. Thus, it will always be that man will go on and on in his eternal quest for happiness. And no two will search for it in the same way. Some will find it while many will never come to claim even a small part of what life might mean for them. But this democracy and these schools constitute the noblest attempt ever made to achieve the destiny of man. They have been established in order that he may, as far as practicable, have an un¬ fettered opportunity to achieve his own best self, that is, to realize whatever worthy talent or noble aspiration he may have with no other limitation than that which he wills to set for himself. EDUCATION AND THE GENERAL WELFARE HONORABLE EDWARD P. COSTIGAN, UNITED STATES SENATOR FROM COLORADO As a Colorado official, with a somewhat roving commission, I ask leave to repeat our state’s hospitable welcome to every present visitor. We re¬ joice with you over the inspired messages of this memorable convention. Your influence will be cherished when you have scattered to your homes. Our majestic mountains, living streams, and fertile plains — symbolizing freedom and achievement as fully as do the seven seas — have recorded and will often echo your eloquence and wisdom. Our greetings, too, are not solely for this visible audience. Our hearts are also warm toward the vital, unseen spirits of your splendid predecessors in the world of education. Among them are those who, many years ago, took our young hands in theirs and, with sensitive, guiding care, made us their deathless debtors. Those teachers of other days unlocked for us life’s 74 National Education Association doors of knowledge and character. Nor are these bonds all that unite us. As sons and daughters of this state’s pioneers, whose faith in education was only second to their love for their children, we see in you prophetic fore¬ runners of civilization’s ultimate universe of mind, heart, and spirit. You are the chosen spokesmen of unfolding destiny, and for that reason, I have hurried here from a crowded and contentious national Senate to pay tribute to you as educators and to American education. Surely in these times, as never before, you of the scholars’ forum and we of legislative halls, should counsel on policies, cooperating, without the slightest trace of partisan or other self-seeking, to solve the blended and supreme problems of education and public welfare. It is unnecessary to discuss in this presence the intimate relation between education and the general welfare. By education presumably we mean the full development, fit for practical use, of our human faculties and powers; by the general welfare the harmonizing of all those faculties and powers, aided by nature’s inexhaustible resources, for the common good. If that fairly states the basic elements, then life is all and education is all but all. This great continent is well adapted to be the beneficiary of the costly experiments of old-world successes and failures, including the lessons taught by such great periods of human unrest and effort as the Crusades, the Renaissance, the Reformation, and various revolutionary upheavals. As a country we still have the chance, by using educational forces, to emerge purified as gold without passing thru the furnace of feverish human experi¬ ences. We are still offered a matchless opportunity to combine under gov¬ ernment the planting of education and the peaceful harvest of general wel¬ fare in self-governing life. A half-dozen years ago a gathering like this might have been reasonably satisfied by eulogies on the traditional greatness of America. It was custom¬ ary in those days to glory over this country’s limitless wealth of natural re¬ sources, the sturdy and tested qualities of our diversified, adaptable, and relatively well-educated people and the idealism of America, which draws us all onward in the name of freedom and equality under law. No longer are we so easily satisfied. Today, without minimizing the force and value of that old attitude, we face the future less confident of our triumphant leadership, more informed about unhappy human facts behind our former fagade of amazing but deceptive prosperity, more humble under the chasten¬ ing blows of adverse years, and at times alarmed over the insecurity of America and even the future of civilization. Who longer can dispute our sound reasons for concern ? Our own generation has seen a world as peace¬ ful as that by which the sun rose and set today, rush senselessly into fratri¬ cidal war, which drew to it, as the flame the moth, nations, including our own, wholly remote from its causes. Today, in spite of pious pledges to peace — and no people have more sincerely given that pledge than America — nations which have not learned to conquer peace and fortify it for human happiness are again arming as if determined to multiply human misery by precipitating other wars that can only make future peace unendurable and future human happiness all but impossible. General Sessions 75 As if our daily problems are not sufficiently overwhelming, without complicating them by international violence! In our own day we have what we began years before, tho since 1929 the problem has expanded be¬ yond all prophecy — millions of unemployed men and women in this country, among them, strangely enough, an army of educators. We have also had countless families in this land of wealth living below the level of decent subsistence and reaching the end of life propertyless; innumerable children toiling for miserable wages in place of adults who are unable to secure any employment whatever; the old a burden on the young and without reserves or socially-provided care on which to build self-respect or to cushion their forgotten loneliness. We are tried, too, as a people by tax burdens seriously increased by the World War. Yet we emerged from that conflict after doing little more than touch its boundaries of confiscated or de¬ stroyed property, incredible cruelties, and lost lives. We entered that war with reluctance ; we look back on it now with regret. And we see, as never before, that our participation in future wars is certain to be sought with equal or larger provocation, and, unless education and morality can direct a sufficiently wide area of public opinion, our children and their children are doomed to far more tragic and treacherous disasters in a world of shrinking economic possibilities than our generation has visioned for America. Let us, for the sake of balanced judgment, draw on historical perspective and compare such a modern State as ours, the richest and most favored of our times, with self-governing Greece twenty-four centuries ago. Greece in the golden hours of Pericles was a country relatively insignificant in size and power. Nevertheless it was then so transcendent in intelligence and resourcefulness that its leaders expressed little concern over a possible end to its glory. Even its standards of human worth were startlingly like ours. At the close of the Peloponnesian War, Pericles voiced an exultation over the merits of the Athenian State and the secret springs of Greek genius that recalls nothing so much as the confidence in our form of government immortally phrased by Lincoln in his Gettysburg Address. A chastened humility has properly made American leadership less confident in more recent years. Pericles in the ancient world, in language that fits our con¬ ception of America, praised the freedom of Athens, inherited from genera¬ tions of Greek ancestors. He contrasted liberty-loving Athens with mili¬ taristic Sparta, where education glorified discipline above all other virtues, and with Corinth, stamped with the degeneracy of a land “ where men care only for riches.” To Pericles, even as to Washington, Jefferson, Jackson, Lincoln, Wilson, and Roosevelt, deeds were more important than words; good spirits sur¬ passed all material equipment for battle ; minds nourished by free principles outran all advantages of military rigor ; love of beauty without extravagance and wisdom without unmanliness were exalted ; suffering was preferred to weakness; and honor and achievement outranked wealth. Above all, Pericles emphasized the uselessness to Greece of citizens who did not par- 76 National Education Association ticipate in public life, thereby superbly stressing the importance of treating private and public duties as inseparable. It is well to revive such a picture of an earlier, worthwhile civilization. Grecian contributions of that brilliant age vitally persist today. Not to look further, we do them homage in the commanding architecture of our new Supreme Court Building and the Lincoln Monument in our national capital. Let us not forget, however, that deficiencies in Greek education undermined Greece. Greek civilization rested, not to look further, on false attitudes toward women and the involuntary servitude of those who do the manual work of the world. Looking back, it is perfectly apparent that Greek civilization was doomed, despite its dazzling brilliance, if only because it was built on human slavery, wholly without reference to the striking circumstance that Greek intelligence was hardly more than an island in a wide sea, or a pioneer clearing among the forests, of a largely barbarian world. Nor, tho the international scene has greatly changed, can anyone doubt that with all its world leadership, its immense resources of men and nature, its incomparably sounder economic foundations than those of Greece, America must rally all that education can contribute to natural resources, native talent, and common sense, if our civilization, like that of Greece, is eventually not to become a closed chapter in world history. We started well. From the beginning of our national life, public leaders have been friends of education. Jefferson, the father of modern democracy, in one of his most noted declarations, the sincerity of which was attested by his years of devotion to founding the University of Virginia, insisted that no people can be ignorant and remain free. Webster considered our practise of universal education the chief glory of the Union. With the approval of these and other leaders — themselves educators in their several ways, and aided by other educators in all branches of professional and in¬ formed American life — we have had in every generation and all regions since our nation was formed a progressive educational development directed toward equal opportunities for all who care to draw near the light of intelligence. Thus we began, and have ever since maintained, in no little measure without federal aid, our American school system, for the most part close to and supported by local public opinion. Accordingly, our educational system has been fed and enriched from the springs of popular understanding and conviction. Our fundamental aim has been to establish and promote the agencies and instruments of free and universal education. In so doing, we have sought to reverse Gray’s Elegy by creating a land in which there shall be no “ mute, inglorious Miltons”; no hidden Hampdens; no con¬ cealed Cromwells ; no artists denied the right to wake the world to living ecstasy. Instead, despite all handicaps, we have striven to keep in constant view trained citizens, contributing to their country their full measure of natural and instructed talents. In education, however, as in other fields, change is the law of life. Our world moves, and, moving, is transformed. We, therefore, find ourselves today with an American educational system, properly and widely rooted in popular support, yet increasingly dependent, as are other national activi- General Sessions 77 ties, on scientific and material help from our national government. Even in the past, federal aid has been an important factor in the evolution of our public schools. Land grants to states for educational purposes have pro¬ vided over large areas basic subsidies to support a successful and expanding educational system and more recently, with some necessary federal super¬ vision over expenditures, vocational education has been widely and syste¬ matically extended by the aid of federal contributions. No doubt these tendencies will continue and increase, as promises to be true with respect to aid to the unemployed directly and thru public works. This is the more true because many contrasted parts of our country are less prosperous than others, and our federal system of taxation serves as an equalizer of our divergent wealth and needs. Science and invention, equally with economic forces, pass state lines without the slightest consciousness of impediments and the nation more and more becomes the unit of our common life. National power correspondingly grows with national ex¬ pansion, even tho it draws its .strength from all local and individual sources. In a period of tragic economic stress, early in my Senate experience, I discovered that such admirable agencies of earlier days as the Red Cross and community chests were unprepared, without fault of their own, to meet adequately our unforeseen national emergencies. Modern life is startlingly complex. Its economic crises often spread universally and rapidly, as the last six years particularly illustrate. In such hours we must, without hesitation, enlist national powers and resources if we are to avoid national disaster. Accordingly, as already suggested, we find in the modern world peace¬ time necessities, which match in importance and magnitude the issues of war. Without depreciating the significance of local units, it is certain that our fathers obeyed a sound fundamental instinct when they sacrificed all to save the Union as the indispensable guarantee of a reasonable and con¬ tented world for them and their descendants. Today we realize, as never before, how tragic the lot of vast multitudes of our people would be if they were scattered thru separate states devoid of a national federation. It should be easy, as a sequel to the welfare experiments of the last two years, to agree on at least a partial program of national aid to state and local educational agencies, based upon such sobering facts about school con¬ ditions, as the following: We have about one-fourth of the population of the country, pupils and teachers — 28,000,000 persons, not counting be¬ yond elementary and secondary schools — in one way or another actively associated with public education; practical and vocational needs constantly expanding; an ever-pressing problem to provide an adequate teaching force to deal with individual students; 200,000 teachers at present unem¬ ployed; a much larger number of teachers not receiving remuneration wholly for a substantial portion of the regular teaching period; a host of children of school age receiving far less than full-time education; about 5,000,000 pupils occupying unsafe or unsanitary rural schools; and com¬ pensation for teachers deplorably below the level of proper subsistence, 78 National Education Association with about one-third receiving approximately $750 per year, and about two- fifths less than $1000 per year. In other words, on the material side, school buildings are today inadequate in number and frequently neither safe nor sanitary, and suitable textbooks are often unavailable; and, on the side of mental training, pupils are at a sad disadvantage educationally in many parts of America, because of the restricted number of teachers, the small compensation many of them receive, and the corresponding lack of dignity and leadership suffered by a profession, which is discounted because it is ill-rewarded and left without the stimulus which comes from proved public appreciation of the importance of the task teachers discharge. Already certain constructive efforts, on a nationwide scale, to free edu¬ cators from economic difficulties and widen the opportunities for pupils are urgently and federally required. Not only pupils but teachers also should be given the largest possible opportunities for liberal training as part of the gratifying development of a science of education. The priceless possi¬ bilities of children must be concretely affirmed in enlarged privileges during years of sensitive and responsive growth, alike in school equipment and inspiration from those who guide awakening minds. Our nation should lend the stimulus of appropriations to states and localities under conditions which will reasonably promote the great ends in view. America should hold itself ready to do regularly for education what heretofore it has done spasmodically. It should be prepared to sacrifice, if need be, lesser values for the illimitable possibilities of a future of wholly free and thoroly sound popular education. In support of these necessary steps, I bring you assurances that many progressive leaders in public life stand ready to assist and will prove help¬ fully responsive to any well-conceived, human program of federal aid to education, which your united authority is prepared to recommend. Certainly we ought to be able, without further argument, to agree on such minimum federal steps as these : 1. Grants in aid by the federal government to states, where necessary, for free public education designed to liberalize and equalize opportunities for teachers and students, without undermining traditions of wholesome local school control and direction. As suggested, this does not mean the sacrifice, but rather the strengthen¬ ing, of values which have long marked our school system. Undoubtedly today reasonable federal contributions are needed to keep sound local forces alive and effectively functioning. The precedents already set by federally donated lands for state schools and federal grants in aid of vocational education — not to mention the nation’s experiment with public works, state relief grants, and our public roads policy — demonstrate the adaptability, with safeguards for uniform standards and decentralized management, of a federal-state program. 2. Nationwide insistence on minimum school facilities and attendance for a period of from eight to nine months of every school year. 3. Teachers in all schools adequately trained and fairly compensated for their professional responsibilities. 4. Safe, healthful, and modern schools in all parts of the United States, with proper school and mechanical equipment, including suitable textbooks available to all pupils. General Sessions 79 In undertaking these and other experiments in education, as in govern¬ ment, we must have, of course, a sane and natural merger of state and federal activities, with broad opportunities for effective local agencies, side by side with the beneficial stimulus flowing from our national living princi¬ ples and destiny. If America is fairly to follow the path of its logical development, we must continue the values of our interwoven local and national educational system. The significance of the task justifies us in demanding from those who benefit by such an educational program both personal development and dedication to community welfare. We are all partners in building and perpetuating our country and contemporary civili¬ zation. The modern world, thru education and aroused morality, if it is to pay its debt to the past, must steadily eliminate such fatal flaws as weakened and wrecked earlier governmental experiments. This can be done as always by substituting good for bad, and better for worse ; by widely distributing educational resources and opportunities for national life ; and by modern invention and scientific achievements which override the demands of human selfishness thru insistence on universal brotherhood. We are aided in all such efforts by those subtle forces of the universe that keep alive, despite all odds, beauty, virtue, and truth. We have, too, the support of nature’s latent and reborn life and powers. Recognizing the imperfections of any individual contribution, we refuse to accept any edu¬ cation which claims to be “ finished.” We demand, instead, a better and more progressive humanity, inspired by our world’s evolutionary plan. We adopt Professor Breasted’s conclusion that man thruout history has followed, and must continue to follow, “ a rising trail.” What I have been trying in part to express or imply is the wisdom of the old Athenian message that all citizens, teachers, and students alike, should have, or acquire, and faithfully perpetuate a living interest and participation in public affairs. Perhaps it is natural, in view of my own activities, that I should conclude that no other test of truly educated men or women is so final or unerring as that of active and effective citizenship. Our nation’s ideals of a perfect union, established justice, insured domestic tranquillity, provision for the common defense and assured general welfare, must stand or fall with education. There is no substitute. If I am to be permitted to leave with you one remembered word, it is that. Happily in so saying, I do not speak either presumptuously or as a voice crying in the wilderness. Others with higher educational authority than mine, leaders in your profession, have not failed to speak in candid criticism of the economic, social, and political failures of the modern world as the product of defective education. Indeed, educators have spoken as frankly of the shortcomings of their magnificent profession as have prophets of the practise of divine religion. They know and you know — tho the fault rests in some degree on all of us who in our separate spheres contribute to the educated mind — that when civilization has failed, education has failed, and by the same token when civilization has succeeded, education has triumphed. It may 80 National Education Association be added, with equal confidence, that when the America our forefathers planned, shall have succeeded in establishing sound political and industrial equality and self-government, and in utilizing the resources of this continent for the general welfare, American education will have come to its own. Either way, whether our banners rise or fall, the major responsibility must in the long run be borne by American educators in every walk of life. In what has been thus far said, it has been assumed that there will be little difficulty in agreeing on a modest beginning of a national effort to underwrite the improvement and renovation of our American educational system. The purpose is to adapt that system to our rapidly changing civili¬ zation and to fit the youth of a new generation to take their proper place in the front ranks of priceless living citizenship. If it be argued that, in so doing, we are cutting across inherited traditions and experiences, the answer is that the new world makes new attitudes unavoidable. We must remember that we have, under state and federal constitutions, both state and national citizenship. We must, accordingly, educate every new generation to meet its new responsibilities. Educational leadership will certainly not oppose the common-sense view that nation and states can only coexist in harmonious efficiency if we continue, thru education, to promote equipment for essential services and the general welfare. If we fail to achieve those ends by reason of conflicts between limited respective jurisdictions, the general government will surely find public opinion rallying to endow the nation with ample authority to grapple with important problems which states, by reason of limited territorial authority, are admittedly unable to control. Recently in Washington an important decision of the United States Supreme Court has been interpreted by some as revitalizing the authority of states to deal with problems within their borders, and as excluding the federal government from legislating on subjects not obviously interstate in nature and effect. That decision has temporarily involved in chaos the far-reaching federal experiment of the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933, which had increased employment, raised wages, largely abolished child labor, and at least substituted a form of industrial planning for previous industrial planlessness. The decision has also clouded with confusion the assumed authority of the federal government to legislate effectively on nationwide industrial problems. Uncertainty is added by the fact that not many years ago the United States Supreme Court likewise denied to states the right, among other activities, to fix minimum wages, even for women workers who are especially handicapped in bargaining with employers, or otherwise secure wages for work assuring a decent level of subsistence. It has similarly become apparent that some states, seeking industrial advantages over others, by the employment of children and other cheap labor, have brought us face to face with competitive national problems which can be solved, if at all, only by uniform national legislation. It follows that if the Supreme Court adheres to such precedents, we must, soon or late, decide whether this nation can afford to ignore resulting General Sessions 81 human tragedies, or by constitutional amendment is to secure enlarged power enabling it to legislate for proper and indispensable national objec¬ tives. Indeed, a constitutional crisis may be approaching in America similar to those stirring historical controversies, which in the past have taken the nation into new legislative paths and have given it new constitutional guarantees of human rights and liberties. We have long rejoiced over the immortal ten first amendments to the federal Constitution. They are our personal bill of rights. With their inspired safeguards before us, if the denial of flexibility to the federal Constitution continues, we may soon be called upon to write other amendments to our Constitution, defining the standards of an economic bill of rights. To many it will be startling to discover that we are being driven into the cross currents and delays of amendments to the federal Constitution. It has long been the boast of liberal leaders of the American bench and bar that, under the present powers of the Constitution, authority may be found enabling our nation boldly and with originality to experiment for the general welfare. On that reasonable and happy constitutional theory Congress enacted much humane legislation between 1933 and the present hour. However, the recent unanimous decision of the Supreme Court indi¬ cates a regrettably inflexible change of judicial mood. Indeed, many quali¬ fied constitutional lawyers view that decision as nothing less than one of those legislative declarations of our highest judicial tribunal, which in the past have proved vital turning points in history. The justification of nationally uniform and often humane legislation, which from time to time has thus been halted by unexpected judicial con¬ struction, is to be found in the essential purposes, including the general welfare clause of our federal Constitution. In an address in November 1787 before the Pennsylvania Convention, which was elected to consider the adoption of our American federal Constitution, James Wilson, one of the ablest of the Constitution’s framers, gave the following as his view of the merger under the Constitution of state and national authority: Whatever object of government is confined, in its operation and effects, within the bounds of a particular state, should be considered as belonging to the govern¬ ment of the state; whatever object of government extends, in its operation or effects, beyond the bounds of a particular state, should be considered as belonging to the government of the United States. We have in a way even higher authority. Our hero-worshippers are making us forget that George Washington was a great forward-looking liberal, who smashed precedents at will. Virginia was the first state to act on the proposal to call the Convention at Philadelphia, which wrote our federal Constitution. The Journal of James Madison discloses that George Washington headed the Virginia delegation which took a leading part in the work of that Convention. That delegation was specially in¬ structed by the general assembly of Virginia “ to join ... in devising and discussing all such alterations and farther provisions as may be neces¬ sary to render the federal Constitution adequate to the exigencies of the 82 National Education Association Union. . . .” The Virginia delegation, undoubtedly with the approval of George Washington, subsequently submitted proposals for the consideration of the Philadelphia Convention, including the declaration that “ the na¬ tional legislature ought to he empowered to enjoy the legislative rights vested in Congress by the confederation and moreover to legislate in all cases in which the separate states are incompetent or in which the harmony of the United States may he interrupted by the exercise of individual legis¬ lation. . . .” Thus we discover the incomparable name and approval of George Washington behind a liberal interpretation of the intent of the enumerated powers granted Congress by the Constitution. Here is but part of the persuasive evidence in the proceedings of the Constitutional Convention of Washington’s far-sighted view that Congress was designed to be free within expressed and implied constitutional grants, to legislate in behalf of general well-being in the United States in all cases where the states, acting separately, are unable to cope with national problems. These expressions of our forefathers are but other ways of declaring that this nation should he equipped to deal, in peace as in war, with future all-pervasive problems of the general welfare which cannot be solved by state action. It was the failure to act on that assumption which resulted in the sword of Civil War carving into the body of our federal Constitution its thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth amendments. Is it not evident that the best assurances of the survival of our self- governing institutions lies in minds which place rights and duties beyond the temptation of profit; and which insist at all cost on free discussion, religious liberty, a free press, the right of free assemblage, fair trials, and other priceless guarantees of our Bill of Rights, as well as the industrial democracy which is the inevitable modern sequence of those earlier asserta- tions of individual liberty and equality? We must never forget that the framers of the Constitution provided the authority to adopt consti¬ tutional amendments. In this connection, let us recall that the federal Constitution went into effect on March 4, 1789, and that on September 25, 1789 — little more than six months later — members of the first Congress, under the Constitution and the presidency of George Washington, showed their readiness to use the amendatory method by submitting to the states twelve amendments, ten of which were subsequently ratified by the original states, have ever since been retained, and are today known to the world as the American Bill of Rights. The founders of the American Union were well aware that free govern¬ ment, like free education, must be subject to change; that the ultimate governmental issue in the world is between flexible popular rule and ever- encroaching inflexible dictatorships; and that only under popular sover¬ eignty, with the aid of expanding education, can life be permanently de¬ sirable and liberated from the threats of ever-increasing tyranny, under which the alternatives for human beings are submission to arbitrary rule, revolt, or suicidal wars. Equally important to bear in mind is the truth that, under free government, education forever leads those who teach and General Sessions 83 those who learn toward illimitable horizons of science, literature, free utterance, and criticism and triumphant fraternity. Soon or late, it will be apparent that our world’s progressive evolution discards the evils of one age to make way for the glories of another. Fortunately, we are an adaptable and practical people and there can he little doubt that, in the long run, we shall continue to advance with reasoned judgment along the highways of necessary national authority, in the exercise of which our final security must be guaranteed by government of, by, and for the people. Certainly, in that forward drive we can do no harm by adopting, thru constitutional amendments, federal authority favored by George Washington, adequate to meet national problems and serve the whole nation’s well-being. Thus from the largest to the least govern¬ mental units, the federal-state plan of the founders of our system of govern¬ ment will rule the length and breadth of the land, giving assurances of a mighty destiny in which education will accept as its highest duty the support of the general welfare. COOPERATION WITH THIS GENERATION IRMA C. VOIGT, DEAN OF WOMEN, OHIO UNIVERSITY, ATHENS, OHIO; AND PRESIDENT, NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF DEANS OF WOMEN “ Life is something more than that which we think it to be at any single moment.” This inscription written by Zona Gale on the flyleaf of a copy of her short stories which she sent to me after a visit in my home has chal¬ lenged me to new faiths and beliefs for the past three years. In another form this same idea came to me as I read recently a striking short story by one of our popular living authors, Kathleen Norris. Two vital young people, seniors at one of the great western universities, were facing their love for each other in the discouraging aftermath of the great depression. Both needed positions desperately in view of the fact that both had acquired their education at a terrific sacrifice and a minimum of cost. The young girl was faced by a dilemma : Should she marry the man whom she sincerely loved and turn her back on material comfort, even luxury, or should she accept this luxury offered by a less desirable alliance and thus sacrifice the deepest satisfactions of her soul. The prospect of this latter course as the inevitable ending made her bitter and rebellious over the present unfortunate economic order of the world. Life was cheating her and her generation of the sweet and natural satisfactions of youth. Both she and the young man were possessed of superior mental acumen. Neither was willing to side-step accepted conventions, for they wished as man and wife to win jointly the goals of happiness and success. At their most rebellious moment a slight hope for better things to come came to them in the form of possible money awards in a competitive his¬ torical thesis contest. Qualified contestants were to draw subjects for their 84 National Education Association theses, two of whom, a man and woman would receive the coveted award of $500 each. They both applied, were accepted, and drew their subjects. The subject drawn by each one cast them into even deeper despair for she drew “ The Pioneer Mothers,” and he drew “ George Washington.” Neither one saw a connection between the subject and modern life trained as they both were in an economic and political order far removed from the one of the early days of America. They felt that life was not only cheating them but now also adding the insult of mockery. Because, however, of their superior mentality, the seeming incongruity of it all intrigued them and they were challenged by the very odds against them, since their com¬ petitors seemed to have subjects in line with the modern order. With the buoyancy of youth and the fervor of romantic love they dared hope for success despite their subjects. They agreed that they would face life together if both should win — $1000 seemed enough for the initial ven¬ ture. Indeed the success of only one might let them dare the risk. True students that they were they gave themselves unreservedly to their tasks. The time of preparation came to an end, the theses were submitted, and the announcements anxiously awaited. Both were disappointed to learn that they were not the winners of the money. Much to their surprise however, their first meeting which they thought would mean blank defeat to their love proved an unforeseen revelation of the real meaning of love. She was now not only the modern girl imbued with the spirit of today, but the pioneer mother as well imbued with the indomitable spirit of early American. He was now not only the modern youth with his twentieth century heritage, but a young and vigorous George Washington ready to forge out a new future. They knew now that together they dared face life and win for themselves and their children their rightful heritage. Life became something more for them than that which they thought it was at any single moment. Just how is the case of this young man and woman typical of the youth of today and how should we as adults cooperate with them in helping them gain their rightful heritage ? May we ask just what made them lose it ? Per¬ haps the answer is to be found in the fact that we as adults seem to have lost it. When the war ended as far as actual fighting was concerned in 1918 we somehow lost the line of continuity that linked us with the America of pioneer days. 1918 became a starting point for a new way of life for many. Into this atmosphere of newness the present generation came upon the scene. Adult men and women seemed to be going on a wild holiday — false ideals, false values, false goals created an artificial and blatant attitude on the part of society which childhood seized upon as if a toy, for it was colorful, noisy, and distracting, three things children ask of a toy. And apparently adulthood was also intrigued, for it began chasing bubbles socially, financially and, dare we say, spiritually. The resulting situation reminds one of the story of the little boy when he first looked down upon the Grand Canyon. A little boy hardly more than a toddler walked with his father out to the rim of the Grand Canvon of General Sessions 85 the Colorado. As he looked upon terrace after terrace splashed with olive greens, yellows, purples, and reds, he put his chubby fist into his father’s strong hand and exclaimed, “Oh, Daddy, what has happened?” So our young boys and girls of today coming into and thru their teens seem to be grasping our hands and saying as they seek to find their footing in the present social order, which looks like a great chasm to them, “ Oh, older generation, what has happened ? ” And we of the older generation must in turn direct our gaze across and into the depths of the chasm, at present pretty well cluttered with great remnants of shattered standards, and seek once more our very foundations. As we look steadily and long, we glimpse again the sturdy pioneer mother and the fearless father of our country. We realize that they did not fail their generation in giving to their successors the qualities with which to build an America, greater than they knew or could conceive. It is well for us, now, to pause and analyze the traits which they pos¬ sessed and which serve as the rock bottom of the young America. Let us analyze, first, the traits of the pioneer mother. We see her turning her face westward, away from the established and orderly society of her home community in New York or New England with a dauntless faith in a new west which she and her husband shall make their own. We see her later as the little caravan winds its way over the plains faced by stark hunger and death, still undaunted and still persistently clinging to her faith. With a babe at her breast and other little ones around her she visions their future home where her sons growing into sturdy manhood and her daughters into robust womanhood may forge out their lives in freedom and opportunity. And because she persisted she gave the trait of persistence as a precious heritage not only to her children but to her children’s children to be forever a foundation stone of our society. But she never could have persisted had she not had another trait with which to buttress herself in times of terrible and almost insurmountable strain and stress. This was the trait of loyal devotion — loyal devotion to her husband and loyal devotion to a belief in the future and in their future. Despair was not in her vocabulary — disap¬ pointment, yes, tragic and heartbreaking disappointment, but not despair. Each disappointment seemed but to serve as a stimulus for renewed effort and a dogged determination to succeed. Out of this dogged determination grew a fearlessness which seemed to be almost superhuman. In the presence of imminent physical danger, courage was born — a courage that enabled them to face death thru massacre, flood, and famine, without flinching or deviating from their purpose. For them there was no alternative, no turning back. Out of the conquest of this physical fear which they must have felt again and again there developed within them a mental fortitude which enabled them to look into an uncertain future and not waver. Life was offering them its most intriguing gift, romance — not the romance of sentimental emotions but the romance of adventure. 86 National Education Association As we look at the statue of the Pioneer Mother along the national high¬ way, driving along smoothly paved and graded roads *in our comfortable automobiles, we appreciate anew her persistence, her loyal devotion to her dreams of a home where amid freedom and opportunity her family might grow into manhood and womanhood, her fearlessness and fortitude, and her romantic trust in a future which lay be3rond her own generation. We would not go back in our civilization to her day, but we would incorporate into our civilization all the basic qualities of character which she possessed. She rightfully epitomizes a strength and fineness needed today by twentieth century young women. Now let us examine some of the traits which made George Washington, the father of his country. He was not of the sturdy peasant stock, who would of necessity have needed to forge out his destiny as a toiler or as a soldier of fortune. In fact, he came of English aristocrats who lived easily and well, with every need taken care of and every hardship avoided. But Washington, with characteristic native intelligence and fineness, gave up the life of ease to give himself, unselfishly, altruistically, nobly to his fellowmen. Like the women of his generation, he too, possessed the spirit of adventure as is shown in his explorations and missions into the unknown Middlewest. Fearless in the face of hostile Indians, he forged into the sec¬ tions of wilderness around the Ohio River at the request of his chief. This was not, however, foolhardy adventure, lacking a purpose, but adventure with a definite goal — to subjugate the wilderness and to hold control of that which was already gained. Later, when “ the shot was fired that was heard round the world,” Washington manifested the same stoicism and patriotic fervor which he had shown as a younger man. Without question he accepted the challenge to head the Continental troops and to fight the more seasoned troops of the mother country. As one looks at the Gilbert Stuart portrait of Washington, one feels this determination in the very set of the chin, in the steady gaze of the eye, and in the calmness of the whole countenance. The story which we all know of the Revolutionary War illustrates the large part of Washington. He did not accept exemptions from hardship as the generalissimo; he lived with his soldiers at Valley Forge ragged and bare¬ foot. He did not acknowledge defeat in the terrible winter when practically all the soldiers thought it must be inevitable surrender; rather, he crossed the Delaware River between blocks of floating ice, defying the conventional course, amid the protests of his own men. Washington did not expect quick results ; he looked far ahead, with infinite patience, into a picture which he could not hope to live to see — a future which would show the results of his foundation work. He was willing at times to accept the scorn of his less foresighted men who realized only the obvious ; he was willing to make only the beginnings of a program, which he outlined in his inaugural address. When success came to Washington after the war, he was willing to put aside self-aggrandizement and think only of his country. He preferred not to be the leader in peace times, as he had been in war. He accepted the General Sessions 87 position as the first president of the new democracy only because duty lay that way. For four years and another four years, he built as wisely as he knew the policies of the new nation. Then he insisted that a precedent be established that no one man should assume to be a leader for too continuous a period. He was willing to pass on to a younger man with new vigor and new ideas the future policies of his country. One need only to turn to his Farewell Address to see the written record of modesty, of the courage of conviction, of the wisdom and foresight of leadership. In other words, Washington epitomizes the strength and fineness of American manhood not only for his own generation, but for our day as well. In the light of our analysis it seems only logical that we as the adult generation, shall we say — ourselves partly responsible for the lapse in the fine heritage given by the pioneer mother and by Washington — should help point the way, especially when our young people turn to us and say, “ What has happened ? ” Even tho it may be something of a Herculean task, we must accept the challenge of : 1. Rebuilding the family unit as a stabilizing factor in modern life 2. Rebuilding a moral code of adequate living to replace the inflated post-War standards 3. Rebuilding a genuine patriotism which shall include both national and inter¬ national loyalties 4. Rebuilding a conception of dominating spiritual forces which were shattered in the grief and despair of war devastation and desolation. Can the partial breakdown of the family as a stable unit of society be laid at the door of the older generation ? Certainly it did not deliberately set about making a change but it promoted and in turn became victimized by the theory of individualism and the machine age. The latter advanced with such speed that its promoters became victims of the whirlwind. It was very easy, therefore, for a generation that had this mechanistic civilization superimposed upon it to lose sight of the proper balance between indi¬ vidualistic and cooperative living, and to be utterly unaware of the painful aftermath for a generation that knew no other civilization. The present economic situation demands reemphasis and reinterpretation of cooperation. In the presentday atmosphere of an individualistic philosophy the retention of the close family unit means conscious sacrifice on the part of every mem¬ ber of the family that the welfare of all may be served as it was so well done in the pioneer days. Our economists are telling us that this rebuilding of the integrity of the family as a unit of society is one of the essential steps in recovery and in stabilizing this recovery. How may we cooperate in achieving this goal ? Two methods present themselves — by our own belief expressed thru action and by an education which shall relate the life of the past with the life of the present. We should stop this teaching of the past of all sentimentality and leave only the timeless virtues which were the tools used in forging out the America of the centuries past and which are still the tools adequate for the forging out of the America of today and tomorrow. It goes without saying that 88 National Education Association the complete pioneer period cannot and should not be substituted for our own. Intelligent education means the ability to see appropriate parallels. The second frontier, rebuilding a moral code of living after an inflation and partial collapse of what was, is really a far more difficult frontier than any our forebears faced. The simplicity of their lives gave, naturally, a rather formal and indisputable code of living where black was black and white was white, and there were no gray shades in between. Today there are so many varying shades of gray that for young people it is difficult to recognize either truth or falsehood. We as an older generation have to offer as a measuring stick in this bewildering maze the established virtues of our pioneers such as loyalty, courage, steadfastness of purpose, belief in the . future temperance, physical integrity, and self-discipline. When the light of these traits is thrown onto a complex moral situation, a right and ultimate conclusion on the part of the individual is inevitable. The third frontier, rebuilding a genuine patriotism which shall embrace both our national and international relations, must be met: first, by a sloughing off of the pseudo-patriotism, based upon war glamor and post-war hysteria, and unreasonable national class and race prejudice; second, by substituting basic democratic principles of the inherent rights of all, and a sympathetic enthusiasm and appreciation of the contributions of all sections to the national culture and the contributions of all nations to the inter¬ national culture. On this frontier, both the older and younger generations are standing. Both must be willing to accept graciously the concept of a family of nations. On this frontier, it would seem that the more generous and open-minded nature of youth will point the way. Our cooperation may consist of our willingness to be led by youth. The fourth frontier, rebuilding a conception of dominating spiritual forces, is also a joint problem in which the older and younger generations are groping. War disillusionment always means low spiritual ebbs. The parents who have been the victims have little to pass on to their children. In our day, no spiritual prophet has arisen. In fact, many substitutes in the form of “ isms ” have been tried in the place of a basic creed. Old and young alike may do well to turn back to a study of the real sources of strength of our American colonists. This study will reveal that the Bible and the simple Bay Psalm Book served to armor the God-fearing pioneers with the courage and devotion which gave us America. Add to this resource as we will, according to the needs of our complex civilization, we shall never be able to deviate from the basic principles involved. Such prophets as Sherwood Eddy, Harry Emerson Fosdick, Bishop McConnell, and their like, have given us a living demonstration of this. It remains for young America to follow in their wake. General Sessions 89 Forum- — Needs of Youth YOUTH BIDS FOR A NEEDED OPPORTUNITY ROBERT N. BUSH, PRESIDENT, ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION, NATIONAL STUDENT FEDERATION, GREELEY, COLO. As a representative of the National Student Federation of America, I wel¬ come the opportunity to participate in this most significant N. E. A. meeting. The National Student Federation is now in its tenth year and has become a vigorous national youth unit, beating down provincialism and mobilizing student opinion on public issues. As a national youth unit we are vitally concerned about the plight of youth in our contemporary life, and even more interested in what can and will be done about it. We have, as a unit, directed our efforts in stimulating an already wide-awake group to a point of action. But, having done this, we must appeal to society to allow us an opportunity to try our hand. So today, may I say to you, we bid for a needed opportunity. Plight of American youth — Three million young people between the ages of sixteen and twenty-five are out of school, unemployed, and living at home. Less than one-third of the college graduates of the past few years have found employ¬ ment. Youth is now at a tragic standstill: We are ready to turn our powerful latent forces into progressive or retroactive channels and the direction of our efforts from this point depends on society. In the words of John Dewey “ What we do in the next few years for and with youth will determine in later years what they do with and to the institutions in which they find themselves.” Youth is experiencing the dull pangs of not being wanted: This depression has been one vitally directed at youth. Security has been attempted for the older groups at the expense of the younger; 25 to 40 percent of all homeless persons are under twenty-one years of age. There are 250,000 boys on the roads and “ riding the rods.” Thirty-six percent of the arrests in the United States were of those between the ages of sixteen and twenty-five. A recent study in fifty cities shows no evidence of youth being given any recognition in important activities of the community. What needs to he done for youth — We want a chance to play a part in the contemporary life under the guidance of properly qualified advisers and academic staffs. There needs to be a detailed analysis of steps that can be taken to help youth. Students must be given an opportunity to act long before commencement day. There must be an actual tie between the school experiences and life problems. The activities of the school must be vitalized. Proposed plans, now in their infancy, must be carried out: (1) The proposed federal youth service unit within the federal government should be established ; (2) impetus must be given to the now pending national community youth program; (3) the public must be convinced on every occasion that the latent energies and the fresh viewpoint of the youth will greatly accelerate social advancement. Youth bids for a needed opportunity. Will you support them in their plea? Will you write to your congressmen and friends in the national administration urging the adoption of the proposed governmental projects for youth rehabilitation? Will you classroom teachers bring pressure to bear on your administrators, and you administrators in turn, will you do likewise to your boards of directors to provide a practical, vitalized school, 90 National Education Association one in which the students will be given opportunities to learn the truth about our social order and be allowed, with competent direction, to apply their own enthusiasms to solving its many problems? Will you become even more ardent advocates for the conservation of our greatest national resource, the youth of the country? These are the questions I would ask you, the challenges I would put before you in behalf of the younger generation. Our plea to you is, will you accept our bid for an opportunity? Forum — Needs of Youth PROBLEMS OF YOUTH FROM THE STANDPOINT OF SOCIAL STUDIES ERNEST D. LEWIS, EVANDER CHILDS HIGH SCHOOL, NEW YORK, N. Y. ,* AND PRESIDENT, N. E. A. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION I am going to seem a bit old-fashioned. I am going to insist that in the midst of our discussion about economics and social revolution, the high schools of the land must continue to give good old-fashioned character train¬ ing. Needed was such training in 1635 and needed it is in 1935. During all of these three hundred years the high schools of America have stood in the first line of defense against the insidious effects of ignorance and crime. Valiantly teachers and administrators have cooperated in holding this line. The American people have consistently backed their efforts ; our faith in American educational institutions has been an American religion. From the beginning character and content, content and character with differing emphasis have been the watchwords used in the fight to preserve American institutions. These must still be the watchwords. The teachers of social studies must not be swept on by the demand for those short cuts to character building that ignore the nation’s glorious past. Now as always the educational counselors of adolescent youth must see to it that the best struggle shall be passed on to generations to come. And that best is char¬ acter. It is something more than meat and raiment. This warning does not imply that there is not need at the present moment for the combined efforts of school and society to hold out for young people of today hope for a place in the economic world to labor and to achieve. If I might interject at this point a possible criticism of different plans for economic betterment of youth, it would be that they do not give in their programs a large enough place for the assistance of high-school organizations. It would seem to me that with the rapid development of guidance programs, with diversified curriculums and differing diplomas, with the follow-up pro¬ gram instituted by many high schools and rapidly being extended to others, the high schools might well be in the first line of action in meeting the unemployment situation as it affects youth from eighteen to twenty-five. The social science teacher thru his contacts and his knowledge of social and business conditions should be a leader in the program, whether it begins General Sessions 91 in the community and works back to the schools or begins in the schools and achieves results thru the cooperation of local civic and social organizations. Referring again to character education as a solvent for youth problems, attention should be called to the need for certain qualities of thinking and doing that are so often stressed in the meetings of high-school teachers as “ attitudes.” These are not new, but in the present national and world situation their emphasis, especially by the teachers of the social studies, is imperative. Our complex civilization, our new political problems, our tense international relations, our questionable social habits, and our un¬ questionably bad amusements, demand the development of the habits of reflection, of careful appraisals, of suspended judgments, of critical valua¬ tions of institutions, of toleration, and of unselfish cooperation with others. Habits like these will go far to help youth to make adjustments to new situa¬ tions. They will help him to achieve a greater degree of personal happiness. They will help him to be of greater service, as an adult, to his fellowmen. How may the offerings of the high schools, as far as the social studies are concerned, help in some realization of these things? Those of us of the older generation remember high schools with only one extracurriculum activity, either a debating society or a literary club and with a very narrow curriculum. History as taught was even more “ general ” than the title of the usual course would indicate. Recent reports of the National Survey on Secondary Education show a truly amazing increase of courses and activities expected to deal with man in his relations to his fellowman. Social studies according to this report are becoming in many high schools the “ core ” of the curriculum. The tendencies plainly reflect the needs of the time. The “ core ” is giving, and rightly so, much attention to social and eco¬ nomic factors in our modern civilization. It may be that the failure to do this in the high schools of the present generation is partly to blame for our present difficulties, altho of this I am doubtful. But I am sure we would have been better off if we had given some thought to the rapid devel¬ opment of the physical sciences in relating to supply and demand and some conception of the rights of the consumers. The social studies “ core ” is also giving pupils an insight into the prob¬ lems of other nations and an appreciation of their struggles. Out of such understandings may well come better international relations and possibly some workable plan for world peace. I am pleased that the Department of Secondary Education of the National Education Association has created a large committee known as the Committee To Promote Better International Understanding at the Secondary Level to develop curriculum topics and extracurriculum activities to increase the effectiveness of the school program in this direction. Youth to fit into his world and make it a better world must know more about political and government realities. Our instruction has been too formal along these lines. Pupils know something, for example, about the civic department known as the department of health, but little about its real functions. They know much about Garfield and the Civil Service, but 92 National Education Association little about the manipulation today of this system of appointment in public office by astute politicians. Political “ idealism ” has been successfully inculcated in the minds of the students graduating. Their consequent disillusionment and lack of civic interest and civic helpfulness is an American tragedy that must be laid at the door of the community and the school alike. And this leads to the conclusion that a worthwhile education in the social studies must help to develop leaders in the public service from among our youth of today. “ High-school education,” said a recent speaker, “ can supply the background, the foundation for such leadership, and possibly discover those brilliant minds and proper personalities which may be developed thru actual service in public affairs for such roles.” But until our public ser¬ vice is made more attractive to such men by the loyal support of an intel¬ ligent and interested citizenry, who insist on the highest type of leadership and recognize such ability, we will find these men engaged in other fields where their talents are appreciated. In other words, in order to secure and develop great leaders we need intelligent, appreciative, and interested fol¬ lowers. These must be trained by the American high schools. Forum - — Needs of Y 021th PROBLEMS OF YOUTH AS SEEN AMONG FRESHMEN IN A STATE UNIVERSITY LE ROY E. COWLES, DEAN, LOWER DIVISION, UNIVERSITY OF UTAH, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH I have drawn my illustrations of problems of youth from the freshmen in state universities, and largely from one institution. My data are not imaginary, but are drawn from statements from thousands of students, from interviews with hundreds, and from scores of case studies. Freshmen have trouble in getting started properly. They get tangled up in the “ red tape ” and lost in the crowd. More than half the freshmen have trouble with their study programs. They do not budget their time properly. They have poor study habits. Very many find the quantity of work too great, tho not too difficult. A large number say that much of the college work is repetition of high-school studies. Many cannot under¬ stand the lectures of the university professors. More than a fourth of the freshmen are disturbed about social relation¬ ships with other students and with faculty members. They overemphasize the importance of sororities and fraternities. They find their teachers cold and formal when they crave friendship. Intelligent, conscientious students find difficulty in trying to harmonize some of the administrative practises in the university with the theories of fair play and intellectual growth held up as college ideals. But the most serious problems involve a growing doubt in the minds of freshmen of the General Sessions 93 value of the subjects they pursue. “ Is it after all worthwhile to study hard on the materials presented? Aren’t the activities the important things, and the studies merely hurdles that must be cleared so as to be eligible for the worthwhile things? ” Improvement lies in a cooperative faculty-student attempt to solve the troublesome personality problems thru more and better guidance and counsel¬ ing, to reorganize and readapt our courses of study to the functional needs of present and future society, and to substitute medieval classroom methods with up-to-date procedures. Forum — Needs of Youth PROBLEMS FACING YOUNG WOMEN IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES OF TODAY DOROTHY C. STRATTON, DEAN OF WOMEN, PURDUE UNIVERSITY, LAFAYETTE, IND. In considering the problems of any one special group of young people, such as the girls and young women enrolled in the high schools and colleges today, we should bear in mind that basically their problems are not greatly different from those of the whole body of youth. In common with all other groups of youth, their problems are colored by the period of economic and social insecurity which we are now undergoing. Girls in the high schools, as well as boys, are insecure, uncertain of the future. They are distressed by conditions at home and by the apparent inability of their parents to solve the economic problems of the family. They are beginning to wonder whether life holds nothing more for them than going from one odd job to another. Young women in colleges, in common with young men, are facing financial difficulties in continuing their education, and are, perhaps, work¬ ing on FERA projects in order to remain in school. Most of them, how¬ ever, are glad of the opportunity to do this work if it contributes towards the attainment of a definite objective. The definite objective means to most something more than the traditional sheepskin “ with all the rights and privileges pertaining thereto.” They still fondly hope that it will mean some kind of job after graduation. However, it is not only of their own problems that they are thinking. They are beginning to consider the plight of the thousands of their con¬ temporaries and to wonder whether youth itself may have to find the answers to its questions. For several years youth has waited for constructive help from the older generation. Now it is beginning to try to find the answers for itself. Mrs. Eunice Fuller Barnard, writing in the New York Times for Sun¬ day, June 23, on “American Youth Seeks Security,” delineates the somewhat halting attempts of youth to force its elders to give consideration to its prob- 94 National Education Association lems. That the older generation is beginning not only to give ear but to take action is indicated by the government’s grant of $50,000,000 to aid youth in finding employment and in continuing its education, the census to be taken of all youths between the ages of sixteen and twenty-five, and the five-year plan of the American Council on Education which is designed to work out a comprehensive guidance program for youth. When one turns to the problems which are peculiarly those of girls and young women in the high schools and colleges two problems rise above all others. The first is the matter of gaining independence and the second is the perplexing problem of the relationship between marriage and a vocation or, if you prefer that terminology, marriage and another vocation. Even taking into consideration the great strides which have be£n made within the past few years toward granting more independence to girls and young women, the social pressure towards continued dependence is much greater than for young men of similar age and maturity. Let us consider our own school situations. How many times during the past five years has there been a girl president of the student body, a girl editor of the school paper, a girl editor of the annual? We are accustomed to keeping the girls pacified by making them secretary of this or that and keeping them busy writing minutes. It is true that within the past few years important developments have been made in the way of granting more responsibility to women students in the colleges and universities. We have women’s self-government associa¬ tions which regulate, among other things, the hours at which young women are expected to return to their places of residence. Very few colleges and universities, however, have similar regulations for men. The effect which this continued protection for four years has upon the young woman’s ability to meet after-college situations is, perhaps, worth consideration. Jean Shepard, from the conference office of the R. H. Macy Company, makes this estimate of college women from the standpoint of business: “The average college girl is less ready to assume executive responsibility because she has been much sheltered and knows less about business and the world in general.” Telling arguments could be presented on both sides of the question of offering more independence to young women. Only in certain experimental colleges have undergraduate women been placed entirely upon their own responsibility for their comings and goings. Most parents prefer a rela¬ tively protected environment for their daughters of college age. Young women of this age, however, are beginning to question seriously whether college should offer even as protected an environment as it now does. This question of establishing independence is involved also in the second major problem of young women — that of entering a vocation, marrying, or effecting a combination of the two. One of the final steps towards estab¬ lishing independence comes when a young woman takes one or both of these steps. A young man preparing for a vocation expects to enter that vocation and remain in it, or in a related one, thruout most of his working years. General Sessions 95 He also expects to marry and to rear a family. He does not expect, however, that marriage will interfere seriously with his vocation or that his vocation will interfere with marriage. His problem with regard to marriage is largely an economic one. Let us consider, however, the problem of the young woman. Her education, both in high school and college, is for a dual role — that of wage-earner and that of homemaker. What is our present situation? Many young women find themselves frustrated in their attempts to find jobs, to marry, or to marry and work. The same economic “ log-jam ” which makes it impossible for them to find jobs also makes marriage a mirage which continually moves farther into the distance. If they could earn after marriage that would be one way of solving the problem, but married women are not welcome in industry. Where then may the young woman turn for security? One of our greatest national problems is to restore to a large number of citizens a feeling of the worthwhileness of life. Much as we may value our labor-saving devices, our swift motor cars, our air-conditioned, stream¬ lined trains we have learned that these inventions do not in and of them¬ selves make life worth living. The next decade must see advances in the realm of human relationships comparable to those of the past decade in scientific invention. Women have always been particularly interested in human relationships. May we not look to this generation of young women to make distinct contributions in this important aspect of life if they are given the opportunity? If, however, large numbers are denied the oppor¬ tunity to develop their abilities will there not be a reaction of loss of con¬ fidence in themselves which may have far-reaching effects not only upon themselves and their associates but upon the coming generation ? In our consideration of the problems of youth let us not forget that those of young women are both vital and immediate. What governmental pro¬ vision for young women is there comparable to that of the CCC camps for young men ? Are the local communities making especial efforts to care for the problems of this group? My observation does not lead me to believe that this is the situation. The FERA aid to students is offered on equal terms to young men and young women. There has not been, however, adequate provision either by the community or by the government for the group of young women between the ages of sixteen and twenty-five who would normally be employed. Perhaps the plans of the National Youth Administration will include them. May we not in our own communities endeavor to give more consideration to the problems of girls and young women ? 4 96 National Education Association Forum — Needs of Youth THE YOUTH PROBLEM FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE CHILDREN’S BUREAU BEATRICE McCONNELL, director, industrial division, children’s BUREAU, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, WASHINGTON, D. C. We are facing today in the United States not a youth movement, not even a youth problem as it is known in other countries, but a great host of young people confronted with most perplexing and seemingly insoluble problems. In the post-war period in many of the European countries there grew up what we have come to know as a youth movement — the almost spontaneous uprising of youth against the bitterness, the sordid materialism, and the lack of opportunity in the after-the-war period into which they were flung. In this country the more gradual development of the issue was precipitated suddenly into a major problem by the economic disaster of 1929. If we have ever had any doubt as to the power and the importance of youth as a determining factor in society we have only to analyze the happen¬ ings of the past few years in European countries where the whole trend of economic and political philosophy has been changed in the post-war years. In Russia, the outstanding exponent of a socialist republic where one of the most interesting economic and political experiments in the world is being carried on today, the backbone of the movement is young people, the plan is imbued with the philosophy and the enthusiasm of youth and even more significant is the fact that the plan is consciously developed to give preference to youth rather than to those of more mature years. Careful observers in Germany and Italy have remarked on the way in which the class-consciousness of youth, if we may paraphrase it thus, has been utilized in the present political development in those countries. If “ coming events cast their shadows before ” the presentday situation thruout the world as it relates to youth presents a warning as well as a challenge. The approach of the Children’s Bureau to the problems that are facing the youth of our land today is the same approach it has made always to any problem affecting children and young people — an approach which recog¬ nizes that a satisfactory and constructive solution can come only thru the consideration of all factors that make for the well-being of the individual and of the group. The welfare of children or the welfare of young people is not a thing apart from the physical and mental well-being of the indi¬ vidual or of the group. The environmental influences which are involved in a normal happy home life rooted in economic security, and a satisfactory and constructive adjustment to life in which the educational, employment, and recreational needs of youth are recognized and met must be considered and coordinated in an all-round approach to the perplexing problems of our young people today. We have in the United States more than sixteen million young people between the ages of fourteen and twenty-one. According to the United General Sessions 97 States Census for 1930, of this group nearly six million (5,853,040) had left full-time school for employment; more than eight million (8,283,019) were in school, a little less than a million (808,808) of whom were em¬ ployed outside school hours; nearly three million (2,829,680) were neither at school nor at work. It was estimated by the FERA that in 1934 more than a million and a half young people between sixteen and twenty-one years of age were in families on relief. Other data made available by the FERA show that in October 1934 there were on the relief rolls approximately 300,000 persons who had never had a job and that 90 percent of those were between the ages of sixteen and twenty-five. In other words, for the young the unemployment problem is intensified. There can be no question as to the seriousness of the situation, neither can there be any question as to the great concern which is being manifested by all groups which have any responsibility for or which come in contact with the youth of our country. It is one of the main subjects for discussion at the International Labor Conference which is now in session in Geneva. That it is recognized as a matter of major importance by educational leaders is demonstrated by the fact that it has been given a prominent place in your deliberations at this seventy-third annual meeting of the National Education Association. This is as it should be, for it is to the schools that the chal¬ lenge comes to provide the type of educational opportunity that meets the needs and the desires of these young people in this changing world. The problems of youth today, complicated as they are by the lack of normal out¬ lets for employment and self-expression, constitute a challenge that calls for the best efforts of our educational leaders. How are we to meet this problem of more than sixteen million young people who find themselves in a state of society in which the opportunity for normal adjustment to the responsibilities of life are denied them? One thing that I believe we should keep in mind in creating any program for youth is that it shall not serve to set youth as a class apart. As a stage of develop¬ ment youth may be considered a unit; from every other point of view the young of our land form a cross-section, in aptitudes and interests, in edu¬ cational achievements, and in economic and social backgrounds. No single program can meet the needs of all young people but let us at least bend our energies to the provision of a general program which meets, so far as possible, the individual problems. This means the enlistment of every group interested in young people and the utilization of every community resource. The energies and capacities of youth should be made a vital part of the program but the stabilizing influence of the experience of the more mature should not be lost sight of. What will the program be that meets these criteria ? The needs of these young people fall roughly into three categories — education, work, and recrea¬ tion. For some time a group of government agencies whose programs directly relate to the welfare of young people — the Office of Education, the Depart¬ ment of Labor, and the FERA — have been working toward a unified pro¬ gram. In March the Secretary of Labor, in response to a request from 98 National Education Association Senator Walsh of Massachusetts, submitted to the Senate certain informa¬ tion regarding unemployed young people, including a proposal for a plan for at least a beginning in the direction of a unified approach. The plan took as a basic premise, first, that so far as possible all children under eighteen were to be kept in school and, second, that public works funds would be made available for works projects for young people between the ages of eighteen and twenty-four. Briefly, the plan provided for: 1. An advisory committee on junior employment and emergency education to give advisory services in the development of policies and methods of handling projects for young people and to coordinate the various activities thruout the country — this committee to include representatives from the Office of Education, Work Relief Administration, U. S. Employment Service, Emergency Conservation Work, Extension Service of the Department of Agriculture, U. S. Civil Service Commission, Children’s Bureau, and such other agencies concerned with young persons as might be designated. 2. A coordinated work and training program which would provide actual work experience combined with education and recreation for young people in their own communities. This program was intended for the group eighteen to twenty years and such other persons under twenty-five years of age as would not be eligible for employment on adult emergency works projects. In addition, it was recommended that some experimentation be done in work camps for young men eighteen to twenty-four; that increased enrolment in CCC camps be provided for; that junior referral services be established in connection with the U. S. Employment Service in communities where junior works programs were set up; the strengthening of the Federal Committee on Apprentice Training, and financial assistance thru emergency relief projects for college students and persons enrolled in adult education classes. 3. It was recommended that a scholarship program for sixteen- and seventeen- year-old boys and girls be established which would make possible their continued school attendance. To finance this program it was recommended that $96,000,000 be set aside from the emergency works funds — a little over $85,000,000 to go to the junior works and emergency education division; $2,500,000 to establish the junior referral service in the U. S. Employment Service; and a little over $8,000,000 for scholarships for the sixteen- and seventeen-year-old boys and girls. The youth of today are the citizens of tomorrow. It behooves us to re¬ member that the social philosophy engendered in the minds and souls of our young people in the trying times thru which we are now passing will be the social philosophy of our country tomorrow. I am confident that we will meet this most vital issue with intelligence and understanding and that whatever the approach or whatever the responsibility of our different groups may be, our aims and our purposes are one — to provide for these young people who are floundering in the morass of worldwide economic disaster and unemployment a program which will give them the opportunity to adjust themselves to this changing world and to become useful creative citizens. General Sessions 99 Forum — Needs of Youth PROBLEMS OF YOUTH AS SEEN IN THE CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS CAMPS C. S. MARSH, ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR, AMERICAN COUNCIL ON EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. In the expanded Civilian Conservation Corps, to number 600,000 this summer, there will be approximately half a million young men eighteen to twenty-eight years old, and an additional hundred thousand, approximately, of veterans and other older men. The median age of the younger enrollees is twenty years; their median number of years of previous schooling is eight years. These are the figures on the present quarter of a million juniors, in the age group eighteen to twenty-five years, inclusive. The men work five days a week, eight hours a day, and their monthly pay is $30, of which $25 is sent home to dependents. The subject assigned to me is “ The Problems of Youth as Seen in the CCC.” I shall paraphrase that into “ Some Problems of Youth Which the CCC is Helping to Relieve.” Obviously the problems are many and diverse. I shall discuss only three : The problem of work, the problem of comradeship, and the problem of self-development. You and I of my generation could always find a job. We had the mental tonic of a pay envelope. These men have been idle. In their quest for jobs they have experienced the pervasive negative. A chance to work, at any pay, has been denied. Discouragement has given way to bewilderment, and be¬ wilderment to despair. In the CCC camps youth finds work, for the most part body-building work in the out-of-doors, under technically trained foremen, and on projects that provide something to show for the day’s work. The psychic rewards of work, to say nothing of pay in money, are helpful to enrollees. Here is what one of them writes on the subject: A new confidence has entered my being. The CCC has given me the power and confidence of creating things with my own hands. It has helped me create some¬ thing that shall not only be admired by my generation, but for generations to come. This I have done with my own hands; each time that I finish a piece of work I have a feeling that must be akin to that of some famous musician as he receives the plaudits of his admiring audience, or some sculptor exhibiting a piece of work to his patron. Another enrollee writes: I was young, healthy, and with a certain amount of pride. I wanted work and a chance to earn my way — not charity. I searched diligently and found neither. I became disgusted with the system and listening to the “ red ” soap-box orators, I nodded back in sullen agreement. I expected trouble and looked for it. . . . Camp life I found different than I expected. Discipline was light and the work interesting. I found jovial companionship and work to occupy my time. I was back at my trade, training others and enjoying my work. My first pay day lessened years of harassing tension. 100 National Education Association Here then in the CCC, half a million young men will find relief from idleness, enter into what has always been the heritage of American youth, viz., a chance to do a day’s work for pay. Now consider the problem of comradeship. Most men are gregarious; they seek companionship. A camp of two hundred enrollees gives to a young man valuable experience in cooperative living with others. The individual may have as his camp companions men from his own home town or county, or he may be thrown in with others from wholly different origins. In all the camps you will find right now baseball teams well equipped ; in some you will find tennis and basketball courts ; you will hear not only orchestras and glee clubs, but a considerable volume of what men call “ harmonizing ” when they lean their heads together and, for instance, give lyrical tribute to the present glories of “ Sweet Adeline,” or the past excellences of the “ Old Gray Mare.” A singing camp is apt to be a good camp. Youth needs comradeship. These youth who have been denied so much need it all the more. The CCC camps provide it on a level above what many of them could get in their home communities, for it is a comradeship not growing out of enforced idleness. Undoubtedly this camp experience in orderly living is saving many of these youth from crime. For crime is surprisingly youthful. Do you re¬ member that of the 343,582 arrests studied by the Federal Bureau of Investi¬ gation for the calendar year 1934, 37.5 percent were under twenty-five years of age, and 55.7 percent were under thirty years of age? The largest age group was the nineteen-year-old ; next in order of size came twenty-two years, then twenty-one years, twenty-three, twenty-four, eighteen, and twenty. The paternal comradeship of the camp officers, the camp physician, and the camp superintendent and his foremen, the wholly informal comradeship of the camp educational adviser and other camp teachers, the presence and influence of the camp library, the morale building power of inter-camp athletic competition, the monthly issuance of the camp newspaper — all of these give a qualitative value to camp life that is much more than mere living together of two hundred men. Here is part of a letter from an enrollee : ... At first, we had depended on the little we had in reserve to tide us over, but it soon dwindled to the vanishing point. Then came lean days; I sat around doing nothing. A haggard, baffled look came into my father’s face. A breaking up of the family was imminent; I could see that. Still I could find no work. I had about given up hope; my morale was very low . . . then the announcement of the formation of a Civilian Conservation Corps! Then the revelation. Here were young men who had formerly worked in offices, in factories; boys who had studied at school desks, all transported to a strange place and set down there to live together. All of us in an organization that had no precedent or traditions. I marveled at their cheerfulness, for I knew that adverse conditions also existed at their homes. At first, I was puzzled how they managed to bear up, but it seemed that they accepted the situation cheerfully. I suddenly realized that here were men who could stand up and take it — on the chin if necessary. Their spirit was contagious. I resolved to be like them. General Sessions 101 I began to develop a new point of view. It became apparent that there existed such things as honesty, truthfulness, fair play, and respect for the other fellow’s feelings. I found myself beginning to be broad-minded, tolerant, able to make allowances for the weakness and faults of others. The unofficial, but none the less meaningful, motto of the CCC is, “ We Can Take It.” An organization that today lifts a quarter of a million young men from defeat, bewilderment, and despair, provides them with work, food, clothes, and living conditions that stimulate the natural buoyancy of youth, that gives every man a buddy — such an organization is a potent agent for the solution of the problems of youth. The third problem — self-development. Shall these men in camps for eighteen months be given opportunity to appraise their abilities, to cultivate vocational skills, to increase their knowledge of the world in which they live, to learn better use of leisure time? To these questions the United States government answers a positive yes. An educational program is now being carried on in the camps. The United States Office of Education selects and appoints a man for each camp, who is called the camp educational adviser, and who, living in camp, organizes and conducts an educational program with the approval of the camp commander. Participation of enrollees in the educational program is voluntary. Be it said to their credit, however, that approximately 77 percent are participating, are making a sustained effort at self-improvement. H ow much schooling have these men had? It we were to line up 100 enrollees as a statistical sampling of the entire corps, we should find that the first 25 had attended elementary school but had not graduated, the next 24 would have graduated from elementary school but gone no further. That accounts for 49 out of the 100 who would not have gone beyond elementary school. The next 32 would have attended high school, and the next 15 would have graduated from high school; in other words, 47 out of the 100 would have received instruction at the secondary-school level. We have now accounted for 96. Three of the remaining four would have attended college, but would not have graduated. That accounts for 99 ; and now we must deal in fractions. Six-tenths of a man would have had no schooling at all, and four-tenths would be a college graduate. So, you see, half of the en¬ rollees have been in high school. Now after a lapse of several years, thou¬ sands of them want more training. What are we trying to do for the enrollees? The aims of the CCC educa¬ tional program as set up by a committee of staff members of the Office of Education, selected by Commissioner Zook in the late autumn of 1933, are these : 1. To develop in each man his powers of self-expression, self-entertainment, and self-culture. 2. To develop pride and satisfaction in cooperative endeavor. 3. To develop as far as practicable an understanding of the prevailing social and economic conditions to the end that each man may cooperate intelligently in improving these conditions. 4. To preserve and strengthen good habits of health and of mental development. 102 National Education Association 5. By such vocational training as is feasible, but particularly, by vocational counseling and adjustment activities, to assist each man better to meet his employ¬ ment problems when he leaves camp. 6. To develop an appreciation of nature and of country life. Participation of enrollees is wholly voluntary, and the educational pro¬ gram in any camp is based on the interests and needs of the enrollees in that camp. The study interests of enrollees converge mainly around these three points; vocational subjects, academic subjects, and hobbycrafts or leisure¬ time activities. Latest reports show that 160,000 men are enrolled in 26,000 courses taught by 1 6,000 persons. But the whole concept of the Civilian Conservation Corps should be modified in order better to meet the problems of youth. The CCC should be regarded as a part of the American educational structure. As matters now stand, the primary emphases are just work and relief : work in conserving our natural resources; financial relief to the enrollees and to their dependents at home who receive twenty-five of each thirty dollars monthly pay. The educational program lacks money, adequate camp schoolhouses, and suffi¬ cient lighting. What do we really want to conserve? Forests and parks and land? Yes. The morale of families in need? Yes. The physical hardihood and the courage of young American manhood? Yes, all of that. But in this democracy we must also conserve and develop the minds of young men. The Civilian Conservation Corps should have as its primary object the conservation of young American manhood, with the conservation of forests, parks, and land a means to that end, and with financial relief to families of enrollees an important tho incidental, and, we trust, diminish¬ ing feature. These enrollees while in camp for eighteen months should have their full chance to obtain vocational counsel and training, some knowledge of the world in which they live, some acquaintance with the means for self¬ entertainment and self-culture. Forum — Needs of Youth THE NEEDS OF YOUTH AS SEEN BY THE OFFICE OF EDUCATION FRED J. KELLY, CHIEF, DIVISION OF HIGHER EDUCATION, UNITED STATES OFFICE OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. I shall confine my comments to just what the Committee on Youth Prob¬ lems of the Office of Education has been set up to do and has so far accomplished. A little over a year ago the Office of Education, after consulting with various other governmental agencies concerned with youth problems, called a conference in which about fifty of the wisest people in education, recrea¬ tion and guidance, and employment in the country were called together to confer for two days with other government officials, including the Office General Sessions 103 of Education, about what the problem of youth really called for. As a result of that conference a committee in the Office of Education was set up to gather facts on two important questions, both of these bodies of facts ap¬ pearing to be needed in order that a program in the interests of youth might be set up wisely in either community, state, or nation. Those two problems are these: First , what are the conditions actually confronting young people? We found too little was actually known of the detailed facts on that question. We know something, of course, about how many youth are unemployed but we do not know anything about the relationship between the length of time they have been unemployed and the condition of their education, the condition of their mental status, the condition of life, whether it has been rural or urban, and all those relationships which were necessary to establish a program. Therefore, the Committee on Youth Problems was authorized to set up a survey of youth problems, of youth questions, in sixty typical cities in the United States. Those facts have been about half assembled and it is encouraging to note that the very first obligation that is to be imposed upon the Federal Youth Administration is to make a survey similar to that, nationwide in its extent, in order that communities thruout the nation may have a basis of fact upon which to establish the programs which it is hoped it will establish. It is not possible to tell any of the facts that have been so far revealed, but those facts will be published, we trust, by early fall. The second problem, and it is the reverse of the first, is an account of the various activities that communities are putting on thruout this country to relieve the condition of unemployed, out-of-school young people. We have found by a canvass resulting from about 13,000 letters which we sent out, that about 5000 communities have put on one or another type of fairly interesting projects or proposals for the amelioration of the conditions of young people. Those are rapidly being abstracted and we trust that by September we shall have published in the Office of Education pamphlets that will deal with the very interesting, and we hope suggestive, activities which communities are already carrying on. I think it is fair to say as a representative of the federal government that no matter how much the federal government may be willing to do as an emergency proposition, we hope the school people, the recreation people, the guidance people, and the employment people thruout this country will not be led to lean upon the federal government for the development of a permanent program for the relief of these conditions which are not essentially emergency. They are essentially permanent. We have a new situation with respect to the need for guidance that will not go as this emergency passes, a new situation with respect to the long time lapsing between the time when youth quits school and the time he can identify himself with permanent employment. Those conditions while emergency at present must be looked upon as more or less permanent and should be solved from the standpoint of a community responsibility. And 104 National Education Association in that we trust we can assist by these publications on what communities are already doing. Let me say this to you, there are communities in this country right now that have not had a youth problem in the last five years. They have solved it from year to year by consciously and courageously taking hold of the situation, as the problem has evolved, and they have kept the young people at work; they have kept them in activities that are educational and recrea¬ tional, and that is what the community should be encouraged to do by whatever temporary assistance it is necessary to get from the federal and state resources. But it is a community problem. And this report of the Committee on Youth Problems in the Office of Education we trust will be of some assistance in that regard. We in the Office of Education have had an intimate relationship with the FERA thruout its educational program. May I say to you if it seems to you now, as it seems to us, that the President’s announcement of the Federal Youth Administration is very unsatisfactory and very incomplete, will you bear in mind, as we try to bear in mind, it is just setting on foot an administration whose program can be modified from month to month, or even from year to year if necessary, so as to take into account the kind of things which the administration becomes conscious of as the urgent needs of young people, as they evolve from month to month. Do not assume that the Federal Youth Administration as at present set up must remain in¬ definitely as pictured in the present relations. Forum — Needs of Youth PROBLEMS OF YOUTH— WHAT DOES YOUTH MOST NEED? GOODWIN WATSON, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. What is it that youth most needs? What are the outstanding demands upon education in relation to the conservation of youth? Youth has a right to ask of us: some perspective in the midst of the be¬ wildering confusion of problems ; some ability to see the great truths among all the scattered little “ factlets ” which surround us; some ability to recog¬ nize that they have not been troubled only by problems of health,, and problems of home life, and problems of initiative or problems of emotional adjustment, but that many of those problems go back to one underlying great problem. The mortality curve has turned up for the first time in the lifetime of most of the youth of today because of the economic breakdown. Personal emotional security is hard to find in a world that offers no eco¬ nomic security. Dr. Stratton has already suggested how failure to solve economic prob¬ lems has complicated the adjustment in home life. Mr. Bush suggested General Sessions 105 ways in which initiative is stifled, repressed by the very society that gives it verbal devotion. Among all the little ups and downs of business cycles, periods of pros¬ perity and depression, there is one grand trend — the long, slow development of an industrial civilization, rising, leveling off, and turning down. A re¬ view of every commodity that one could study from 1870 down to 1928 indicates that in 90 percent of the cases there has been a slower and slower rate of growth with each decade. The gap between what we might produce and what we are producing has increased thruout the lifetime of all these young people and their parents. Less and less chance is open to them. The college graduate was in kindergarten when this country reached its maxi¬ mum employment. The old economic system, half paralyzed, will never offer to youth any satisfactory job or any security upon which the plans of life can be built, whether those plans be thought of in economic terms or in terms of the cultural and spiritual values which rest necessarily upon an economic foundation. What does youth most need? In addition to this perspective, this unifi¬ cation of their problem so that they can attack it, they need to know how much they are needed. This generation has invented “ busy work ” to distract youth out on the side-lines while the game is being fought on the center field. Youth is shunted off into classrooms or into games to get them as far from the center of the political and economic conflict, which alone will determine the outcome of youth’s existence. We do not have enough food to give 90 percent of our people a liberal standard of diet. We do not have enough homes. We need 15,000,000 modern homes, which youth must design and erect. We do not have more than a quarter of the teachers who might serve the children, youth, and adults of our nation. We need more nurses, more dentists, more recreational leaders — above all we need pioneers in every aspect of research, and new creators in every field of art. Youth is needed. Work is waiting to be done. Not some day but now. The resources are here. The needs are here. Youth must find the relation¬ ship between them. Youth must share in the process of planning as well as doing these things. We are pushing them about in educational perambu¬ lators and feeding them like bottle babies on a federal dole. We have shown a willingness to let them do anything except what they most want — to do things for themselves. In relation to these pressing, crying needs of our society, youth wants to win its own spurs. Youth is thru its period of swaddling clothes. We have the most overprotected generation of ado¬ lescents in the history of mankind. One more thing youth must have if its resources are to be made use of on the highest level. Youth needs something to live for. Youth needs hope that can nurture life — not the easy hope of the speculator who hopes that somehow things will turn out well, or the blind hope of the business man who trusts that perhaps the next election will see prosperity around the corner — but a realistic hope that can search out “ a new way from all the blind impulses ” of our American 106 National Education Association life ; a great enough purpose to override the whims of a moment, to calm the excitement of passion, to withstand malicious and ignorant misinterpre¬ tations, to justify daring and the laying down of a life. This is conservation of youth. Panel Jury Discussion Group ACADEMIC FREEDOM MRS. F. BLANCHE PREBLE, TEACHER, VAN VLISSINGEN SCHOOL, ' CHICAGO, ILL., Leader Participants : Hobart M. Corning, Superintendent of Schools, Colorado Springs, Colo. Arvie Eldred, Executive Secretary, New York State Teachers Asso¬ ciation, Albany, N. Y. George W. Frasier, President, Colorado State College of Education, Greeley, Colo. Arnold E. Joyal, Assistant Professor of Education, University of Denver, Denver, Colo. John R. Nichols, Executive Dean, Southern Branch, University of Idaho, Pocatello, Idaho M. R. Owens, High School Supervisor, State Department of Educa¬ tion, Little Rock, Ark. Emily Tarbell, Vocational High School, Syracuse, N. Y. ; Eastern Regional Director, N. E. A. Department of Classroom Teachers Mrs. Preble opened the meeting with the statement that academic free¬ dom is one of the most important topics of the present day. In earlier days of civilization those persons not conforming were physically mistreated by being burned alive or impaled on pointed stakes. Now “ we are too civilized for such crude behavior. We merely denounce them in screaming headlines of the press, rail at them in public meetings, slander and traduce them to their friends and neighbors, and deny to them their rights and privileges as citizens and fellow members of our human society. We are satisfied, if we can, to deprive them of their means of livelihood, reducing them to want and despair. We are humane folk. We do not crucify the body; we merely scarify , maim, and starve the soul.” Mr. Corning discussed the nature and social function of academic free¬ dom. He held that society is not interested in solutions proposed by any small class of individuals. “ The solutions,” he said, “ will come thru the thinking of all classes.” He said further, “ If there be logic in these aspects of academic freedom, then it is our duty to society as well as our privilege as teachers to teach truth where the truth is known and to teach all phases of issues which are controversial. To go farther than this, to teach a solution to controversial problems would be an attempt to predetermine beliefs and to deny the youthful learner the very right to academic freedom which we claim for ourselves. It is our evident responsibility to convince society that General Sessions 107 society above all things else needs a higher level of social intelligence, and that we thru preparation, thru open-mindedness, and thru our willingness and ability to apply scientific methods, are equipped to present to the youth in our schools those facts, a consideration of which wfill assist in bringing about increased social intelligence. This is no small task, and if accomplished it will be an achievement of significant social importance. Academic free¬ dom, thus conceived, is social insurance.” Mr. Joyal then presented a brief statement on the history of academic freedom. He gave the early Greeks credit for “ being the originators of liberty in thought and discussion.” He cited the cases of Socrates and Plato. In his Apology of Socrates Plato made two points of importance today. First, he maintained that the individual should refute at any cost every attempt to be coerced into any course his own mind condemns as wrong. Second, he insisted on the value of free discussion. Mr. Joyal stated that the right of free speech died out with the development of the strong Christian church and cited the case of Galileo. Mr. Frasier talked briefly on the forces opposed to academic freedom. He stated that while such organizations as the American Legion and the Daughters of the American Revolution were thought by some to be opposed to academic freedom, he had found the local groups in his community to be “ excellent ” in their attitude. He maintained that if there is any lack of academic freedom it goes right down to the schools themselves. He cited particularly the administration of the schools by boards of education and boards of trustees. He felt that if the college president and the superin¬ tendent of schools were willing to fight for academic freedom on the part of teachers they could secure it. He concluded by stating that “ the real enemy of academic freedom in America is the inertia of the classroom teachers. . . . Not only should the teacher take the responsibility for what he expresses to the student, but the principal and superintendent should back the teacher against opponents.” Miss Tarbell spoke on the present status of academic freedom in the United States. She defined academic freedom as the right of the student to learn and the right of the teacher both to teach unhampered in the class¬ room and to enjoy the same rights accorded other citizens outside the classroom. She told of a survey that had been conducted by the Department of Classroom Teachers. Wide variance was found among the states and the amount of freedom accorded teachers. She stated that for three years the Department of Classroom Teachers had been conducting a campaign of education along the line of academic freedom ; that in some cases where dismissals had been investigated, friendly adjustments had been secured; and that the Department has also affiliated with the Joint Council on Academic Freedom, a group of national organizations at work upon the problem of academic freedom. Limitations on academic freedom were discussed by Mr. Owens. He felt that in our democracy public school teachers should accept such democracy as the form in the United States. He felt that the schoolboard in most cases was fairly representative of the citizens of the community, that if restric- 108 National Education Association tions were imposed by boards of education this indicates that there are powerful groups in the community who would control or restrict academic freedom. He felt that relatively few classroom teachers are competent to speak on social problems. He did not consider this an unfair criticism of teachers because he felt no one knows the answer to presentday problems. He did not think indoctrination was a function of the schools but that controversial issues should be brought into the schools and discussed from every point of view. Mr. Eldred spoke on the relation of academic freedom and tenure. He felt that teachers should have the right to present Communism, Fascism, and anything else in the schools, but that they must “ suffer the consequences if an opinion is expressed as a matter of truth.” He felt that teachers should have academic freedom guaranteed thru tenure but that teachers should carefully remain within their rights. Air. Nichols presented a number of recent cases of violation of academic freedom. He particularly resented the fact that everyone who believes in academic freedom is labeled Communist. The above remarks were continued and expanded in the discussion that followed. Mrs. Preble asked Mr. Frasier whether the N. E. A. should set up its own machinery, or whether it should join with other groups, perhaps, in a joint council? He replied: “ I think the greatest hope is for all the associations to join together in a joint council.” The meeting concluded with the discussion of tenure laws and Mrs. Preble was of the opinion that efficient laws properly enforced would make it possible to get rid of inefficient teachers. Panel Jury Discussion Group THE ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE TEACHER B. R. BUCKINGHAM, DIRECTING EDITOR OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL BOOKS, GINN AND COMPANY, BOSTON, MASS.; AND CHAIRMAN, N. E. A. COM¬ MITTEE ON THE ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE TEACHER, Leader Participants : Cornelia S. Adair, Principal, Franklin School, Richmond, Virginia; and past president, National Education Association Florence Barnard, Brookline, Alassachusetts Helen Bradley, President, Cincinnati Teachers Association, Cincin¬ nati, Ohio Sara C. Ewing, Arsenal Technical High School, Indianapolis, Indiana A. D. H. Kaplan, Professor, Economics, University of Denver, Denver, Colorado W. B. Mooney, Executive Secretary, Colorado Education Association, Denver, Colorado J. W. Smith, President, Utah Educational Association, Salt Lake City, Utah General Sessions 109 Chairman Buckingham opened the meeting with a discussion of the im¬ portance of the economic status of the teacher, not only to the teaching profession but to the public at large. The economic status of any body of workers essential to society cannot be a matter of indifference to citizens. The economic status of the teacher is inextricably bound up with such questions as salary schedules, tenure plans, retirement systems, sabbatical leave, social status, and money management, according to Miss Aiken. According to Miss Ewing, salaries paid to teachers today are not only a true measure of the financial status and local opportunities of the teacher, but they are the measure of the real estimate in which teachers are held in any community. The teachers’ experiences of the last few years are a tragic commentary upon their lack of any great social power. She felt that teachers will not have the remotest share in building a new social order unless they destroy their personal remoteness and indifference as to the community in which they live. The social position of teachers is, to a large degree, dependent upon the social position of the superintendent. The economic position of teachers is better in communities where the superintendent is a social rather than a political leader. Miss Adair also discussed this point briefly. She felt that teachers who are economically secure were better teachers and that this point should be brought home to the public. If teaching is not adequately remunerative it will be impossible to recruit the best persons for the profession. Mr. Mooney discussed pension systems. From the standpoint of the public, pension systems for teachers have but one purpose, and that purpose is to insure the greatest possible efficiency on the part of the entire teaching staff. Thru an adequate retirement system the public can insure its children against poor teaching which may arise because of the decreased efficiency of the teacher due to age, physical or mental disability. The teacher should assume some responsibility in building up protection against old age or loss of income thru illness. The teacher retirement plan which is best suited to all concerned is the one in which the state is the unit and to which the state and the teacher contribute about equally on a monthly or a semi-monthly basis. The plan should be actuarialy sound and managed by a state board representing the teachers and the public. Mrs. Barnard stated that gathering control of managing personal finances is the first step toward improving the economic status of the teacher. Bud¬ geting has been called quite a complicated practise, but it is now so simpli¬ fied that it can be understood by children. The simple principles in money management should be taught to all the boys and girls in school today. It is sound common sense to live within one’s income and to distribute that income proportionately. The challenging question before the profession is how to improve the economic status of teachers. The permanent solution will depend upon the proper cooperative efforts and understanding between those engaged in the school systems, and the public groups who give the schools financial support and who send their children to the schools to be taught. Society 110 National Education Association places a value upon the service of the schools, and it builds up attitudes with respect to what it will pay for these services. There can be no question but that the economic status of teachers depends upon these values. This point was discussed by Mr. Kaplan and others. Mr. Smith stated that the greatest factors for improving the economic status of teachers are the dynamic, constructive, and cooperative teachers organizations, local, state, and national. These organizations should function on a high plane. They ought not to be narrow, self-centered, and selfish; but rather liberal, tolerant, sports¬ manlike, prudent, helpful ; and withal, active, constructive, and forceful. Mr. Buckingham told briefly of the study by the Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher of the National Education Association. The report of this committee may be found on page 159. Panel Jury Discussion Group THE TEACHER AS A CITIZEN HAROLD C. HAND, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, STANFORD university, calif., Leader Participants : C. Louise Boehringer, Director of Curriculum, State Department of Education, Phoenix, Ariz. A. G. Crane, President, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo. Kate Frank, President, Department of Classroom Teachers of the Oklahoma Education Association, Central High School, Musko¬ gee, Okla. Neale D. Houghton, Professor of Political Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. Daisy Lord, Wilby High School, Waterbury, Conn. ; President, N. E. A. Department of Classroom Teachers Andrew Love Neff, Professor of History and Political Science, Uni¬ versity of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah O. F. Patterson, Assistant State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Ill. Cassie F. Roys, Principal, Walnut Hill School, Omaha, Nebr. Mason A. Stratton, Principal, Brighton Avenue School, Atlantic City, N. J. This panel was opened with a discussion by Chairman Hand. He pointed out that according to studies by Beale restrictions imposed upon the free¬ dom of teachers may be classified roughly into four broad categories: 1. The freedom of the teacher to bring his own views into the classroom. 2. The freedom of teachers to criticize school policies, practises, and personnel. 3. The freedom of teachers with regard to personal conduct. 4. The freedom of teachers as citizens to discuss critical social and economic problems. General Sessions 111 This panel limited its discussion primarily to issues associated with re¬ strictions of freedom with reference to personal conduct and freedom with regard to civic privileges and duties. The chairman pointed out that four basic assumptions should underlie the discussion. First, the American public school is designed and supported to preserve and improve American de¬ mocracy. Second, American democracy is undergoing a severe crisis. Third, it is possible to revitalize American democracy thru appropriate education. Fourth, the inevitable alternative to appropriate education will be the de¬ struction of American democracy and its institutions. The chairman placed before the panel a number of questions including the following: Who restricts the freedom of the teacher? Why do our national, state, and local teachers associations almost entirely evade the question of freedom of teachers? Is the N. E. A. as organized, largely useless as a defense for teachers? Is it not true that journals of our national and state teachers organizations refuse to call attention to specific denials of freedom ? Should not the N. E. A. provide local and other needed assistance to safeguard the freedom of teachers? Is it not true that loyalty oath laws are written to keep teachers from considering controversial issues? If the N. E. A. is sincere about democratic education can it continue to “ play ball ” with the Hearst Press, the American Legion, and the D. A. R. ? Should not the N. E. A. join forces with other groups fighting for citizenship rights for teachers? Miss Boehringer opened the discussion by stating that teachers should have close personal experience with the problems of citizenship. In response to a question from Mr. Hand as to whether teachers should demand their rights as citizens she agreed that they should thru their organizations and contacts with the public. Miss Frank felt that many teachers do not exercise their rights as citizens due to fear of loss of position, especially in states not having teacher tenure. Mr. Hand asked what forces make tenure necessary. Mr. Crane stated that this question appeared to be based on the assumption that teachers generally admit universal repressing influence. He asked how generally this was true and stated that in over thirty years of teaching no such case had come to his “ personal attention.” In response, Mr. Hand cited the cases of Shields, Stewart, Turner, and others. A member of the audience asked whether any teacher had ever been hindered from serving in public office. Mr. Stratton cited the situation in New Jersey where teachers have been members of the legislature and of boards of education. He said that the New Jersey State Teachers Associa¬ tion maintains a fund to protect teachers who have been unjustly removed from office or criticized. Mr. Hand asked if this was not also a function of the N. E. A., to which Mr. Stratton replied in the negative because he felt it was a state problem since conditions vary in different states. Mr. Crane agreed. 112 National Education Association M iss Lord expressed the idea that it would be sufficient for the national organization to assist only after local and state help fails. Mr. Hand replied that most state organizations have not been willing to investigate these cases. Mr. Stratton asked whether teachers should fight for protection against the consequences any more than other citizens. Mr. Hand replied that teach¬ ers should begin to work against a system which makes slaves out of wage- earners and that they should organize and be able to say, “ You can’t take our jobs away from us.” Mr. Crane questioned Mr. Hand as to the field of citizenship activities in which he thought teachers should be primarily most active. The reply was that they should participate in all fields but that economic problems were of primary concern since all others must wait upon their solution. In response to Mr. Crane’s statement that he had never known a teacher to be repressed who was militant for the welfare of boys and girls, Mr. Hand inquired if he would feel free to take the stump against the present economic system if he felt that the welfare of boys and girls was not being protected by it? Mr. Crane’s opinion was that when the teacher expresses opinions contrary to public opinion he must be prepared to accept the consequences. He did not think teachers should be exempt from the consequences or ask special privileges except within the field of education. In this connection he stressed the fact that teachers should be strongly organized. Miss Lord felt if teachers were to give their attention primarily to things educational, they should be allowed, for example, to be members of boards of education as they are in many communities. Mr. Neff was optimistic with reference to the teacher, both as a teacher and as a citizen. The fact that the state has made education the first business of the state, he felt, was a strong expression of appreciation on the part of the public to the profession. At the suggestion of Mr. Crane the members of the audience were asked whether they personally had ever felt restraint with regard to participation in citizenship activities. Those having had such experiences were very much in the minority. At this point members of the audience entered into the discussion. Mr. Munro of Selma, Alabama, spoke in defense of the American Legion as a friend of education and good citizenship, altho he did not claim that the organization was foolproof. He felt that teachers should respect public opinion. Another member of the audience stated that most social science teachers are afraid of being labeled communistic. Asked by Miss Roys if he assumed they were afraid to speak out, he replied that he knew they were. Miss Roys disagreed and held that teachers were selfish in demanding their own right to speak out if they did not respect the rights of others. Miss Lord stated that teachers should exercise their rights as citizens. She stated that in her city there was close cooperation between the American Legion and the local teachers association. General Sessions 113 Panel Jury Discussion Group EDUCATION’S OLDEST CHALLENGE— CHARACTER A. L. THRELKELD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DENVER, COLO., Leader Participants : Milton Bennion, Dean, School of Education, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah Edythe Jeannette Brown, Principal, Kaley and Marquette Schools, South Bend, Ind. R. C. T. Jacobs, Principal, Richard Lagow School, Dallas, Texas. George L. Maxwell, Associate Professor of Education, University of Denver, Denver, Colo. Mrs. Lois Coffey Mossman, Associate Professor of Education, Teach¬ ers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Faye Read, Lake View School, Pueblo, Colo.; Director Ex Officio, N. E. A., Department of Classroom Teachers Charles A. Rice, Superintendent of Schools, Portland, Ore. Chairman Threlkeld opened the meeting by setting up the problem of character education, in part, as follows: It should be very clear that to give an individual power with no assurance that he will use that power constructively is a very dangerous thing. Power may be used toward any end. Whether good or bad results from it depends on how it is used. It is just this question of how power is to be used that character education deals with. Unless education goes far enough to deal with this question, it does not go far enough to reach fundamental values. * * * * The modern school program is one of actual experience in living under the guidance of the best thinking of which pupil, teacher, parent, and community leaders, in general, are capable. While it is essential that we do not talk about character education to the extent of causing it to defeat its own ends, it is time it were generally realized that character education has become the center of school life. Mr. Bennion stressed the necessity of closer cooperation between home and school in the development of character. Character education is more than a school project. It is a community project in which all agencies in the com¬ munity which are desirous of developing a better type of community life should participate. M iss Brown stated that codes of ethics for good behavior and similar devices are fundamental in a character education program. These codes should be interpreted in specific situations by the individual so that certain behavior patterns may become natural to him. Character is not built by coercion. Habits are shaped by experiences. In contrast with this point of view, Mrs. Mossman contended that “ ready¬ made ethics ” should not be handed out to children, but that group thinking and action should be allowed, and that children should develop codes of their own. 114 National Education Association The question of whether character education should be a separate formal subject in the curriculum was discussed. Miss Read felt that it is better to take advantage of every part of the curriculum for character education than to try to teach character as a separate subject. In every schoolroom pupils are forming habits and building character. In his discussion of the same problem, Mr. Jacobs agreed with Miss Read that character education should be a vital part of all education, but he stated that there should also be a place in the curriculum for character education as a formal subject. The question was raised as to whether there should be any formal character education beyond the eighth grade. It was the opinion of the panel that it should not extend beyond this point. It was also emphasized in connection with grading character traits that too much em¬ phasis was placed on grading in schools. The causes of character were discussed by Mr. Maxwell. Their deter¬ mination was characterized as the foremost problem of character education. He was of the opinion that most schools are patterned on the dictatorial type of society and that they tend to develop those causes of character that are more appropriate to the dictatorial than to the democratic system, also that there are certain inescapable limits to the public schools of such nature that they cannot adequately accomplish the task of educating for character in American democracy. Mr. Rice stated that probably the greatest problem in character educa¬ tion is to “ offset the influence and counter training of those who tear down what the schools and other agencies try to do. It is an anomaly that two groups of adults should work at counter purposes — one group striving to strengthen the child’s will and desire to do right, and the other group, for profit, striving to inculcate habits that lead, sooner or later, to delinquency. Those in this latter group write the books, stage the movies, and set the styles in clothes in which our young people become interested and which lead to wrong habits of action and which destroy the will and initiative to do right.” In summarizing the discussion the following points were brought out by Mr. Threlkeld : 1. Character education is a cooperative enterprise. 2. It is more important to integrate character education with the school program than to teach it as a formal subject. 3. Permit children to work out a code of ethics for themselves. It will mean more to them than to be handed out a ready-made code. 4. There are no absolute standards of character. 5. The school’s responsibility for character education is rapidly increasing. General Sessions 115 Pajiel Jury Discussion Group CREDIT UNIONS C. R. ORCHARD, DIRECTOR, CREDIT UNION SECTION, FARM CREDIT ADMINISTRATION, WASHINGTON, D. C., Leader Participants : Paul Connor, Associate Professor of Economics, University of Denver, Denver, Colo. A. S. Dodd, Director, Denver and Salt Lake Railway, Denver, Colo. F. Y. Fox, President, Latter Day Saints Business College, Salt Lake City, Utah Mrs. Georgia B. Parsons, Melrose Avenue School, Los Angeles, Calif. ; President, National League of Teachers Associations L. A. Pinkney, Business Manager, Teachers Credit Union, Kansas City, Mo. Thomas A. Walton, Secretary-Treasurer, San Diego Teachers Credit Union, San Diego, Calif. J. D. Williams, Principal, Avondale School, Birmingham, Ala. This panel was opened by the chairman, Mr. Orchard, who described the theory of credit unions. Credit unions may now be organized in any state or territory. Forty-one states have credit union laws, and a federal credit union law was passed in 1934. The credit union makes it possible for many to save conveniently, safely, and in small sums. Savings may be made at the convenience of the member at regular intervals. The money thus saved is loaned to members at a reasonable rate of interest. Emphasis was placed on the credit union service as a thrift agency for teachers by Mr. Walton. The teachers’ need for the credit union w~as discussed at some length by Mrs. Parsons. Specific instances were cited where credit unions had been of great assistance to teachers. The history of the cooperative credit movement was presented by Mr. Connor. It had its beginnings in Germany in 1849. It spread then to Italy, Austria, and other European countries between 1880 and 1900. Cooperative credit unions now operate in practically all countries in the world. Mr. Fox discussed the economic aspects of credit unions. He stated that they did not compete with such financial agencies as banks and building and loan associations. Suggestions were given by Mr. Williams as to how to go about organizing a credit union. First, make sure there is a need and a demand. Second, write the state commissioner of insurance for a charter. Third, even while waiting for the charter call a meeting of those interested. The only needed paid officer will be a secretary-treasurer who will operate the union, keep the books, and make the loans. 116 National Education Association The operation of credit unions in large cities was discussed by Mr. Pinkney. The fact that during the period of six years the Kansas City Teachers Credit Union had saved the teachers approximately $75,000, he stated, indicates that the credit union there has been successful and that the economic status of teachers has been raised in that city. Mr. Dodd spoke of the increased confidence and morale of persons who are able to consolidate their indebtedness thru a friendly agency such as a credit union. Many questions were raised in the open forum discussion. It was pointed out that for the benefit of rural teachers county credit unions can be estab¬ lished, altho in some states, as in Utah, the credit union is statewide. The size of the ideal credit union was considered to be about 300 members or less. It was the opinion of the panel that care should be taken to prevent commercialization of credit unions. Panel Jury Discussion Group THE TEACHER’S HEALTH THOMAS D. WOOD, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. ; AND CHAIRMAN, JOINT COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION, Leader Participants : Edna W. Bailey, Associate Professor of Education, School of Education, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. Mrs. Mary D. Barnes, Continental School, Elizabeth, N. J. ; and Sec¬ retary, N. E. A. Department of Classroom Teachers A. S. Jessup, Superintendent of Schools, Cheyenne, Wyo. Harley W. Lyon, Principal, Longfellow and Burbank Schools, Pasa¬ dena, Calif. Bernice Moss, Department of Health and Physical Education, Uni¬ versity of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah A. W. Thompson, Director of Health, Physical Education, and City Recreation, Public Schools, Grand Rapids, Mich. Charles G. Wilson, Director of Health and Physical Education, Public Schools, Hartford, Conn. • Chairman Wood opened the meeting with the statement that the teacher’s health is particularly important because of its direct and obvious relation to the health and education of the thirty million pupils who come into daily contact with classroom teachers. It is important not only so far as serious illness is involved but also to the degree that morbidity, not serious enough to cause absence from duty, impairs the quality of teachers’ work. Mr. Thompson pointed out that the teacher’s philosophy of education and the purposes which he sets out to achieve have a direct bearing on his health, physical and mental. Teachers colleges should develop healthy individuals* with wholesome attitudes and sound educational philosophies. General Sessions 117 It was pointed out by Miss Moss that responsibility for teacher health rests first of all with the individual teacher. Among the health practises which teachers most need to cultivate are : ( 1 ) an adequate program of large-muscle activity, especially participation in group play, (2) conserva¬ tion of eye-sight, (3) the selection of suitable and hygienic clothing, and (4) sufficient sleep and rest. Proper food habits, cleanliness, correct elimina¬ tion, avoidance of drugs, good posture, fresh air and sunshine, control of infection, and many other health practises also are largely under the control of the individual. Mrs. Barnes pointed out, however, that a number of conditions affect teacher health over which the individual has little or no control. Among such factors are : ( 1 ) assignments to teach in poorly lighted basement rooms, (2) unreasonable administrative demands, (3) assignments to teach subjects or grades for which the teacher is unsuited, (4) too heavy teaching loads, (5) too much extracurriculum activity, (6) dogmatic and destructive criti¬ cism by supervisors, and (7) snobbishness on the part of fellow teachers. Numerous other situations, equally detrimental to the teacher’s health, are beyond his control. Teachers organizations, said Mr. Lyon, can do a great deal to promote health, thru their recreation committees, benefit and loan departments, and other agencies. One of the best methods open to them is the development of a plan for group purchase of adequate medical care. This can be done with¬ out going in for “ socialized medicine ” ; the project may involve only “ col¬ lective bargaining for medical service ” in which the right of the individual to choose his own doctor and dentist is protected absolutely. A number of cities already have established satisfactory plans. The superintendent, the supervisor, and the principal have large responsi¬ bilities for teacher health, according to Mr. Wilson. They set the stage for teaching. Moreover, they either give or deny that personal freedom outside the classroom which is so important to the welfare of the teacher. Mr. Jessup stated that adequate provision for sick leave is an important factor in promoting teacher health. It benefits the teacher who becomes ill, protects pupils from teachers who ought to remain at home, but without sick leave will not do so, and adds to the morale and stability of the entire teaching staff. Miss Bailey felt that teacher-training institutions should make a three¬ fold contribution to the immediate health of their students : ( 1 ) remediable defects should be corrected before students begin their work, (2) work iemands should not exceed the physical strength and health resources of the students, and (3) adequate counseling and health services should be provided. Mr. Sutton urged that since positive health measures are more beneficial than corrective procedures, the emphasis in teacher health work should always be placed on the conservation of health and on wholesome, normal living. 118 National Education Association HAPPINESS, THE LONGER VIEW F. B. KNIGHT, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY, STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA, IOWA CITY, IOWA This is a world of people; its happenings should be recorded in terms of folks. What is happening to the individual that really matters? Can one be happy in a troubled world? Do we know how to live? How can one be happy in the deep sense of the word? No one deliberately sets out to achieve unhappiness. The unhappy man is always wrong. He is also most unwelcome. Unhappiness results from disproportion, lack of balance. One of the specifications for the attainment of happiness is the maintenance of the in and out ratio — a balance between self-projection and world-identification. Do not take yourself too seriously — or the other fellow either. A second is the suggestibility ratio. Avoid embracing ideas too easily, but avoid equally the negative reaction. Cortex, it is well to remember, is a very recent and minor addition to the human constitution. Man is the only animal who works all day and worries all night. It is wise to relax, to preserve a ratio between the upper and lower levels of the organism. Man is mostly animal, from honorable ancestry, and should cultivate inner self-respect for his whole self. The man who is well integrated never gets in his own way. Most of us are too sensitive. An essential factor in happiness is the ability to maintain a proper balance between chronically outraged feelings and a too callous epidermis. Whimpering, temper tantrums, feigned ill¬ nesses, are all “ red herrings.” When sensitivity hurts, do not feel sorry for yourself, but act! The tired man is the beaten man, and he who spends more energy than he has is running up a charge account on his nervous system. Keep the energy ledger balanced. Do not spend more energy each day than you can make. Two more basic ratios should be mentioned — the compromise ratio and the maturity ratio. The compromise ratio represents the individual’s truces with the world. He cannot expect to beat the world by a score of 100 to 0. Maturity is genuine self-direction, the attempt to be at least 20 percent a man. It is self-sufficiency, and also allowing someone else to be self- sufficient. EDUCATION’S MOST DANGEROUS RIVAL FREDERICK M. HUNTER, CHANCELLOR, UNIVERSITY OF DENVER, DENVER, COLO. J AND PAST PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION All true education is creative. It adds something to and changes the indi¬ vidual. The process consists of spiritual or psychological growth, and knowledge is its tool. As this growth takes place the inner being is modified, interests are widened, and greater powers of enjoyment, of service, of General Sessions 119 producing and creating come into play. The scope of the powers of creation within the elemental unit of society known as “ the person ” range from the simplest levels of unskilled labor required in production, to inventions, discoveries, and artistic achievements of the highest order. The program of education in a democratic society is the universalization, as nearly as possible, of the process which takes place within the individual, and the application of it to all the persons who make up the society. If carried to its logical goal, it means that all the individuals of the society shall have all the education their several capacities will absorb and make use of. This conception does not by any means hold that the education of all the individuals should be the same. Ideally, the system must provide as many different kinds of education as there are individuals in society — for all of these differ in native capacity to become truly educated — and must be planned with as full a knowledge as possible of these widely vary¬ ing tendencies and native capacities. In America, and in all democratic western nations and among all peoples where the occidental levels have spread, this creative process has been made the foundation of the social structure, the basis of sound government, and the hope of progress. To say this is merely to recall the principle that among American teachers is axiomatic. I am saying it today because this process in its universal aspects, like liberty — the liberty of democracy — is in danger. Economic security has come to loom so large among the so-called civilized peoples of the earth and the evils of the organized system of individualist economics so dominant in the consciousness of great masses of people that nations are selling their souls for the proverbial mess of pottage — are barter¬ ing away freedom to dictatorship for fatuitous pledges of economic better¬ ment. It may be that the fruits of enlightenment and culture will go the same way, for a great threat is to be found in the moral degradation that makes dictatorship possible. Nations and civilizations fall and disappear only as a result of epidemics of moral infection. Great civilizations can go down and out, and have done so many times. In American democracy we have always had faith in our destiny. We have always been sure that we are a chosen people — that the Lord would save us. But this doctrine is not safe. The Lord saves nations by their own collective efforts and the wisdom of their leaders. Western civilization could decay and fall to pieces. America could go the way of the ancient empires — Babylonian, Egyptian, Roman, and Mayan. If it does not, it must be saved by the wisdom of its leadership and the intelligence of its followership. The creative process called education must continue and pervade the individual and the mass. The outward manifestation of the particular degenerative social force which endangers liberty, which operates potently in opposition to the creative process of education is called crime. True, a good deal of the outward hysteria concerning crime is based on a false notion of immediate disaster. Crime as a great wave will in all probability not overwhelm our modern institutions and systems. Much that is said and written in this regard is 120 National Education Association foundationless. But every possible social danger inheres in any trend which leads to widespread degeneracy of youth, and there can be no question of the terrible menace of some of the current influences on today’s rising generation. We have here two forces in direct conflict — education, the creator of civilization, and moral delinquency evidenced by crime, the destroyer of civilization. It is my purpose to survey briefly with you some of the evi¬ dences of the invasion of the forces of moral decay as they are manifesting themselves in the habits of the American people. ' Increase of Felonies The rapid rate of the increase of felonious crimes among the American people during the past generation is a significant danger index. Intelligent, thinking Americans should know enough of social trends and should have sufficient scientific command of sociology to understand the causes of such a marked and dangerous trend, to undertake positive measures of control, and to move toward the elimination of the causes. Since 1900 the homicide rate in the United States has multiplied more than four times. In British society during the same period it has been cut in half. Thirty-five years ago this rate per million inhabitants in the United States and Great Britain was twelve and ten respectively, that is, very nearly the same. Now, ours in the United States is ten times that in Great Britain. The following table, adapted from W. C. Bagley’s Crime and Social Progress , gives this fact, in which lies such evidence of real danger, in detail : Murders in United States of America as Compared to England United States 1900 — 12 to 1 million population 1910 — 39 to 1 million population 1920 — 42 to 1 million population 1926 — 51 to 1 million population England 1900 — 10 to 1 million population 1910 — 8 to 1 million population 1922 — 7 to 1 million population 1928 — 5 to 1 million population Extravagant Costs The cost of the maintenance and operation of our social institutions dur¬ ing these critical times has been very properly under keen scrutiny and the subject of criticism. In divers times and places these criticisms have not been friendly. In every state and in almost every municipality it has been pointed out that the cost of public education amounts to approximately one- half of the total cost of government. The huge sum of two and one-half billion dollars — the total cost of education to the people of the nation — is held up to the taxpayers as a horrible example of extravagance and much of the cost attributed to waste. But little is said and nothing done about General Sessions 121 the huge and always mounting cost of crime, a total waste and wholly a destructive factor of menacing proportions. Y et the most conservative estimates place the annual cost of this degenerative pastime of a compara¬ tively small fraction of our people (the Crime Survey Committee of the American Bar Association, reporting in 1922, showed with valid evidence that the active criminal class in this nation of one hundred and twenty million people numbers considerably less than one-half million) at two and one-fourth billion dollars every year, while other very authoritative statements give the figure at more than three times that amount. The National Education Association, thru its Research Division, sets forth in Bulletin No. 4, Volume No. 10, 1932, an admirable but very con¬ servative analysis of crime costs thruout the nation. Summarized, these are as follows : Analysis of Cri?ne Costs Federal State Municipal Police Prosecution Penal Institutions „ Courts >• J Police ! Pena! Institutions Correction Institutions . < Police Penal Institutions Correction Institutions 53 million >■ . . 54 million - . 591 million Private Agencies . 197 million Losses thru crime . 1 billion, 300 million Total . 2 billion, 148 million (Approximately) (Approximately) (Approximately) (Approximately) (Approximately) (Approximately) But all valid estimates are not so conservative. The Report of the New York State Crime Commission, 1931, page 35, gives the total annual loss from crime as seven billion dollars. This does not include the cost of administration and maintenance of penal institutions and governmental machinery responsible for law enforcement, such as those summarized above. This prodigious sum, added to the cost of administration, makes a total of some eight billion dollars. When distributed as an increased burden of expense and loss to the population of the United States, this vast total places upon each man, woman, and child an augmented annual cost amounting to sixty-four dollars. In direct competition with every con¬ structive movement and every creative social institution, this matter of cost alone is an ominous portent, the danger of which ought to be realized much more generally than at present. The Threat to Youth But as amazing as is the tolerance of this great, supposedly intelligent, people concerning a matter so vital as the multiplying in a generation of our homicide rate by the factor of four and the mounting of our crime 122 National Education Association bill to some eight billion dollars, the real danger is far more insidious and finally a much greater threat to our general welfare and the final stability of our democracy. I mean the influence of our apparently successful criminal class upon large numbers of our youth. Only a year or two ago an authori¬ tative author and sociologist stated in a magazine article upon this subject that if he were asked to advise youth as to the most rapid road to wealth at the present time he would be compelled to point out that the life of crime under present conditions offers the greatest likelihood of quick wealth. The overwhelming predominance of youth under thirty among the totals of the criminal ranks is well known to all who interest themselves in this problem. In the April, 1935, issue of Harvard Teachers Record, Eleanor T. Glueck, research associate of the Harvard Law School, astonishes us with the statement that “ there are at least 200,000 children in the schools of America today who will soon be joining the criminal ranks.” Miss Glueck’s study further indicates that: First, criminal careers have their roots largely in childhood; and second, the indications of delinquency are in evidence largely during the school years. In a democracy of one hundred and twenty million people which predi¬ cates its perpetuation and permanent prosperity upon what it programs for its thirty million youth, no more startling and perilous fact could be pre¬ sented than this indicating a devitalizing and degenerating trend in the youth of the land. The huge and even overefficient productive structure of this machine age and of Western civilization has been founded upon intelligence, the spread of scientific knowledge, and moral vigor. Economic prosperity is in this instance, as always, a resultant of the cultural forces of democratic life. Whatever destroys the character and the creative quality of youth destroys economic stability, culture, and civilization itself. The problem with which we are at grips here and now is: Can the American people be made sufficiently aware of the destructive trend to keep the insti¬ tutions which seek to universalize the creative process in the individual successfully and triumphantly at work? To grapple intelligently with this issue there must be a general awareness, first, of the causes responsible for this trend toward disintegration, and second, of a program of remedies. This knowledge must not be confined merely to the leaders and workers in the field of education and professional sociology. It must extend to the rank and file of the people — all those who are capable of being intelligent followers and whose opinions constitute what is vaguely but generally known as “ public sentiment.” For the spread of this knowledge the teaching profession and the professional social work groups must assume large responsibility. For that reason, I am venturing to point out to you, my fellow teachers, a few of the underlying causes of our crime trends in America. Among these let me mention particularly: (a) The pioneer elejnents in our culture — The adventurous pioneer in his conquest of the continent made his own laws. The conventions and regulations of the civilizations from which he had originally come could not be applied. He was too close to the problem of keeping soul and body General Sessions 123 together and preserving himself and his family on the frontier and in the wilderness. Altho the population of our Atlantic seaboard and the eastern sections of our United States constitutes a fairly old society, the pioneer elements still permeate the whole of American life. The tendency for gov¬ ernment to be very flexible in the locality and even in the state still is a powerful trend in our everyday living. (b) A variety of standards which have bee?i injected into American life in our process of absorbing very large immigrant groups — The false notions of liberty which brought many of our immigrant groups here transferred themselves in exaggerated form to the children of the first generation of our foreign element. A great number of our potential criminals come from this class which has prevalently translated “ liberty ” to mean “ license.” In our large cities many of these products of the slums constitute the ele¬ ments of our crime kindergartens. (c) The tradition of American government to leave all police and regu¬ latory powers to the local state and community — Our forebears, in framing the Constitution, sought freedom from too much government. The founders of the Constitution carefully avoided too much centralization and reserved all unexpressed powers to the state and community governments. As society has grown in complexity, the power of the local government to administer and enforce new legal requirements imposed by new conditions has become continually in a greater degree impotent to meet the enlarged scope of criminal activity. Furthermore, under this theory the rights of individuals rather than the responsibilities of citizenship have frequently brought groups of sympathetic but unwise citizens to the rescue of criminals by seeking release from penalties, and exoneration by juries. (d) The exaggerated laissez faire theory of American democracy — This has permitted to be created in great centers of population hot beds of in¬ fection and active centers for the breeding of crime. The United States Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement , No. 13, Volume 2, 1931, furnishes an authoritative and thorogoing summary of evidences con¬ cerning these slum centers from which a large proportion of our criminals come. The delinquency areas in seven of our typical cities from the several sections of the United States were thoroly surveyed to ascertain the trends toward juvenile delinquency. These cities were Philadelphia, Chicago, and Cleveland, typical manufacturing cities of the northern area; Richmond and Birmingham of the southern area; and Denver and Seattle of the west¬ ern area. It was found in these surveys that the trend toward juvenile delinquency in the area of the cities which could be designated as “ slums ” was from fourteen to twenty-nine times as great as in the districts where wholesome home life was maintained. The evidences of this scientific survey are unmistakable. Here we are at the root causes of our crime trends. When we add to this evidence the analysis which comes from such studies as that of Miss Glueck already mentioned, we have the information necessary for the solution of the prob¬ lem. In Miss Glueck’s survey she studied the characteristics of one thousand 124 National Education Association juvenile delinquents. She found that: 94.7 percent of them had never gone beyond grade school; 76 percent of them were from families that were dependent or almost dependent economically; barely 1 percent of them came from families where the parents could be considered of the professional or business class; 75 percent of them had no advantages of childhood recrea¬ tion ; 92 percent of them came from broken homes ; and 93 percent of them engaged in harmful use of leisure time. From these kindergartens of crime, then, emanate our crime classes; and from a study of them, and from intelligence and knowledge on the part of our citizenship about them, can we hope to develop adequate remedies. Remedial Proposals Time permits me to do no more than to outline for you, my fellow teach¬ ers, a suggestion as to the remedies which may be applied : (a) We must strike at the sources from which the criminal classes come. Slums must be eliminated ; economic status of the classes living in the poor districts of the cities must be raised — of course, largely by their own efforts, and by offering opportunities and applying pressures which will lead to a wholesome and adequate family life. Special provisions must be made for the delinquent child. (b) We must create standards of morality thru universal Christian and religious education. (When I say “ Christian and religious education ” I do not mean sectarian education.) The character education program as now being developed in the public educational system is wholly sound and should be made much more universal and carried much further. It will result in sound mores and wholesome home and community life. (c) The administration of justice must be somewhat more centralized. At certain points the federal government should be clothed with special types of police power where that of the local communities and states has been found inadequate. (d) Enlightened public opinion as to the costs of crime and the possible remedies and the administration of justice must be developed thru an ade¬ quate program of adult education. (e) Enlightened leadership and intelligent followership on the part of all our youth must be developed by the sound and scientifically planned programs of citizenship responsibilities and activities thru our public edu¬ cational system. The hope of this democracy is in the ability and adequacy of the schools to develop for our coming generations this, potent and ade¬ quate quality of both leadership and followership. General Sessions 125 ADDRESS HONORABLE PAUL V. MCNUTT, GOVERNOR OF INDIANA, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. This is the one hundred and fifty-ninth anniversary of the birth of the United States. July 4, 1776, was not a holiday, nor were the days which followed holidays. During the years which have intervened between that day and this, there have been times when the nation’s birthday was cele¬ brated, in part at least, by ornate orations. I remember some of them. I thought, but was afraid to say, that in most cases the fumes of the orator’s rhetoric had gone to his head. The speeches made on the first Fourth of July were not of that kind, and those made on this Fourth of July should not be of that kind. The members of the Continental Congress, who signed the Declaration of Independence, knew what they wanted and used words in expressing their wants which could be understood by king and commoner alike. Have you read the Declaration of Independence recently? Have you ever read it at all ? Or, did you start to read it and then stop after you had finished the first two paragraphs? The Declaration was not a Fourth of July oration. It was a serious document signed by serious men who pledged their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor in support of their statement, and who knew that if it failed they would hang, when and if caught. What they did was treason, and they told the rest of the world to make the most of it. The Declaration was actually a brief statement of principle and an in¬ dictment in eighteen counts. Those who quote the Declaration are ac¬ customed to use only a part of the second paragraph: “We hold these truths to be self-evident ; that all men are created equal ; and that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights (the original manuscript, as signed by the delegates, reads unalienable rights, while the text of Jefferson’s manuscript draft, as amended in committee by Frank¬ lin and Adams, reads inalienable rights) ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that gov¬ ernments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed.” Some Americans have been omitting the last two sentences during recent weeks. These principles are vital today. They have been vital every day since the first Fourth of July. 126 National Education Association “ That all men are created equal.” This does not mean that all men are created with the same mental and physical capacities or that they are en¬ dowed with the same moral stamina. Such an interpretation would be flying in the face of fact. No human agency can equalize certain inequalities of birth or environment. It does mean that all men are equal before the law, that all are equal in rights, privileges, and immunities and, more important still, that all are equal in opportunities. No circumstances of birth, of en¬ vironment, or of poverty for that matter, can keep an individual from that equality of opportunity which alone comes from education. The path from the hovel in the city or from the hut in the backwoods of the hills is open. Any man can travel the road as far as capacity permits. This government was established for the service of all of the people and not for the conferring of special privilege upon a few. “ That they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights.” This means that the rights set forth in the Declaration cannot be taken from any man by the government, by any organization, or by any individual without his consent except as lawfully authorized punishment for crime. “ That among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” Life in a democracy is and must be something more than mere existence. It means growth, development, social security, and sharing responsibility for the common good. Live and let live. No man can claim a right for himself and refuse to recognize the same right in others. The same thing is true of liberty. No freedom can long exist which feeds upon the oppression of others. Only the unwise would attempt to define liberty when they view it against the background of the ages from ancient Athens to the present. Aristotle pointed out that the good man, the educated man, and the free man are one and the same ; that the aim of education is the training of the free man; that the “ good life ” of this man is possible with the exercise of “ right reason ”; that virtue itself is just intelligent behavior and that there can be no liberty without virtue. Men are of two kinds, he said : First, those who govern themselves by reasoned virtue (these are the free) ; and second, those vast numbers who are moved by mere desire, by prejudice or unreasoned belief (those must always be restrained by force and can never be free). The man who wrote the Declaration of Independence knew something of this classical understanding of liberty. “ That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.” This was the statement of the new freedom ; the new concepts of government are in the people. We have been accustomed to think that this became a free country once and for all as a result of the heroic efforts of our ancestors, that liberty and popular government are the same thing. They are, as long as men understand themselves and master themselves in new ways in order to retain their inherited freedom. It is necessary to adjust self-government to the changing circumstances of the age in which we live. As Everett Dean Martin put it: “Would you be free? Then first become civilized.” General Sessions 127 The signers of the Declaration of Independence made such a translation because, as I have said, they knew what they wanted. Do you know what we want? One great pessimist thinks not. A few days ago I reread an amazing volume appropriately entitled W ords to the Deaf , by Ferrero, eminent historian of Rome. In it he wrote, “ There have been epochs more uncouth, poorer, and more ignorant than our own, but they knew what they wanted.” “ What do we want? ” he asked. And then went on to say, “ That is the essential question. Every man and every epoch should keep this question constantly before them, just as a lamp is kept burning day and night in dark places.” Ferrero is right. This is the essential question. To know what we want and need and to want what we need are the beginnings of statesmanship. Do we know what we want and need ? Do we want what we need ? Ferrero thinks not. “ On the contrary,” he wrote, “ our will is in a state of complete con¬ fusion. Sometimes it is split in twain, at once desirous of good and evil, or of benefits that are mutually exclusive. Sometimes it cloaks itself in agreeable falsehoods, persuading itself that it desires one thing, while all the time it desires something different or even antithetical. Sometimes it entirely strays away from reason and reality, lured on by a chimerical mirage.” I do not share Ferrero’s pessimism. I believe that we do know some of the things we want and need, that we can translate the Declaration of Independence into terms which fit the age in which we live and thus be worthy of the men who drew it. The first count of the presentday indictment would be that we are per¬ mitting one of the finest instrumentalities of our national life, public education, to fall short of its best. I call upon all citizens who love their country and its institutions to declare in unmistakable terms this day that we shall no longer tolerate any failure to supply ourselves with men and women who shall both comprehend their age and duty and know how to serve them well, and that we shall no longer tolerate inadequate support of our educational enterprise. The fight for the first declaration must be within the schools themselves. This is the time for perfect candor, no bragging. It is necessary for us to make a critical and searching examination of the entire educational enterprise to see what parts, if any, have outlived their usefulness. It is the business of the educational system to produce what Aristotle called free men and women capable of participating in and assuming leadership in the necessary readjustments of our tangled social and economic orders. It is not enough to produce first-rate technicians. It is necessary also to produce those who will help in securing political, social, and economic orders which will assure the life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness set forth in the Declaration of Independence. This will be impossible without ade¬ quate public support. 5 128 National Education Association The school children of the United States have been made to sacrifice their educational opportunities in a fashion that threatens the democratic struc¬ ture of American society. Two thousand rural American schools failed to open last September. This deprived 110,000 children of their educational opportunities. Twenty- six hundred other rural schools were closed at the beginning of the year affecting 140,000 children. By April 1, about 20,000 additional schools closed, affecting more than 1,000,000 children. These pupils, together with the 2,280,000 children between the ages of six and fifteen who have no educational opportunities even in normal years, make a total of 3,530,000 boys and girls deprived of schooling. Because of lack of funds one out of every four cities has shortened its school term. Terms in practically every large city are one or two months shorter than they were seventy to one hundred years ago. Even in normal times the American school year is 172 days as contrasted with 200 days for France, 210 days each for Sweden and England, and 246 days each for Germany and Denmark. Schools in the United States are receiving approximately $563,000,000 less than in 1929-30. These cuts have been made despite the fact that the schools are now responsible for 960,000 more pupils than in 1930, because of the child labor regulations and the inability of older students to find employment. Reactionary critics of the schools clamor for one thing above all else — balancing the budget. The easiest target for their attacks has been the schools. They point to an increase of 300 percent in school expenditures. They neglect, however, to show these facts about the increased load on the schools : 1. High-school enrolment has increased since 1900 from 519,000 to 5,460,000 in 1930. This is an increase of 1052 percent. 2. Elementary-school enrolment has increased from 15,000,000 in 1900 to 21,000,- 000 in 1934, an increase of 40 percent. 3. The purchasing power of the dollar has decreased 48 percent since 1914. 4. Children employed in gainful occupations decreased 75 percent between 1910 and 1930. These unemployed children are now in school. 5. In recent years, thousands of adults have called upon the school for courses in vocational and leisure-time subjects. This has been an additional but very desirable burden upon the schools. These courses, however, are being abandoned because of lack of funds. It costs approximately $90 a year to keep a child in school in prosperous times. It costs approximately $300 a year to keep a person in prison a year. The United States has spent $1,500,000,000 a year to incarcerate 5,000,000 prisoners. We are spending only $200,000,000 more than that for the education of 26,000,000 school children. Which is the better expenditure? At the present time there are 3,000,000 young people grouped around the ages of eighteen to twenty who are out of school and out of work. They have been termed “ the lost generation.” They are at a critical age. For them to remain idle constitutes a gigantic loss. No civilization can cut off its growth and live. General Sessions 129 In this connection the President’s Youth Program is a program which deserves our wholehearted support. The whole program must be developed and carried on in a spirit that will instil confidence in the 5^outh — confidence of the young people in themselves and confidence of their elders in youth. The program must not be set up as a charity movement, but as a definite investment by the government in its youth. The program must not be a youth movement in the sense of uprising against our established order, but a movement to allay social unrest and to preserve for the coming genera¬ tion the ideals on which our nation was founded, namely, the right to have an education and the right to earn an honest and sufficient living. Senator Copeland’s committee has shown that the cost of crime in the United States is almost $13,000,000,000 annually. This is a stupendous figure. The surest method of meeting crime is not less but more education and better and more thoroly socialized schools. Without education our children would be too exclusively shut in to their pursuits and individual interests, would lose vital contacts and emulations which awaken them to those larger achievements and sacrifices, which are the highest objects of education in a country of free citizens. Education is a life-long process. It begins in infancy and continues so long as individuals must meet new problems. The youth of today must prepare for life in a world of intricate economic forces. These forces will overwhelm him if he does not understand them. He needs knowledge and power to think his way thru. Life everywhere today is subject to international influences. To understand these influences, to interpret them intelligently, requires a better education of more people. The wisdom of America’s foreign policy can be improved only so far as the people as a whole understand and approve such improvement. How much education does youth need? All we can give them will be too little. How much should the schools offer? The very utmost their resources make possible. The welfare of the state springs out of the character and the informed purposes of the private citizen. Another related count in the indictment of our presentday declaration must be against our failure in a materialistic age to hold fast to a social objective. It is to be hoped that the objective so felicitously stated by the President a few days ago may be translated into action. These were his words: “ The social objective, I should say, remains just what it was, which is to do what any honest government of any country would do — to try to increase the security and the happiness of a larger number of people in all occupations of life and in all parts of the country; to give them more of the good things of life ; to give them a greater distribution not only of wealth in the narrow terms, but of wealth in the wider terms ; to give them places to go in the summer time, recreation; to give them assurance that they are not going to starve in their old age; to give honest business a chance to go ahead and make a reasonable profit, and to give everyone a chance to earn a living.” 130 National Education Association The time has come for us to prove that we are worthy of the men of 1776, and to give more than lip service to their traditions of freedom. We must translate their declarations into action which will meet the de¬ mands of this age. MUNITIONS INVESTIGATIONS BY THE UNITED STATES SENATE HONORABLE GERALD P. NYE, UNITED STATES SENATOR FROM NORTH DAKOTA This address by Senator Nye is not included in the Proceedings due to the fact that the full text was published in the September 1935 issue of the Journal of the National Education Association. Senator Nye’s address was extremely well received by a large audience. He discussed in detail how munitions makers affect public policy and made a strong plea for educators to assist in the prevention of all war in the future. j^ife eans of women HISTORICAL NOTE The department of deans of women ( National Association of Deans of Women ) associated itself with the National Education Association in 1918. The officers of the Department for the year 1935-36 are: president, Irma E. Voigt, Dean of Women, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio; first vicepresident, Harriett M. Allyn, Dean of Women, Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Mass.; second vicepresident, Ruth V. Pope, Dean of Women, Hood College , Frederick, Md.; secretary, Evelyn W. Jones, Dean of Women, University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz.; trea¬ surer, Agnes Helmreich, Girls' Adviser, East High School, Des Moines, Iowa; headquarters secretary, Gwladys W. Jones, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and records of its meetings will be found in earlier volumes of proceedings, as follows: 191 8:391-417 1919 :393-426 1920 :357-364 1921 -.407-420 1922 : 693 -79 3 192 3:621-636 1924:500-536 1925 :403-449 19 26:425-457 1927:391-418 1928:353-374 1929:369-390 1930 :309-330 1931 :393-413 1932 -.337-356 19 33:357-376 1934 -.345-360 [312] THE PLACE OF WOMEN IN THE COMMUNITY MRS. FRANKLIN DELANO ROOSEVELT, WHITE HOUSE, WASHINGTON, D. C. IT is A very great privilege for me to be here with you today, but I confess that it makes me a little nervous to talk to so many people who are experts when I am but an amateur. So I have only one excuse, and that is that this subject of the place of women in the community is a subject of interest to every woman and, therefore, I am glad to be able to say some of the things which are in my mind on this subject. I feel, of course, that it is very, very important that we emphasize today in our education the fact that girls are going to be part of a community and that no matter what they do — whether they go into a profession, whether they go into business, whether they marry and remain homemakers exclusively, it does not matter — they are part of the community, and the community will be what they make it. Now, of course, I should think that a great many of the deans and the vocational guidance experts would feel that it was a good deal to ask that they prepare girls for living in their communities. That should be part of the home preparation, and I will agree it should be. The example of the home should lead them naturally to that. But frequently it does not. And, besides, all young people get more inspiration from the atmosphere of the people they touch outside their homes, I think, than they do, as a rule, from within their homes. Later, when they grow older, they go back to what they saw in their own homes, and they appreciate it, and frequently they realize what the example meant. However, there is a great responsibility on the people with whom they associate in their working time. So I think that now every educational institution has to take a greater part than ever before in the life of the community in which it happens to be. Of course, that means that every individual connected with an educational institute must take, as an individual, a greater part and a great responsibility in the community he happens to be in. There was a time when one could apparently fulfil one’s duty by thinking solely of one’s own interests, what¬ ever they might be. There was in fact that necessity in our pioneer days, but that time is past and if we are going to build a more interesting and a better world, it has to begin in every individual community. Each one of us is responsible for the spirit and the life lived in her own community, no matter where we are. I remember the advice given years ago by a very wise woman to a young friend of mine who was marrying when she was very young and going out into the world quite far away from her own home. This old friend of mine said: “ Remember, wherever you are, put down roots; mean something to the people who live around you. Otherwise you will be just a parasite and life will not be very interesting to you.” I have had that proved to me many, many times. I have a number of friends who belong to what might be called the “ fortunate group ” in the [313] 314 National Education Association world. They have always been able to do whatever they wished to do, from the point of view of material things. When they do not like the climate in one place, they move back up North or go to another, or if they get a little bored doing one thing, they go off and do something else. Sometimes I wonder if that freedom has done anything to make them any happier. If something had forced them to put down roots so that they could not pick up and go away for any long period of time because they would be leaving interests that to them were vital, I wonder if they would not he happier. So when people tell me they haven’t had this advantage, or that ad¬ vantage — my young friends sometimes bewail the fact that they cannot do this or that that their mothers did — I always tell them that probably they are going to be happier in the long run, because they will have to learn to make of their community a place that is worth living in, and they will have to do that by cooperation with everyone else in the community. They will have to study whatever the other people have to give, and they will have to give the best that they themselves have to give. In any community there are people who have gifts. We may have to look for them sometimes, but they can be developed if we take the trouble. So it seems to me that in our education the thing we need to emphasize today is that the young things we are interested in must learn to fit into the community that they are going to live in. Now, among the younger boys and girls to whom I talk, because of the economic conditions prevailing, I find that after we have had, as a group, a good deal of conversation on the subject of what part they should take in political life, and how responsive the government should be to their ideas, and how they can register with the government — it all sounds very objective on our part and as tho our thinking is very detached — but I find, when you get into smaller groups of three or four, that those who have to earn their living are primarily concerned with “ How are we going to fit in with a community and find a job? ” or, having found that job, if they find some¬ one they want to marry, “ How are we going to get married on our joint earnings ? ” Of course, nobody — none of us older people — can solve these questions for the youth of today, but we can help them tremendously ; first of all, I think, by making them realize that in whatever community they live the first thing to do is to find out what is needed, what really could be done in that community. Somehow or other if they go at it from the point of view of making themselves useful in any little way that they find, oppor¬ tunities do come and they grow. We hope, of course, that the economic situation will improve, and im¬ prove rapidly, and we hope that we older people will be able to help the younger to find more jobs by doing more to develop jobs, and that they themselves, when they have learned to use their minds, will be better able to find jobs for themselves. So many of them feel that, if they have trained themselves to do certain things and cannot find a job along the lines in which thev were trained, thev are not fitted to do anvthiner else. Of course, Department of D^ans of Women 315 we have not as yet learned to survey the necessities around us, and to try to direct young people according to their aptitudes, and to help them not to swell the ranks of the professions where already the supply is greater than the demand. In any case if someone has a vocation for a thing, he is going to do that thing, and he is going to work at it until he finds the particular place that he can fill. But with a training which has taught young people to use their minds they can do many other things along the way, and if they have learned they are not living for themselves alone, and if wherever they are they put down roots, they will become a part of the community in a way which would make that community miss them if they were taken out of it. A young friend of mine travels, travels, travels. She never settles down anywhere and she is always bored. While she is traveling to a new country she gets a temporary interest. But, interesting as it is to travel, the most interesting part is to come home again, to come back and bring the results of what we have seen and what we have learned to some community that will be benefited by it or be interested in it, because we mean something to the community. So in all our education I think we need to emphasize more and more the fact that we are moving toward a world in which we think about each other. We think not only about ourselves, or our particular group of friends, or our particular small section of people. We think of our com¬ munity as a whole, and how useful we can be in that community ; and then we broaden out and think of our use in our state and what influence we can have on the broader aspects of community living, because what happens in other parts of our country we shortly find affects our own community. Therefore, it is part of our community life. Now we know that various parts of this country have had all kinds of conditions, but because we were fairly comfortable we never bothered to find out what type of conditions existed in different parts of the land. If there is one thing about the depression for which I am grateful it is that the depression has forced upon us the knowledge of conditions which we do not like in many parts of our own country, and having acquired that knowledge I believe that we will not allow those conditions to continue. That will mean that cooperatively we will make this country constantly move forward to better conditions, and as conditions improve everywhere, each community will gain from the improvement. I do not stop at our national cooperation. I believe, of course, that com¬ munity living can extend our interest until we realize that as a liberal community we have the interest of other peoples, also, at heart. I know that other people are different, that other people in other nations frequently do things that we do not understand, that we do not approve of. But I also know that we do things that they do not understand and of which they do not approve, and I hope that, as we learn to live in our own community with an understanding of each other as individuals, and then broaden out to do so nationally, we will learn to do it internationally. 316 National Education Association All of these possibilities which the youth of this nation has before it must spring from the people who teach youth. Whether you teach as a mother, whether you teach as a teacher, you cannot teach what you do not have, and you must acquire the things which you want young people to have thru you. So, in my vision of the country that I hope we are going to live in, you people here today play a very big part, for it will be, I believe, very much the kind of country that you make it. All I can say is that I wish you all the greatest success and that I hope we, as a nation, are as grateful as I am as an individual, for the leadership and the example which all of you give to us who are amateurs. THE COLLEGE WOMAN IN THE WORLD COMMUNITY MARY E. WOOLLEY, PRESIDENT, MT. HOLYOKE COLLEGE, SOUTH HADLEY, MASS. The college woman has appeared on the stage in many different roles during these last years. “ The College Woman in the Home,” “ The College Woman in Business and in the Professions,” “ The College Woman as a Citizen ” — these and many other parts have been hers. It is interesting to see how the emphasis has changed. The inevitable question is no longer “ Should a girl go to college? ” — in other words, “ Should there be a College Woman? ” She is taken for granted. Not that there is unanimity with regard to her. She is still a favorite target for criticism, but the arrows are more often aimed at what she has not done that she ought to have done, rather than at the fact that she belongs to the genus “ college.” Un¬ reasonable as these criticisms often are, impossible as it is for one human being to “ box the compass ” in this day of limitless opportunity for service, nevertheless it is not a mistaken assumption that the twin of privilege is obligation, that noblesse oblige applies as directly to the citizen of a twentieth century democracy as to a number of the medieval nobility, and the privi¬ leged class of today is composed of human beings who have had a chance for the development of their powers, in other words, who have been educated. One opportunity for service which has developed with extraordinary rapidity within the last quarter of a century, which is in fact a twentieth century development, is that implied in my subject. Every normal woman, whatever her vocation — be it in the home, in the school, business or pro¬ fession, conspicuous or inconspicuous — has a community responsibility in¬ herent in the fact that she is a citizen. Today that community responsibility has widened — widened to a world community. The world has been drawn together within the last fifty years, within the last twenty-five, until there is no longer such a possibility as isolation. It simply does not exist. Our mechanical inventions have made the world a neighborhood, and have put upon us the responsibility of being a good neighbor. Department of Deans of Women 317 A thoughtful student of world affairs says : “ The fact is, no community, no nation, no world can do anything but disintegrate if composed of the nationalist type of ‘ neighbors.’ Our civilization can survive only in the spirit of the village, in which neighbors share the community burdens and responsibilities.” “ Our civilization can survive only.” It is not a “ doctrine of preferables ” in the old Stoic sense. Upon the choice between the international relations based upon reason and those based upon brute force may depend the survival of Western civilization. What should the college woman do? She should consider this problem her problem, hers as definitely as if she were the only person in the world to face it. We have been too impersonal in our attitude toward international questions. They have seemed big, remote, and hence they have remained in their “ academic ” stage, impersonal and therefore ineffectively dealt with as far as we are concerned. It is not necessary to ask for personal interest from an altruistic point of view ; ask for it from the point of view of enlightened selfishness, if you will. You have interest in things, things intellectual and artistic and scientific and social and moral and spiritual. That has been one of the hallmarks of the college woman of America. If you care for the preservation, to say nothing of the development, of these great enterprises, you will see to it that the world is saved from another war. War undercuts civilization ; another war might well sweep all these human achievements into the discard. The college woman has human interests as well as interests in things. They are generally very personal interests, for which the. word itself sounds inadequate. The mother does not speak of an “ interest ” in her son, the wife of an “ interest ” in her husband, the child of an “ interest ” in her father! The feeling goes so much deeper that the word is feeble by con¬ trast. How can a thoughtful woman question the responsibility resting upon her as an individual to work with all her heart and soul and mind and strength against the human waste that we call war? It is easy to state an ideal without indicating the way to attain it. But impossible as it is to outline a program for everyone, there are certain definite lines along which we can all travel. The first is to know what we are talking about ; in other words, learn. That does not necessarily imply expert knowledge — we cannot all have that. But intelligent understanding of the issues at stake is not too much to ask of any college woman. It is not difficult today to have an intelligent understanding of the situation. Thru the various international organizations of the country, thru the inter¬ national relations committees of our federations, thru the leading news¬ papers, it is entirely possible to keep up-to-date in the international field. No, there is slim excuse for not being intelligent today on the international situation. If my first injunction is learn, my second is teach — a second far more important for an audience like this one. College women are interested, I believe, in world understanding, but not yet have they enlisted as a great army in a crusade to free not the “ Holy Sepulchre,” but the human mind. 318 National Education Association T he genesis of the movement for moral disarmament is interesting. In 1932, the political commission of the disarmament conference, following proposals submitted by the Polish government in memorandums of Septem¬ ber 1931, and of February and March 1932, and recognizing the obvious connection which exists between material and moral disarmament, set up a committee to study the various aspects of this question. The Polish memorandums listed various channels of education, news¬ papers, periodicals, the radio, the cinema, and the stage, all of them influ¬ ential in the formation of public opinion. Above all else “ the future peace of the world depends upon the spirit in which the young are brought up.” "That places a large share of responsibility squarely upon the shoulders of school and college — altho I would by no means exempt the home and the church — responsibility for the promotion of a spirit of understanding and goodwill. To a certain extent, the colleges are realizing their opportunity and improving it. The exchange of teachers and students with other countries, fellowships for Americans to study in foreign countries and for foreign students to study here, courses on international relations, flourishing inter¬ national relations clubs, knowledge of the League of Nations and what it is accomplishing — these and other methods are making our college students “ world conscious ” as they were not before the war. We have had a good beginning in our colleges, but only a beginning. The attitude toward the World Court is an appalling reminder of the dense ignorance in this country — call it “ misapprehension,” if you are euphe¬ mistically inclined — concerning international affairs. My third injunction, possibly the most important of the three, is be articulate. It is a conservative estimate that forty thousand telegrams against the World Court reached the United States Senate in the last hours before the vote was taken, thereby changing the mental attitude of some of our senatorial friends. Did forty thousand telegrams in favor of the World Court reach the Senate during those crucial hours? I doubt it! Does that mean that there were not forty thousand American citizens on the side of the Court? That hardly needs an answer. I have never heard an opposing voice in all my connection with the American Association of University Women, whose membership is nearly forty thousand. Suppose that in the eleven organizations cooperating with the Conference on the Cause and Cure of War, every member in favor of the World Court — and it is difficult to imagine that anyone within the radius of Mrs. Catt’s in¬ fluence would not be in favor — had wired her two senators! The forty thousand adverse telegrams would have been nil in their effect upon the sensitive vote-getting nerve of our representative government! All along the line, a marked weakness of the movement for a more rational world order has been its inertia. People want something better, but they do not want to pay the price of effort necessary to bring it about. To whom may we look to turn the world tide if not to the leaders in our colleges ? My closing word is based on a message from former Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes on his ninetieth birthday: “ The chief worth of civilization Department of Deans of Women 319 is just that it makes the means of living more complex; that it calls for great and combined intellectual efforts, instead of simple, uncoordinated ones.” I think that that is meant especially for us, for us to whom is given rare opportunity of influence over human life. It is a call to a great and combined effort. Intellectual? Yes, and spiritual. The two go hand in hand in this day, so in need of both. May we not fail or he discouraged ! THE FACTS AS EMPLOYERS FIND THEM JEAN L. SHEPARD, CONFERENCE OFFICE, R. H. MACY AND COMPANY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The work of a department store is usually discussed under the general term — “ merchandising.” It is more accurately described as “ retailing.” Work in retailing has assumed many of the aspects of our more honored professions and has become a field which has attracted some of the ablest and most talented men and women. It is interesting to you particularly be¬ cause it is a field in which there is little discrimination against women, in which the feminine touch has a definite place. Before the war, the department store was not an attractive field to the college girl in general. This was of course due largely to the fact that women had not yet broken away from the social prejudice which bound them to teaching or those positions more directly related to the home. There are many jobs other than merchandising which are vital to the life of the store and which present possibilities for interesting careers. It is also interesting that there are more women in merchandising than men. Besides merchandising proper, there is the management division, consisting of the sales force and their supervisors, the many operating departments such as delivery, receiving, cashiering, store maintenance, and the warehouse division. Each of these departments is headed bv managers and assistants. Naturally, these jobs are open more readily to men. Then there is the personnel divi¬ sion, including employment, training, executive placement, social service, and employee recreation. Most of the jobs here are held by women and call for highly-trained, able people. All of the accounting, auditing, organization and corporate statistics, merchandise control, and inventory are in the finance division and offer opportunities to those who have an aptitude for and a training in statistics, research, accounting, and finance. Lastly, there is the publicity division, which does all the advertising, creates and puts into effect the interior and exterior displays, handles the comparison and personal shop¬ ping departments, and maintains a well-organized style bureau. Here are opportunities for those having a flair for writing, for promotion and style creation, jobs for which women have a distinct aptitude. Besides these five divisions of merchandising, management, personnel, finance, and publicity, there are other departments in the store which call for highly intelligent and trained people, such as the planning department. This department is made up of a group of research and efficiency experts who are continually evolving 11 320 National Education Association new systems and determining the safest, quickest, and most economical meth¬ ods for performing jobs. Interestingly enough, this division at Macy’s is headed by a woman and some of the outstanding members of this group are women. I emphasize here the opportunities for women in the department store field because I have sometimes detected among the college groups, often in the personnel departments, a tendency to regard a job in a department store as one lacking the prestige and the interest of jobs in other fields. As a matter of fact, the movement for taking the college girls into the department store, which gained ground steadily, at least up until the time of the “ great depression,” came not from the college or from the college girl herself but from the department store. The department store not only opened its door to the college girl but made a definite bid for her entrance. In this the department store was following the general trend of all industry in seeking future executive material right from the colleges. The war had given a tremendous impetus to this. As men by the scores left their jobs, the younger men and particularly women coming out of college were taken into their places. These youngsters, with no real business experience but with well-trained minds and with the natural enthusiasm of youth, did surprisingly well, proved themselves adaptable, able to cope with practical problems with a new and fresh point of view, and pushed themselves into positions of responsibility and trust. The process of inducting the college graduate into business and industry with its subsequent methods of training and developing them for future executives has become a part of the employ¬ ment program of practically all large industrial organizations. When the college girl came into the department store, she found it the field for the uneducated, shrewd girl who went to work at an early age and came up thru the ranks by slow promotion. She was shrewd and keen and often hard, but she knew values ; she could strike a hard bargain ; no one could put anything over on her because she had been striking hard bar¬ gains with life for a long time. The problem of the department store became one of selecting a person who has a combination of both types : the girl who had the shrewdness, the keenness, the capacity for hard work, the awareness of reality of the girl who came up from the ranks, but also the intelligence, the vision, the good taste, and the poise of the college girl. We began our training squad for college people in 1919, and it is still our source for executives. Over a period of sixteen years we have taken in many people. We have watched many struggle and fail; we have watched others struggle and succeed. We have experimented much and we have tried to be intelligent about the failures as well as the successes. We have learned a great deal about the problems of the college person in industry. The factors which make for success in industry are pretty fundamental and consequently difficult to detect. Furthermore, unfortunately for us both they do not have a direct relation to either scholastic or extracurriculum success in college. However, there are certain qualities which we have found to be closely connected with success in a department store and, while they are not always necessary for a successful academic career, I believe they can be developed at college within the limits imposed by the nature of the academic life. Department of Deans of Women 321 I believe, too, that some thought should be given to their development in fairness to the girl who wants to go into industry when she leaves college. The first of these qualities is appearance. Now appearance is more than knowing how to dress neatly, appropriately, and in good taste. It is the expression of personality, one measure at least of one’s insight into one’s own individuality. Style is coming more and more to play an important role in the life of the American woman : in her dressing, in her home furnishings, and in her general surroundings. Yet in college, these values receive little official recognition ; effort is concentrated rather in the intellectual field, which is quite natural. Furthermore, the girl has slight appreciation of the business value of style and appearance; for her it has a social significance, but she fails to give it the place it deserves because of the emphasis at college on values which have been considered more worthwhile. Yet a style con¬ sciousness is important in any business where women are employed with a view to promotion, but it is especially important in a department store. Here the girl is a part of an organization which caters to the wants of a more or less style conscious public and which aims to make that public constantly more style conscious in order to maintain the demand for its merchandise. You can readily see that a girl in this organization must be able to uphold the standards which it sets for the public. This is the problem as we see it ; this is one phase of the college girl as she comes to us. What you can do about it I am not in a position to say, but I am presenting this aspect of the problem to you for your consideration. Turning to another angle of the situation, it is obvious that when the de¬ partment store made a bid for the college girl it was with the idea of bring¬ ing in a person of superior intelligence. Our first selections showed a prefer¬ ence for the girl of high scholastic standing. The assumption must have been that the girl who made high marks was necessarily more intelligent than the girl who made mediocre ones, and probably it was also assumed that the girl who had been to college and had a “ trained mind ” was more valuable than the girl who had not been to college. It soon became evident that success on a job has little if any relation to high scholastic attainment. Evidently, the mind which produces outstanding grades in college does not necessarily enable one to do an outstanding job in a department store. The distinction, it seems to me, lies in the application of intelligence. In college, intellectual achievement is too often a matter of good memory and of facility in accepting the ideas of others, whereas in industry the individual must be able to stand on her own feet and think for herself. I have already referred to the “ trained mind.” A college education does train the mind along certain lines which are definitely helpful in business. The girl is able to grasp instructions and methods quickly, and she brings to her job a breadth of outlook, an ability to organize and analyze, and an intelligent approach to problems which give her an advantage over the non-college person. In other words, as far as the technic, the mechanics of thinking are concerned, the college girl does have a trained mind. The manner in which a student is trained to apply her intelligence in college is reflected later in 322 National Education Association her job performance, and, if she is trained to think for herself, her self- reliance manifests itself in many ways aside from the creation of ideas. For example, she is able to plan out her work over a period of time without super¬ vision, she can generalize abstractly from concrete situations, and she can relate ideas and facts to each other. She stands up for her own ideas ; she can be left to work on her own ; she uses discretion in carrying out assign¬ ments ; and she is able to sort out the important from the unimportant in her job operation. Furthermore, she looks around for things to be done instead of sticking literally to her job, and she is not easily balked by ob¬ stacles. If one method doesn’t work she will try another, and she is on the lookout for short-cuts and more efficient ways of doing things. These are the qualities we should like to find in the college girls who come to us ; some¬ times we do find them, but too often we do not. Personality has more relation to success than superior intelligence or appearance. By that I mean that I have watched a person with only average intelligence and the handicap of a poor appearance forge ahead of one with more native ability because of a well-adjusted, purposeful per¬ sonality. Promotion comes most readily to the mature, outgoing, fairly ex- traverted individual who has a good sense of reality, an objective viewpoint, and a well-directed drive. Yet I am inclined to think that this is the field which is least touched by the college. The personal problems and difficulties with which the college person struggles are perhaps not so evident in the college atmosphere where she is pretty much protected, but they become immediately evident when she gets into a business situation where she has none of the gold securities and is thrown on her own to sink or swim in competition with others. In general, the college, and particularly the woman’s college, tends to carry on parental patterns of overprotection and dependence instead of fostering an emotional and intellectual independence in the student. Thus, the college girl has at best some difficult adjustments to make when she leaves the sheltered academic atmosphere, even though she has no serious personality conflicts. A girl twenty-one or twenty-two is young ; yet given the right sort of training a girl of twenty-one should be able to tackle a job in a fairly mature fashion. In college, however, her daily life is planned for her ; she lives to a large extent by the decisions of others and she follows a pretty set routine. No wonder she sometimes flounders when she is cut loose. Girls occupied with the process of conflict and adjustment cannot fit smoothly into a huge organization which only adds to their insecurity ; they cannot show poise, resourcefulness, initiative, and all the other qualities we demand when they are in the midst of “ finding themselves.” Hence their native charm, intelligence, and ability are of little use to them until they can get themselves adjusted. So far I have been speaking of the normal girl with no particular per¬ sonality problems, who gets along well in college scholastically and socially. Now I should like to discuss the girl who has certain definite personality difficulties. Suppose we take the girl who comes to an eastern college from a Department of Deans of Women 323 small midwestern high school where she was outstanding. She suddenly finds herself in competition with girls of better background, smarter appear¬ ance, and more adequate scholastic preparation. She is no longer able to be a leader, and this fact creates in her a sense of inadequacy with which she is often unable to cope. Or take the girl who has more fundamental prob¬ lems which grow out of an early childhood situation ; the girl, for instance, who has been in unfavorable competition with other members of the family. In college, she may respond to her need for recognition by being over- aggressive and actually disagreeable to the group in which she seeks a place for herself. Or, on the other hand, she may resort to a different type of behavior. She may withdraw into herself, retreat into her shell, and wait for others to make advances. She becomes sensitive and suspicious of slights. At this point, industry can give her little real aid, for at the age of twenty- two her behavior is pretty well set, and furthermore industry has no facilities for long and intensive treatment. I am not prepared to say to what extent the college can help its students with these personal problems, but I am sure that if something could be done during this formative period the later job adjustment would be less difficult and there would be a higher percentage of success in business among college students. The two qualities which seem to bother the young college girl most are shrewdness and aggressiveness. These are both important and necessary for success in merchandising in a department store, and, I believe, for success more or less in any business situation. They are also closely related to this problem of intellectual independence and the well-integrated personality. One thing which strikes the person who interviews the college girls is the vast number of applicants who are obviously unsuited for department store work and who are pitifully in need of guidance — guidance which would help them evaluate their own assets in terms of some real job and give them an appreciation of their limitations. Girls not only have little insight into themselves but know little of the reality of work. In college a girl should be able to get vocational information from the personnel department or, as it is more correctly termed, the placement division ; yet it seems to me that those engaged in women’s colleges in placing students are not as aggressive or as alert to the problems of industry as are those in men’s colleges. The placement person in a woman’s college seems to be so much a part of the collegiate and academic atmosphere that she does not effectively represent to the girl the viewpoint of the outside world. Seldom has such a person been in business herself, and only occasionally is she familiar with the different business concerns to which she refers applicants. To my mind the chief qualification of such a person should be her identifica¬ tion with business and the professions rather than with the college. If such a set-up were possible, I should like to see a personnel depart¬ ment in every woman’s college, which carries out a threefold function ; that is to say, one which advises along vocational lines, which helps the girls with their personal problems, and which thereby assists in placing them after they graduate. I believe that the girl should be encouraged to think in terms of her plans for the future as early as possible in her college 324 National Education Association career and that all available information should be placed at her disposal. In order that she may receive the sort of guidance in her emotional adjust¬ ments which will help her to arrive at a satisfactory solution of her prob¬ lems and emerge from college with a well-integrated personality, I would suggest that the personnel department include competent individuals with the training to provide this guidance. Given such a set-up, the college would probably then have to go a step further and encourage the girl to avail herself of the opportunities afforded. In this connection, I have wondered whether there could not be closer cooperation between the faculty advisers and the personnel department, since the faculty advisers necessarily come in contact with the girls and are in a position to be aware of their interests and needs. As for industry and its role in the development of the college girl, I think that it should work toward establishing closer relations with the colleges and their placement bureaus. The personnel workers in the colleges might be given the benefit of the information we can supply them in the form of follow-up studies of their graduates and records of successes and failures. In this way, they will come to have a better understanding of what we are looking for and we will in turn have a better appreciation of the needs and nature of the college girl. THE EXPEDITION OF YOUTH AGNES SAMUELSON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, DES MOINES, IOWA Hundreds of young Americans received diplomas from our high schools this spring. Whither are they bound ? Will they find their way into colleges or into employment ? How may their enthusiasm be captured and capitalized ? Will they drift here and there? Will they swell the numbers of idle youth for whom the United States Office of Education is proposing a community youth program? Will they find satisfying experiences as they are turned loose in the world ? Will their morale hold up while they are finding them¬ selves in the new situations and environments? For the purposes of the next few moments, let us envision them at a landing field ready to take off on the expedition of life. All who have had to do with bringing them up to this point have done their best to provide blueprints, to teach them to acquire the proper controls, to steer the machine and use the equipment, to meet emergencies, to make a safe landing, and so on. They have followed the careers of such former high-school pupils as Amelia Earhart, Colonel Lindbergh, and Admiral Byrd in their famous expeditions. They have contrasted these expeditions with the one of Co¬ lumbus, for example. His discovery of a new world was incidental. He had the opposition of ignorance and tradition of a doubting world, while these modern explorers have approval and admiration. His ships were like egg shells tossed about on uncharted seas believed to be inhabited by dangerous monsters. His crew, criminals released from the jails, was mutinous and Department of Deans of Women 325 fearful. Today’s explorers have expert crews. He had as equipment the compass and the astrolabe. They have all the scientific equipment which progress has produced. They were thrilled that a Boy Scout representing youth in its quest for high adventure accompanied Admiral Byrd. But have they learned that in the expedition of life each one is a participant? No one is represented by another. Each has his own first-hand experiences as he searches for new worlds to conquer from the crib to the arm chair. Does this young generation have a goal? Do these young passengers on the airline of life have an objective? What are these young Sir Galahads, Beowulfs, Ponce de Leons, seeking? In general terms they seek the sig¬ nificant life. They would know the meaning of life, and play a satisfying part in interpreting it. They seek the kind of experiences, thrills, and relationships that make life more adequate. If that seems too hazy and not specific enough, it is for each one to make the best use of his personality, ability, opportunity, and interest and will to work. How will they arrive? How will they make their lives count? How will they avoid disappointments? You have been helping them to find the answers. You have been encouraging them to seek the relation¬ ships that broaden, achievements that reward noble effort, poise that balances, experiences that enrich, ideals that inspire, satisfactions that reward, habits that control, will that guides, ambition that motivates, religion that spiri¬ tualizes, character that stabilizes, and service that spells happiness. It is theirs to look to their equipment with which the home, school, and church have been girding them. Have they gained health ? acquired mental acumen? developed moral courage that will refuse to yield to the alluring sirens all along the way? to couple their desire to win by their will to work? to complete a job without being checked up? to put first things first? to skim off the froth ? to discover true values ? to see that life is more than food and raiment ? more than any of its details ? Somehow this young generation must not grope around too long before discovering that no miracle of science has changed the definition of the virtues, that character is still required, that the only way to freedom is thru discipline. It is ours to furnish the right action patterns. Science outfits them with equipment that is a modern wonder of the world. Just look at the achievements of engineering, medicine, electricity, transporta¬ tion, and others. The task is not simply to take them for granted, but to improve them. Banish war, poverty, and crime. Make the world a happier and a better place in which to live. Make educational equality the reality as well as the dream of the American people. Remember that contentment is the red light of progress, and improvement the green signal to go. That is not all. They have also to learn that the great aids of civilization can be used and abused. The automobile may lead to the questionable resort as well as the great cathedral. The movie screen can show the sensual as well as the sublime picture. The radio can bring the cheap jazz as well as the symphony. The newsstand can exhibit the salacious as well as the whole- 326 National Education Association some literature. The instruments of modern civilization are so powerful as to carry the expedition upon which they are embarking to greater heights than the world ever dreamed of or to lower depths than ever known, depend¬ ing upon their use or abuse. It is theirs to learn discrimination, to seek the good things in life. Education should teach them to recognize these good things without their having any tags on them. Now what has all this to do with the deanship? Everything. Do you not find yourselves in this picture contributing much to this training for the expedition of life ? Are you not in many ways called upon every day to help these teen-age pupils to stand on their own feet in search of character, to face life, to set their faces in the direction of the things that are most excellent? It is certain that sympathy, leadership, and guidance will accom¬ plish more than criticism, ridicule, and impatience when dealing with adolescents. You have a large place in this youth program. It is a tangible program, too, as you cope with the problems of human relationships and of individual adjustments. As a spokesman, guide, counselor, and friend you are called upon to give both individual and group service. While you are not a matron, nurse, clerk, registrar, disciplinarian, police woman, chaperon, or attendance officer, you may be called upon to serve in any of these capacities. You are all things to all men. The position may still be in the pioneer stage when you think of the difficulties to be met in the attitude of young people toward problems of sex and discipline and their aversion to restraint, lack of special training, idea that the dean is a disciplinarian, lack of sympathy on the part of teach¬ ers, too much teaching and routine work, lack of trained people to whom to refer serious cases, and danger of being misunderstood. But there is no better time than now for persons to enter this field of service and become prepared to fill this important place of leadership in our high schools. This expedition requires us all to think in terms of tomorrow and not yes¬ terday. We cannot turn the clock back to 1492. As you go about your duties in that unpretentious manner which characterizes your service, as you help the ones who are to embark soon, as you teach discrimination, as you offer guidance in hard situations, as you teach them to meet new situations as undreamed of to them as alphabet combinations were to their grandparents, as you push the skylines ahead for them and point their feet in the direction of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, as you cause them to seek ideals which are the blueprints of the machine, you are preparing these young pilots and passengers for a safe and happy landing. Yours is no small task, but the possibilities for service are as unlimited as the skyways thru which they will travel. DEPARTMENT OF Educational Research HISTORICAL NOTE The American educational research association was formed at the Cincinnati meeting in 1915. At first its name was the National Associa¬ tion of Directors of Educational Research. This organization met regu¬ larly at the time of the winter convention. In 1929 the Association applied to become the Department of Educational Research in the National Edu¬ cation Association. The proper notice was given at the Atlanta meeting in 1929, and final action in creating the Department was taken at the Columbus, Ohio, meeting on July 2, 1920. The research organization brings with it a history rich in achievements and places the National Education Association in closer touch with colleges, universities, and research agencies. The officers of the Department for the year 1925-26 are: president, Philip A. Boyer, Director, Division of Educational Research, Board of Education, Philadelphia, Pa.; vicepresident, Hollis L. Caswell, Pro¬ fessor of Education, Division of Surveys and Field Studies, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn.; secretary-treasurer, William G. Carr, Director, Research Division, National Education Asso¬ ciation, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.; executive commit¬ tee: Philip A. Boyer, Director, Division of Educational Research, Board of Education, Philadelphia, Pa.; Hollis L. Caswell, Professor of Educa¬ tion, Division of Surveys and Field Studies, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn.; William G. Carr, Director, Research Divi¬ sion, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washing¬ ton, D. C.; T. C. Holy, Professor of Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio; Paid T. Rankin, Board of Education, 1254 Broadway, Detroit, Mich. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows : 1931 -.415-421 1932:357-375 19 33:377-394 1934:361-286 [ 328 ] EDUCATION IN THE TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY FLOYD W. REEVES, DIRECTOR OF THE PERSONNEL AND SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DIVISIONS, TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY, KNOXVILLE, TENN. The Tennessee valley authority act was approved on May 18, 1933. The first meeting of the members of the Board as incorporators of the Authority was held on June 16 of the same year. The immediate purposes of the Tennessee Valley Authority were to main¬ tain and to operate the Wilson Dam and power plant, to administer the fertilizer plants at Muscle Shoals, and to build Norris Dam on the Clinch River. The more general purposes of the Authority are to promote the national defense ; to further the proper use, conservation, and development of the natural resources of the Tennessee River area and of related adjoining terri¬ tory ; to further agricultural and industrial development ; and to promote the economic and social well-being of the people of that region. The methods provided by the Act for bringing about these results are the maximum devel¬ opment of the Tennessee River for navigation purposes, flood control, and generation of electric power incidental to and consistent with flood control and navigation, the disposition of the surplus power thus produced, experi¬ ments in the development of cheaper and better fertilizers, promotion of the proper use of marginal lands, development of proper methods of reforesta¬ tion, the making of surveys, plans, experiments, and demonstrations for guiding and controlling the extent, sequence, and nature of development that may be equitably and economically advanced thru public funds or thru the guidance and control of public authority, and the fostering of orderly physical, economic, and social development, all within the limits of the powers of the federal government. Norris Dam in East Tennessee, and Wheeler Dam in Northern Alabama are now about one-half completed; and work on Pickwick Dam in West Tennessee is just beginning. The organization of the Tennessee Valley Authority includes three operat¬ ing departments — Electricity, Engineering and Construction, and Fertilizers; six service divisions — Personnel, Finance, Materials, Legal, Land Acquisi¬ tion, and Information ; six planning divisions — Agricultural, Industrial, Land Planning, Engineering Planning and Geology, Social and Economic, and Forestry; and a division for coordination. Up to the present time most of the planning divisions have carried on some educational work. This work will now be centralized in an education section in the Social and Economic Division, which is now in process of organization. This section will include units dealing with visual education and educational publications. Much research is being carried on by the planning divisions of great value to the country as a whole. Thru the edu¬ cational publications unit results of this research will be edited and put in [ 329 ] 330 National Education Association form for publication. The visual educational unit will include educational exhibits and a history of the Tennessee Valley Authority in moving pictures. The first moving picture available for distribution was shown here this afternoon. Some of you may have had an opportunity to see it. Other reels are available showing actual engineering operations at Norris and Wheeler Dams. These would be of particular interest to engineering schools, altho they have great educational value for the layman as well. These films show the “ why ” and “ how ” of the engineering planning and construction of the dams. They explain to a non-technical audience the engineer’s function and particularly the care he exercises in doing this work. To a technical audience the exact facts are presented in a pictorial record of accomplish¬ ments. Other instructional films will be made for specific training purposes. For example, a film is being prepared for use in the Reservoir Clearance Division which will show the right way to chop down trees, to tie brush down, etc. This type of work always carried a high accident rate, and it is believed if these common laborers can be taught to do their jobs in the right way, the accident rate can be materially reduced. The educational exhibits will also portray specific phases of the work of the Authority, such as rural electrification, flood control, and reservoir clearance. The Forestry Division has been carrying on educational work in the CCC camps assigned to TVA work, in cooperation with the educational advisers in these camps. It has consisted primarily of motion picture programs, lantern slide lectures, and forestry classes. In addition, forestry literature is distributed to the camps and made available for the use of the boys. No attempt is being made to make foresters out of the men in the camps, but merely to create in their minds a general attitude of conservation and forest consciousness. The other unit dealing specifically with education is the Training Section in the Personnel Division. Since it has been organized for some time there is much more to tell about it than about the Education Section. In an effort to spread employment, the Tennessee Valley Authority set up its program for the construction of dams*on a five-day week, five and one-half hours a day. This left the men in the construction camps with con¬ siderable leisure time, and much thought has been given to its profitable utilization. Many of the men are dependent on common labor jobs for a living and when the construction of the dams is completed many of them would be without work unless other construction activities are developed in the meantime. This might mean that a number of them would return to the relief rolls. It seemed desirable, therefore, to provide facilities whereby these men could, during their leisure time, learn some skill or trade which will assist them in earning their living when their work on the dams has ended. There is also some difficulty at the present time, even tho this is a period when many men are unemployed, in finding a sufficient number of men trained in certain specific trades to fill positions which are now available in the Authority. In a number of instances, therefore, training courses have Department of Educational Research 331 been set up to train men for specific jobs on our own construction activities. In this way the men, some working as common and semi-skilled laborers, can learn a trade, and as jobs become available be transferred to them. Also, many of those now classified as skilled workmen enrol for training in order to make themselves more proficient. When it was decided that a training program would be set up, it seemed advisable to select as laborers men who were not only qualified for labor jobs, but who were also qualified to benefit from the advantages of the train¬ ing that was to be offered. As a means of selecting these men an examination, consisting of a mechanical-aptitude test, a test of ability to follow printed instructions, and a non-language test of ability to follow oral instructions, was prepared by Dr. L. J. O’Rourke and administered by the Personnel Division in cooperation with the United States Civil Service Commission. Approximately 40,000 men in 138 examination centers located in the Ten¬ nessee Valley and adjacent territory, took this examination. Part of the examination and examining procedure was especially designed for those men who had not had the advantages of a formal education. The examina¬ tion, however, was not the only basis for the selection of this group of employees. Personal interviews and other methods ordinarily employed in selecting laborers were also used. At the present time, after there has been ample opportunity to check the quality of the labor group selected, it is generally agreed that the “ combination method ” employed in selecting laborers has resulted in securing a group of men who are not only excep¬ tionally efficient as laborers, but who also have the intelligence to enable them to receive maximum benefit from a training program. Participation in the program is entirely voluntary and no tuition fee is charged. Except in the few extension classes that are offered in cooperation with certain colleges, the training program is administered without use of the artificial awards of grades, credits, and degrees employed almost universally by colleges and secondary schools. The only rewards that the participants receive are those resulting from increased skill, greater efficiency, and intel¬ lectual stimulation. At the present time there are two main training centers, one at Norris, in East Tennessee, and the other at Muscle Shoals, in Alabama. The Muscle Shoals center includes workers at the fertilizer and power plants at Wilson Dam and the workers constructing Wheeler Dam, fifteen and one-half miles up the river from Wilson Dam. A third training center will be estab¬ lished shortly at Pickwick, in West Tennessee. Many of the classes have been organized at the request of employees. For this reason the classes offered at each location differ considerably. This arrangement seems desirable, since it offers an opportunity to experiment somewhat in the organization of the training programs at different locations, and makes possible a comparison of the effectiveness of different curriculums and methods. As a result of such a comparison a decision as to the best pro¬ cedure to set up for this type of training program may be arrived at. Another factor in determining the organization of the training program in each area 332 National Education Association is the type of opportunity which will be available to trainees following their employment with the Authority. At Norris, where a construction camp and a permanent town have been built, there will no doubt be more opportunity for various trades to develop than is true in the Pickwick area, which is largely rural. One reason for this is the location of Norris, which is near Knoxville, an industrial center in Tennessee. A much more diversified pro¬ gram will be found at Norris, therefore, than in the other two centers. In addition, while the new community at Norris was being planned it was possible to construct the operating units in such a way that they could also be used for specific training projects. At Muscle Shoals, on the other hand, the program is much more closely allied with the construction work. The Norris Training Unit recently set up a statement of its objectives and a syllabus of courses and offerings. A review of some of these will serve to describe the program at that location. Specific objectives of the engineering and construction training are to find and develop foremen for future projects, and to qualify men in sub-profes¬ sional work in engineering and construction. The course in foremanship consists of a series of lectures and discussions on phases of foremanship such as labor relations, safety, management, records, employment, and health and sanitation. There is another group which has an opportunity to secure ex¬ perience on several phases of the work at the dam and thru study and in¬ struction to prepare themselves better for various kinds of construction work. Each member of the group rotates six weeks from one work crew to another. Along with the plan of rotated employment, an opportunity for study and instruction is given. The program includes courses such as mathematical analysis, drawing, carpenters’ arithmetic, topographic mapping, the theory and practise in use of the slide rule, photography, and surveying. Training in the trades has been set up in connection with the following service projects, an auto shop, metal shop, electrical shop, woodworking shop, and a saw mill. Trades training aims to increase the efficiency of skilled mechanics that they may function more efficiently on the present job, to prepare skilled workers for electrical work in the area, to train men in farm and home maintenance, and to train unskilled workers in trades. The course in carpentry covers all of the elements involved in practical carpentry, including house framing, roof framing, interior trim, stair building finish¬ ing, the use of the steel square, estimating, etc. One in electricity covers all phases of electrical practise and theory, such as annunciator and bell circuits, house wiring, the Underwriters’ Code, meter maintenance and in¬ stallation, armature winding, transformer installation and maintenance, power transmission, and the servicing of electrical household equipment. Other offerings include machine shop practise, welding, blueprint reading, and forge practise. Located at Norris is a dairy farm, creamery, and poultry plant which serve as demonstration and service projects, inasmuch as they provide Norris town and camp with their products, and provide a place for training those interested in agricultural pursuits. In connection with this program classes Department of Educational Research 333 in forestry are being offered to men employed in the Reservoir Clearance area. The Tennessee Valley Authority will own a strip of forest land around the Norris reservoir. From the group taking training in forestry will be selected the men who will care for this land. This job will not require their entire time. Therefore, if the particular plot of land is suitable for cultivation, a man trained in forestry and agriculture will be selected. The land will be rented to him, he will be paid for his services in caring for the forest land, and will earn part of his living from the land. The women as well as the men have training opportunities at Norris, centering about a demonstration house which is completely equipped with electrical appliances. A large number of the houses at Norris are not only equipped with electrical appliances, but are also heated by electricity. Many of the women have had no experience with electrical equipment, and it therefore seemed desirable to provide instruction in its use and care. In connection with this instruction it was possible to organize foods classes. With this as a beginning the program has expanded to include classes in clothing, child study, home furnishing, weaving, health, accident prevention, metal crafts, and pottery making. The general education program is intended to stimulate greater ability to discern primary issues among contemporary problems. Prominent outside speakers are invited to discuss topics such as the essential factors in rural rehabilitation, consumers’ research, cooperative achievement, and com¬ munity organization. Special attempts are made to obtain different view¬ points so as to make a balanced presentation. Other groups meet to study and discuss economic problems. While all programs center directly about the library service this is particularly true of the general education courses. In addition there is a recreation program managed largely by an em¬ ployees recreation association. The training program in the Muscle Shoals area was started considerably later than the one at Norris, and much of it is still in the organization stage. The problem of developing a training program in the Muscle Shoals area was more difficult because the employees there are much more scattered, many of them living in nearby towns, and driving to and from work daily. In addition, much of the instruction is carried on by volunteer teachers. In some courses it has seemed desirable to organize the work on a home-study basis, using correspondence school material. In this way it is not necessary to have class meetings as often as otherwise, altho the groups do meet together for discussion purposes occasionally and the instructor is available for ad¬ visory purposes. Some classes for carpenters have been organized in this manner, and to date the method seems to be effective. In this area a much greater interest in practical electricity is evidenced than at Norris. This is probably due to the fact that the power plant is in operation at Wilson Dam. Since there will probably be a demand for people trained in various phases of electricity, classes will be set up to develop skills applicable to electrical power transmission and distribution work, and to power house construction and operation work. Classes will 334 National Education Association also be given for wiremen. This training will serve the double purpose of providing better trained men for the Authority, and providing more efficient service in the area. In the construction training program there has been what is known as a “ flying squadron ” group of trainees who are assigned to specific jobs as common laborers with the understanding that the foreman will assist them in learning as much as possible about that particular job. These trainees are then shifted from one job to another, and on the basis of this experience it is possible to place employees in the type of work which they will do best. This method gives the men an opportunity to learn about more than one phase of the construction job. A class in foremanship training has recently been started. It has been difficult to secure enough men from the valley area who have had experience as foremen in heavy construction operations. It is believed that the com¬ bination of training in the flying squadron group and the specific foremanship training will provide a group of men with excellent background for fore¬ manship positions, and will ultimately result in greatly improving the quality of the foreman group. In addition to the specific courses in various trades, classes in arithmetic, English, and other basic subjects are being taught. A very definite effort is being made to counsel with the men and guide them in the types of training they take in order that the training will be most profitable, both to the men and to the Authority. The recreation program in the Muscle Shoals area has a much broader scope than is ordinarily thought of as recreation. As is typical of all train¬ ing in that area, an attempt is being made to tie the program in very definitely with the communities in that locality. There are twenty distinct com¬ munities where the workers live. The recreational leaders have organized recreation leaders institutes, the immediate aim of which is to train leaders in recreation. The ultimate aim is to build a nucleus of leaders in recreation in each community. The institutes are being organized by counties. One in¬ stitute has a membership ranging in age from seventeen to fifty-four, repre¬ senting twenty-five different occupations. On inquiry to determine what types of groups they would be interested in organizing or leading for recrea¬ tional purposes, it was discovered that twenty-seven different types of activi¬ ties were represented. By types is meant churches, schools, Y. M. C. A.’s, etc. In setting up the program in this manner the volunteer assistance neces¬ sary to carry on the program in the twenty communities will be provided. Perhaps the best feature, however, is that there will be a self-perpetuating group in each community, and when the construction work in that area is completed, the program will not die out because of the withdrawal of the paid leadership. The same men have organized classes in parent education under the sponsorship of the parent-teacher associations in that locality. These courses are organized in a similar fashion. The training program is carefully planned with the idea that when it is once developed the people now enrolled can provide leadership in offering similar classes later on. These groups are Department of Educational Research 335 studying the relationship between the parent and the child, and the physical aspects of child care. General emphasis is placed on what the parent can do in a practical way, with little or no expense, to further the play life of the child. Another innovation is the village community nights program. Instead of calling meetings for groups having specific interests, village community nights have been organized to which everyone is invited, and out of which definite related and coherent interests have been developed. Following the community hour program, classes are held for those interested in both voca¬ tional and general subjects. This approach seems to have had excellent results. One especially interesting phase of the work in the Muscle Shoals area is the negro training program. At the present time over five hundred negroes are participating. This program has developed mainly along two lines: the program at the negro bunkhouse at Wheeler, and the clubs. In the bunk- house an organization called the Negro Welfare Association of the Ten¬ nessee Valley Authority has been effected. This group elects officers, and conducts regular meetings. A new president is elected every month. This policy has been established to give the men greater interest and experience in conducting meetings. There is a permanent steering committee of seven men. These men head up the following commissions: Health, Education, Sanitation and Safety, Mechanic Arts, Welfare, Discipline, Religious. Thru these commissions the men handle their own problems of discipline, sanita¬ tion, etc. Each member of the steering committee organizes clubs within the bunkhouse to study specific problems falling within the province of the commission he heads up. The training program for this group is considerably different from that for the white group inasmuch as many of the negroes are illiterate and it is necessary to start from the very beginning and teach them the three R’s. For the same reason the training is largely of a practical nature, and the men are taught to do many of the things which they might otherwise have to pay to have done for them, or do without. For example, they are taught brickmasonry, paper hanging, carpentry, how to make screens, how to put in window panes, how to build rafters, to build steps and porches, and how to put in floors, so that the men can make repairs on their own homes, and in some cases even build simple houses. Other classes are held in shoe repair¬ ing, repairing cars, and other trades. The reading, writing, and arithmetic classes are taught with practical applications. For example, the classes in arithmetic relate their work to cotton so that the men will be able to figure out how much cotton they have picked, and how to multiply the price they should receive for it by the number of pounds. They are being taught lessons in thrift, and in their arithmetic classes they learn how to keep records of their money. In writing they learn how to make out checks and other simple everyday tasks. Training on the job for advancement in their work is also included in the negro training program. Clubs have been organized in the negro village at Wheeler and in nearby towns, to serve the group of negroes who do not live in the bunkhouses. 336 National Education Association The organization of the clubs and the training offered is similar to that in the camp. However, these men have an opportunity to tie their training in with the work at their homes. In addition to learning how to build and repair houses, the men are learning how to make furniture for their homes. Women’s clubs are organized and the women are learning how to make rugs and quilts with which to beautify their homes. In this connection they have decided that every negro home should have a TVA room, i. e., they will put in practise some of the things they are learning and try to make at least one room in the house as attractive as possible. Some of the architects have offered to assist by going into some of the homes and suggesting changes which can be made by the man and his wife, which will make the home more attractive and livable. These will then serve as patterns which other families can follow, more from the point of view of suggesting ideas than as models. It is not possible in the time available, to set forth in detail the training program. The most important feature is the approach and the group re¬ ceiving the training. The program is in no wise static, but constantly chang¬ ing as experience teaches that there is a better way to achieve the objectives. Response to this type of vocational education by both white and negro groups is indeed very encouraging. Summary There are then two sections in the Tennessee Valley Authority dealing specifically with education. The one is largely an adult education program for its employees and their families, the other of educational value to the country as a whole. The written and pictorial history of the Tennessee Valley Authority and the results of its research will be of inestimable value to private individuals and to public concerns all over the world. PROBLEMS IN THE MEASUREMENT OF TEACHING ABILITY GILBERT L. BETTS, DIRECTOR OF INSTRUCTION, WEST ALLIS PUBLIC SCHOOLS, WEST ALLIS, WIS. Teaching ability is the ability of teachers to stimulate desirable changes in pupils. One may approach its measurement in two ways: thru differ¬ ences between teachers or thru differences in the teaching process. In the first approach, one will attempt to discover traits that invariably differentiate between teachers that produce desirable changes in pupils and teachers that do not produce them. In the second approach, one will attempt to dis¬ cover what procedures are most effective in producing these results. Some problems are common to both these approaches, and some are peculiar to one but not to the other. Determining what changes in pupils are desirable, is a problem common to both approaches. The writer suggests that educators go to the persons Department of Educational Research 337 who support the schools in order to discover their purposes in giving this support. These purposes constitute the goals of education. Prescribing independently of its own wishes in the matter what kind of an education a society shall have, is the way of autocracy, not democracy. Knowing the changes in pupils that society wishes produced, one must measure these changes, since the greater the change the more effective is the agent causing it. This necessitates the development of more adequate measuring devices. Not only must change be measured, but that part of it due to the influence of teaching must be separated from that part due to other influences. This has not yet been done. Furthermore, the influence of one teacher must be measured independently of the influence of other teachers. Some pupils are more susceptible to desired changes than others; hence change in relation to pupil-ability must be measured. These problems must be met and solved whether one attempts to measure teaching ability thru trait differences or thru differences in teaching method. One problem at least pertains only to the approach thru trait differences. Significant differences between eminent teachers and gross failures are in¬ adequate indexes ; these do not enable one to distinguish between the ordinary good and poor teacher. Discovering these subtle traits is extremely difficult. When one approaches the matter from the functional point of view several problems appear. Educational nomenclature is unsuited to exact description. It too often carries approbation or subtle odium along with description, or the terms are too general. To develop adequate descriptive technic probably will require the audio-visual records of a wide variety of classroom situations be taken into the educational laboratory for analysis. When one is able to adequately describe a method of teaching, one then must reproduce it under controlled conditions and test its efficacy. Having done this for all the commonly used methods, one can arrange them on a scale of merit and thus measure a teacher’s ability by observing the teaching procedure. THE MEASUREMENT OF TEACHING ABILITY A. S. BARR, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WIS. The measurement of teaching ability is important: (1) in the training of teachers in service; (2) in the institutional training of teachers; (3) in the administration of the teaching staff; and (4) in research relating to these fields. Before turning to the studies of the measurement of teaching ability and to certain suggestions for further research in this field, I should like to speak briefly about the contribution of measurements to each of these four aspects of professional education. In the first place, the measurement of teaching ability is important in the training of teachers in service. The school supervisor needs carefully validated instruments for the measurement 338 National Education Association of teaching ability both as an aid to the pretraining diagnosis of teaching and as a means of evaluating the results of training programs. Classroom teachers have become fairly well accustomed to the use of measurements in teaching. It is frequently urged in support of the use of measurements in classroom instruction that to teach most effectively the teacher must more accurately gage the results of instruction ; to make the instruction more specific teachers must diagnose before teaching, etc. Very much the same claims might also be advanced for the importance of measurement in the professional education of teachers. If the in-service training of teachers is to be done as effectively as it should be, then supervisors must have more adequate instruments for the measurement of teaching ability. In the second place, the measurement of teaching ability is important in the institutional training of teachers. With the increase in the enrolment of teacher-training institutions and the demand for fewer and better trained teachers, those responsible for the institutional training of teachers have been forced to consider ways and means of limiting the number of entrants into teacher-training institutions. One of the best and surest means of improving the quality of teaching is to admit to training only those indi¬ viduals of superior potential teaching capacity. And while one need not say that “ teachers are born and not made,” the fact does remain that the individuals entering upon the training program are mature individuals with well-developed habits, interests, attitudes, ideals, and personal idiosyncracies. These traits will probably determine more than anything else their success as teachers. While certain institutions have already embarked upon pro¬ grams for the pretraining selection of teachers upon the basis of the data now available, it is only thru careful and extended research upon the quali¬ ties conditioning teaching success that valid measures for the selection of entrants into teacher-training institutions may be chosen. In addition to the function of selecting teachers for training, the measure¬ ment of teaching ability is of value in the pretraining diagnosis of teaching and in evaluating the effectiveness of training programs, as it is in the in-service training of teachers. To make professional education of teachers most effective those responsible for the institutional training of teachers must measure progress, diagnose, and evaluate the effectiveness of the pro- fes*sional education of teachers as teachers have done in ordinary classroom instruction now for some time. All in all measurement can make an im¬ portant contribution to the institutional training of teachers. A third use of the measurement of teaching ability will be found in the administration of the teaching staff. In the first place, some evaluation of the prospective teacher’s ability must be made in the selections of teachers. The superintendent has, each year, the important duty of hiring new teachers. The success of his administration in no small measure depends upon his ability to choose capable teachers. In the second place, many school systems pursue the policy of making promotions on the basis of merit; where this policy is pursued, it becomes important that the measures of teaching become necessary to decide upon the further retention of teachers. Dis- Department of Educational Research 339 missals are sometimes made upon rather flimsy evidence and even upon personal prejudice. Each of these phases of the administrator’s work calls, it seems to me, for better measures of teaching ability. Finally, the measurement of teaching ability is important in research re¬ lating to the administration, supervision, and professional education of the teaching staff. There are many problems relating to personnel administra¬ tion, the in-service and institutional training of teachers, which depend for their solution upon the measurement of teaching ability. Such a problem as the relative merits of textbook courses, observation, and practise teaching in the training of teachers cannot be solved, for example, until the teaching abilities of the teachers trained under different methods of instruction can be accurately measured. Should one desire to evaluate the curriculum of teacher-training institutions one would find the task an impossible one in the absence of accurate instruments of measurement. Experimental studies of the methods of the in-service training of teachers are likewise dependent upon the development of accurate instruments of measurement. These and many other problems in the training, administration, and supervision of the teaching staff can be solved only by the development of adequate instru¬ ments for the measurement of teaching ability. I should like to turn now however to some of the probable shortcomings in our present approaches to the measurement of teaching ability with the hope that we may be able to offer something constructive to those who care to pursue this matter, further. While it is not exactly a shortcoming, the low coefficients of correlation secured in most of the studies of the measure¬ ment of teaching ability are due not wholly to the lack of validity in our instruments of measurement of teaching ability, but in part to errors of measurement ; in part to the range of talent ; and in part to the minuteness of the contribution made bv the different aspects of teaching measured when compared with the whole of teaching ability. I think that these facts are probably worth keeping in mind. The unstable character of the findings, that is, the lack of agreement among investigators, such as we find in the reports of investigations from time to time, is due partly, it seems to me, to the varying conditions under which the data are collected ; to differences in the teachers measured ; to differences in the criteria of good teaching employed by different investigators; and to differences in the instrument employed for the measurement of teaching ability in different investigations. Aside from these statistical considerations there are, however, certain shortcomings in our approaches to the measurement of teaching ability that need to be mentioned. In the first place, there is the idea that the teacher’s success is determined by his method of teaching or his knowledge of the subject taught. Now, of course, we would all agree, I think, that the knowledge of the subject taught and knowledge of methods of teaching are exceedingly important aspects of teaching, but I think that we do frequently overlook the fact that the teacher brings into a given teaching situation not merely a knowledge of subjectmatter taught or method of teaching but his whole active self. Haggerty has emphasized this fact by stressing the im- 340 National Education Association portance of teacher-pupil relationships; others have emphasized this fact by stressing the importance of the teacher’s personality. The matter has been expressed differently by different persons, but most any of us who have had any contact with teachers whatsoever know that while a teacher’s knowledge of method and subjectmatter are exceedingly important that they are only aspects of some larger whole not yet very well recognized or adequately defined. In the second place, most of our present approaches to the measurement of teaching ability are made on the technic level. As I look at the matter, the technics of teaching are merely the observable superficial aspects of teaching. They are numerous, fleeting, and transitory. Within certain limits any one of a number of procedures may serve the teacher’s purpose quite as well as another. In making this statement I do not deny of course that there is probably for each teaching situation one best technic, but within certain limits and from a practical point of view any one of a number of technics may serve the teacher’s purpose quite as well as another in most teaching situations. I think that the failure to recognize this fact has led to a considerable amount of wasted effort in the measurement of teaching ability. In rating, for example, while the observable facts of teaching are specific teacher and pupil activities, I think that it is clear that these specific activities are, on the whole, uninterpretable except as they are referred to some more fundamental criteria of good teaching, principles of teaching, or what-not. Aside from these needed extensions in our conceptions of teaching, I think there are certain possible mistakes in our technics of measurement to which reference should be made in any consideration of methods of im¬ proving the measurement of teaching ability. In the first place, I suppose that it is generally recognized that there is a rather wide gap between knowledge of how to teach and teaching ability. This, of course, is not a new idea but one that definitely limits the applicability of paper and pencil tests of teaching ability. While I have always favored the application of tests to the measurement of teaching ability, I think that it may be necessary to supplement such tests by carefully developed rating scales wherein the data are collected under controlled classroom conditions, something like those under which a Binet test of intelligence is administered or some other type of controlled observation not yet defined. In the second place, it seems to me that in our attempts to measure teach¬ ing ability we have fallen into the same errors of part measurement into which the early makers of intelligence tests fell. You will recall that the earlier tests of intelligence were not like those so well known today, but single tests of sensory motor processes, auditory and visual acuity. In a manner we appear to have fallen into the same error in our measurement of teaching ability in our attempt to measure teaching ability thru measures of the teacher’s health, his intelligence, knowledge of subjectmatter, and method. Probably what we need to do now, is to turn our attention to the development of functional tests measuring the teacher in action. At least I should like to commend this idea to you for consideration. Department of Educational Research 341 Leaving this aspect of the subject, I wish to turn now finally, to a few brief comments upon the criteria of teaching success and the collection and statistical treatment of data in investigations of the measurement of teaching ability. In the first place I suppose it goes without saying that it will be necessary to give more attention to the development of the criteria of teach¬ ing success. This is, of course, a bit embarrassing inasmuch as there is so little agreement among educationalists as to what good teaching is. It seems to me, however, that the ultimate criterion of teaching success will have to be found in the changes produced in pupils measured in terms of the objectives of education. And I think it also goes without saying that these changes or products of instruction will have to be considered broadly. We shall have to take into consideration not merely knowledges and skills and the more tangible outcomes of instruction, but attitudes and ideals and the less tangible outcomes of instruction. This in itself presents a very difficult problem for the expert in measurement. In the second place, I think it will be necessary for us to exercise much more care in the collection of data in the future than we have in the past. I think that the application of the so-called statistical method wherein little or no attention is given to the manner in which the data are collected has proved thoroly unsatisfactory in the study of the measurement of teaching ability and if better results are to be secured they will be secured thru the careful collection of data as in controlled experimentation. This is, of course, no criticism of statistics, but of what I conceive to be a mis¬ application of statistics. The collection of data and the application of sta¬ tistical procedure to data are two entirely different matters and no elabora¬ tion of either can take the place of the other. In conclusion, then, I think that we have here an important field of investigation. While a considerable amount of work has been done in the field, the work that has been done has met with only moderate success. In a way, while this work is important, it is only preliminary to the infinite amount of more refined work that needs to be done. In thinking about what needs to be done next, it seems to me then that our approaches to this subject can be improved: (1) thru the more adequate use of a number of well-known principles and technics of test construction not here discussed ; (2) by measuring more aspects of the teacher’s contribution to teaching situations and not merely his knowledge of subjectmatter, method, or in¬ telligence; (3) by approaching the measurement of teaching ability thru functional tests of the whole teacher in action made either thru paper and pencil situation tests or thru the observation of teachers in controlled teach¬ ing situations; (4) by thinking of teaching not so much as so many tricks of the trade, technics, and devices but as the application of fundamental facts and principles to the teaching process; and (5) by the application of better technics of validation wherein more attention is given to the criterion of good teaching and the condition under which the data for the validation of instruments for the measurement of teaching ability are collected. 342 National Education Association READING INTERESTS A. M. JORDAN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA, CHAPEL HILL, N. C. In the defense of my dissertation on children’s interests, at Columbia University in 1919, I was setting forth my findings on what children, un¬ hampered by adult supervision, actually read, when Dr. Kandel interposed this question, “ It may be true that children like the sort of reading which you describe, but how can these interests be changed into a liking for a more desirable type of reading? ” My reply was a very wise one, “ I don’t know.” The longer I live the more convinced I am of the wisdom of that reply. And while today I am not certain of the answer, yet it is fairly clear that experimental and statistical studies do throw considerable light on this problem. It is my purpose today to try to answer five questions: 1. What are our high-school pupils reading today? 2. How does this reading compare with that of 1921 and 1925 ? 3. What do young adults read? 4. What has been done to improve the reading of pupils and adults? 5. What conclusions can be drawn from these studies as to what ought to be done? One study with typical findings (Johnson, B. L., 1932) was based on the questioning of children in Grades V to XI concerning their voluntary read¬ ing of books, magazines, and newspapers. The favorite authors of 888 boys during the month before the inquiry with the number of times mentioned were: London, 38; Altsheler, 35; Grey, 34; Stevenson, 31; Clemens, 28; Appleton, 26; Van Dine, 23, and Terhune, DeFoe, Burroughs, Lindbergh in order. Nine hundred and sixty-eight girls, on the other hand, voted as follows: Alcott, 111; Seaman, 57; G. S. Porter, 46; Montgomery, 45; Grey, 43; and Rankin, Spyri, Hope, Rinehart, Wiggin. In the case of magazines, boys liked best Liberty , Saturday Evening Post, Western Story , Boys Life, American Boy, Popular Mechanics ; while girls like best Liberty , Pictorial Review, Saturday Evening Post, and Ladies’ Home Journal. Ninety percent of boys and girls reported reading books; 98 percent, magazines and newspapers. Books and magazines of adventure, sport, Boy Scouts were most frequently read by boys; while girls chose most, books and magazines of love, home, clothes, and school. In another study (Jennings, 1929) 890 junior high-school boys and girls of Knoxville, Tennessee, were asked to keep a record of their reading for one week. Three hundred and seventy-five boys gave the titles of 433 books they had read; while 515 girls listed 835. Boys liked best the books of Zane Grey and Edgar Rice Burroughs, while Zane Grey and Gene Stratton Porter were the favorites with girls. Among magazines, boys liked best Boys Life , American, Popular Mechanics ; girls liked best American, True Story, and Ladies' Home Journal. In the ten favorite magazines of both boys and girls only two magazines were common to both groups — American Magazine and True Story. Practically all boys and girls read the newspapers. The sections of the paper most interesting to boys were Department of Educational Research 343 (1) comics, read by 372 out of 375 boys, (2) sports, and (3) general news items. Girls read most these sections: (1) comics, (2) continued stories, (3) woman’s page and society news. The results of studies by Lancaster, Rasche, Gary, Lehman and Witty are summarized by W. S. Gray as follows: “ Practically all children read newspapers and magazines; they secure magazines largely from the home library table ; many of the magazines read are of questionable quality; a large percentage of children read books voluntarily; the books read are secured chiefly from the school and public library; most of the books read are fiction; more girls than boys reported that reading consumes more of their leisure time than does any other activity.” Let us compare with these investigations finished in the period between 1929-32 those done first in 1918 and again in 1925 by the speaker with results typical of the investigations of that time. Of the reading interests of the children of 1918 it was concluded from visiting eight city libraries at length, and from questioning about 3500 children between the ages of nine and twenty that “ both boys and girls show a very large interest in fiction in comparison with that shown in other types. Girls like fiction best of all. Boys place it second only to adventure.” The most popular books with boys were: The Call of the Wild , Treasure Island, Boy Scout Series, Tom Sawyer , and Kidnapped. Girls liked books of a slightly different nature; Little Women, Pollyanna, Freckles, Girl of the Limberlost, and Tale of Two Cities. It was shown also that children’s interests changed perceptibly with age. These books of 1918 may be compared with the most interesting for 1925, in which about 1500 high-school students were asked to list the five books and three magazines they liked best. Boys in 1925 liked best Zane Grey’s works, Call of the Wild, Boy Scout Series, Treasure Island, Tom Sawyer. Girls liked best Zane Grey’s works, Little Women, Girl of the Limberlost, Pollyanna, and Freckles. Let us turn now to the magazines of the two investigations of 1918 and 1925. The most popular magazines for boys in 1918 were: American Boy, Popular Mechanics, Literary Digest, Saturday Evening Post, and American Magazine ; in 1925, American Magazine, American Boy, Literary Digest, Saturday Evening Post, and Popular Mechanics. The choices for girls in 1918 were: Ladies’ Home Journal, Cosmopolitan, American Magazine , Pictorial Review, and Good Housekeeping ; in 1925, American Magazine, Ladies’ Home Journal, Cosmopolitan, Good Housekeeping, and Literary Digest. With these facts before us, it is clear that there have been few changes in types of interest between the period 1918-32. Boys stick to books of adventure of the Jack London-Huckleberry Finn variety. What was said in 1918 about boys’ interest in war and scouting, Boy Scouts, sports, and magazines of science is equally true today with some slight changes in actual books and magazines. Girls stick almost exclusively to fiction and household arts. The American Magazine with its emphasis on heroes and heroines, the Ladies’ Home Journal, and the Cosmopolitan depict what is dearest to the young feminine heart and catch and hold her interest. To these may 344 National Education Association be added True Story so popular in recent years. Slight changes in funda¬ mental interests, then, have occurred in books read during the last fifteen years. Too many trashy, impossible stories are consumed, which give to their readers a twisted unreal perspective on life. Such an inventory of books liked casts an ominous shadow on the types of adult reading to be expected. The suspicion aroused by these earlier lists is sustained when actual studies are made of what adults like. Consider the results of questioning 1800 industrial workers (ages fourteen to twenty-one) as to what they liked to read (Jefferis, 1928). About 98 percent of them read a newspaper. Their most popular maga¬ zines were: True Story , Liberty, Saturday Lvening Post, Ladies ’ Home Journal, and American Magazine. Other magazines read widely by young men are Popular Mechanics, Literary Digest, and Boys Life. Young women read also Woman s Home Companion and True Ro¬ mance. The books, too, have a familiar sound : Zane Grey, Samuel Clemens, Gene Stratton Porter, L. M. Alcott. The most popular books were: Treasure Island, Call of the Wild, Heidi, Little Women, Tom Sawyer , and White Sister. There is also a considerable amount of very trashy reading. Ormsbee (1927) found that 500 young employed girls read entirely too many “ trashy stories.” Studies of books and magazines chosen at newsstands in villages and towns, of evening school classes, of school teachers, of loggers, show that increasing numbers of adults engage in reading as a type of recreatory activity. The quality of much of the material read could be greatly improved. It seems clear that there is in too many cases a definite hiatus between what we teach in school as great literature and what persons read where their choices are untrammeled by pedagogic pressure. It may be that much of the lighter reading is merely a form of relaxation, that a weary, worried individual may escape for a few minutes into an imaginary world, thus finding surcease from his cares. But the evidence is convincing that too much of the reading which might be greatly informing and broadening is material of such a nature as to give nothing of these desirable attributes. Can the conditions be improved? Research again answers “yes” and points the way. We may divide the activities to be carried out into three groups: (1) what the teacher can do, (2) what the school administration can do, (3) what the library can do. The teacher s part — The teacher above all else needs to be fully ac¬ quainted with the interesting books suitable at the level of her instruction. Unless he or she has a first-hand knowledge of these books, nothing else can be done. Other things which research has shown the teacher actually can do to affect the choice of books young people read are: 1. The teacher can prepare a list of interesting books suitable to that grade and furnish each pupil this list. (Davies, G. 1929.) These books must be composed of those actually accessible in the school or city library. After this has been done, one reading period a week should be set aside for book reports. These reports may be in the form of dramatizations, short oral reports, cartoons of the characters, or Department of Educational Research 345 in whatever other manner a stimulating contact between class and book can be made. The pupils should be encouraged to make the reports interesting 2. She can help the poor reader by checking on his list those books he can read and enjoy 3. The teacher can tell the class the first of the story with the hope that they will wish to finish it 4. She can give the pupils permission to read library books as a reward for good work 5. She should visit the libraries with the children themselves and get acquainted directly with the books there. Here she can point out pictures in worthwhile books and supply little incidents about the author 6. She can encourage pupils who have good books to bring them to class and let the other pupils read them 7. The teacher can recommend some extra credit for worthwhile, collateral reading. The school administration — The school principal or superintendent can also help along this necessary work: 1. He can stimulate the procuring of well-chosen books for the school library and for the room library. Here, a specialist in children’s literature needs to be consulted 2. He can work for the setting aside of suitable space for the library and see to it that a competent librarian is in charge 3. He can encourage the teacher’s cooperation with the library 4. He can see that books bearing on certain special days and events be set out in a conspicuous place, and encourage the formulation of assembly programs where books will be discussed 5. The principal can talk to the pupils about important current events with appropriate references. He can ask his pupils if they had heard of this or that recent event and help the pupil discover for himself facts about it 6. He can encourage the advertisement of important books. The library — The library stands in a very strategic position in this pro¬ gram for improving taste in reading. Above all 1. It must have carefully selected books, books selected both for their interest and their value 2. It must cooperate with the schools and suggest important books at each level of learning 3. It can furnish lists for teachers 4. It must take the lead in advertising books from simple bookmarks to, on rare occasions, elaborate electrical displays 5. It must get notice of its books in school papers and have on hand the good books dramatized by the movie 6. It can provide slides and posters for use in the school 7. It can provide a browsing corner filled with stimulating books. To the questions raised in the opening paragraph of this paper concerning the reading interests of the high-school pupils of today, research answers: The boy’s love of adventure, sports, humor, the wonderful in invention, the marvelous in nature, and to a less extent of romantic fiction remains as in 1918 and 1925; the girl’s preference for romantic fiction, home, school, fairy stories, “ nice ” stories, and to a less extent of adventure continues. In each case books have changed a little, magazines less. A very great deal of reading is trashy, unreal, sordid, and in every way undesirable. Finally, lists of suggestions have been offered that research has found successful in bringing about the reading of more wholesome books and magazines. 346 National Education Association SECRETARY’S MINUTES Atlantic City, New Jersey Saturday Afternoon, February 23, 1935 President T. C. Holy presided. Approximately forty members of the Association were present. The minutes of the 1934 annual meeting were approved. The re¬ port of the secretary-treasurer was read and accepted. The report of the Auditing Committee, L. J. O’Rourke, chairman, was received. President Holy reported on the successful open meeting conducted by the As¬ sociation at the Washington convention of the National Education Association in July 1934. Philip A. Boyer, the vicepresident, reported plans of the Executive Committee to secure an expression of opinion from the members regarding the improvement and expansion of the work and services of the Association. He stated that the Executive Committee had agreed to carry a departmental subscription to the Research Bul¬ letin of the National Education Association, thus furnishing members with this pub¬ lication regularly, or with an extra copy of it for those who already receive it thru some other affiliation with the National Education Association. He also stated that the American Educational Research Association would not ask the National Educa¬ tion Association for a subsidy this year since the former is now in position to carry its own program without direct financial help. The report of the Necrology Committee, B. R. Buckingham and Ernest O. Melby, was presented. Dr. Buckingham discussed the contribution of the late J. M. Rice, an honorary member of the Association since 1915. Born in May 1857, granted a medical degree at Columbia in 1881, a student of the pedagogy of Rein at Jena and of the psychology of Wundt at Leipzig in 1888, editor of the Forum from 1897 to 1907, Dr. Rice will be remembered in the field of educational research chiefly for his pioneer contributions to the measurement of achievement in spelling and other elementary-school subjects. Dr. Melby spoke in appreciation of the late George H. Betts, professor of educa¬ tion, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois. Dr. Betts’ special field of interest was religious education. He was a stimulating and effective teacher. His writings on psychology have been widely used both in the United States and abroad. He was noted among his colleagues for the clarity of his analyses of educational issues and for the exactness with which he formulated his conclusions both in conversation and in writing. The president announced the appointment of Walter E. Morgan, assistant superin¬ tendent of public instruction, state department of education, Sacramento, California, for a three-year term on the Editorial Board. A proposed amendment of Article III of the constitution, creating a class of associate membership, was discussed. The amendment was discussed by Messrs. Gray, O’Rourke, Washburne, Kyte, and others. Moved and seconded that the amendment be laid upon the table. Carried. The report of the Nominating Committee was presented by William S. Gray and Sidney B. Hall. (See Historical Note, p. 328.) There were no other nominations and the secretary was instructed to cast a ballot for these three officers and they were declared elected. NOTE: Data similar to that presented by B. R. Buckingham, Ginn and Com¬ pany, Boston, in his paper entitled “ The Teacher as Researcher,” will be found in Journal of Educational Research 11:235-43; April, 1925; hence his paper is not printed in the Proceedings. The space available in the Proceedings does not permit publication of all addresses or abstracts of addresses given on this program. Addresses from various round¬ table and section meetings are therefore omitted. The entire proceedings of the Department of Educational Research 347 American Educational Research Association is available for general sale and distribution. American Educational Research Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. The following references cite those addresses which have been published elsewhere and which have come to the attention of the secretary’s office : Ayer, Fred C. “Marks Have Value.” Journal of Education 118:157; March 18, 1935. Barr, A. S. “The Measurement of Teaching Ability.” Journal of Educational Research 28: 561-69; April, 1935. Breed, F. S. “On Changes in Methods of Teaching.” School and Society 41: 558- 63; April 27, 1935. Haggerty, M. E. “Low Visibility of Educational Issues.” School and Society 41: 273-83 ; March 2, 1935. Mort, Paul R. “ Organization for Effective Educational Research in Colleges and Universities.” Teachers College Record 36:541-58; April, 1935. Morton, R. L. “ Sales of Books on the Teaching of Arithmetic.” Mathematics Teacher 28:138-44; March, 1935. Newlon, Jesse H. “The Defective Vision of Some of the Critics of the Con¬ clusions and Recommendations of the Social Studies Commission.” School and Society 41:410-17; March 30, 1935. Strayer, George Drayton. “The Future Place of the Federal Government in Public Education.” School and, Society 41:383-87; March 23, 1935. ■ ’ f . •. ! : XJ -j ’ ifcvVal . • ■ . ' * DEPARTMENT OF Elementary School Principals HISTORICAL NOTE The department of elementary school principals, temporarily or¬ ganized as the National Association of Elementary School Principals at the Atlantic City meeting of the Department of Superintendence in Feb¬ ruary , 1921 , became a department of the National Education Association at Des Moines in July, 1921. The officers of the Department for the year 1935-36 are: president, Harley W. Lyon, Principal, Longfellow-Burbank Schools, Pasadena, Calif.; first vicepresident, M. Emma Brookes, Principal, Miles-Cran- zvood Schools, Cleveland, Ohio; second vicepresident, Ira M. Kline, Principal, Greenburgh No. 8 Schools, White Plains, N. Y .; third vice- president, Edythe Brown, Principal, Kalcy-Marquette Schools, South Bend, Ind.; fourth vicepresident, Irvin A. Wilson, 437 South Stone Avenue, LaGrange, III.; fifth vicepresident, Mrs. Margaret Menden¬ hall Smith, Principal, Ebert School, Denver, Colo.; executive secretary, Eva G. Pinkston, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.; executive committee: Cassie F. Roys, Principal, Walnut Hill-Harrison Schools, Omaha, Nebr. ( term expires 1936) ; Earl Laing, Principal, Burt School , Detroit, Mich. ( term expires 1937); Mason A. Stratton, Principal, Brighton Avenue School, Atlantic City; N. J. ( term expires 1938); Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Washington-Gatezvood Schools, Norfolk, V a. ( term exp ires 1939). This Department meets twice each year, in February and in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows : 1921 -.453 1922:851-886 19 23:653-666 1924 : 545-564 1925 -.450-477 19 26:459-495 1927:419-455 19 28:375-409 1929 -.391-424 1930:333-365 1931:433-465 1932:377-406 19 33:395-422 1934:387-408 l 350 ] GREETINGS WILLARD E. GIVENS, SECRETARY, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON,, D. C. I AM glad of this opportunity to bring greetings from the National Educa¬ tion Association to the Department of Elementary School Principals. As I look back over all of my educational experience, I know there was no time in which I had more real joy in my work than I did as an elementary-school principal, and I doubt if there was any time when I was of any more value to the world than I was during the time I served as an elementary-school principal. In the last two or three years, during the depression, when public relations were vital, I called upon the principals in my own city where I was serving as superintendent of schools, to find out just what we should be doing and what they were doing. I found this to be true, and I think it is true thruout the country, that in the school system where I served, the individual who knew his community, knew what the people thought, and what problems they were facing, was the elementary-school principal. I wonder, after all, if most of the things that are really worthwhile are not accomplished by personal contact one with another. If that is true, and I personally believe it is, the elementary principal generally speaking is located in a place where he can know his community. He is generally in a school that is not so large that he cannot know his teachers and know his pupils, as well as the community. My personal attitude towards elementary principals can be summed up — if you will excuse this personal reference, because I believe actions speak louder than words — in this: It was my pleasure and privilege seven years ago in Oakland, California, to put before the Board of Education and have adopted a so-called single salary schedule for principals in that city, in which the elementary principal with the same training and the same qualifications, the same experience, and the same qualifications as to size of school, went on the pay schedule with all other principals, junior high and senior high. I think that is the biggest thing that I did while I was in that city, be¬ cause it stabilized the elementary principal and gave him a position in that school system that put him where the elementary principalship was his life work and he had no desire to get into a high school because, if he served well and got in a large elementary school, he would get as much pay as in the high school. As a result, we drew the very finest people, and they were content to make the elementary-school principalship their life work as well as a professional work from the educational side. They began immediately to study all the problems in connection with the elementary work, and they are staying on, happy, and doing fine work. [351] 12 352 National Education Association THE PRINCIPAL’S PARTICIPATION IN POLITICS WILLIAM TWITCHELL, JR., PRINCIPAL, PEAPACK-GLADSTONE SCHOOL, PEAPACK, N. J. At the very beginning I want to say that I think a principal’s participation in politics is a minor matter; that the improvement of instruction is still the fundamental problem of the principal. Political activities, as far as the principal is concerned, may be divided into three phases, national, state, and local. All three are carried on in the district which the school serves. Any influence a principal is able to exert is neces¬ sarily the result of his activities in his own district. From the national point of view I think the principal’s activity is rather intangible. Summing it up briefly, I think it amounts to the fact that the principal is a leader. He is respected. His opinions are considered worth¬ while, generally, and I think if the principal will express a humanitarian, liberal opinion on national matters, it will help. Some of the things, for instance, which I have in mind, are old-age pensions, the World Court, unemployment insurance, world peace, and health insurance. The second phase relates to the state. The teachers and friends of the school in New Jersey are organized. That organization is due to the leader¬ ship that we have had in the State Teachers Association. The leaders make out the policies and decide on the plans. We will give them their due, but the unit that puts that organization across in New Jersey is the community, and the moving force in the community is the principal. It is the principal who keeps the parents informed, organizes his teachers, keeps in touch with organizations in which he knows he will find sympathetic support. That state program is intended to conserve the educational facilities which we already have in the state, and to further a real opportunity, an equalized opportunity, for all the children in the state. Political activities in the local community represent the third and prob¬ ably the most important phase. From my point of view, I shall put myself on record at the outset by saying that I do not think the principal has any business in embroiling his school, his faculty, or himself in local partisan politics, that is, if the school is not directly concerned. If the school is directly concerned, I think he ought to fight with all his resources. We know that we have some pressure put upon us even where schools are fiscally independent. There is pressure of one type or another placed on the school executive. However, I believe that the parents and the thinking citizens of the community have a deep conviction that politics should not play a part in the handling of the public schools, and, where politics does play a part, and where it becomes generally known, I am quite sure that you will find a reversal of feeling on the part of parents, and that situation will be corrected. A service club is of great advantage to a principal. It gives him a chance to be identified with a very respected group in a community and to meet Department of Elementary School Principals 353 the membership of that group on a footing offered by membership in the club, and make friends for the school. I think the principal should maintain a close contact with the press. He should endeavor to secure favorable notices. I am sure many of us do that. Relations with the superintendent and the board of education often call for diplomacy on the part of the principal. Occasionally the superintendent does not have very much sympathy with the elementary school outside of treating it as a training place for pupils, so that they may have a successful high-school experience. A principal working in such a situation has to defend his program. In the final analysis, the best politician is he who serves his community best. REPORT OF THE 1935 YEARBOOK COMMITTEE- SOCIALIZING EXPERIENCES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL BESS CLEMENT, PRINCIPAL, ELIZA CLARK SCHOOL, CLARKSDALE, MISS., Chairman We are told that the world is a changing place. This statement is not new, for the phenomenon of change has been true ever since the world began. The significant thing for us today and for the future is not that the world is changing, but the fact that change is coming in certain unique ways. The leading institutions of society must adapt themselves to novelty or cease to exist. The school, along with the church, home, and government, is feeling the strain which calls for “ social human engineering.” It, there¬ fore, appears that the educational program must be broader than the three R’s. The elementary school represents one of the most important laboratories in which this planned education may be wrought. The elementary prin¬ cipal stands in a strategic position which enables him to decide on innova¬ tions that may result in a program of activities fraught with possibilities, which may help children to achieve the goals of education. For many years, educators have been using informal activities which offer the learner integrating and socializing experiences. The Editorial Committee has decided that these informal procedures should be placed in a volume — the 1935 Yearbook of the Department of Elementary School Principals. We believe that the material represents qualitative thinking which principals, teachers, and educators have been doing in this field. We should not think of the social aspect as simply one separable part of school life ; it must form an essential part of everything that is done in school. It is just as hard to think of the hands separated from the body independently performing a piece of work, as it is to think of the child alienated from the impetus of his social purposing, creating worthwhile results. The 1935 Yearbook is not an attempt to cover the whole activity program. There is a section in the book devoted to this program, which provides a 354 National Education Association typical segment of the unit. We believe that curriculum builders will find the material included in the volume invaluable. The activities discussed lend themselves to the development of the social aspect. Children purpose, plan, and carry out their work grappling with situations which create learning possibilities. The various chapters deal with assemblies, plays and pageants, “ red letter ” days, music and rhythms, pupil participation in school manage¬ ment, school clubs, socializing opportunities in physical education, the school newspaper, cooperative community activities, and the activity program. CAN CHARACTER BE TAUGHT? ALBION U. JENKINS, PRINCIPAL, SOUTH EIGHTH STREET SCHOOL, NEWARK, N. J. The psychologists tell us that our attitudes determine our behavior. Atti¬ tudes are ways of feeling or responding to situations. We like or dislike, love or hate, respect or loathe, depending upon our feeling toward a par¬ ticular situation or object. The psychologists further tell us that there are two kinds of experiences that modify attitudes, the individual’s first-hand relationships with the things and situations towards which he is to hold an attitude, and, secondly, verbal experience gained thru sermons, talks, maxims, and reading. In addition, the psychologists tell us that character must be integrated, that it must be organized, that there must be a dominant power or central interest to resolve incipient conflicts between impulses, such as love and ambition, or integrity and deceit. Only in this way can an individual mo¬ bilize all his energies and exercise his powers most effectively. It is a simple matter to say that character can be taught and that the school must not evade its responsibility for character development. The school has not always assumed this responsibility directly but trusted that character growth would ensue as a byproduct. Today a new type of school is emerg¬ ing. For want of a better name it is called a progressive school. This new school has definitely accepted the responsibility that it must deal with the child not only intellectually, but morally and socially as well. I shall examine a few school practises in the light of the principles laid down by the psychologist. The kind of character training given to children will depend to some extent upon the kind of organization found in the school. Regimented schools in which the conduct of children is determined in ad¬ vance by the teacher cannot hope to contribute much to the character growth of children. Low examination marks, failures, non-promotion, and grade repetition, regardless of effort, all lead to insincerity and discouragement. The organization of the school is no inconsequential part of the character program. If it would make a positive contribution to the development of character it must provide sufficient freedom for the individual to gain prac¬ tise in making decisions, in exercising self-restraint, and in developing self¬ guidance. Children should find themselves in an atmosphere of intellectual freedom where they may seek truth with the courage of their convictions. Department of Elementary School Principals 355 Here they will be encouraged to think for themselves, and ideas will be listened to with respect by both teachers and pupils. The new school provides a sense of accomplishment rather than an atti¬ tude of fear or indifference. This school studies the original nature of the children and meets their needs within the range of their capacities. It de¬ pends upon interest to provide the motivation for purposeful work. Any subject in the curriculum — spelling, arithmetic, reading, or history — helps to develop good character in the child when he feels the need of mastery, makes conscious effort, and experiences the joy of achievement. In such a school one may hope to find intellectual integrity. And, finally, methods of discipline influence the child in his character growth. Proper methods encourage growth from within the child. Domina¬ tion of the child interferes with self-control and often produces disastrous antagonisms toward the teacher and the school. Thus, methods of control are frequently responsible for behavior problems. Freedom in selection of mode of conduct, the privilege and opportunity for self-determination are powerful influences affecting the character of the child. THE PRINCIPAL’S RESPONSIBILITY FOR TEACHER GROWTH ALBERT L. HARTMAN, PRINCIPAL, EDGEMONT AND WATCH UNC, SCHOOLS, MONTCLAIR, N. J. What is it that causes growth and what are some practical technics that we may use to produce growth in our teaching staffs ? Is not the answer leaderships Yes, some kind of leadership. To be sure, not all teachers grow as a result of the leadership of their building prin¬ cipals. It probably would not be difficult for each of us to point to a school where teacher growth has been a result of leadership outside of the build¬ ing principal. I believe, however, that the work of our Department, with the aid of the National Education Association, has helped, is helping, and will continue to help bring better leadership on the part of building principals. Every principal in America should be a member of the Department of Ele¬ mentary School Principals of the National Education Association. All of us here are members ; one of our duties to the schools of America is to encourage our fellow principals at home, who are not members, to invest in this mighty force. Every principal should be impressed with the fact that he is a “ trusted officer ” of his superintendent of schools. To carry out that trust he must be informed. There is no better way of securing systematic information than from the publications of our Department. What is good leadership ? What is the kind that produces teacher growth ? Leadership is too often confused with “ ordership.” A principal may issue wise and effective orders and yet not inspire his teachers to recognize and accept his professional leadership. The first duty of a principal as a leader is to set the pace in professional endeavor. This will tend to act in securing 356 National Education Association from his staff a willingness to comply with the spirit of rules and regulations cooperatively developed. It is often said that good leadership is democratic leadership. What are the characteristics of democratic leadership ? Employers of labor in America are beginning to distinguish between “ drivership ” and leadership. They are finding that the goodwill of their employees is profitable, and it should be said that back of this policy there is a desire to practise the philosophy of democratic organization. Under a despotic government, leadership and drivership are, identical. However, the most successful despots and military leaders have been able to identify the wills of their followers with their own. No really successful leader has been satisfied with implicit obedience. These leaders have been able to identify the wills of their followers with their own largely because of their magnetic personality. This idea of leadership is still too often the prevalent conception. No doubt there are situations where it is justified, but in our work it rarely has a place. Even in our profession today the ability to appropriate the wills of others and to weave these wills into a preconceived type of teaching is thought of as constituting genuine leadership. This kind of leadership is practically synonymous with “ suggestion,” and those who hold to this philosophy would do well to become expert in hypnotism. Their success is entirely based upon their magnetic influence in appropriating the wills of their staffs to that of their own. The fallacy of this type of leadership, of course, is that it is always de¬ pendent upon someone else and is inconsistent with democratic self-govern¬ ment. The followers of a magnetic leader can switch from one cause to another, from one philosophy to another, without inner conflict because their loyalty is personal only. This, it seems to me, has little place in the noble profession of teaching. Democratic leadership means professional democratic cooperation. It is true that a real leader often expresses the common will, or at least the ma¬ jority will, of his group, but this common will always represents the out¬ come of cooperative thinking. In the leader’s expression he will testify to more than one individual’s contribution. Leadership, to be democratic, demands that the best thought of oneself and one’s colleagues be focused upon a common problem. After sufficient united deliberation the results are then accepted in a program of action. Right here is often the test of real leadership. Suppose after thoughtful deliberation a majority of my teachers disagree with a plan of action I hold very dear to my heart. Do I resort to personality control or to the use of authority vested in me by virtue of my position ? If, in thoughtful delibera¬ tion with a professional group of workers, my ideas are not accepted, I have no right to resort to dominance. This does not mean that my leadership as principal is submerged into mediocrity. It does mean that a school can be no better than the average capability of the teaching staff, and that improvement takes place only thru the growth of the teachers. Department of Elementary School Principals 357 It is the solemn duty of the principal to organize his work so that teach¬ ers are encouraged to realize their highest potentialities. A democratic leader¬ ship is necessary to accomplish this aim. Growth, then, comes as a result of wise leadership. WHAT’S IT ALL ABOUT? RAYMOND S. MICHAEL, PRINCIPAL, JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL NO. 3, TRENTON, N. J. To the question so often asked, For what are we educating our children? time and again comes back the answer in terms of generalities, for the better things of life, of course. But what are the better things? Have we definitely determined and decided this question in our own minds? Have we found the better things? If so, what are they? If our experience and our educa¬ tion as teachers and parents, gained in the schools or in the marketplace, have failed to raise us to the point where we can catch but the faintest glimpse of the vision, how can we intelligently direct and lead our children there, tho we are willing to pay the price ? # Many a child confidently leaves school with a diploma or a certificate in his hand and no education worthy of the name. “ What can he do? ” bluntly asks Old Man World. “ Why he has a good education. He can do any¬ thing,” replies the proud parent or the trusting guardian. As a matter of fact, the boy is really equipped to do nothing at all. He has had a smattering of this and a smattering of that, and the diploma which he holds in his hand is worth less than the paper it is printed on. He, like hundreds of other children, has been periodically passed merrily along thru the grades of the school on the theory that children must not be coerced or forced to apply themselves to any task distasteful to them for fear of making them unhappy. Furthermore, the teacher was forbidden to give the child failing marks which would have required him to repeat the grade. The teacher was told that pupils dare not fail, as such a procedure would result only in developing within the child an inferiority complex, thus marring his life, not only as a child, but also as a man, with the result that he would leave school with hatred of the teacher, the school, and society in general. He must be passed at any rate regardless of his ability, or his attitude. Should the pupil fail to make the grade, it is never the fault of the child, but is rather the fault of the teacher and the school to adjust properly the instruction and the curriculum to the child. Teachers are inclined to think of instruction as the most important activity of the classroom. It is certainly the most important activity of the teacher. But there can be no real teaching unless someone is at the same time learning, and the efficiency of instruction is in direct proportion to the success of the learning that is taking place in the pupils. To prove that learn¬ ing has taken place, it is necessary to compare the learner’s ability before he is taught with the ability after being taught. The amount of learning is proportional to the amount of change in ability or his attitude. 358 National Education Association Tests and scholarship marks are the most widely recognized dependable forms of diagnosis ; records and reports, as measurements in education. It is a generally recognized fact that the lack of definite and unchanging standards makes scholarship records based upon teacher judgments and comparisons, unsubstantiated by concrete objective data, entirely unsatis¬ factory as measures of the effectiveness of a school or a school program. The quality of instruction depends on the quality of the teacher directing and guiding the pupil. The supervisor may be fine, the course of study may be perfect, the equipment excellent, but unless the teacher has the essential training and the right attitude toward the work in hand, the others might as well not exist. The child who forms the habit of working and doing everything as thoroly and as well as he is able, whether it be in academic or special sub¬ jects, school paper or dramatics, will be a worker and a good one as long as he lives. Once the habit of industry and work is formed, work becomes one of the most fascinating activities imaginable. Industry, perseverance, and accomplishment are great educational forces effecting character growth. Why should we fear them? Simply because some people have misused them, are children to be deprived of their benef¬ icent power? True, school is a place in which children should live, but life itself demands a well-ordered day of work, play, rest, as well as leisure and social intercourse, and every phase of a well-ordered life has its proper aim, its time, and its place. Good, sympathetic, competent teachers; properly graded and organized classes; well-planned courses of study with definite clear-cut objectives; sci¬ entific use of tests, recitations, achievement ratings, reports, and activity programs are all essential to the educational growth and development of children. The best school is the one that trains the mind, the heart, and the hands of its children, and sends them out into the world self-respecting and self- sustaining, desirable citizens. It matters little what subjects or activities are taught the child as long as the material of instruction has a direct bearing on the life interests of that child and he has been taught how to use that material properly. It is the child and his interests, the teacher and how the teaching has been done, as well as the proper application of the results of instruction to the good of both child and community that really count in the final analysis. COUNT FOR ONE MRS. A. VIRGINIA ADAMS, PRINCIPAL, EAST LANDIS AVENUE SCHOOL, VINELAND, N. J. Elementary-school principals who count must have a clear understanding of the process we call teaching, namely, that children, because of meager background and other obstacles, find subjectmatter uninteresting, unintel¬ ligible, and that the only remedy for this tremendous difficulty lies in supply- Department of Elementary School Principals 359 ing the human element which will adjust child to subjectmatter and subject- matter to child. This human element is the teacher. He need not be a specialist, not a research worker, or a testing expert, but the real teacher will understand children. From a storehouse of knowledge in matters pertaining not alone to school but to the world about and beyond the school he will interpret the problems of childhood, bridging the gap between curriculum and learning, book and pupil, placing him in a frame of mind where learning will be both natural and pleasant because the learner will be actively cooperating in his own learning. The American public knows full well that cheap builders build cheap men. When teachers of understanding do a piece of work which readily sells itself to the community, questions of finance and administration must of necessity fade into oblivion. Search for and development of such teachers should therefore be the most important work of the principal who desires to merit the title of leader and be worthy of his hire. In addition to this clear vision, the principal can well affiliate with those of other walks of life who dare to be original, human, and up-to-date. He should count as one of them because of great understanding, breadth of experience, calm poise, virility, endurance, love of life and fellow-man. A PLEA FOR SANITY LOTUS D. COFFMAN, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. One of the easiest things in the world is for the followers of a profession to be led astray from the practise of their profession. When lawyers be¬ come insurance agents; doctors, public officials; and teachers, standard- bearers in a crusade for some new doctrine, then law and medicine and teaching suffer. The surest way for a lawyer to get on in the world is to become a better lawyer ; the best index of a doctor’s worth is the attention he gives to the practise and improvement of medicine; the most impressive sign of success on the part of a teacher is his growth in scholarship and improvement in teaching. These truisms are so axiomatic that we scarcely ever hear them mentioned any more; moreover, if we do mention them, we are likely to be regarded as behind the times. I know that there are those who maintain with vigor that the chief re¬ sponsibility of everyone is to put social welfare ahead of one’s profession. Some of the advocates of this point of view would have us believe that the lawyer should forget his law, the doctor his medicine, and the teacher his teaching, to engage in a campaign of some sort. That the lawyer, the doctor, and the teacher have citizenship responsibilities along with all other citizens, is recognized by everyone. It is clear, too, that they must, or should know far more than they have ever known about the trends and 360 National Education Association problems of the times. They must help to interpret the trends and to solve current problems. But it is not the primary business of the lawyer, the doctor, or the teacher to administer our government. That calls for a special class of highly trained people who devote themselves diligently, faithfully, and intelligently to the study of government and its problems. Government, if it is to be made secure and stable and progressive, if its vast array of complex problems is to be intelligently administered, must be placed in the hands of a well-trained and experienced personnel, who from the point of view of preparation and public recognition and security of position must be regarded as members of a profession as truly as are the doctors, the lawyers, or the teachers. Leadership in a period such as we are now passing thru is likely to be¬ come militant and to lose sight of the more fundamental and permanent considerations of life. Even those engaged in the professions are in danger of falling prey to the clamor of the times to an over-weening extent. In every period of transition there should be a re-estimation of the values of life, and every program put forward to solve the problems of the period should be critically analyzed. Much that is old must be abandoned with regret ; the new, on the other hand, may prove less promising than its untested claims warrant. In a time of change, teachers especially must try to understand the forces responsible for the change, and their expression. At this particular moment they must know more about government, se¬ curity, taxes, and taxation; about tariffs, exchange, commerce, war, and peace — far more than they have ever known. They must be familiar with the dominant political philosophies that are struggling for world supremacy. They must be students, as never before, of the forces and conditions that affect human welfare. I would, however, call their attention to the fact that a teacher acquires this information primarily that he may become a better teacher. There rests upon the teachers, as upon no other class, the supreme duty of teaching the facts about human progress. Every profession suffers from two things, viz., the danger that its mem¬ bers will wander away in pursuit of false gods, and the danger that comes from inertia. False gods were never more numerous than now. Inertia, of course, is always present. Many a teacher, four years out of college, is unable to read the literature of education because of the technical and scientific advances that have been made in the meantime. One of the strange things about every depression is that those who hold steadfastly to the fundamentals of human learning and to its advancement, are years later regarded as the ones who contributed most to social welfare and to human progress. If the schools of America were to become engulfed in a move¬ ment similar to that in many European countries, a movement which made them propagandizing and indoctrinating agents for some social or political creed, that would spell the downfall of democracy. If the teachers of America were enrolled under the banner of some social philosophy in the name of recovery and, as a result, neglected to improve themselves as teachers, the traditions and dreams, the hopes and ambitions, the virtues Department of Elementary School Principals 361 and values of everything we have stood for during centuries in this country, would be destroyed or discredited. What is education for? Why do we spend time perfecting ourselves in the science of education and in the art of teaching? Not primarily to make learning easy, economical, and efficient, altho that is one of our main pur¬ poses; not primarily to advance ourselves, altho that may accompany our growth and achievement ; not primarily to solve the problems of society, altho we expect it to contribute to that end. No, we find that the justifica¬ tion for education lies in the fact that we are attempting to liberate the human spirit and to direct it in ways that will lead to its own self-develop¬ ment and growth. A school is merely a social institution which society in its wisdom has created to provide an atmosphere and those conditions in which and under which the human spirit may be stimulated and made free to attain, under tuition, within the limits of its possibilities, its largest life. There is, in my opinion, a public conscience in the teaching profession, a conscience which expresses itself in a “ constant and continuous searching for the thing that is better,” which, as President Norlin of the University of Colorado recently declared, “ will prevail unless the venal efforts now being put forth to degrade not only the economic station but the social station of the teacher succeed to the point of making teaching, not an honored profession, but a menial occupation.” Of this I have no fear, provided we hold fast to the deep-seated traditions and sound doctrines that have permeated education from the beginning, and provided our country is able to solve its economic and unemployment problems success¬ fully without destroying democracy. One of the fundamental assumptions of democracy is that human beings should be developed as personalities. By this we mean that they should have the opportunity of developing as individuals. If this high aim be lost in our efforts to reconstruct society, then one of the most precious possessions of life will have been destroyed. It can be preserved best thru education. If I had the power and facility of expression to appraise the point of view which I have been trying to elucidate, I would, if possible, stir the teachers of this country to a higher sense of responsibility. I would sing the paeans of education as the only hope of democracy. I would, for a moment at least, forget its weaknesses and mistakes ; I would refuse to point the finger of scorn at that unregenerate minority in society who deride education, who sneer at the educated man in public life, and who wish to pursue without stint their continued exploitation of the masses. I would, for the time being, cease to lead the campaign for salary restorations and for better salaries — God grant that the teacher may be paid in money more nearly in accordance with his worth — I would cease praising the political systems of other countries with their regimentation and loss of personal freedom. If I could write as I should like to write, I should do none of these things just now. I should exalt the real leaders of yesterday; I should present the wisdom of the past as deserving of our most profound consideration; I should show that society can progress only thru the progressive evolution of education ; I should exalt the teacher who, as he leads others, pursues 362 National Education Association the pathway of learning himself; I should carry the message of education to my people, my community; and I should provide a leadership which would consist chiefly in giving better schools to the community. The past has its contributions to make, the future its challenge, but the challenge of the future is largely that of unfinished business. Last year we were going to establish economic liberty, to end unemployment, to rebuild our national life. Last year we were going to plan for world peace. These tremendous tasks are still ahead of us. For centuries the Kingdom of God has been at hand, always within our reach, and yet never quite attained. It will not be reached by repudiating the past in toto or by chasing the phantoms of the future; it will be reached only as we understand that over long stretches of time civilization, like individual human experience, social progress, and the advancement of one in his profession, moves steadily on. It will be reached as our convictions are tempered by knowledge and ex¬ perience and as we maintain balanced minds and an abiding sense of the fitness of things. THE PRINCIPAL’S JOB TODAY— PANEL DISCUSSION 1 Today has its roots in yesterday and holds the promise of tomorrow. The elementary school is undergoing fundamental changes in form, struc¬ ture, and function. What is the significance of these changes? What forces are operating? What part can and should the principal play? What is his job today “and tomorrow and tomorrow’’? Panel — J. Cayce Morrison, Assistant Commissioner for Elementary Edu¬ cation, State Education Department, Albany, N. Y., Leader Stephen F. Bayne, Associate Superintendent for Elementary Schools, New York, N. Y. Orville G. Brim, Professor of Elementary Education, Ohio State Uni¬ versity, Columbus, Ohio Prudence Cutright, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. Arthur D. Hollingshead, Ashland School, East Orange, N. J. Frank W. Hubbard, Associate Director of Research, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. Aaron Kline, Principal, Pullman School, Chicago, Ill. Worth McClure, Superintendent of Schools, Seattle, Wash. Nathan G. Peyser, Public School 181, Brooklyn, N. Y. Belle M. Ryan, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Omaha, Nebr. John S. Thomas, District Principal, Clippert School, Detroit, Mich. Goodwin Watson, Associate Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. David Willard Zahn, Commodore Barry School, Philadelphia, Pa. Claire T. Zyve, Fox Meadow Elementary School, Scarsdale, N. Y. 1 National Education Association, Department of Elementary School Principals. “ Official Report, Atlantic City Meeting.” The National Elementary Principal ( Bulletin ) 14: 30-61; April, 1935. Washington, D. C. : the Department. (Abstracts included on p. 351-62 of the volume are printed in full in the April Bulletin.) Department of Elementary School Principals 363 Questions for Discussion What should be the guiding philosophy of the elementary-school principal? — Brim What changes are needed to make the elementary school an effective instrument for fulfilling the “American dream”? — McClure How can the school best utilize the community resources for the moral and social guidance of children? — Peyser How can the school best utilize the resources of home and community for the educational guidance of children? — Zy . , . DEPARTMENT OF zMusic Education HISTORICAL NOTE The department of music education was created by the Board of Directors at the Madison, Wis., meeting in 1884. The Department, dis¬ continued in 1928, was re-created in 1934 by action of the Representative Assembly at the Washington meeting. The officers of the Department for the year 1935-36 are: president, John C. Kendel, Director of Music, Board of Education, Denver, Colo.; secretary, Samuel T. Burns, Director of Music, State Department of Public Instruction, Baton Rouge, La. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1884: 23 1885 -.369-405 1886:563-599 188 7:607-653 1888:625-665 1889 -.665-703 1890 -.811-827 1891 -.807-827 1892 -.507-533 189 2:507-543 1894 :925-957 1895:765-807 1896:718-754 189 7:772-792 1898 :832-856 1899 :970-998 1900:531-542 1901 -.704-721 190 2:614-644 190 3:683-719 1904 :675-709 1905:627-668 190 6:703-706 190 7:849-877 190 8:835-862 1909 -.673-701 1910 :789-833 1911: 787- 827 191 2:1001-1031 1913: 601- 619 1914: 625- 649 1915: 847- 883 1916: 575- 613 1917: 473- 491 1918: 315- 323 1919: 291- 303 1920: 309- 311 1921: 507- 515 19 22:1047-1063 1923: 733- 737 1924: 597- 613 1925: 504- 522 1926: 527- 536 1927: 487- 495 1934: 435- 440 [ 398 ] PIONEERING IN MUSIC EDUCATION SAMUEL T. BURNS, STATE SUPERVISOR OF MUSIC, BATON ROUGE, LA. IT seemed to me that my best contribution to the topic would be to pre¬ sent some of my own experiences in the fields in which it has been my privilege to work. I do this humbly, with the thought that perhaps a recital of my experiences in what to me were untried fields, would give others in similar situations some help and encouragement. My pioneering in music education began when I was a senior in college. I had by that time completed the requirements to teach music in the state of Ohio but the funds for my college expenses were running low. Near the college which I was attending were two townships which seemed to me to have more than their share of musical ignorance. I therefore approached the county superintendent and offered my services as a music teacher for these two townships. I was given a trial but the responsibility I assumed was heavy. I had twelve one-room schools in two townships. Eight of these schools were on mud roads. My duty was to visit each school weekly for an hour’s period of vocal instruction and to supply the regular teacher with plans which she could carry on during my absence. In the fall I had no difficulty getting from place to place. Perched on my bicycle, I was able to get over the dirt roads with a fair amount of ease and to meet my classes regularly. In the winter and spring, however, the erstwhile firm road surface became bottomless. It was impossible to reach these schools by any sort of self- propelled vehicle, and I could reach the schools on foot only. The distances traveled would seem appalling to most of us today. In these one-room schools, the usual vocal music course was offered — rote songs and elementary theory and sight-singing. Instrumental work on a tuition basis was also started. On Saturdays, in each township, instru¬ mental classes were held at a central point and two small township orchestras were organized which functioned in the community for several years. My experience in these one-room schools revealed certain problems of music education in the rural field. Of these, I may mention first the inade¬ quate financial resources of the individual administrative units in rural schools. A second problem is the small number of children in each school unit. Even where a music teacher is employed, it is difficult to produce satisfactory musical experiences in many of the small schools, because there are not enough children to carry on the activities. A third problem is the poor musical preparation of rural teachers. This lack of preparation in music makes any but the most meager offering possible. A fourth problem is the presence of several grades in one room. Such a condition makes the usual course organization on a single-grade basis quite unusable in rural schools without considerable modification. This first experience revealed [ 399 ] 400 National Education Association to me also one great asset for music in the rural schools, an asset which I did not appreciate fully till some years later. This asset is the interest and enthusiasm of rural children for music. Probably because of the fact that the rural child has fewer distractions and few chances for esthetic expression than the city child, he is usually more enthusiastically responsive to the school-music program. I taught in these townships only one year, not long enough to solve any of the problems or to exploit the advantage of interest. I went from there to a new situation in Medina County, Ohio, where I traded my twelve one-room schools for fourteen consolidated and village schools, mud roads for pavement and gravel, and my “ shanks mare ” for a Model T Ford. In these village and consolidated schools, however, I encountered the same problems I had met in the one-room school. The units were larger, but they were still too small in many instances to employ and hold adequately-trained music specialists. The schools had a larger enrolment and the musical results obtained were vastly better than those which were possible in the one-room schools, but still they were not large enough to make thoroly satisfactory ensembles possible. I found also that having ten teachers under one roof in a consolidated school made them no more proficient in teaching music than having ten similar teachers under the roofs of ten one-room schools. In these consolidated schools, I continued to encounter the prob¬ lem of two or more grades under a single teacher. I remained in Medina County as director of music for fourteen years, long enough to make some progress in solving all of these problems. The problem of financing an adequate program was met by organizing the townships into music circuits instead of attempting to supply a music teacher for each of the townships on a full-time basis. We employed a county staff of teachers who traveled from school to school, dividing their time between schools according to need and being paid by the various units pro rata according to the time that each township received. The problem of creating satisfactory musical ensembles was solved by combining the musical talent from several schools and forming countywide organizations. The best players from each school met weekly for rehearsals of a county orchestra and a county band. The best singers were brought together to form an all-county a cappella chorus of one hundred members which developed sufficient skill to perform some of the finest choral works in existence. The problem of poorly-trained elementary teachers was solved by forming classes for these teachers in each township and by giving them liberal supervision during the early years of the program. The problem of two or more grades to a room was met by organizing parallel courses by rooms rather than by grades, courses which offered the same problems in consecutive years but employed new material so that interest was main¬ tained. My experience in Medina County convinced me that the greatest opportunities for pioneering effort, and for music teachers who chafe under routine, lie in the rural field. Last September I entered another field which in some respects is a pioneer situation. I undertook the duties of state supervisor of music for Department of Music Education 401 Louisiana. This, of course, is not an entirely new situation. Several states have state supervisors of music. Yet conditions in the various states are so different that the field of state music supervision is largely a pioneering effort. There is little past experience to guide the state music supervisor; he must work out the routine of his own job. My experience in Louisiana has been too short to speak of accomplish¬ ments. I can only present prospects and plans. We aim, however, to make Louisiana a leader in music education. We aim to teach every child in the state to sing and to give him a repertoire of songs which he will want to sing. We aim to make it possible for every child, both in city and rural districts, to have an opportunity to learn to play a musical instrument. We aim to make it possible for the more highly talented children to receive special instruction in the fields of music in which they demonstrate capacity. We aim to make it possible for all schools, even small schools, to have their own orchestras, bands, and glee clubs. In moving toward the realization of these aims, we are working first to place directors of music in each of the parishes (counties). These directors of music will have general responsibility for all the music work in the parishes. We expect to supply supervising teachers who will organize and direct the music activities in the elementary grades and train the elementary teachers to carry on the day-by-day teaching. We plan to supply special high-school music teachers, either resident or circuit, and to place in each parish enough special instrumental teachers to take care of the demand for that phase of the work. This program will require time for its realization. Teachers must be trained, and experience in meeting the problems must be gained. I am optimistic regarding the prospects of success for the following reasons: First, there is tremendous interest on the part of school officials in the state for the development of a music program. During the first months I was in Louisiana, I spent considerable time traveling from parish to parish interviewing superintendents, school principals, and other school officials regarding the possibilities of musical development in their schools. Everywhere, I was received with a cordiality and enthusiasm which augurs well for the quality of cooperation to be offered. As a second reason for confidence in the success of the program, I would mention the musical talent and interest of the students. It is, of course, impossible in a brief song period to arrive at an accurate estimate of chil¬ dren’s talent. However, the ability of the majority of the children in Louisiana schools to sing and the enthusiasm they have displayed in the informal song periods which I have conducted, indicate that they possess average or more than average musical talent. A third condition which will work for the success of the music program is the type of school organization existing in Louisiana. Louisiana operates on a unified parish system. One superintendent and one schoolboard ad¬ minister all the schools of a parish, an area in most cases larger than the ordinary northern county. When a parish adopts the music program, 402 National Education Association music is begun in all schools of the parish, a condition which in most states would necessitate action by many boards of education. Louisiana’s school organization is efficient. Other favorable conditions in Louisiana promising success to the music program, are the attitude of respect for the leadership of the state depart¬ ment of education, the recently reorganized system of financing the schools, and the favorable attitude toward the music program of the political forces of the state. As a final factor promising success, I would mention the progress made during this first year. When the music program began last September, it was too late to employ special teachers in any of the parishes. School was already under way, budgets were already formed, and no funds for addi¬ tions to teaching staffs were available. We did, however, initiate a state¬ wide song program. The state board of education made available funds for the purchase of phonographs and records. We prepared a list of sixty songs for which recordings were available, and offered the records and phonographs to any school that would promise to use them. As a result of the program, approximately 250,000 children learned the group of songs outlined. In the spring we gathered together 5700 children from about eighty schools and had this group of children sing a program of songs before the Southern Conference for Music Education. The response to this project convinced me that I was not mistaken in believing that Louisiana is ready for a big step forward in music education. It is my belief that Louisiana will develop an outstanding program of music in her schools, and my hope that the pioneering efforts there will be of some help and guidance to other states in developing school music thru their state departments of education. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Denver, Colorado First Session, Tuesday Afternoon, July 2, 1935 The sectional meeting of the Music Education Department of the National Educa¬ tion Association was held at the Cosmopolitan Hotel on Tuesday, July 2. A large attendance represented fifteen states and each of the six sections of the Music Educators National Conference. A luncheon preceding the meeting was sponsored by the In-and-About Denver Music Supervisors Club. The sectional program centered about the topic. “ Pioneer¬ ing in Music Education ” and its application to our presentday program. A few pioneers in the field were present and extended greetings, among them Charles H. Fullerton, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, and Otto Miessner, Miessner Institute, Chicago, Illinois. T. H. Harris, for more than twenty-five years state director of education, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, told of the recent plans of Louisiana to make music a vital factor in the life of every child in the state. The principal address of the meeting was given by Samuel T. Burns, State Supervisor of Music, Louisiana, on “Pioneering in Music Education.” DEPARTMENT OF T^ural Education HISTORICAL NOTE The department of rural education grew out of the Department of Rural and Agricultural Education which was authorized by the Board of Directors in 1907 . At the Chicago meeting in 1919, the Department was reorganized with three organized rural groups then existing — the Na¬ tional Association of State Supervisors and Inspectors of Rural Schools, the County Superintendents' section of the National Education Associa¬ tion, and the National Association of Persons Engaged in the Preparation of Rural Teachers — tender the name of the Department of Rural Educa¬ tion. See proceedings, 1920: 279. The officers of the Department for the year 1925-26 are: president, Sue M. Powers, Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn.; vicepresident, James B. Palmer, Professor of Education, New York State College for Teachers, Albany, N. Y .; secretary, Mrs. Kath¬ erine M. Cook, Chief, Division of Special Problems, United States Office of Education, Washington, D. C.; executive committee: 0. H. Plenzke, Secretary, Wisconsin Teachers Association, 716 Insurance Building, Madison, Wis. ( term expires 1926); Fannie W. Dunn , Pro¬ fessor of Rural Education, Teachers College, Columbia University New York, N. Y. ( term expires 1927); 0. H. Bennett, 522 Coun Souse, Cincinnati, Ohio ( term expires 1928); Fred C. Fischer, Deputy Com¬ missioner, Wayne County Schools, 2615 Barium Tower, Detroit, Mich. ( term expires 1929); Chloe Baldridge, Director of Rural Education, State Department of Public Instruction, Lincoln, Nebr. ( term expires 1940) ; R. E. J aggers, Director of Teacher Training, State Department of Public Instruction, Frankfort, Ky. ( term expires 1941). The Department meets twice each year, in February and in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meet¬ ings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1907: 44- 45 1908 -.1187-1215 1909: 953- 992 1910:1081-1114 1911 -.1117-1161 1912 -.1365-1413 1913: 801- 818 1914: 877- 907 1915 -.1131-1159 1916: 613- 636 1917: 599- 613 1918: 271- 293 1919: 281- 288 1920: 271- 303 1921: 523- 616 1922 -.1099-1222 1923: 745- 841 1924: 651- 714 1925 :522-576 19 26:537-600 192 7:497-559 1928 -.453-543 1929:463-541 1930:401-499 1931 -.495-540 19 32:423-453 19 33:445-461 1934:441-460 [ 404 J REDIRECTING RURAL EDUCATION THRU A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF AND WIDER PARTICIPATION IN COUNTY AND LOCAL SCHOOL PROGRAMS IN RURAL AREAS BY STATE DEPART¬ MENTS OF EDUCATION RAY P. SNYDER, DIRECTOR, RURAL EDUCATION DIVISION, NEW YORK STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, ALBANY, N. Y. State department workers must keep certain fundamental considera¬ tions in mind. First, in a democracy, procedures should be democratic. Rural people, including superintendents and teachers, must exercise a large degree of self-government. Second, progress (redirection) must be made step by step. Third, the function of the state office is to exercise leadership, to set up standards, to furnish materials — to guide not dictate. The state department should not be regarded as the enforcement officer or the police force to execute mandates for the management and control of the schools. The state department should be the good friend, the guide, the counselor, or the cooperator. State department workers, superintendents, and teachers must be regarded as peers in their interest for sound programs. Such procedures are not bureaucratic. They are democratic. This philosophy places a heavy responsibility on state departments. It is easier to write directions than it is by tactful leadership to get others to act rightly. Objectives that may well be considered by state department workers are : General — Comparable school facilities for rural children, including build¬ ings, grounds, equipment, curriculums, libraries, trained teachers, trans¬ portation. Immediate — (1) Building up among teachers and superinten¬ dents a professional consciousness; (2) with the help of teachers and superin¬ tendents, the preparation of bulletins and other materials useful to teachers of small schools; (3) purposeful programs for teachers conferences; (4) special projects carried on for research and experimentation in cooperation with superintendents and teachers; (5) leadership to help rural people understand rural school needs, including the advantages of a larger local unit of administration. Truly rural education must be redirected if it is to serve the best interests of all types of children who attend schools and if it is to satisfy the parents of these children. Rural people want this redirection when they understand the facts, but they want to be a part of the redirection with which they, among all people, are most concerned. It is imperative that representatives of state departments have a broad understanding of conditions and that they participate widely. Redirection must be a democratic procedure participated in by all groups and individuals, both lay and professional. [405 ] 406 National Education Association MORE EFFECTIVE COUNTY AND LOCAL SCHOOL ORGANIZATION WILLIAM McKINLEY ROBINSON, director, department of rural EDUCATION, WESTERN STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, KALAMAZOO, MICH. For some years leaders in rural education have been working in behalf of the county unit ; likewise have leaders of other agencies and institutions serving rural people — whether they be social, economic, or political — turned their attention to the county as the unit of operation. It is interesting to note that the several groups working independently of one another centered their attention upon this matter at about the same time, that is, a year or two either side of 1915. It is also interesting to note that the several groups approaching the problem independently arrived at almost the same popula¬ tion total as a minimum for a desirable unit — five to six thousand. Professional leaders have been for some years county-conscious, but not so the people. The mention of the name of one’s state suggests a certain definite geographic area with certain political relationship to one ; so does the mention of the name of his city to an urban dweller suggest certain quite definite boundaries and political, social, and economic relationships. To the great majority of our people, the mention of the names of their counties carries no similar geographic or service connotation. Here we have one avenue of approach to the county unit. The way has been opened by the county extension work and county welfare work now carried on with federal emergency funds. What services should the county as a political and social unit afford its people? We might all agree upon certain feasible minimums: In education, elementary and secondary educational opportunities for all children, looking forward to vocational and adult educational opportunities, plus possibly in the not too far distant future junior college privileges; in health work, a unit providing medical, nursing, and sanitary service, plus possibly hospital facilities. To these might be added social welfare work, libraries, parks and playgrounds, character-building agencies such as the Y. W. C. A. and Boy Scouts, planning commissions, fire protection, possibly museums of history, science, and art, and others of the governmental and social services now enjoyed in municipalities. In the earlier days the county was favored because of being a larger unit of support. The inadequacy of the county as a unit of support, the differences existing among counties in area, population, and wealth, are as evident as the inequalities which arise from our present governmental units. To look toward the county as the unit of administration means that we must also face an equalization of the burden of support thru the state and possibly the federal government with the resultant supervision. Nevertheless the county remains a desirable unit of administration. It is of a workable size and keeps the administrators near enough those whom they are serving for personal contact and influence. Department of Rural Education 407 Thus far attention has been confined to the county as the unit, but there is nothing sacred about the county. Perhaps the community so ably advo¬ cated by some is the more desirable unit in some instances. All that has been said about the county would be equally applicable to the community unit. It would be most unfortunate, however, if there should develop a series of overlapping county and community units varying with agencies and institu¬ tions. My plea is that all of us get together and work toward a consciousness of whichever it is to be. CHOOSING THE NEW ROAD O. H. PLENZKE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, WISCONSIN TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, MADISON, WIS.; AND CHAIRMAN, COMMITTEE ON PHILOSOPHY, AIMS, AND PURPOSES OF A PROGRAM OF RURAL EDUCATION The Department of Rural Education is concerned primarily with regu¬ larly constituted public school education. While the needs of handicapped children and the needs of adults must be met thru official and private agencies, it is the function of this Department to define the obligations of the people to the group served by the schools. The American ideal of equality of opportunity has not been exemplified in education. Astonishing discriminations characterize our educational struc¬ ture. Children have been penalized for their place of birth and their social and economic status. The rural child has not had opportunities equal to those of the urban child. The perpetuity of our free democratic institutions is prefaced upon the civic intelligence of the people of all areas. The recognized obstacles in setting up a forward-looking program of rural education are not insuperable. A fatalistic attitude must give way to an aggressive campaign to recast rural education. The Rural Department maintains that : ( 1 ) every child is entitled to twelve grades of schooling ; (2) the rural curriculum should be designed in terms of interests, abilities, aptitudes, and life purposes; (3) the program should provide those activities which help the child to interpret successfully his out-of-school experiences; (4) teachers should be trained for the special tasks to be performed; (5) the program should be selected and housed upon the basis of needs of pupils and not be determined by the ability of a locality to provide such a program. Local units should be of such size to insure a sufficient number of pupils to justify a differentiated program. Responsibility for a minimum program rests upon the state. The mobility of our population, the interdependence of people in different states, the strategic position of population groups due to natural resources, and the concentration of wealth, make federal aid to public education neces¬ sary and justifiable. Grants from the federal government should be for the maintenance of adequate educational standards and should be distributed thru the regularly constituted state school authorities. 408 National Education Association THE ONE-ROOM RURAL SCHOOL IN A REDIRECTED PROGRAM CHARLES H. TYE, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ORANGE CITY, IOWA In many communities the general public has taken the stand that our rural schools were good enough for our fathers, they were good enough for us, and they ought to be good enough for our children. Side by side, with this self-satisfied community, you will often find a second type of com¬ munity which has become disgusted with its type of rural schools. Many of these went to extremes and saddled vast interest-bearing debts on their districts. Many districts, however, balanced ideals with financial resources and made a better educational set-up by consolidating on a more moderate and a more lasting scale. A third kind of community, because of saner thought on the part of patrons and saner leadership on the part of school officials has built up in many localities a safer type of rural school system. My limited observation has convinced me that this type of community is freer of burdensome mortgages than either of the other two. When you have a community like that, you generally have good homes, good churches, good roads, good neighbors, and good substantial farmers. When you can get a community to plan the project and count the cost and put up the cash, you have one that will put up a good modern school. One of the outstanding weaknesses of the rural school situation has been the fact that we often engage a poor teacher, due sometimes to lack of training and experience, and due many times to too much tendency to hire a friend or relative. The rural teacher of tomorrow will need to be strong physically, mentally, and morally. Pay her a higher wage, place her on an equality with the teacher in town, give her an incentive to serve her school and community, and she will be happy to work in this redirected program, and will in a large measure assume responsibility for its success. Thirty or forty years ago, many of the rural boys and girls attended school until they were eighteen or twenty years of age, at least they attended school a part of each term which was usually six months in length. Today our rural children, because of nine-month terms and more regular atten¬ dance, are usually thru the rural schools and into high school at ages ranging from twelve to sixteen years. In the future we may expect the average age of rural school children to remain fairly constant. This being true, school authorities may now safely build the type of rural school best suited to rural school children ranging in ages from five to fifteen, and install modern equipment suitable to those ages. Our modern rural school may now safely make a curriculum suited to the needs of its children, and adopt textbooks and other teaching helps which will somewhat fit the comprehension of the children of the modern ele¬ mentary school. The rural school in a redirected program should better fit the child to live and be happy in his home environment. Department of Rural Education 409 There is a possibility in many localities that the new modern rural school will be a six-grade school, with a central township school for junior high work and a county high school for senior high and junior college work. There are thousands of communities which find it difficult to raise suffi¬ cient funds to properly build, equip, and maintain a good modern rural school. I am convinced that there is a remedy awaiting, if we can lead the people to see the need of enlarging that area so that there will be both enough tax money and sufficient children to make an interesting and lasting school. This increased taxing area will, without any burden, permit the people to levy more money each year than is needed. This surplus can be put at draw¬ ing interest, and will in a surprisingly short time amount to enough to put up a modern rural school. That we need far better supervision of our rural schools can hardly be doubted by anyone who has made a study of our present rural school system. No other business would leave the supervision of from fifty to four hundred workers, scattered over an entire county, to one person. Our rural people must be taught that our rural schools need closer supervision by trained and experienced educators. In conclusion, I would like to make the following recommendations: 1. Slightly increase the taxing area of many of our one-room rural schools, so that adequate funds could be raised to run a good school. 2. Get our boards in rural districts to see the need of levying more money each year than is needed to actually run the schools. When a township or a district has sufficient funds on hand, build a modern rural school. People will vote to build a school out of money on hand when they will not vote a bond or a debt-bearing interest. 3. Secure state aid for rural schools to supplement local taxation. 4. Work for gradual improvement of teachers, thru a longer period of training, older age limit, and more selective tests as to personality and health. 5. Secure more and better trained supervision. 6. Make the school more of a community center. 7. Provide more and better equipment, especially suited to the ages of the children. 8. Urge better cooperation between patrons and teachers. I believe that there are brighter days coming for our rural schools, be¬ cause there seems to be a national move getting under way really to do some¬ thing about them. A TWELVE-GRADE PROGRAM IN A COUNTY SYSTEM OF SCHOOLS D. Y. DUNN, SUPERINTENDENT, FAYETTE COUNTY SCHOOLS, LEXINGTON, KY. About eight years ago three communities in Fayette County, Kentucky, voted special taxes to transport pupils to school and to aid the county board of education in erecting more modern school buildings. In order to over¬ come any feeling of localism that might retard the reorganization of the county schools and to place pupils in schools best prepared to serve them, 410 National Education Association the board merged all subdistricts in the county into one county school dis¬ trict in October 1929. Recent thought in educational administration indicated that the work of the elementary school might be accomplished with the finish of the sixth grade. It was evident that more time was needed for additional subjects in the secondary school. These reasons, plus the advantages claimed for the junior high school, led those responsible for the new organization to set it up on the six-six plan. Other changes in administration were necessary to make this plan effective. It was necessary that the board change its policy so as to include free transportation of pupils for all twelve grades so that all might complete the public school program. To make the new program effective, teachers must be not only in sym¬ pathy with objectives of the program but they must have special training to enable them to carry out these objectives. The board of education raised the standards of qualifications for teachers coming into the system to that of graduation from a standard four-year college, plus special training in the grade level or in the subject-field in which they were to teach. A county school library at the office of the county superintendent has in¬ creased from a few hundred volumes in 1922 to 11,600 volumes at present. Libraries have been established in most schools and catalogued and classified according to the Dewey Decimal System. The smaller elementary schools of the county use the county library principally as the source of their reading material. No supervisor of instruction is employed in the county. This responsibility is shifted to the principals so far as direct supervision is required. A county plan of indirect supervision has been effective in stimulating teacher effort and coordinating subjectmatter taught in the various schools. Equal consideration has been given to the elementary and secondary schools in other needs than that of physical equipment and assignment of teachers. Such extra-class activities as bands, glee clubs, debating, dramatics, Hi-Y and Girl Reserve clubs, Future Farmers, and parliamentary clubs are sponsored in the high schools, and toy bands, mixed choruses, nature study, Junior Garden Clubs, and 4-H Clubs are sponsored in the elementary schools. Teachers are placed so as to give a balance of talent and training to each school. The objectives of the elementary school remain largely the same for the high school, with the shifting of emphasis from an attitude of social-minded- ness and the acquisition of tool-knowledge to that of the application of this knowledge in its relation to vocational and civic responsibilities. The health program gives consideration to both the elementary and the high schools. Child health conferences ai'e held in every school in an effort to immunize all children above six months of age against all diseases common to children. A thoro examination is made of all children in school, and an effort is made to have all physical defects corrected. We recognize that organization alone cannot insure the success of a school system, but this phase was given first consideration because it seemed a neces- Department of Rural Education 411 sary preliminary step to facilitate reaching the desired outcomes of the school. During the reorganization the per capita cost has been reduced and the financial credit of the board of education strengthened to the point that its bonds brought the highest price last month of any public securities in the state. We do not mean to imply that the program for Fa)^ette County schools is completed, for there are many adjustments yet to be made before the schools can adequately serve the needs of the children, but we do feel that some prog¬ ress has been made to give all pupils equal consideration. CONSOLIDATED AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS AS AVENUES FOR REDIRECTING LEARNING PROGRAMS IN RURAL AREAS ROBERT CLARK, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MONONGALIA COUNTY, MORGANTOWN, W. VA. In many rural communities today we find a decadent society. It is a natural consequence of the industrial era thru which we have passed for the last half century, debilitating rural society by its constant drain of wealth and leadership into industrial and metropolitan centers. There is no greater need in the nation today than the rebuilding and revitalizing of many of these rural communities. The depression has brought an about face in the prolonged rush of mankind to the white lights of the city. The rural com¬ munity is to be rebuilt, not as it was in a primitive and pioneering society, but as one in line with progress, enjoying the advantages of modern trans¬ portation, labor saving devices, and a public school program that offers advantages and opportunities that heretofore have been exclusively the possession of those living in urban communities. The leading factor in revitalizing rural communities is the community school. The progressive school is the natural center for all social as well as educational activities. Discussions on locating schools and closing schools by consolidation have often overlooked the implications of the following questions: What relation does the parent have to public school activities? Where are parents to continue their education? Where is the child going to live after school, during vacation, and when his school life is completed ? The rural school is much more than a place for the teaching of formal subjectmatter. It is or should be a dynamic community institution and the nucleus about which is conducted all the progressive community activities. It is not a place for a “ subjectmatter centered ” school or a “ child centered ” school. It provides the finest opportunity however for a “ life centered ” school, giving life blood and vitality to the community social life. No school should be closed by consolidation, summarily on the basis of mere per capita pupil costs. Those responsible for such action must look far into the future and act on complete information and sound principles of sociology. Where 412 National Education Association there is a nucleus of a desirable social center, and where there is a tradition or culture that will inspire stability and confidence, it must be conserved. This is the forgotten function but the challenging service of the rural school. THE SCHOOL PLANT IN A REDIRECTED PROGRAM JOHN W. BROOKER, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, FRANKFORT, KY. In no phase of rural school administration is there a more fertile field for the practise of genuine economy while improving efficiency than in the careful planning of district and countywide school-building programs. In¬ cluded in schoolhouse planning is practically every function of educational administration. Ideally every school building should be planned to meet the needs of the community as interpreted by those whose duty it is to formulate the curriculum of the school. No school building can be successfully planned unless the curriculum and organization of the school are thoroly understood by the planner. When these facts are known the school building may then be planned to house the desired number of children and to provide for the organization and curriculum of the school. The first step in determining an educational program is to set up the philosophy underlying it. This is the duty of the school administrators directing the educational affairs of the district. After the educational philosophy is once determined, the next step is to base upon this philosophy an educational program for the specific school unit. School buildings should be planned only for those centers in the county where school children may be brought together in sufficient numbers to insure an efficient and economical school. Where practicable no elementary school should be established in which a teacher is called upon to teach more than one grade. The high- school organization will necessarily vary according to the type of work offered, the sparseness of population, and other factors. In Kentucky most authorities agree that no high school can be maintained economically and efficiently with less than six teachers. If such a program of reorganization should be set up in the rural sections of this nation requiring elementary- and high-school organizations of this size, it would be possible to provide far greater educational opportunities for the children to be served. The selection of school centers and determining the character of work which the school building is to house should be based upon careful study of the county school district. This study should include office records, school and federal census, elementary- and high-school population according to dis¬ tribution, enrolment and attendance figures, instructional cost data, avail¬ able school sites, highway conditions, and other pertinent information. The findings of such a study should show the number of elementary- and high- school buildings needed, their approximate cost, their approximate location, Department of Rural Education 413 and a comparison of the present school organization with that required for the proposed program. The final step consists in the planning and construction of the school building itself. In the actual planning of the building, only permanent ma¬ terials, which are cheaper in the long run, should be used. The building should be flexible to allow for future developments and readily expansible to accommodate growing numbers. Arranged in the order of their importance the attributes of a school building designed to house such a redirected pro¬ gram are: (1) safety of life, (2) physical health and comfort, (3) educa¬ tional efficiency, and (4) architectural beauty. REDIRECTING THE TRAINING PROGRAM OF TEACHERS OF RURAL CHILDREN HELEN HAY HEYL, SUPERVISOR OF RURAL SCHOOLS, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, ALBANY, N. Y. If this talk were to be summarized into a single sentence, I should say it thus: The great need of rural education today is for teachers trained to think in terms of human values rather than in terms of subjectmatter. Insight into the problems of child personality must become increasingly the measure of a good teacher and the training program must be redirected to this end. Recently the state of New York asked a group of its normal school gradu¬ ates, at the close of their first year of teaching, to examine their training critically and to tell the state what they most needed during their first year of teaching which the teacher-training institution had failed to give them. Among many points made, three needs stood out. If expressed in the young person’s own language they might be stated somewhat as follows : 1. I wish I might have been taught more about the complex civilization in which I am living and of which, as a teacher, I am expected to be an interpreter to the young citizens in my charge. I honestly do not know enough of the underlying meanings of history, geography, economics — I do not know enough about the problems of American life to be able to teach anything more than the mere facts. I cannot teach these in a functional setting and I do not know how to help children make useful application of such content in understanding and in directing their own lives. 2. I wish that I might better understand the child’s nature and his needs, his environmental background and its educational potentialities. I want to help him grow in strength of personality and character; but I do not know how to lead him. I was trained to teach classes and I find myself teaching children, not classes. What am I supposed to make out of this raw material, these children, which you have given me, and how am I to make it? What do we want these children to be and how does one help them to be it? 3. What are the educational potentialities of this rural environment in which the children and I are working? How can I learn to use these natural resources which lie everywhere about me and which I never heard mentioned in my normal school? Is there, too, a rural heritage that belongs to all Americans — urban as well as rural? How can I help rural children come into this inheritance? 414 National Education Association A young schoolman in our state, Charles Keedle of Saranac, has been dis¬ covering what rural pupils themselves think of things educational. He there¬ fore conducted an inquiry among one hundred and sixty elementary children attending rural schools. This, of course, has been done many times ; but Mr. Keedle touched upon one point which is interesting to us here for when he inquired into the child and subjectmatter, he found arithmetic and spell¬ ing to be the favorite studies of these particular rural children. He discovered, too, that these rural children most disliked history and geography. Those subjects Mr. Keedle classifies as abstracts on the basis that while not entirely abstract they contain a large body of matter which cannot be so definitely right or wrong, but which must allow for differences of opinion, and so appeal to the reasoning faculties of the child and require original thought and judgment for solution of problems. Because these differences in classification, if allowed, are psychological they involve the treatment of the subjectmatter rather than its content. We find in these children’s reactions, therefore, another check on the }T>ung teacher’s plea: “ I honestly do not know enough about the problems of American life to be a guide for the young people who must one day help us solve these problems.” When asked what additional courses they would like in their country schools these rural children begged for “ woodworking,” as they called it, for elementary science, music, and cooking. Perhaps they knew other chil¬ dren who were enjoying such courses; possibly their high-school brothers and sisters mentioned such things. At any rate, by bringing all of these different units together we find that by studying child problems which rural teachers wish us to help them solve ; by making direct inquiry of young teachers about the kinds of training they wish their normal schools had given them; and by asking children themselves what they would like to learn of us, we have several direct implications for the redirection of teacher training. Attempting to analyze them, we find the program should : 1. Prepare teachers to understand children. Courses in psychology should be broadened into well-rounded courses in child development thru which all the technic of observing children in their environment and guiding them in its use are mastered. 2. Help teachers to understand life and especially the problems of modern American life, so that they may use the content subjects with children as means to a broader understanding of underlying principles and concepts basic to the child’s own life as a person, and as a citizen of the world. That is, social studies should cease to be presented as abstract facts and become concrete ideas, fulfilling the need for both an understanding and an appreciation of the child’s everyday living and his place in the larger world. 3. Send them out with some one skill or' art perfected which, thru sharing with their children, may enrich the lives of the children whom they teach. 4. Provide them with a knowledge and understanding of the rural heritage. In New York state some small beginning is already being made to redirect the teacher-training program to these ends. The immediate purpose of the program is to train all candidates for teaching in one- and two-room schools. As conceived at present there are to be three large sequences in this program : Department of Rural Education 415 1. Technical — Here the raw product (the child) will be studied in all his aspects. The prospective teacher will discover what can be made out of the child, and what should be made out of him. 2. Professional — Here the profession itself and its larger objectives will be studied so that the candidate will grow in his understanding of the pur¬ poses of democracy, and will become skilful, thru practise, in playing his part to further the larger purposes of education in a democracy, and will also grow in power to help improve the social order of which he and the child are a part. 3. English — The purpose here is to enrich the life of the candidate as a person and as a citizen of the world. REDIRECTING THE TRAINING PROGRAM FOR RURAL YOUTH R. M. STEWART, PROFESSOR OF RURAL EDUCATION, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. As I analyze the situation confronting us today, I am certain that redirec¬ tion must take place with reference to many of the aspects of the problems of educating rural youth. Three fundamental aspects which I desire to stress more particularly, and within which significant subordinate problems array themselves, are : 1. A new determination of the types of services that rural youth need and must have for the transition that affects their future relationships to life in the country and in their migrations to the city 2. The new emphasis upon selection of types of individuals who will render the teaching services in new types of schools 3. The more adequate preparation of teachers for the tasks involved. The above three references in the training program will be our skeleton of analysis, and with this in mind, let us turn to each for a moment. New schools for new needs — The first emphasis on rural youth must be a youth point of view; we must have a youth-centered school. That means before we can either select or train we must anticipate placement. American education cannot continue merely to educate youth with what has been traditionally good cultural material or even good patterns for rural youth. We must discover anew among the surgings of youth both in and out of school in rural areas potentialities and opportunities. Education must bring these together in a happy way. Selection of teachers follows upon the heels of the needed service — As the master artisan selects his tools carefully and accurately for the construction of material resources and their refinement into finished articles of use or art, so society must select the best teachers for the handling of human re¬ sources in the crucible of educational discipline for the aims of a progressing society. Further, the selection must be continuous, not only once in the first selection of competent individuals that give promise of possessing prophetic 14 416 National Education Association teaching personalities, but repeated selection as the tests of the teaching program are applied from step to step. The training itself must be more proper and adequate. We must be thru soon with blanket training for secondary-school teachers. The problems of youth in a complex and complicated society, and in determining social aims of good and valid report, are too great to expect one type of training to compass it all. Specialized training for teachers is just as imperative as our normal life is complex. In this connection, however, there is the added responsibility in training that the teacher, tho specialized, is responsible thru the processes of orientation and integration for securing in youth an appreciation of all essential phases of life. To develop further the above phases, one must analyze the needs in terms of the rural youth’s opportunities to go ahead. Then, one must analyze per¬ sons for teaching personality; qualities of physique and all physical traits, attitudes of mind and fitness for specific tasks ; qualities for the intellectual life and the stimulation of youth ; facilities of thought and action in pro¬ moting relatedness and wholeness of experience, however limited the culture- materials field may be. Then, one must set up a teacher-training program that gets its central emphasis in the exaltation of participation and type patterns. For years we have recognized participation as foundational to training programs, but the great majority of our teacher-training institutions still are not only content with traditional training, but provide little or no opportunity for first-hand education in the midst of youth’s activities. REDIRECTING THE TRAINING PROGRAM FOR TEACHERS OF ADULTS IN RURAL AREAS GEORGE H. KING, PRESIDENT, ABRAHAM BALDWIN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, TIFTON, GA. Adults who are to be taught must be taught in terms of abilities to do things. In gaining such abilities adults are faced with the necessity of solving certain problems. A limitless number of problems grow out of the activities involved in acquiring the abilities to do things. The teacher of adults should have the ability to recognize and discover problems in terms of human needs. The teacher of adults should have the ability to organize problems. To do this he must have a knowledge of how adults think. He must develop a desire on the part of his adults for knowledge and skill in the solution of their problems. He must be able to establish conditions of learning that will develop a favorable attitude on the part of the learner toward his problems. The teacher of adults must have the ability to teach adults successfully. The teacher of adults must be trained to lead skilfully and intelligently a conference group. Teacher-training institutions should redirect their teaching-training pro¬ grams to give teachers these abilities. Department of Rural Education 417 REDIRECTING THE TRAINING PROGRAM FOR RURAL SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS BEN W. FRAZIER, SENIOR SPECIALIST IN TEACHER TRAINING, UNITED STATES OFFICE OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Two major problems in rural education — equalization of educational op¬ portunities among schools given unequal financial support, and provision of preparation especially adapted to country life — apply not only to the educa¬ tion of rural school pupils but also to the preparation of rural school teachers and administrators. Opportunities for professional preparation of rural school principals and superintendents are more limited than for preparation of city school administrators ; and specific preparation is not sufficiently pro¬ vided for those who must administer or lead rural school and community activities. Selected elements of the instruction given rural school administrators should be adapted and imparted to rural school supervisors, small-town super¬ intendents, teachers of one-room rural schools, and heads of two-teacher or larger schools who give less than half-time to administration. Too often these workers receive little or no preparation for managerial duties. More careful analysis should be made of the qualifications and general status of rural school administrators in relation to their duties. Rural prin¬ cipals typically have less than four years of college preparation, are poorly paid, have family obligations, and can secure leaves of absence infrequently for further study. With eight or ten years’ experience they have often reached a plateau of improvement at a very low level. Preservice preparation of rural school administrators by teacher prepara¬ tion institutions should be more highly developed. The provision of a yeai of graduate work should be the next step in the program of preparation. More extended and specialized preparation would then be possible. Student teaching should include some administrative responsibilities. More instruc¬ tion in vocational and educational guidance should be given. There should be better selection of the students admitted to teacher preparation institutions. In-service improvement of rural school administrators should be extended and more carefully planned. Staff members who engage in the instruction of rural school administrators should be experienced and should be hand¬ picked on the basis of their success in work with adults. The services of state supervisors should be more often available to county superintendents. State organization of education should be strengthened so that more direct and unified control over educational personnel can be exercised. Larger school districts under state control would demand better prepared administra¬ tive heads. Certification requirements should apply more specifically to administrators in half or more of the states and should assist more effectively in upbuilding the qualifications of principals and superintendents. Finally, more state control should be exercised over the selection and approval of institutions that prepare teachers and administrators. 418 National Education Association HOW MAY THE STATE STAFF AID IN REDIRECTING THE PROGRAM OF RURAL EDUCATION IN TERMS OF PRESENTDAY NEEDS THRU SUPERVISION? HARRY B. KING, ASSISTANT STATE SUPERINTENDENT IN CHARGE OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, DOVER, DEL. In attempting to redirect a program of rural education thru supervision to meet presentday needs, there should be developed an attitude of intelligent inquiry, of open-mindedness, sympathetic understanding, and an apprecia¬ tion of rural school problems in relation to the social and economic condi¬ tions prevailing in every community. To these fundamentals should be added an intelligent vision of the educational task to be accomplished before apply¬ ing any of the supervisory technics which help to adapt an educational pro¬ gram to the conditions and needs in the rural schools. There should be a re-statement of the purpose of education and a new state¬ ment of policies and objectives, if we hope to approach the modern philosophy of education, which is to be followed by our teachers, principals, and super¬ visors in their methods and procedures. These objectives should provide for an integrated personality, which involves self-discovery, self-direction, self¬ appraisal, self-control, and self-realization. Children must have the oppor¬ tunity to develop creative spirit, critical thinking, scientific attitude, and social relationship ; to acquire knowledge and skill ; and to cultivate indi¬ vidual interests and aptitudes so that they may become worthy members of society. Any supervisory program to be effective must first of all have leadership so that proper interpretation may be given, and second, every person en¬ gaged in a supervisory capacity should be well qualified both by training and experience to deal successfully with the problems affecting the children, prin¬ cipals, teachers, and patrons. Everyone must understand the problems of rural education and the objectives of the program and be willing to carry them forward in a cooperative manner. The supervisors’ important duties are to maintain esprit de corps, to broaden the vision, to develop initiative and creative spirit, to encourage participation in the solution of school prob¬ lems, to improve the service of teachers, to build a spirit of freedom, con¬ fidence, and responsibility, and to see that all teachers have an opportunity for growth. To redirect a program in rural education thru supervision demands that every teacher be professionally trained, have a constructive philosophy of education, be skilled in the technics of teaching, be an effective participant in society, understand the meaning of professional ethics, and possess and prac¬ tise those traits of character which make his activities of life above reproach. Prospective teachers should receive their professional training in a pro¬ fessional school which provides opportunities in the laboratory school to Department of Rural Education 419 observe, analyze, and participate in modern theories and practises in educa¬ tion. They should also be given the opportunity for practise teaching in an actual classroom situation under the supervision of a superintendent, prin¬ cipal, general supervisor, or special subject supervisor that they may become sensitive to the procedures of a specific school. A new curriculum must be developed and enriched in the light of the present philosophies of education. It must provide for an integrated pro¬ gram adapted to the individual needs which will build integrated personali¬ ties. The integrated curriculum provides opportunities for children to live, to learn, to experience, and to build their ways of behaving into their very being as they need them. The new curriculum is enriched by the oppor¬ tunities that are provided for children to know and experience the cultural and esthetic values of life, as expressed in art, music, drama, and literature. The subjectmatter in the new curriculum is adapted to the individual needs, abilities, and capacities of the children. Provision is made for indi¬ vidual instruction and development. The exceptional or maladjusted child is forced to the foreground in public education. Special facilities and in¬ structors are provided to make him happy, to show him how to get along with others, to share life’s values, and to teach him how to use and express his powers to the maximum. The curriculum for the rural schools should be in constant process of revision that the program of education may be reconstructed in the light of the ever-changing social ideals and the social and economic conditions. The revision should be made by the cooperative efforts of all the members of the educational staff. The contributions of research specialists and educational leaders should be utilized and incorporated in the curriculum. The problem of keeping the public informed thru community relation¬ ships is an important activity of the educational leader. The progress and safety of the schools depend upon how well the school program is interpreted to the public. The problem of maintaining public understanding is very closely allied to that of securing adequate financial support. Close coopera¬ tion of every educator is essential for interpreting the purpose and value of the services rendered by the program of education to the society it serves. IMPROVEMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION THRU COORDINATION WILSON S. DAKIN, SENIOR SUPERVISOR OF RURAL EDUCATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, HARTFORD, CONN. Children must be freed from the dullness and boredom of mediocre living. In their work and play thruout the days and seasons of the year they seek, according to their brightness and stages of development, occupations of one kind or another. Imitating his elders, stimulated by toys, tools, pictures, and travel, the child continues in the free time of his waking hours to explore, to venture, to collect, to build. In his most active pursuits he is preferably 420 National Education Association with others to whom he is temporarily bound by one interest or another. Potent among these associations are the ones that come by participation in groups organized outside the school, for religious instruction, for character training, for recreation, for the pursuit of special interests. The school may become the clearing-house, the central agency wherein all resources, educational for the child, can be studied and made meaningful to him. To the school he brings the flowers he finds by the roadside. In the classroom he should seek answers to the questions that arise in his observation of the life about him, his reading, his radio hours, his conversation with others, toys, plants, and pets. All his interests should find recognition and satisfaction in his school life. From these experiences the skilful teacher may guide the child thru discussions and experiments in ways that will make living more fascinating and withal more truly educative. These school inquiries should in turn suggest problems that can be answered only by direct contact with life. Such studies lead the child back in time to aspects of his¬ tory ; abroad to a knowledge of geography ; thru his imagination to appreciate literature, music, and art. Supplementing a curriculum there might well be for each community a “ plan of education ” in which schoolroom experience will be an element, but not the only one, for child development. This “ plan of education ” should seek to mobilize the resources of the community, social and material, each to the best advantage, for all twelve months of every year. It should develop common policies and aims toward which each agency may contribute its share toward social training, religious training, health and recreational activities, vocational insight, and civic loyalties. LEADERSHIP OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION FOR RURAL EDUCATION JOHN A. WIELAND, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, SPRINGFIELD, ILL. We have a unique situation in Illinois. There are more than 10,101 one- room schools in the state. We have 2658 one-room schools with an average enrolment of less than ten. We have only two counties in our state that have no schools with an enrolment of less than ten. In this situation we find ourselves with approximately 30,400 school directors directing 10,100 teachers. Fifty percent of these teachers have under two years of training. In 1934 we had 4494 teachers with one year or less of training beyond high school. In that same year we had 2971 teachers with two years or slightly less of training beyond high school. In 1934 we had only 507 teachers with three years’ training beyond the high school and in that same year we had 631 with four years or more of teacher training in the rural one-room school. We have three times as many schoolboard members as we do teachers. This, in one-room schools, shows over the years that there never has been a particular policy in regard to strengthening the purposes and the work of Department of Rural Education 421 these schools. With such a large number of schoolboards there is not that possibility of correlated action relative to school policy which every state should have. We are passing thru very difficult times now and for that reason salaries are being slashed tremendously. It now becomes a question for the board of education to consider who is the cheapest teacher that can be employed instead of who is the best teacher that we can employ at the least wage. Both are undesirable, and yet, the greater of two evils is often practised at this point. The fertility of the country or the wealth of the district did not play an important part in those considerations. The survey by my office brought this out, and that forms one of the most important re¬ search programs for us — getting and classifying the facts relative to salaries. Illinois has a condition which cannot be defended at all now. I under¬ stand, of course, how this situation came about. It grew out of a very natural condition when Illinois had poor roads and natural barriers such as streams without bridges which made it difficult for any other type of school organization for us. That has brought about the conditions that discourage trained teachers. They teach one or two years in a rural school and if they can go to a city school system or even the village school system it is like a mecca to them. They are looking east for the first time in their professional lives. Education is a science to the trained in our profession, but it is not a science to that great group of untrained people who teach for a living only. Teach¬ ing is both a science and an art. Now, take this under-trained teacher with¬ out the background necessary to understand the social and economic system in which he lives. He is teaching a small rural school, under-paid without those privileges which he should have. Is there any reason for him, unless he be exceptionally brilliant and determined, to improve himself? In the first place he doesn’t get enough salary to save any money to improve him¬ self. Under those conditions does he have that fine feeling for what should be his profession? I say “ No! ” We are right now formulating a curriculum, four years in length, a train¬ ing specifically for rural and village schools with particular emphasis upon a wide basic knowledge which will make teachers appreciative over a wide range. If we can start in our state teachers colleges on a four-year course that really lays a foundation for an appreciation of rural lives and habits, of rural economics, of rural idealism, at least then we can send into some of those schoolrooms the type of people that will give educational service to our rural communities. We are asking our state legislature to give us a state distributive fund of $30,000,000, or we will do so in the very near future. That will guarantee to every teacher with standard teaching load approxi¬ mately $600. I think it is the business of the superintendent of public instruction as the leader, recognized under the law of the public school system, to fight for those improvements. That is his business. He is supposed to help lay down that policy and fight for it. We are trying now to work out a sort 422 National Education Association of correlation between our teachers institutions and our state department whereby we will have some type of uniformity in teacher training within the state of Illinois, upon a higher level than ever before. If we can re¬ establish a basic pay which is adequate for our teachers then we can demand better trained teachers. That, in turn, I hope, will lead to a reorganization of our school system where we can really give our people an education. My assistant superintendents will go out with the specific notion of setting up remedial work to help teachers. Mere criticism — fault finding — is not for a state department. Unless every criticism is matched with a remedy to do better work and that is given to the teacher so that he can improve from it, such inspectional work is futile. In my department this supervision will extend from the rural school to the junior college. That leadership must be made by the state superintendent — he cannot escape it. A state superin¬ tendent should inspire, but he should do more than that. He should furnish a tangible leadership that reaches to every school strata and his staff should be chosen with the idea of meeting this situation. Anything less than that cannot succeed. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS SUE M. POWERS, SUPERINTENDENT, SHELBY COUNTY SCHOOLS, MEMPHIS, TENN., Chairman The fundamental factors of organization, finance, administration, and instruction in the established educational opportunities afforded rural and urban children have been definitely discriminatory against the children in rural areas. The stress and strain of recent years have accentuated rather than alleviated these inequalities and unjust discriminations. This period of economic and social change offers the opportunity to correct these in¬ equalities and adjust the educational program from the standpoint of national, state, and local cooperative effort to the end that every child whether urban or rural may have adequate and equitable educational opportunities. The Department of Rural Education of the National Education Associa¬ tion appreciates the increasing attention being given to the educational needs of rural children by the officers and departments of the National Education Association. The designating of one day of American Education Week to the interests and needs of education in rural areas in the 1934 program was of great value and should become a regular part of this important annual event. The Department of Rural Education should cooperate with the National Education Association in the formulation and distribution of materials of national interest and should stimulate state and local rural groups to render specific aid toward this same end in their respective states and communities. We reiterate our position taken last year that the Board of Directors of the National Education Association authorize the employment of an in¬ terpreter of rural education and urge the Budget Committee of the National Department of Rural Education 423 Education Association to make the necessary appropriation for the employ¬ ment of such a person at the earliest date possible. We wish to commend the efforts that have been made in cooperation with those organizations interested in guidance of youth and the preparation of teachers and other leaders for such work among rural youth. The splendid beginning that has been made here should be carried forward until a com¬ prehensive and intelligent program of guidance for rural youth is an accom¬ plished fact. We wish to commend the United States Office of Education for the efforts that are being made to develop intelligent technics for the administration of federal emergency aid to state educational endeavor. Particularly do we wish to commend the United States Commissioner of Education for his efforts to secure federal funds for school plant surveys looking toward the establishment of enlarged and more adequate rural school buildings; the establishment of special demonstration centers for adult education thru forum leaders in larger rural areas ; and the establishment of a special youth service division in the national Office of Education to coordinate and stimu¬ late the organizations and activities in this line to the end that rural youth may have the understanding, sympathy, and guidance they so greatly need in these days. To these worthy objectives of the United States Commis¬ sioner of Education we pledge our hearty support. Further we should like to urge that the Office of Education seek to secure substantial federal assis¬ tance to the several states in obtaining and maintaining for the children of rural areas adequate library facilities and other instructional equipment; modern housing of their schools in well-planned social areas; and an ade¬ quately trained staff of teachers, supervisors of instruction, and administra¬ tive officers to insure for rural children the best educational advantages obtainable. We believe that careful attention should be given to the formulation of a comprehensive program of intelligently planned educational service to be administered by our national, state, and local school officials that will guar¬ antee to every child his educational birthright. To this end we oppose any legislation or practises now operative or contemplated that place under the administrative control of other departments, bureaus, or officials matters that properly belong to educational officials and authorities — national, state, and local. We commend the work of the special committee on objectives for rural education in the United States and suggest that its statement be studied further by the committee and the members of this Department and that a revised statement be brought to the summer meeting in Denver for further consideration by this Department. 424 National Education Association IMPROVED METHODS OF FINANCING RURAL EDUCATION WILLIAM G. CARR, DIRECTOR, RESEARCH DIVISION, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. There are, I think, about four main proposals which must be given brief consideration as steps in the improvement of rural school finance. The gen¬ eral outlines of these four proposals are, I feel sure, already familiar to most of you. 1. Adequate local units — Every rural community should be so organized for school purposes that there may be available competent educational leader¬ ship and other services. This involves primarily a unit of local school ad¬ ministration large enough to make such services financially possible and desirable. You will note that I said every community. Since we are dealing here with units for administration and finance rather than units for atten¬ dance purposes there seems to be no good reason for compromising on this particular issue. 2. State tax reforms — The farmer is one of the chief sufferers from the almost exclusive reliance on the general property tax which still encumbers the public revenue system of the United States. In 1926-27, the latest years for which a comprehensive national study is available, taxes claimed about 30 percent of the net rent of farm real estate. On the basis of intensive studies in fourteen states, the United States Department of Agriculture reached this conclusion : Farm property is heavily taxed, and along with other real estate and certain other classes of tangible property, it is bearing more than its reasonable share of the cost of local government. The methods by which the local units are financed place on tangible property almost the whole weight of local expenditure. The general property tax is by far the most important tax paid by Ameri¬ can farmers. In 1927, this tax accounted for more than four-fifths of the total tax collections. This indicates the excessive reliance of most states on the general property tax as a source of public revenue. 3. Apportionment of state school funds — Historically the theory of ap¬ portioning state school funds has passed thru three stages. As long as school funds were small and education was a purely local concern, it seemed entirely logical and satisfactory to distribute state funds to each county or school district in proportion to the number of children of school age in the district. A second stage in the development followed when it became evident that a distribution on the basis of the number of children was difficult to ad¬ minister and doubtful in results. It was reasoned that the state school fund ought to encourage local districts to provide good schools. States gradually began to distribute all or part of their school funds in such a way as to reward school districts which were willing to go further than the others in the development of their educational program. This second theory of reward-for-effort was a great advance over the early crude methods of Department of Rural Education 425 apportionment. More recently, however, the theory of reward-for-effort has in turn been critically regarded. The increasing concentration of wealth emphasized the fact that some communities need state aid far more desper¬ ately than others. Some communities, indeed, could not meet state minimum educational requirements without such aid. Yet the reward-for-effort theory, at least as ordinarily put into practise, denied state aid to the less wealthy districts and gave aid abundantly to the wealthy districts which needed it least. Out of this condition grew a third principle of apportionment ; that state school funds should be distributed so as to permit every district to offer a reasonable program of education on a reasonable tax. The trend is clearly toward an increased emphasis on this equalization principle. Reduced to its simplest terms, the equalization principle means an adequate state school fund apportioned in such a way that a reasonable educational opportunity is available to every child without unreasonable local taxation. The importance of this principle to the rural child is clear. The balance of wealth favors the city and severely restricts the educa¬ tional opportunities of the rural child. From the viewpoint of school sup¬ port this condition can be met only by statewide application of the principle of equalization. 4. Federal aid to education — It is not always recognized that federal aid to the public schools might have important special advantages for the rural schools. The extent to which rural schools would profit by a program of federal aid would depend largely on the basis upon which the federal grants would be apportioned among the several states. A straight grant of a fixed sum per child would give no special assistance to rural schools which would not also be given to urban schools. If this aid is to reach rural schools in amounts which will offset their present financial handicap it will be neces¬ sary for the federal government to adopt an equalization plan of apportion¬ ment along very much the same general lines as have already been sug¬ gested for the states. The appropriateness of action by the federal government to improve the financial situation relative to rural schools is supported by a number of con¬ siderations. There has just been printed a study of the education of people on the relief roll on Alabama farms. This report gives some amazing facts regarding the education of this group of American citizens. The report shows that one-third or more of the adults receiving relief on Alabama farms are essentially illiterate — that is, they have either never been to school or have not passed beyond the third grade. We find the federal government pouring out billions for relief to people who are not in any position to profit fundamentally from this relief because of the lack of educational oppor¬ tunities. Would it not be a better policy for the federal government to send funds into these farm areas to educate the children, and thus raise the eco¬ nomic and cultural standards of the community for all time to come? If the federal government can step in to alleviate the emergency relief needs, can it not with equal validity step in to anticipate and forestall these needs ? 426 National Education Association What I am saying is that rural education is the true basis for farm relief. Better schools in rural areas are needed in America, not only with the immediate welfare of the children concerned, but as a factor in improving the general standards of rural life. Investigation after investigation has shown that progressive and coopera¬ tive attitudes among farmers are shown by a relatively high level of educa¬ tion. It is because we need a rural population which can apply scientific methods, which can cooperate with the others, which can appraise economic and social issues independently, which can adjust means to ends — it is because we need such a population that we are interested in refinancing the rural schools of the nation. BETTERMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION THRU IMPROVED LEADERSHIP J. T. ANDERSON, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, KEARNEY, NEBR. Other things equal, no enterprise is likely to rise above the level of its leadership. This is especially true in education ; therefore much depends upon the personnel of state and county officers as well as upon the teaching staff. The main function of the state department of education is leadership. The chief state school officer needs, probably more than any other educa¬ tional official, a superior type of leadership ability. He should be a man of broad training and experience ; a man of vision, understanding, and integrity; one in whom his constituency may have complete confidence. The state superintendent’s office should be removed from partisan politics, and candi¬ dacy to the office should not necessarily be limited to the state. It is generally agreed that the official should be appointed by and responsible to a state board of education which should consist of a continuous body of from five to nine members, elected by the people or appointed by the governor in such a manner that there is never an entirely new board. The range in annual salaries paid to the chief state school officer among the various states is from $1800 to $15,000. The median salary is $5000. This salary is considerably less than the best salaries paid city superintendents and presidents of state universities. Better salaries will tend to attract more efficient leadership. Provision for an adequate number of well-trained assis¬ tants is also essential to success in the state department’s program of leadership. Leadership in the county superintendent’s office is as much to be desired as it is in the office of the state superintendent. The county superintendent should be a college graduate with one year of graduate professional study, specializing in supervision and rural school administration, and have had not less than five years of experience in public school work. He should be selected by a county board of education in a manner similar to that prescribed Department of Rural Education 427 for the state superintendent. In the removal of the selection of the county superintendent from popular election, the importance of the county board of education becomes more apparent. In general, the qualifications of the county board members and the state board members are similar. The salary of county superintendents is far below the salary paid city superintendents. An increase in remuneration and security in tenure will tend to attract more efficient administrators to the office of the county superintendent, and thus improve the leadership afforded the schools of the county. For the county superintendent to carry on his work to the best advantage, it is necessary that he be supported by a group of well- trained office and supervisory assistants. The best schools are being taught by the best qualified teachers. Rural schools will be improved with better prepared teachers. Present needs in education demand a new type of leadership on the part of teachers. Those activities of the school which carry over into the home and community life of the individual are perhaps the most effective agencies in providing the results of training which we call growth and life . LARGER UNITS OF ORGANIZATION HARRY E. ELDER, REGISTRAR AND DIRECTOR OF STUDENT PROGRAMS, INDIANA STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, TERRE HAUTE, IND. While there are many notable exceptions, the rural school as a whole is strikingly ineffective and uneconomical. Inexperienced, poorly prepared, and underpaid teachers, insecure in their positions because of the unshackled influence of politics and nepotism, hold forth for pitifully short terms in unhygienic and inadequately equipped buildings, typical of the last century. Frequently a county is split into hundreds of little districts with abso¬ lutely no unity except that imposed by the general school laws of the state. County supervision exists in name only and is clerical, statistical, and political rather than personal, helpful, and professional. With no unity of administra¬ tion there can be no specialization and no adaptations of the curriculum to individual needs. Each teacher is forced to be a generalist who presents all subjects in a mediocre or inferior manner. Thru larger units of organization cities have been pioneers in the exten¬ sion of educational opportunities. Because many educators have been un¬ willing to consider political appointments as county or state superintendents, cities have maintained for generations almost a monopoly of the genuine leaders in educational administration. Better teachers, better housing and equipment, and better results have gone hand in hand with the adoption of the larger unit. Our problem, then, becomes one of the general improvement of rural edu¬ cation by adopting the principles of administration already tested and found effective. Before this can be accomplished district and township organiza¬ tions must be completely subordinated to county and state units, and party politics must be eliminated from the management of schools. 428 National Education Association The desired change must be superimposed from above — by the state. Minimum standards must be adopted and every school district in the state must be supplied with the leadership and financial support necessary to main¬ tain these standards. The length of term, the certification of teachers, rates and forms of taxation, curriculums, minimum salaries, and attendance are state rather than local problems. State departments of education must cease to be statistical and political in nature — they must be continuously staffed by the best leadership available and must have the respect and confidence of all educators. Because public education is a dynamic institution, sensitive to changing conditions and varying social needs, present desirable trends will continue until common practise approaches what experience has proved to be right. To hasten the achievement of this ideal is a task worthy of the best efforts of the National Education Association and of leading educators in America. DEPARTMENT OF School Health and Physical £ ducat ion HISTORICAL NOTE The department of school health and physical education had its beginning as the Department of Child Study which was created at the Asbury Park meeting in 1894. In 1911 the name was changed to the De¬ partment of Child Hygiene. See proceedings, 1911: 870. In luly 1924 the Department was merged with the Department of Physical and Health Education under the name of the Department of School Health and Physical Education. See proceedings, 1924: 96. The officers of the Department for the year 1935-36 are: president, A. W. Thompson, Director of Health Education and City Recreation, Board of Education, Grand Rapids, Mich.; vicepresident, Edna W . Bailey, Associate Professor of Education, University of Calif or nia, Berke¬ ley, Calif.; secretary-treasurer, lames E. Rogers, Director, National Physical Education Service, 315 Fourth Avenue, New York, N. Y .; executive committee: Ethel Perrin, Associate Director of Education Service, American Child Health Association, New York, N. Y. ( term expires 1936); E. W. Maroney, Professor of Physical Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. ( term expires 1937) ; A. G. Ireland, Director of Health and Physical Education, State Department of Education, Trenton, N. I. ( term expires 1938) ; William Burdick, State Director of Physical Education, 7 East Mulberry Street, Baltimore, Md. ( term expires 1939). The Department meets once each year, in dune. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1893: 615- 678 1894: 40 1895: 944- 950 1896: 893- 936 1897: 870- 915 1898: 929- 959 1899 -.1064-1096 1901: 758- 770 1902: 739- 758 190 3:817- 846 1904:803- 841 1905:755- 779 190 6:711- 713 190 7:925- 950 1908 -.998-1045 1909:745- 788 1910:921- 948 1911:905- 938 1912 -.1141-1151 1913: 667- 694 1914: 683- 720 1915: 971- 994 1916: 681- 698 1917: 521- 533 1918: 339- 357 1919: 315- 321 1920: 311- 321 1921: 517- 522 1922 -.1085-1098 1923: 744 1924 : 637- 649 1925: 577- 597 1926: 601- 624 1927: 561- 581 1928: 545- 567 1929: 543- 558 1930:501-527 1931:541-560 1932:455-466 19 33:463-475 1934:461-468 [430] WHAT IS A PROGRAM OF SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICE ADEQUATE TO MEET PRESENTDAY NEEDS? EDNA W. BAILEY, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CALIF. A few fundamental principles governing the program of health ser¬ vices in the secondary schools will be mentioned here. 1. The program should differ from that found reasonably adequate for younger children. 2. It should make specifically different provisions for boys and for girls, having regard to their different health histories, environmental hazards, and probable future interests and responsibilities. In general, the programs now functioning do much better by the girl than by the boy. 3. Health service for youth should make special provision for safety instruction, especially in regard to school activities and automobile dodging and driving ; this is more urgent and must be more effective for boys than for girls. 4. Tuberculosis and other respiratory diseases should be specifically taken account of, and every known measure of prevention and control enforced. The school has at least an advisory and friendly part to play in helping parents to secure adequate medical care. The school has also a responsibility, apparently not often recognized, to provide for rehabilitation during con¬ valescence. In regard to tuberculosis, the risk is much greater for girls than for boys ; but the need for rehabilitation is equally great in both sexes. 5. Greatly increased attendance in secondary schools is largely destroying the “ selective character ” of their youthful population. Adequate health service will recognize the increasingly large proportion of underprivileged children, for whom tolerable living conditions, adequate food, medical and dental care, must be provided. To make this provision is not generally re¬ garded as the business of the school health service or staff ; but recent studies show strong sentiment in favor of the school taking some definite responsi¬ bility for seeing to it that the needed care is somehow provided. 6. Since the function of health service in secondary schools is essentially educational, the professional personnel, especially school nurses and physi¬ cians, need special preparation and special aptitude for their tasks. 7. All these specifications for a school health service which can be relied on to meet the needs of youth carry as corollary the demand for a concep¬ tion of the service as a whole school program, with important relations to all other community agencies. Parents are perhaps the most important group; next come the practising physicians, dentists, and public health officials. No program can escape futility which fails in these “ public rela¬ tions ” aspects. A few progressive and realistic schools are attacking the problem without prejudices or preconceived notions; they are learning that parents of adolescents and family physicians who feel responsible for their young [431] 432 National Education Association patients are intensely interested in every effort made by the school to keep them in touch with their children’s lives, and to utilize for the pupil’s better guidance all that parent and physician can tell of his history and personality. Parents of nine-year-olds may feel self-sufficient and adequate ; but present conditions and modern youth leave no parent of an adolescent in that satisfied and peaceful state. Their eagerness and willingness to be taught, their pleasure in being of use, their devotion to the school which honors them by assuming they love their own offspring and can give any faculty useful hints on handling boys and girls — these are most impressive, and are a chal¬ lenge to all secondary schools to find ways to reach parents and to capitalize their contributions. HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION FOR THE NEW ERA STRONG HINMAN, SUPERVISOR OF HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, WICHITA, KANS. Educators have placed health as the first of the cardinal objectives of education. Some school administrators have practised their theory and have developed outstanding programs in health and physical education. Others have been content to drift along, and as a result this fundamental work has taken a minor place in the curriculum. A sound mind in a sound body was an important Greek objective, but it is even more important today because we need sound minds and bodies to cope adequately with the dynamic society in which we are forced to struggle. More patients are entering hospitals for nervous and mental diseases than ever before ; and unless we call a halt and take a serious inventory of our health assets and liabilities and slow down, we are heading for a crack-up. For our health service we secure doctors, dentists, and nurses who have received degrees in their respective fields from accredited institutions. Teach¬ ers in the division of health education have received special training for their work, but when it comes to the division of physical education we ought to bow our heads in shame. In a neighboring state there are employed a num¬ ber of teachers who are giving all or part of their time to teaching some phase of physical education. According to their own statements only a few of these have had any professional preparation. No wonder physical educa¬ tion has been looked upon as a frill. The very thought of placing the most precious mechanism in the world in the hands of an untrained person who might allow irreparable damage to result from improper handling is enough to cause cold chills. We would not treat our cars with such disrespect, yet we allow unskilled and untrained “ mechanics ” to tinker with our growing boys and girls. No one should be allowed to teach physical education unless he has secured at least a major in the subject. A full-time allotment must be given to health and physical education if we expect to get results. We cannot hope to develop vigorous bodies which radiate positive health or to inculcate the highest standards of character if we have our pupils only two or three hours each week. Good health, vigorous bodies, sound minds, and fine characters cannot be purchased in a patent Department of School Health and Physical Education 433 medicine bottle at the corner drug store, but require regular daily effort on the part of the individual to acquire them. English is a daily subject in most schools, and surely a subject which is admitted to be the foundation of all life should have daily attention. One hour every day should be devoted to specific instruction in health and physical education, and in addition oppor¬ tunity should be given after school to practise the activities learned in school. Finally, if we are to fulfil our aim we must provide activities in which boys and girls can engage together. Coeducation in physical education is the coming thing and rightly so. Boys and girls are going to live together as men and women in a few years and ought to be taught how to get along with one another. The activities in a well-rounded program of physical education give a splendid opportunity for this. Tennis, tetherball, golf, hik¬ ing, canoeing, swimming, folk dancing, and social dancing should be a part of our coeducational program. Leisure time is ours in abundance now, and it looks as tho we would have more of it than we want in the future. Our schools are beginning to teach pupils how to enjoy leisure wisely, and physical education should play a large part in it. A new social order is being ushered in, and it is being done thru the public schools. In the United States we are taking part in an evolution and are beginning to realize that every individual owes a certain obligation to society, and that he must contribute to the common good. A sane school program including games and sports will help to instil these principles in the minds of our future citizens. The youth of today is turned loose in a confused society and he is wondering what it is all about. He has seen us stressing education for labor, for high-school graduation, for college en¬ trance and academic credits. In our new era we must stress activities that will secure sound minds and vigorous bodies, enrich a life of leisure, develop a thirst for culture, an appreciation for beauty, and a supreme personal enthusiasm to live most and serve best. THE PROGRAM OF GIRLS’ ATHLETICS FROM THE 1935 VIEWPOINT HAZEL CAVE, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, PITTSBURG, KANS. Not until the early part of this century was there any pronounced trend in the direction of girls participating in the more strenuous team sports and the consequent desire for interschool competition. Men had blazed the trail and it was but natural that girls should follow, but there were a number of pitfalls. Among these were intensive training for a few already physically fit and resultant neglect for those in greatest need, emphasis on immediate victories rather than future health and happiness, exploitation for the sake of the fame or financial gain of some institution or industry, adoption of undesirable types of costume, and contributing to these and most detrimental of all, was the lack of trained leadership. 434 National Education Association The actual and potential dangers in this situation led a group of fore- sighted women to the formation of the Women’s Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation in April 1923. I believe I am safe in saying that the platform of this organization has been one of the most important influences in shaping the program of women’s athletics along sane and wholesome lines. Its policies have been endorsed by a great number of in¬ fluential groups, one of which is the National Education Association. In setting up some objectives, I shall quote from Agnes Wayman’s book, Education thru Physical Education: 1. Health — not just a negative condition represented by absence of physical defects, but glad, radiant, positive, abundant health 2. Strong muscles, and strong, well-poised bodies, mechanically correct and able to carry their loads easily 3. Organically sound bodies 4. Good neuromuscular control as represented not only by their reactions to motor activities, but by their quick adjustment to any situation which arises 5. Standards of living and established ideals, which will make every boy and girl a finer and broader man and woman and not put a few on pedestals and worship them because of records in this and that sport or event 6. A wise use of leisure time, and the means for using it more wisely. But what are objectives without a leader who is convinced heart and mind that those objectives are worthwhile? I take it for granted that we all agree that that leader for girls must be a woman. What qualities must such a leader have in order that those objectives be attained by the group which she guides, be it students, office girls, or factory girls? Above all I would place an absorbing enthusiasm for her work and a sense of humor. I am tacitly assuming an adequate background of cultural, scientific, and profes¬ sional training. Perhaps on par with the two qualities already mentioned is absolute fair-mindedness — that is, ability to appreciate the other person’s viewpoint, whether that person be one who greatly appeals to her, or one for whom she has a great aversion. Woven into the whole pattern must be patience, patience, and more patience. What shall be the leader’s guiding principles? If she be a person of 1935 ideals her program shall be so planned that it not only furnishes opportunity for each and every girl to participate in some activity, but it shall be so attractive that the indifferent ones cannot resist its appeal. If time allowed, it might be worthwhile to go into detail on other essential principles, but let it suffice to refer you again to the already familiar platform of the Women’s Division of N. A. A. F. Some specific procedures are as follows : 1. Development of a leaders’ corps. The primary function of the leaders’ corps is to make possible for the student the development of the qualities of leadership in practical situations. 2. An extensive program of intramural athletics. Probably of greatest benefit is a grouping of students which carries thru the year, and from these groups teams are chosen for the various seasonal sports. 3. Highlight number three is play days. In play days we have a situation par excellence for working out many of our aims; large numbers can participate, the girl of mediocre ability feels that she has her place, and an opportunity is presented for practical application of sportsmanship in a social situation. Department of School Health and Physical Education 435 4. Telegraphic competition. This, of course, lacks the stimulation of competition in which opponents meet face to face. 5. Presentation of sports. Every sport has certain fundamentals which are es¬ sential to its successful performance. It is the problem of every teacher to convince her girls that practise on those fundamentals is necessary if they are to attain any degree of skill. 6. The effect of physical activity upon mental health. Have you ever seen a timid, uncertain individual blossom with new confidence when she found that she could throw the ball as far, or run as fast as some other girl? Desirable attitudes which will function all thru life may be built up in physical education activities. 7. Greater use of school gymnasiums, pools, and playgrounds in the evenings and over week-ends. We trust that the public will be so awakened to the values of the athletic program that adequate financial backing and larger staffs of in¬ structors will ryake such a use of facilities possible. What then shall be used as a measuring stick for the success of our program? Shall it be by games won, records broken, larger audiences at¬ tracted by spectacular performances, or as Miss Wayman points out, by the type of game the girls play, the way they conduct themselves, the form they show, by their physical condition, by the number who participate, by the number who improve, and by their happiness, morale, and enthusiasm, and may I add, by the number who use activities learned to occupy their leisure time? AVOCATIONAL TRAINING FOR THE NEW LEISURE GEORGE W. BRADEN, WESTERN REPRESENTATIVE, NATIONAL RECREATION ASSOCIATION, PASADENA, CALIF. In order to make the new leisure an asset in community life there must be a great increase in facilities, leisure-time training, greatly enriched and expanded programs, and skilled, sympathetic, and highly qualified leader¬ ship. It must be recognized that all people do not seek recreation in the same way and that facilities and programs must serve all ages and conditions of people year-round and at convenient centers. John H. Finley, vicepresident of the National Recreation Association, in his foreword in The New Leisure Challenges the Schools has stated that it is a more difficult task to teach men to use leisure rightly than to instruct them how to labor efficiently, and that it is indeed likely that the wise use of increasing leisure may become for the masses as for the few the chief end of education. Following are ten points to be emphasized in avocational training and leisure activities expression : 1. Nature contacting and nature crafts — Nature lore, Indian lore, camps, hikes, outings, nature guiding, nature books, collections, and museums. 2. Social recreation — Training for right social practises and contacts; the technic and management of parties, dances, and dining; the management and control of social recreation centers; and special planning of social contacts of young people of marriageable age. 3. Physical activities — The culture of the body as a fine art — the Greek em¬ phasis; physical education as equipment for fine and abundant living rather than as a preparation for sports and pastimes which are an end in themselves; the 436 National Education Association cultivation of self-chosen activities which carry over into adult life — dancing, aquatics, hiking, horseback riding, tennis, Badminton, archery, or golf. 4. Recreative music — Music for the joy of self-expression thru sound creation — bands, orchestras, chorals, harmonica bands, or folk music. 5. Recreative drama — There needs to be a tremendous expansion of the dra¬ matic emphasis which has been too largely confined to' the producing of plays. Pageants, the major and minor festivals, processionals, pantomines and tableaux, dramatized costume parties, shadow graphs, and puppetry. 6. Rhythmics — Fundamental training in rhythmics — folk, national, athletic, in¬ terpretative, gymnastic, classical, naturalistic, and social dancing. 7. The recreative arts of line, color, form, and perspective — Painting, sculpture, plastics, relief, and photographic arts. 8. Handicraft arts — Work in Avood, metal, textiles, paper, leather, and reed, raffia, bead, and wire work. 9. Scientific experimentation hobbies — Astronomical, botanical, efectrical, chemi¬ cal, aeronautical, and radio. Thousands of boys are tinkering with automotives, radio, aircraft, and boat building. 10. Linguistic arts — Old-fashioned spelling bees, debates, forums, essay writing, topical writing, short story writing, play writing, linguistic arts memory contests of familiar literary expressions, and the cultivation of recreational reading. School recreative leisure-time organization and promotion will normally be divided into four parts: (1) required curriculum activities, (2) extra¬ curriculum self-chosen activities for those attending school, (3) community recreation activities for youth and adults not in school, (4) the adequate management and control of school recreational facilities for self-controlled groups. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Denver, Colorado Business Meeting, Thursday Afternoon, July 4, 1935 Minutes of the 1934 meeting held at Washington, D. C., were approved. A. W. Thompson, president, reported for Secretary James E. Rogers on the various meetings held during the year by the Executive Committee and other groups in handling items of business for the Department between the time of the annual meetings. This report coA^ered the offer of the National Tuberculosis Association to underwrite a conference on school health to be held in a location chosen by the Department and to present such a program as it saw fit to organize. Meetings of discussion and of acceptance of this offer were held at New York, Atlantic City, and Philadelphia. Mr. Thompson reported on the plans which have been de- A^eloped thus far for the holding of this conference in Philadelphia next Novem¬ ber 1 and 2. The Department went on record unanimously in expressing its appreciation to the National Tuberculosis Association for this generous and unlimited offer and voted to accept it. The secretary was instructed to acquaint the officers of the National Tuberculosis Association with this strong feeling of appreciation on the part of the Department. The matter of the promotion of girls’ competition in baseball for advertising or promotional purposes was presented by George W. Braden of the National Recrea¬ tion Association. The Department went on record on this matter as follows: The Department of School Health and Physical Education of the Na¬ tional Education Association calls attention to the policies of the Women’s Department of School Health and Physical Education 437 Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation and to the standards outlined in the report on girls’ athletics as published by this Department. It reapproves the stand taken in these two instances, and asks the cooperation of educational and other organizations in making certain that promotion of athletic activities is placed on a basis which seeks first the social and physical welfare of the participants and which conforms to the standards mentioned. The Department expressed its pleasure at the opportunity of having had on its program Mrs. Anna Morris Clark who spoke extemporaneously on the first session program on Monday, July 1, on “Reminiscences of Physical Education in the Na¬ tional Education Association Forty Years Ago.” Mrs. Clark is a former director of physical education in Cleveland and was the first president of the Department of Health and Physical Training of the National Education Association, being elected to that position in 1895. She is now eighty-two years of age and her words of wisdom and approval for progress made, coupled with her enthusiasm and sprightliness, were a great inspiration to all in attendance. The report of the Nominating Committee was given by Willard N. Greim, director of health education, Denver, Colorado, for the chairman, James E. Rogers, of the National Physical Education Service, who was unable to be present because of duties at Los Angeles. C. C. Wilson of Hartford, Connecticut, presided during the consideration of the report of the Nominating Committee. There being no nominations from the floor, it was moved, seconded, and carried that the report of the Nominating Committee be accepted and that the secretary be instructed to cast a unanimous ballot for each of the nominees as named. (See Historical Note, p. 430.) , ' . ■ ' DEPARTMENT OF Science Instruction HISTORICAL NOTE The department of science instruction is an outgrozvth of a State Department of Natural Science Teachers which was organized at a meet¬ ing of the Colorado State Teachers Association in 1894. It was first known as the Department of Natural Science Instruction. The officers of the Department for the year 1935-36 are: president, Ira C. Davis, , President, University High School, Madison, Wis.; eastern vicepresident, Mildred M. Fahy, Principal, Amundsen-V on Steuben Schools, Chicago, III.; western vicepresident, Charles L. Hampton, Instructor, Piedmont High School, Piedmont, Calif.; secre¬ tary, Vesta Hicks, Supervisor of Elementary Science , Board of Educa¬ tion, Austin, Texas; treasurer, Esther W. Scott, James F. Oyster School, Washington , D. C. This Department meets once each year, in Jidy. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follozvs: 1895: 951- 958 1896: 937- 967 1897: 916- 958 1898: 959- 984 1899:1097-1117 1900: 592- 608 1901: 771- 802 1902: 759- 789 190 3:847-895 1904 \843-896 1903:781-825 1906:719-720 190 7:951-957 1908 :965-998 1909 :789-828 1910 :949-967 1911: 939- 992 1912 -.1153-1193 1913: 695- 716 1914: 721- 773 1915: 995-1028 1916: 699- 749 1917: 535- 555 1918: 295 1919: 289 1920: 305- 308 1921: 663- 666 1922:1239-1265 1923: 843- 860 1924: 753- 774 1925: 598- 608 1926: 625- 636 1927:583-597 1928:569-589 1929:559-577 1930:529-542 1931:561-575 1932 -.467-480 19 33:477-487 1934:469-479 [440 ] A COHERENT SCIENCE TEACHING PROGRAM OTIS W. CALDWELL, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. A coherent teaching program may best be built upon those things already proved most useful thru successful experience. Any other pro¬ posed organization must pass thru scientific experiments like those which would be required of any other scientific venture. There are types of science courses that have proved their worth in attaining some of the accepted pur¬ poses and in giving a beginning of understanding of science as a way of living. The science of elementary schools is attaining encouraging results. The interests of younger pupils are used in extending their nature acquaintance, in performing simple experiments, in guiding toward elementary-science reading and writing. Older pupils in elementary schools are beginning to gain in appreciation of the easier science principles, and of the ways and at¬ titudes that are characteristic of the best scientists. Thru planned studies in the field, farm, industry, museum, library, and press, children are beginning to be science conscious. The first steps toward a coherent program are thus being taken. The early years of the junior high school now use general courses which are the product of experimentation of the past twenty years. Practise has not clearly determined the courses for the last year of junior high school, but the tendency is clear. The topically organized general science courses of seventh and eighth years seem to lead naturally into the topical general biology course of the ninth year ; or these two courses are similarly related in the first and second years of the comprehensive four-year high schools. We seem not yet to have made satisfactory plans for seventh and eighth years in schools not on the junior-senior high-school plan. As the science of the elementary grades continues to improve, it is quite possible that its upper years may sometime include much that now finds place in the general science courses of the junior high schools. Indeed, it seems to me altogether logical that what we now call general science may undergo extensive changes, much of it finding its way into lower grades. Elementary-school pupils can under¬ stand much of general science if only we can stop obscuring real elementary science by our adult vocabulary and pedantic terminology about principles, objectives, and procedures. I have retained the name biology for the last course in the junior high school. The name is not important, but the underlying idea is. The ele¬ mentary science and general science courses are foundational. As knowl¬ edge and ability to work and understand are increased, studies are needed that use the foundation but rise upon it. Previous acquaintance and ex¬ perience with living things should now be used as the basis for more search¬ ing and more intensive studies of life phenomena and their meanings. The Note: A complete report for the Department may be found in the 1935 Proceedings of the De¬ partment of Science Instruction. Copies may be secured from Esther W. Scott, Oyster School, Washington, D. C. [441] 442 National Education Association success of general science courses sfiould not mislead us into thinking that all science is general, or that the needs of developing minds are served by the use of more and more problems of the same level. It seems, therefore, that some such significant grouping and gradation of topics as indicated by the names general science and general biology are likely to continue in the coherent program. An examination of the proposed three-year general science courses is not yet convincing that there is cumulative and coherent relationship, such as is necessary for attainment of the best educational results, or that there are those coherent and progressive qualities that must exist in any worthy coherent program of science education. It may be in point to recall that few, if any, courses that have been developed and taught experimentally for several years, have resulted in recommendations of con¬ tinuous general science courses running thru the whole high school. Such recommendations have usually come from persons not engaged in teaching high-school science. If the foregoing observations and thinking are correct, they will have further bearing upon the other sciences of the senior high school, which usually are physics and chemistry. Research developments of recent years have broken down many boundaries between the older physics and chem¬ istry. It does not follow, however, that a new two-year senior high-school course will develop called physical science, with the boundaries wiped out. A misleading illustration has been used. Physics and chemistry surely need reorganization to make them most useful as parts of a coherent program. They have their logical interval relationships, and sensing those constitutes an important part of a sound science education. Does any good teacher of senior high-school science fail to desire the coherence of ideas within a senior science subject? This plan for a coherent science program might be regarded as a sort of series of concentric circles. In elementary science we begin with acquaintance and interest studies, and in upper grades reduce the number of topics and do more intensive work on those studied. Then, the general science of junior high school is topical and wide in scope but expects more accurate under¬ standing and appreciation of principles than before. Then follow the life sciences, more difficult but even more significant than the preceding. This leads to chemistry and physics, still more exacting, and needing much reor¬ ganization to make them most useful as parts of this program. For those who later go to college, an orientation college course for all students at the college level again gives perspective and renewed sense of significant science. Unless the preceding courses have done their work well, college students would possess little to orient. Indeed, some freshmen orientation courses seem to ignore the possibility of previous achievements. Are they right in doing so ? Following the college orientation course for all students, come the special science studies for those who choose them. In graduate school special studies are continued, and when finally a student is engaged in a research problem of his own, he again calls for all his knowledge of all science, in order to do worthy research. Department of Science Instruction 443 SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OF CLEVELAND MARY MELROSE, SUPERVISOR OF ELEMENTARY SCIENCE, CLEVELAND, OHIO How is the elementary science course of study being made ? In Cleveland we have certain elementary schools designated as curriculum centers. The purpose of these is to develop the course of study in the various subjects. Doan School is the curriculum center for elementary science. Such a plan permits much real experimental work and gives opportunity for the pupils to be a dominant factor in curriculum making, and indeed they are in science. We began at Doan by both teaching and exposing pupils to practically the entire gamut of scientific topics, principles, and phenomena. From these the most worthwhile materials and experiences are carefully chosen and .devel¬ oped into units with the pupils in a number of classes. How was the science course put into operation thruout the city? This was accomplished by rather a gradual process. Until the science curriculum center was established, science was not included in the list of subjects for elementary schools. In spite of the fact that it was a new subject to them, it was begun with much zest and enthusiasm by the corps of teachers selected for Doan School. After some units were worked out, they were tried in 15 cooperating schools. Teachers in some of these cooperating schools also worked together in committees to develop a few units with the pupils in their classes. There soon came a demand, however, for science in all Cleveland ele¬ mentary schools. These teachers were directed to begin by teaching only one or two units during a semester in each grade. The following year two more units were added — and so on. Such a plan gave the teacher time to become acquainted with subjectmatter in a few units at a time. The science radio lessons also have proved very helpful in putting the science program into action. These lessons constitute an active course for a certain grade each year. As the broadcasts are weekly, the work for the week is projected for both pupils and teachers. Moreover, various teaching technics are incorporated in these radio lessons, thus suggesting to the teacher some fundamental methods of teaching elementary science. How many teachers are teaching elementary science? Fortunately, in Cleveland most of the schools are organized on a departmental basis in grades 4, 5, and 6. There are 250 departmental science teachers who average four classes per teacher. Thus you can readily realize that practically all upper- grade pupils are taught science by these 250 teachers. There are approxi¬ mately 850 others who teach one science class only, and most of these are in the lower grades. This makes a total of about 1100 who teach one or more classes in science. How much school time is allotted to elementary science ? Science is given the same amount of time as history. Until a definite period of time is allotted to science on the elementary-school schedule, the teaching of the subject is likely to be rather indefinite. This is just as true of schools built on an activity program as it is of schools working on a subject basis. A teacher is 444 National Education Association naturally reluctant to devote much time to science, if by so doing he is encroaching upon the time set aside for other subjects. What instructional materials are used ? Our chief source of informational material is in the form of mimeographed units. When we have a unit more or less crystallized, both teacher and pupil copies are made and a few copies sent to each school. The schools then order as many copies as are needed. Then, too, each school is allowed yearly a budget for the purpose of build¬ ing up a library of science books. These are ordered from a carefully selected list of titles that have proved to be the most useful in the various fields of science. As most of these books are for pupils’ use they are kept in the science room. So that these books may be used effectively we have a 102-page booklet called An Elementary Science Readers' Guide , which is an annotated bibliography on practically every topic that may be discussed or studied in science. We have just finished the work on a 142-page Readers' Guide Sup¬ plement which includes references to the more recent publications. Is there a science room in every elementary building? Yes, there is a science room in practically all the buildings, altho by no means are they all equipped as yet. We have set up standard equipment for a science room. In selecting the furniture that best satisfied our needs we drew up plans and specifications to have the furniture made, if catalog items did not serve our purpose. Unquestionably we do not want these science rooms to be miniature high-school laboratories. There must also be an adequate amount of supplies and simple apparatus, for this beginning of science should be a study of objective material by ob¬ serving and experimenting, and not merely a reading about it. A small supply budget enables each school to increase its list of supplies every year. What determines the content of the course of study for each grade? There are indeed many factors that enter into the process of determining the science content for each school grade. For several years we have been carrying on intensive research along a number of lines to help us give a rather accurate answer to this problem. I shall mention just one of these. We have been studying pupil interest in four different ways, and I now have data on the science interests of about 50,000 pupils. This is an indicator that must be considered in charting the course. Moreover, we do not include a unit or phases of a unit in which we can¬ not devise ways and means of answering the pupils’ questions in that grade ; we put it in a more advanced grade. It is our intention to prevent pupils from using word formulas which they do not understand. If we designate the course as “ science ” there are certain elements that must be incorporated, and some to be avoided. We should not include heterogeneous encyclopedic types of information, altho these may be ex¬ tremely interesting. Rather should the material be organized around sci¬ entific concepts and principles and set up around learning situations. Department of Science Instruction 445 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF SCIENCE TO MEET THE NEEDS OF THE NEW PROGRAM F. C. JEAN, HEAD, SCIENCE DIVISION, COLORADO STATE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, GREELEY, COLO. If we subscribe to a continuous, articulated program of science education in the public schools, the subjectmatter taught must necessarily cut across several branches of science. Such a program cannot succeed when supported by narrowly trained teachers. Therefore, broadened and socially enriched curriculums for science teachers are imperative. But what should the program of education for a science teacher in gen¬ eral be? Opinions will vary. In the institution which the writer repre¬ sents, it is held that every prospective teacher in this field should have a basis of general culture. Prescribed courses of from 8 to 12 quarter hours each in appreciative literature, art, and music are required. This must be supplemented by a year’s sequence of introductory courses in the field of the social sciences and economics. In the major field it would seem that a year’s sequence of courses in introductory science is desirable. These courses should be organized wholly from the viewpoint of their social value and should, without restraint, cut across the physical, biological, earth, astronom¬ ical, and human behavior sciences. Prospective teachers of science must establish scientific habits of mind. The most progressive teachers these days are talking about generalizations, scientific procedures, and attitudes. One would think that classroom practise must be wholly revolutionized. Strange to say, however, such does not seem to be the case. Teachers are giving intellectual assent to new ideas, but when it comes to pedagogicallv sound methods of achieving these outcomes, most of us are still, like Hansel and Gretel, bewildered in the tall timber. We herald the new criteria as great objectives to be realized; then straight¬ way go about the task of achieving them in the same old way. Why are teachers in general so uncertain and faltering in evolving meth¬ ods to achieve these outcomes? There may be several factors concerned, but probably the primary obstacle is the way in which they as prospective teachers were educated. They were not habituated in the methods of realiz¬ ing these outcomes in their own experience. Most young teachers, either consciously or unconsciously, follow to a very great extent the methods of what they considered to be their most stimulating instructors. It is only the rare genius under present college educational practise who becomes inde¬ pendent when he takes up the work of his profession ; who has formed such well-defined standards of judgment that he cuts loose from personal in¬ fluences of the past and builds up his own method of procedure. In short the most of us are very much inclined to teach as we have been taught. We believe that the most fruitful point at which to attack the whole problem of training teachers for the new integrated course in science edu¬ cation is in the college classrooms. An acceptable curriculum is not enough ; the plan must affect classroom practise as well. May we, then, proceed to list what we believe will constitute desirable classroom procedures in insti- 446 National Education Association tutions which train students for the business of teaching in the public schools : 1. Prospective teachers must recognize the value of facts 2. Prospective teachers must learn how to generalize on the basis of facts 3. Prospective teachers must receive practise in valid thinking 4. Prospective teachers should form some conceptions of attitudes and their relation to behavior 5. Professionalized courses must be professionalized in fact as well as in name. Until we who train teachers begin to make large provision for these con¬ siderations in our own classes, we cannot expect to train teachers in general who can instruct others in scientific procedures. THE SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SCIENCE TEACHING ERNEST E. BAYLES, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, LAWRENCE, KANS. The major problem before this Department is the development of a unified course in natural science extending from the kindergarten to the college. The question of grade placement of materials or topics has already been discussed. That is important because we must satisfy the psychological principle of maturation or pacing. But the problem of developing a unified science curriculum cannot be solved satisfactorily, even in a tentative way, by giving attention to psychological factors alone. Of equal importance is the question of whether or not particular topics should be included at all — what topics should be included and what should be omitted. Something more than psychological suitability must be considered in answering such a question. The social significance of the subjectmatter is a major factor. Merely taking the results of statistical studies of what people do in order to determine what we should teach them, is one way of recognizing social significance, but very unsatisfactory. Such a plan means that the school becomes an ally for maintaining the status quo. If, instead, we want the school to aid in shaping human trends, rather than merely following them, we must adopt other bases for determining schoolroom curriculums. In order to be satisfactory, any proposal must seek to produce scientifically- minded students, and must function democratically. Neither autocratic nor laissez faire organization of the classroom will be satisfactory. Our pro¬ posal is therefore that classroom study deal persistently with challenging problems. This demands a two-phase teaching rhythm: the problem -raising phase and the problem -solving phase. The teacher must therefore understand (a) problem-raising technics and (b) problem-solving technics. The problem -raising technic is one of unsettling the settled nature of subjectmatter — locating basic conflicts, vaguenesses, and inadequacies in pre¬ vious behavior patterns or life philosophies. The problem -solving technic is one of harmonization or integration — formulating beliefs or interpretations which progressively harmonize an ever-widening area of factual data. Such a procedure implies a kind of historical or genetic treatment of scientific Department of Science Instruction 447 problems and avoids, on the one hand, narrow indoctrination, and on the other, uncontrolled freedom. This is a plan which causes the science teacher to become concerned with the social implications of his subjectmatter, and to demand always that problems be viewed in the light of their wider social meanings. No subject which fails to do this merits a place in the public school curriculum. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Denver, Colorado First Session, Monday Afternoon, July 1, 1935 The following were the speakers and their subjects: The Needs and Provisions fori Universal Science Education, Otis W. Caldwell, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. ; and General Sec¬ retary, American Association for the Advancement of Science Science in the Elementary Schools of Cleveland, Mary Melrose, Supervisor of Elementary Science, Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio Science in the Elementary Schools of Austin, Vesta Hicks, Supervisor of Ele¬ mentary Science, Public Schools, Austin, Texas Science in the Elementary Schools of Tulsa, Mrs. Arlyne Morgan, Riverview School, Tulsa, Okla. Science in the Elementary Schools of Denver, Cora M. Myers, Washington Park School, Denver, Colo. Elementary Science Needs an Outdoor Laboratory, Esther W. Scott, Supervisor of Elementary Science, Washington, D. C. The attendance was about 500. Second Session, Tuesday Afternoon, July 2, 1935 The speakers and their subjects were as follows: Training Teachers to Meet the New Demands in Science Education, F. C. Jean, Head, Science Division, Colorado State College of Education, Greeley, Colo. A Basis for the Critical Evaluation of the Present Programs in Junior High- School Science, Anita D. Laton, Supervisor of Science, University High School, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. Science in the Junior High Schools of Rochester, Harry A. Carpenter, Super¬ visor of Science, Public Schools, Rochester, N. Y. Science in the Junior High Schools of Wyoming, N. S. Stout, Junior High School, Cheyenne, Wyo. Science in the Junior High Schools of Tulsa, Mrs. Lillian Kennedy, Woodrow Wilson Junior High School, Tulsa, Okla. Science in the Junior High Schools of Denver, Helen Roberts, Horace Mann Junior High School, Denver, Colo. There were about 550 people present at this session. At the business meeting the report of the Constitution Committee was considered. It was moved to adopt the constitution in its present form and to continue the committee for another year. The Nominating Committee of which George Eby, was chairman, made its report. Mr. Eby presided during the voting. Members of the Department commended the splendid quality of leadership shown by the president, Mr. Davis, and cited the gain in membership to twenty-seven hundred during the past year. The secretary was instructed to cast a unanimous ballot for the officers. (See Historical Note, p. 440.) 15 448 National Education Association Reception — Banquet and Fortieth Anniversary Celebration This part of the program was under the direction of Ray K. Easley, chairman of the Denver Local Arrangements Committee and F. C. Jean, chairman of the Colo¬ rado Committee. Forty years ago, in Denver, the Department of Science was organized, and we were honored to have with us on our program William Triplet of Denver who was one of the charter members of the Department. William J. Bogan, superintendent of schools, Chicago, Illinois, was the guest speaker and Robert J. Niedrach, Col¬ orado Museum of Natural History, showed motion pictures of the wild life in the nearby country. Third Session, Wednesday Afternoon, July 3, 1935 The speakers and their subjects follow: The Social Significance of Science Instruction, E. E. Bayles, Associate Pro¬ fessor of Education, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. A Basis for the Critical Evaluation of the Present Programs in Senior High- School Science, J. H. Jenson, Head, Science Department, State Teachers Col¬ lege, Aberdeen, S. D. Science in the Senior High School of Lafayette, Morris McCarty, Superin¬ tendent of Schools, Lafayette, Ind. Science in the Senior High Schools of Denver, Robert F. Collier, Jr., Director of Visual Instruction, South High School, Denver, Colo. Integrated Science Program in the Senior High School, George Eby, Richmond High School, Richmond, Calif. Science in the Senior High Schools of Tulsa, Gabriella Pratt, Central High School, Tulsa, Okla. Science Direction in Tulsa, R. R. Stafford, Director of Science, Public Schools, Tulsa, Okla. This was also an overflow meeting with about 600 attendance. Excursion, Wednesday Afternoon, July 3, 1935 Ray Easley, chairman of the Denver Local Arrangement Committee, and F. C. Jean, chairman of the Colorado Committee, conducted this trip. Private auto¬ mobiles were generously offered to transport four hundred and fifty of our members. Coors Pottery Plant was first visited where a delicious supper was served. Im¬ mediately after this visit the party was taken to “Lookout Mountain” and “ Buffalo Bill Museum.” The cordial hospitality of the Denver teachers and their friends made the fortieth anniversary of the Department of Science Instruction a great success. DEPARTMENT OF Secondary Education HISTORICAL NOTE The department of secondary education was established in 1886. It lapsed temporarily in 1924. In 1931 it was revived by the Delegate Assembly of the National Education Association at its annual convention in Los Angeles. The officers of the Department for the year 1935-36 are: president, Ernest D. Lewis, Evander Childs High School, New York, N. Y vice- president, George R. Rankin, Boys Technical High School, Milwaukee, Wis.; secretary, Ann E. Ryder, Snyder High School, Jersey City, N. /.; treasurer, L. Denzil Keigley, Chester S. Morey Junior High School, Denver, Colo.; regional directors: Robert IV. House, Director for Southern Region, Salem High School, Salem, Va.; Alvin H. Hanson Director for Midwestern Region, Rufus King High School, Milwaukee, Wis.; Grace Kenehan, Director for Intermountain Region, Chester S. Morey Junior High School, Denver, Colo.; Grace M. Davis, Director for Pacific Region, Modesto High School, Modesto, Calif.; Augustus Lud¬ wig, Director for Eastern Region, Pershing Junior High School, Brook¬ lyn, N. Y . This Department meets once a year, in July. Facts relating to the estab¬ lishment of this Department, its revival, and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1886: 21 1887:393-442 1888 -.401-433 1889 -.497-533 1890:613-655 1891:615-687 1892 :333-373 189 3:177-242 1894 :743-794 1895 :579-635 189 6:557-619 189 7:644-699 1898:664-700 1899:601-817 1900 -.428-453 1901 :565-604 1902 -.455-492 190 3:429-486 1904 -.473-536 1905 :423-479 190 6:633-636 190 7:521-710 1908 -.577-667 1909 :479-522 1910 :443-533 1911:555-657 1912:663-765 191 3:469-499 1914 :445-488 1915 -.723-753 191 6:517-574 1917:253-284 1918:177-189 1919:195-204 1920 -.209-230 1921:667-678 1922 -.1267-1293 1923: 861- 880 1924: 775- 802 1932: 481- 492 1933: 489- 506 1934: 481- 492 [ 450 ] THE DEAN LOOKS AT YOUTH PROBLEMS OF TODAY DOROTHY C. STRATTON, DEAN OF WOMEN, PURDUE UNIVERSITY, LAFAYETTE, IND. The major problems of every generation of youth have been well stated by Hollingsworth. They are : choosing a vocation, gaining independence from the home, establishing friendly relationships with the opposite sex with the eventual objective of marriage, and building a philosophy of life. Each of these problems is changed by the present social and economic conditions. Youth may choose a vocation but be unable to make progress in pre¬ paring for it because of lack of funds. He may finish his preparation and then find no opportunity to use his training. He is hampered in gaining independence from the home because he cannot become economically inde¬ pendent and for the same reason cannot establish a home of his own. He is bewildered in his attempts to formulate a working philosophy by the incon¬ sistencies in his social environment. The most important problem of youth is to develop an integrated per¬ sonality unhampered by fear and distrust. The effects of the present social situation are to shake youth’s sense of security both in itself and in the older generation, to give youth a sense of not being wanted, of not being needed, and to cause youth to question the merit of our whole social structure. Youth is frustrated in all its attempts to find an outlet for its energies. The increase in juvenile crime shows the price a society pays which does not make provision for the employment of youth in some constructive pursuit. Schools are taking steps toward meeting some of the problems by modi¬ fying curriculums, emphasizing the value of extracurriculum and leisure¬ time activities, appointing personnel officers of various kinds to assist youth in choosing a vocation. The larger body of society must solve the problem, however, of providing places for youth. The important question is not “ What will it cost to give youth opportunity to work or study? ” but “ What will it cost not to provide it? ” When we as a nation are committed to the point of view that the conservation and development of our human resources is our first responsibility, definite plans for meeting specific problems will be found. THE HIGH-SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LOOKS AT YOUTH PROBLEMS OF TODAY JAMES A. CHALMERS, PRINCIPAL, SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL, FITCHBURG, MASS. Today we find young people in four general groups: first, children of parents who still have sufficient means to send them on to college or make it possible for them to continue higher education until working opportunities present themselves ; second, children whose parents can and do provide them with room and board, but are unable or unwilling to continue the responsi- [451] 452 National Education Association bility beyond that point ; third, children whose parents are dependent on some one of the different relief agencies and who are themselves subject to the discouragement and temptations of idleness; and fourth, children of those parents who cannot or do not support them and who turn them out to shift for themselves. All of these, even the first class, must be considered. Hundreds of thousands, perhaps millions, in these groups are seeking the answers to the following questions: What are we going to do? What are the opportunities ahead of us? How can we take care of our health? What are the provisions for outdoor exercise and recreation ? What hobbies can we develop ? What can we do to fill in all our leisure time ? Where can we learn what we need to learn about clothes, dress, good social behavior ? How can we secure information with regard to city administration of public health and public works, in taxation, in government, and the fundamentals of politics? Our young people are not going to sit around with their hands folded. We must provide them with work. Their energy must be directed into right channels. There is no dam big enough or strong enough to hold back forever the quantity of water that comes down the river banks — at some time or other the accumulating force will escape over and around or under¬ neath the dam — will undermine and destroy it. And so, surely the dam of inactivity which has blocked the progress and desires of the young people of today must be opened and the flood of energy must be directed in the right channels, or the pent-up accumulated vitality will spread out and around our present civilization until much damage has been done. Changes are already very apparent, not only in the economic standing, political organization, but in the home and family as well. It is true the schools have not kept pace ; there are a great many young people whom we in the high schools are not equipped to help. Many times we have forced the pupil to adapt himself to the school. He can take it or leave it and to our sorrow many have left it rather than stay and take it. The school must adapt itself to the pupil; help him adjust himself to our present mode of living; help him to readjust himself forward, not backward. Reorganization is in progress. The high school will do its part. The “ little red schoolhouse ” did not color its graduates with the color of the building; neither will the school of today ever give a high-school pupil anything but the best that it is capable of teaching. I have great confidence also in the good judgment, clear thinking, the ability, and great common sense of the young people of today. The reorgani¬ zation in which they are taking part will lead us to greater strength, health, and happiness. Department of Secondary Education 453 HOW MUCH FLEXIBILITY IN SECONDARY EDUCATION IS NEEDED IN THE FACE OF YOUTH PROBLEMS OF TODAY? SAMUEL E. FLEMING, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SEATTLE, WASH. A few years ago employment was a safety valve in secondary education. Boys and girls who found the curriculums irksome received a ready wel¬ come from employers. The fact that 50 percent or more of their students short-circuited thru emergency exits did not disturb high-school tycoons one bit. Under all of the conditions probably boys and girls showed good judgment in transferring their center of education from the high school to the counting house or factory. Youth cannot look to business and industry to take him in any more after his school fails him. Secondary education has realized this and has yielded some of its artificialities. It has gone partway at least to meet youth in its trying crisis of emerging young manhood and young womanhood. How far should it go? The whole way, I would answer, or until every normal young person of secondary-school age finds an opportunity to suc¬ ceed in high school. With help youth can be trusted to make his own cur¬ riculum in school every bit as much as he can be trusted to select what he eats or the companions with whom he associates. The dunce’s cap of the schools of yesterday would be no more out of line in secondary education than is the curriculum which presumes to dictate in detail what young people shall study. Just as much out of line also is motiva¬ tion based upon fear of failure. Youth should be able to count on two friends who understand him and will take him as he is. One should be his home, the other his school. What¬ ever flexibility is needed to this end is the measure of the flexibility which must be effected in secondary education. CREATING CHARACTER VALUES THRU HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION REVEREND VERE V. LOPER, FIRST PLYMOUTH CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, DENVER, COLO. I The major factors in the creation of character values in high-school edu¬ cation are the teacher and the regular routine life of the school. We have tried a great many short-cuts to character. They have value as minor con¬ tributions, but they must be the supplement and not the substitute for a school and a staff of teachers whose whole spirit is constantly creating rather than destroying character. The extracurriculum activities of the schools have their value. Hi Y’s, Girl Reserves, honor societies have some contribution to make if they are directed with the greatest care. But in the end character must shine in its 454 National Education Association own light and be expressed in every aspect of life. It cannot be separated from life and taught as an academic subject with any great success. Even when it is taught or created in one situation, it does not necessarily carry over to other situations. It must be created and expressed at every point of school life rather than taught at one point. The school system can help the teacher by properly setting the stage for his effort. The first requirement is a superintendent who is intelligent and con¬ cerned about the character education movement which is sweeping thru our schools. He will see that a community plan is built which in turn will be adapted to each school. This plan will provide for an increasing use of sys¬ tems of marking which give credit for all significant intellectual effort rather than depend solely on getting the correct answer. It will provide tasks for which each student is adequate and see that he is assigned to them. It will introduce the student to the complex actualities of society and help him to build those character values which he needs to live helpfully and happily in his world. The teacher however is always the central figure in the building of char¬ acter. Every teacher is constantly engaged in creating or destroying char¬ acter, no matter what subject he teaches. Several factors contribute to mak¬ ing him a positive force. The major requirement is that he shall be a person of character himself. He cannot give that which he does not have. He must be absolutely fair to all students in spite of his personal reactions to them. He must set and maintain high standards in all departments of school life under his leadership. To his fine character, he must add a love for young people. They blossom morally and spiritually under his friendly under¬ standing. He will teach boys and girls rather than academic subjects. His technical equipment, methods of teaching, knowledge of society, and per¬ sonal experience have character implications. The schools can only conserve the character which they have created by going ahead of young people into society to help build a social order in recreational activities, home, church, economic life, and international affairs which will increase and not destroy such character as has been built. A COMMISSION PLAN FOR YOUTH C. S. MARSH, ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR, AMERICAN COUNCIL ON EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. The American Council on Education, Washington, D. C., is setting up a Commission to study comprehensively all the problems in the care and edu¬ cation of American youth. To make this study possible the General Educa¬ tion Board has granted to the Council a sum of $100,000 a year for five years, with an additional sum of $300,000 for special projects which the Commission may develop during 1935-36. The director of the American Council on Education, George F. Zook, formerly United States Commissioner of Education, is now selecting the Department of Secondary Education 455 members of the Commission. They will take up their duties with the Com¬ mission in the autumn. “ The existence of defects in the current provisions for the care and education of American youth does not mean that the American educational system as a whole is either misdirected or impotent. There is far more that is good than bad in the provision which America now makes for its youth. However, social and economic changes have made necessary an immediate adjustment of our schools to a new situation. The available results of con¬ trolled research and the present practises of numerous outstanding educa¬ tional institutions suggest types of procedures which, put into widespread effect, would go far toward remedying the existing defects. Yet no agency exists which can capitalize and extend the good practises, integrate all the present contributions, or stimulate new contributions in fields hitherto un¬ explored. It is believed that both the public and the great majority of workers in the field are anxiously seeking a solution to this situation.” Recognizing the situation, therefore, the Commission will undertake: 1. To collect and coordinate important available data bearing on the protection, guidance, and education of American youth 2. To promote needed investigations in important fields thus far unexplored, or explored only partially 3. To develop — and, as conditions might require, progressively to revise — basic plans for the education and protection of American youth, in agreement with the goals which seem best to fit American ideals, conditions, and institutions 4. To cooperate with all agencies and instrumentalities dealing with the youth problem, in order that a united front may be presented in attacking the common problems 5. To encourage the translation of these plans into definite action. “ From the outset of the proposed project the Commission should main¬ tain contact with state departments of education, welfare agencies of various kinds, institutions for the training of workers with youth, heads of altruistic and commercial organizations concerned with adolescents, and with both educators and laymen who hold influential positions. The purpose of these contacts should be partly to secure advice and suggestions and partly to keep influential persons and organizations continuously informed so that they may understand the project and lend their aid in securing popular and pro¬ fessional consideration of the recommendations which will eventually result from it.” GERMANY AND ITS YOUTH GEORGE NORLIN, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO, BOULDER, COLO. The Hitler revolution in Germany was and is primarily a youth move¬ ment. Whatever wholehearted enthusiasm Hitler commands is, mainly, the enthusiasm of youth. The older generation submits or acquiesces, but youth acclaims and youth is the motive power. The appeal of Hitler to German youth is not difficult to explain under the circumstances. 456 National Education Association In the first place, fanaticism — and Hitlerism is avowedly a fanaticism — finds readiest lodgement in minds not anchored in experience or steady habits of thought. Furthermore, youth in Germany was desperate, without security, without prospects. It was a £< lost generation.” Hitler promised this generation a place in the sun, and proceeded to huild out of it a hrown-shirt army which at its strongest numbered some 2,500,000 young men. Again, account must be taken of the fact that for 5^outh especially the glory of Germany had departed. In 1914 Germany was the proudest nation in Europe. From 1918 on, Germany lay prostrate in the dust. Defeated, humiliated, disarmed, Germany was virtually a subject nation. There was some enthusiasm for the republic which replaced the empire, but, generally speaking, the republic was regarded as an alien thing put upon the German people. All the glitter of imperial Germany was gone, the parade and pageantry of a military people. Nothing had taken its place but drabness. There was no color or brightness for the eyes of youth to seize upon. The result was that youth withdrew itself from the main currents of the nation’s life and turned back upon itself, seeking to squeeze out of life what pleasures and satisfactions it might still hold. The old moral impera¬ tives were swept away, and youth, for the most part, drifted unhappily hither and yon upon a tide of animalism, to discover in the end that the license of shallow epicureanism left only dust and ashes in the mouth. The lost generation remained lost, more lost than ever, and yearned for someone to tell them where to go. The Hitler fanaticism not only called them back into the nation’s life, but was weighted with certain moral austerities and imperatives which appealed to those who had grown disenchanted with the fruits of liberty and license. They had overthrown the Commandments and trampled upon them only in the end to cleave to one who could say “ thou shalt ” and “ thou shalt not.” When there are imperatives to be heeded without question, when the social conscience sets up standards which are felt as mandatory, moral con¬ duct is largely a matter of habit and life goes smoothly and comfortably. But when these standards are broken down, when we are thrown back upon ourselves, with no anchorage or harbor anywhere, when we have to ask ourselves, perplexedly at every turn, Shall I do this? or, Shall I do that? life becomes a bewildering, exhausting mess, and we are apt to feel like one who enlists in the army in order that he may be told when and what to do. At any rate, something like this has happened in the case of German youth, and that is one reason why youth hails Hitler and welcomes his commands. What, then, are the imperatives, the commandments, of Hitlerism? First of all, Thou shalt have no other gods before Adolph Hitler. The second commandment is, Thou shalt not look upon a Jew as a brother ; thou shalt hate him as thine enemy. The fourth commandment to the German people is, Thou shalt believe thyself superior to all other races and nationalities. Department of Secondary Education 457 The seventh commandment is, Thou shalt give thyself heart and soul to the German Reich. I have not time to complete the table of Nazi commands. I touch only upon the salient articles in the Credo which the Nazis have set up in what they term their “ nationalization of truth ” — truth made in Germany for the salvation of Germany. In that Credo is nothing new. It is a new phe¬ nomenon only in the thoroness and ruthlessness with which it is pressed upon the people. One may not take it or leave it at will. There is terrorism behind it and the most powerful propaganda which the world has ever known. Schools and universities, newspapers, magazines, books, the radio, the theater — all the instrumentalities which contribute to the formation of the national mind are conscripted by the government to spread the gospel of the New Dawn to the end that sixty-five million Germans may be made to feel and think and act as one man. Day and night that propaganda pervades the atmosphere like a gas. Willy, nilly, one breathes it in. The older generation lives in two worlds, the old . and the new. It has an anchorage in an older tradition, and has its misgivings and reservations about what is now going on. But youth lives in one world only, and it is amazing how youth is swept along by the powerful tide of the moment. YOUTH AND THE PRESENT CRISIS GEORGE D. SMALL, KANSAS STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, PITTSBURG, KANS. There is a current tradition in America today to the effect that we have never experienced a well-organized, socially conscious youth movement. Students of history will brand this tradition as a fallacy. For America, con¬ trary to prevailing opinion, has experienced two youth movements which have been influential factors in setting the general pattern of American life. I refer to the Revolutionary War and the development of the West. The revolt of youth which was widely heralded from 1920 to 1925 was the third great effort on the part of youth in America, but failed before it reached the movement stage. It failed largely because American youth was not trained to accept wide social responsibility. Today we are experiencing another revolt of youth which has developed quietly and without the ballyhoo which marked the youth revolt which oc¬ curred between 1920-25. People in general approach this new revolt from two viewpoints : ( 1 ) those who attribute a Messianic quality to youth ; and (2) those who review their efforts with a great deal of skepticism. The first group contend that youth naturally possesses the abilities and qualities of mind which are needed if we are to solve the problems which the crisis has thrust upon us. The following qualities are usually listed as the special attributes of youth for this important task : ( 1 ) an attitude of detachment which permits them to look at our presentday problems in an unbiased, scientific manner; (2) a capacity for assimilating and adjusting themselves quickly to new ideals and new conditions of life ; (3) educational 458 National Education Association advantages which have qualified them to accept and interpret the scientific demands of our age; (4) they are more internationally minded than their elders; (5) they are more likely to avoid standardization and thus avoid prejudices and complexes which sway the older mind; (6) the ability to enlist themselves to the emotion of an ideal. There is no question, the idealists maintain, but that these qualities endow youth with a special social destiny. The second group, which we have designated as the skeptics, maintain that youth is not socially responsible. Their skepticism has developed from three sources: 1. The record of European youth groups. This record, they maintain, reveals that the mass of youth so far as it was active and articulate, stood for the absolute state against the cooperative commonwealth, autocracy against democracy, the demagog dictator against representative institutions. There is a likelihood that American youth, unless it is more thoroly trained in social responsibility, will follow the same course. 2. The apparent confusion with which youth approaches life which has given it an attitude of indifference and purposelessness. This confusion is evidently a general characteristic of American life and should not be attributed to youth alone. 3. The fact that youth lacks historical perspective. Because of the transition period which we are now passing thru, youth is largely divorced from the traditions of American democracy. The unprecedented task of training youth to be a worthy member of its own generation, rests almost entirely with the schools of our nation. Together then, youth and education become the two unknown quantities which we must utilize if we are to adjust ourselves successfully to the new era into which we are just emerging. To borrow a phrase from Walter Pitkin, both youth and education are presented with “ the chance of a lifetime.” SECRETARY’S MINUTES % Denver, Colorado First Session, Monday Afternoon, July 1, 1935 “ The High School and Youth Problems of Today ” was the theme of two gen¬ eral meetings and eleven round-table conferences held by the Department of Secondary Education. The first of the general meetings, that of July 1, was held at the East High School. The addresses were all valuable and stimulating. After the addresses the general meeting broke up into round-table conferences in which papers were read followed by discussions as to the manner in which each of the curriculum subjects may contribute to the solution of youth problems. These round-table conferences were held in conjunction with either another department of the National Education Association or a national association of subject teachers; thus the round-table conference on health and physical education was a joint conference of the Department of Secondary Education and the Department of Health and Physical Education of the National Education Association, and the round-table conference on English was a joint conference of the Department of Secondary Edu¬ cation and the National Association of Teachers of English, etc. Department of Secondary Education 459 Special Session, Tuesday Afternoon, July 2, 1935 A special session was held on the afternoon of Tuesday, July 2. Representatives of high-school teachers associations met with representatives of the National Con¬ gress of Parents and Teachers to consider joint action in connection with the solu¬ tion of youth problems of today. Forty persons assembled at this meeting and sug¬ gested the appointment of a joint committee. This suggestion was referred to the business meeting of the Department. The leader of the discussion was Mrs. J. K. Pettengill, vicepresident of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers. The president of the Department of Secondary Education presided. Business Meeting, Wednesday Afternoon, July 3, 1935 The business meeting of the Department of Secondary Education was called to order at 4:45 p. m. on the afternoon of July 3 in the East High School. In the absence of Ann Ryder, secretary, Frederick Houk Law of the Stuyvesant High School, New York City, was appointed secretary pro tem. The minutes of the previous sessions of the Department in Washington during July 1934 were read and approved. The report of the treasurer and the report of the president concern¬ ing the activities of the Department during the year were also read and approved. There were several definite items of business transacted. The president was authorized to issue ten notes of fifty dollars payable annually without interest in acknowledgment of the indebtedness of the Department of Sec¬ ondary Education to the High School Teachers Association of New York City. This indebtedness was incurred in connection with the establishment of the Department in 1931. A temporary membership was added to those already in existence which should be known as an “ affiliated membership.” Open to this new membership were high- school teachers associations and kindred educational organizations, membership dues to be ten dollars and membership carrying with it the transmission to the group of all publications of the Department, mimeographed or printed. In connection with the youth project being formulated by the United States Office of Education, the following resolution was adopted: “That we endorse the plan formulated by the United States Office of Education under the chartership of Fred J. Kelly of that office, for the guidance, recreation, education, and work of youth, to be administered under the direction of the educational institutions of the country, and that copies of such endorsement be submitted to Mr. Kelly and to the Resolutions Committee of the National Education Association.” The president was authorized to appoint a committee to be made up of representa¬ tives of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, representatives of the Department of Secondary Education, and representatives of student high-school groups to study the problems of youth and to make helpful suggestions whereby parents and high-school teachers may jointly contribute to the solution of youth problems. The annual election of officers and regional directors for 1935-36 com¬ pleted the business meeting. (See Historical Note, p. 450.) Note: Abstracts of the subjectmatter round-table conferences held at the Denver meeting by the Department appear in Secondary Education for September, 1935. ( . ' -I . ■ ni./’.bfi ‘i'f ot ,rf)UOX« . ■ ‘ DEPARTMENT OF Secondary School ^Principals HISTORICAL NOTE The department of secondary school principals was organized in Topeka , Kansas, in 1886, under the name of the Department of Sec¬ ondary Instruction. Anticipating the proposed merger of the National Association of Secondary Principals with the National Education Asso¬ ciation, the name of the Department was changed to the Department of Secondary School Principals. The officers of the Department for the year 1935-36 are: president, Harrison C. Lyseth, Supervisor of Secondary Education , State Depart¬ ment of Education, Augusta, Maine, first vicepresident, Willard N. Van Slyck, Principal, Boswell Junior High School, Topeka, Kans.; second vicepresident, M. G. Jones, Principal, Union High School, Huntington Beach, Calif.; executive secretary, H. V. Church, 5835 Kimbark Avenue, Chicago, III.; executive committee : Charles F. Allen, Supervisor of Secondary Education, Board of Education, Little Rock, Ark.; K. J. Clark, Principal, Murphy High School, Mobile, Ala.; Oscar Granger, Principal, Haverford Township High School, Upper Darby, Pa. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 188 7:393-442 1888:401-433 1889 -.497-533 1890:613-655 1891 -.615-687 189 2:333-373 1893:177-242 1894 -.743-794 1893:579-635 189 6:557-619 189 7:644-699 1898 :664-700 1899 :601-817 1909:428-453 1901:565-604 1902 -.455-492 190 3:429-486 1904 -.473-536 1905 :423-479 190 6:633-636 190 7:521-710 1908 :577-667 1909 -.479-522 1910:443-533 1911:555-657 1912:663-765 191 3:469-499 1914 -.445-488 1915 :723-753 191 6:517-574 1917: 253- 284 1918: 177- 189 1919: 195- 204 1920: 209- 230 1921: 667- 678 1922:1267-1293 1923: 861- 880 1924: 775- 802 1925: 450- 477 1926: 637- 652 19 27:599-677 192 8:591-650 1929:579-632 1930:543-595 1931:577-620 1932:493-524 19 33:507-530 1934:493-512 [462] IMPLICATIONS OF PRESENT TRENDS IN THE HIGH-SCHOOL PROGRAM A. J. STODDARD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PROVIDENCE, R. I.,* AND PRESIDENT, DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Three very important and significant developments have taken place in the high schools of the United States within the last twenty years. In 1910 only about one in seven of the boys and girls of high-school age was in school ; today approximately two out of every three are in school. This great upward movement in the average age at which children leave school has caused or been accompanied by two very important changes in the curriculum of the high schools : ( 1 ) the number, type, and variety of courses of study have been expanded far beyond the college preparatory work of the past; and (2) the high school is coming to be regarded as an institution designed to serve the educational needs of a period of life of all young people, rather than a cumulative step in the educational ladder for a selected few of the total age group. It is logical to assume that further discoveries in science will result in¬ creasingly in keener competition for labor, with the elimination of employ¬ ment for those below the adult period of life. Advancing social attitudes against child labor will produce legislation barring youth from gainful employment. As society becomes more and more complex and the duties of citizenship become more involved, the period of training of the individual must be lengthened. In fact, there is much evidence to warrant the growing belief on the part of many educators that the compulsory school age will soon be raised very materially, possibly to twenty-one, in the next decade or two. Any tendency in this direction will necessitate a further expansion of the curriculum to meet a more definite extension of the range of indi¬ vidual ability. As a larger proportion of boys and girls of high-school age continue in school many of them will be unable to comprehend much of the present curriculum or to profit greatly even from an exposure to it. Greater adjustments to individual capacities for learning will be neces¬ sary and the formality of the present program must be modified to meet individual needs. No one can predict surely the extent or the direction of these curriculum trends. However, it is very probable that the courses will range in difficulty from the academic college preparatory work of the past to the development of simple skills and fundamental attitudes that are concerned directly with the business of living. Careful research will be required to discover the variety of needs that these young people will have in the types of life that they will represent. The problem of the mentally underprivileged must be met and it is probable that the meeting of those Note: Material presented at the Atlantic City meeting appears in full in “ Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Meeting, 1935.” Department of Secondary School Principals Bulletin No. 55, March, 1935. Chicago, Ill.: the Department. [463] 464 National Education Association needs will force more attention to another neglected part of the school population, the mentally gifted. It is likely that the high school of the future will be more closely con¬ nected with the life of the community. Somehow the young people under twenty-one years of age must be more definitely prepared for the duties of citizenship which they are to assume later. Ways must be found in which they can participate more definitely during their peroid of training in school in the life of their community, both from a social and civic standpoint. There is no legitimate reason for delaying all opportunities for social and civic responsibility until the age of twenty-one has been reached and then expect the young man or young woman to assume suddenly those obligations and discharge them with credit. Many young people of high-school age are just as capable of carrying on certain types of community service as are the adults. It is only common sense to furnish this training under the leadership of the schools rather than leave it to chance, as is now very largely the practise. The high school of the future will include a greater emphasis on those phases of education that are directly related to the pursuit of happiness, such as art, music, dramatics, and those many other forms of participation and appreciation that contribute to the abundant life. Specific vocational training may constitute an important part of the program for certain types of individuals, but it is more likely that occupational civics and vocational guidance, based upon a broad knowledge of industrial and professional activities, will constitute the program for the majority. The enlarged program of service will necessitate a more extensive use of the high-school plant and will probably lead to a lengthening of the high- school course. The present high-school period of three or four years is historic rather than logical in origin. The high-school student in the future will attend whatever period of time is necessary for him to receive the preparation that is needed in his individual case. Most of the students will probably attend until twenty-one years of age. Such a period of training could be defended more easily than the arbitrary limit that prevails gener¬ ally at the present time. In other words, the high school of the future will include that type and range of training necessary in preparation for adequate participation in the duties of citizenship and, at the same time, provide an enriched opportunity for living during those years immediately preceding adult life. THE HARMFUL EFFECTS OF PROPAGANDA AND THEIR AVOIDANCE ARTHUR M. JORDAN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, UNIVER¬ SITY OF NORTH CAROLINA, CHAPEL HILL, N. C. Changes are capital situations on which to bring to bear thought processes of the highest kind and yet, in most cases, we are compelled to muddle along too often led astray by the sound instead of the substance. There are many, many causes for our failure to think thru problems to a more Department of Secondary School Principals 465 reasoned and more efficient conclusion. The problems themselves may he so complex that the ordinary man who attempts to solve them at all finds them too difficult. He closes up like many a high-school boy in the presence of an original in geometry; and yet when sincere men have themselves thought thru these problems many of them may be made understandable. The difficulty may lie in the preoccupation of the ordinary citizen with his daily “ petty trafficking in small creeks ” to such an extent that thinking about anything becomes hard. I believe the most important cause of all is the wilful distortion of facts which may be designated propaganda. This paper has no commerce with that more savory word “ propaganda ” which is closely allied to education, hut with that word “ propaganda ” which wears a “ halo ” of emotion and ready-made opinions, which Dewey thinks is partly responsible for our “ era of bunk and hokum.” It is about that type of propaganda which keeps us hating before and during wars, causes us to vote rather blindly on important matters, and wear and eat certain things, rather than others more desirable. Probably at no other time is there such an opportunity for propaganda to be more effective than in war times. In the time of war the sources of information are under the control of the government. Only those bits of information favorable to the home government are allowed to get to the public. During a war it is essential ( 1 ) that animosity of the whole com¬ munity be mobilized against the enemy, (2) that friendly relations be maintained among the allies, (3) that as much news as possible favorable to our side get to neutrals so that they will come in on our side or else remain neutral, and (4) that everything possible be done to divide the enemy so that their morale will be broken. It is clear that the essence of propaganda consists in studying what each important group would like and then controlling the news so that these desires are met. Furthermore, since men unite in emotion, the aim is to arouse the common bond of feeling. To bring about conviction it is always better to get the truth as far as possible and to use actual happenings in case they occur. During the World War a great deal was done to get the home folks to hate the enemy. Germany’s disregard of her treaty with Belgium, her rather ruthless U-boat campaign, and her execution of Edith Cavell were facts pounced upon and greatly magnified. Probably the most subtle propaganda and that to be most feared is the type which is built up out of partial facts. Some of these facts are withheld, some are over¬ emphasized, others are twisted slightly from their original meaning. In peace times, when the sources of information are open to all, the propaganda must be more carefully and subtly managed, nor can it ever reach the universal acclaim accorded to such procedures in war time. Competition among claims which beset the individual so divides his thoughts that some have argued that if all propaganda were given free play it might not be harmful. This would be satisfactory if all articles could have the same financial backing and could thus employ the same advertising experts. Too frequently the inferior article is advertised and sold the most. The second point of objection concerns the type of claims set forth. As in war 466 National Education Association times, no attempt is made to arrive at the truth about salable objects, but only to magnify the best features. From the campaign of art in the case of Ivory soap to that of “ See your dentist twice a year ” of Pepsodent, propaganda is everlastingly with us, stimulating our emotions, conditioning our fears, appealing to our desires for security, beauty, elegance, advancement, satisfactory home, and an excited love life. But there are other areas of life where propaganda is possibly more baneful than in business. Many organizations in the United States are attempting to use propa¬ ganda as a medium of social control. Whatever be the aims and purposes of these organizations, some of their technics approach very closely the type of undesirable propaganda being described here. In many cases they arouse emotions for their cause by appealing to the love of country, to love of a particular church, to racial and group antagonisms, and the sanctity of the home. Up to the present in this paper I have tried to point out the need for thinking clearly about the problems of modern times. One of the main reasons for this lack of clearness in thought lies in the manner in which supposedly serious events are presented. That type of appeal which relies on emotions, gives only one side of important questions, and twists the facts by emphasis or omission, I have called propaganda. It is the contention of this paper that if our future citizens really are to make progress in the solution of these problems they must ( 1 ) be taught to weigh and evaluate evidence and develop critical attitudes all thru their high-school courses. This has been amply emphasized during the last few years. (2) They must be taught the technics of propaganda itself. After all, there is far from universal transfer of training from one situation to another, and technics gained in one body of evidence might not be clearly applicable to a new situation. On the other hand, the earmarks of propa¬ ganda are easily recognizable, and the technics used are easily accessible. I confess that since working on this paper I have become more highly sensitive to the influence of propaganda and more keenly aware of its presence, where before it would not have been recognized. Fortunately some of these procedures have already been tried out and published by W. W. Biddle in Propaganda and Education in the Teachers College series at Columbia University. Dr. Biddle prepared nine lessons called “ Manipulating the Public ” which were used experimentally to teach resistance to organized autistic thinking. In these lessons the main points of propaganda were explained and illustrated. Before and after these experimental lessons in propaganda were taught, tests were given differing from the propaganda lessons in nature and offering an opportunity to apply in principle these experimental lessons to lifelike situations in which propaganda was used. The scoring in these end tests had been previously determined by obtaining the mode of the judgments of 24 competent persons; while the customary control groups were provided for, the lessons were taught under customary class¬ room situations by the teacher in charge. The results were clear-cut and Department of Secondary School Principals 467 statistically reliable as judged by the strictest canons of statistics and showed that the teaching of propaganda in even a few lessons produced a measur¬ able transfer effect to the recognition and analysis of situations when different material was used. A knowledge of the technics of propaganda at least in this experiment did bring about a more sensitive response to its presence. Those who were gullible at first made the most improvement. Those who failed to gain did so because they were already critical in their thinking. One of the control groups gained because they, on their own account, were engaged in making a critical study of American history. Some of the comments on the second application of the test series to the experimental group were interesting. One would say, “ This is all bunk,” “ The writer is trying to appeal to our emotions,” “ This is propaganda,” or “ This article is full of atrocities.” Forty-two percent of the experimental group showed definite improve¬ ment. Thirty-one percent more showed an improvement in critical attitude, and twenty-seven percent remained unchanged. When we teach the lives of great men as if they were totally devoid of error, or the policies of the United States as always being right, or bring up our children to follow uncritically the faith of our fathers, or to admire everlastingly the Republican or Democratic party, we are developing those habits of mind which fatten on propaganda. The presence of propaganda has been demonstrated. Like the poor it will always be with us. It is my reasoned opinion that somewhere in the high school there should be introduced a study of the technics of propa¬ ganda and the universality of its presence. Illustrations could be had near at hand for purposes of analysis and study. When this is done thoroly and critical attitudes and skepticism taught in all classes possibly we can arrive at a point where we shall not be so greatly influenced by the vaporings of a Huey Long, a Father Coughlin, or be led astray by Ku Klux Klans or other organizations of that ilk. FACING THE FUTURE IN SECONDARY EDUCATION RAYMOND A. SCHWEGLER, DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, LAWRENCE, KANS. A reasonably useful and stimulating forecast in the field of secondary education must concern itself with a number of disparate problems. It must not only emphatically and clearly illuminate the most probable future goals of secondary education, steering carefully between the rocks of fanatic propaganda and of sterile devotion to a traditional past, but it must also suggest the correlated changes which these envisioned goals imply in such matters as teacher training, the curriculum, the method, and the final evaluations of student achievement. It will also be necessary to point briefly to some of the factors that are likely to impede the developments which we forecast. There is then, in the first place, the problem of the changing goals of secondary education. Whether one follows Dewey or Bode, or listens to 468 National Education Association the commonplace voice on the street or at the luncheon club, the fact is clear that there is a growing distrust in the magic of traditional subject- matter with its inevitable maze of unrelated, stridently competing depart¬ ments, each lifting a supercilious eyebrow at the pretensions of the others. There is growing scorn for the ponderous patter of the specialist, and an increasing demand for the straightforward recognition of the fundamental fact that the core and soul of every valid educational program is the de¬ velopment of the power to live wholesomely and happily. The day is com¬ ing, it may soon be clearly here, when developed human personality and smoothly efficient human function in all of their kaleidoscopic complexity will be recognized as the lodestar of all that bears the name of secondary education. The center of the secondary-school universe will shift from the curriculum to the attempts of the adolescent organism to master the art of living. Only at intervals, and we seem now to be on the verge of such a period, do we rediscover the fundamental fact that the real goal of education is not psychological paint and feather, but a robust, wholesome, well-oriented, intelligent, socially adequate, skilful, and emotionally efficient human being. This, in our moments of sanity, we all recognize to be the true goal of secondary education — in truth, of all education. Approached from this angle, however, secondary education finds itself confronted by a novel, per¬ haps even startling, collection of problems. There is first the problem of the achievement of a rugged vigorous body, and the maintenance thruout life of radiant health. Surely no problem can present a more fundamental challenge to education than this, nor is there one that is more certainly the concern of every teacher! Tomorrow it will be so recognized, and instead of thinking of physical education as a hardly tolerated step-child of education, and as the handmaid of low-brow athletics, we will capture it, develop it in the best light of physiology and anatomy and biochemistry, and will practise it as indeed the ancients are said to have done. Health and well-being will be one of the cornerstones of the new secondary education. For what shall it profit a man, tho he read all the books of Vergil, and master all the figures of Euclid, and in so doing, lose his health? Second, there is the problem of an intelligent mastery of the forces and realities of nature which restlessly surge around us. The new curriculum will consciously seek to interpret nature to the learner, and to provide practise in its practical exploitation and control. The new approach to nature will be based on human needs and on the problems and practises of an active present world. There will be not less stress on learning about nature, but more on what to do about what you know. Such an approach will break down departmental barriers, for nature does not present herself in the isolated garb of chemistry, or of physics, or biology, but rather in the form of intricate patterns of forces and processes in action ; and he who would be at home with nature must learn to meet her as she is, rather than as she is pictured between the lids of the specialist’s textbook. But adolescent man must live not only face to face with nature, he must learn to get along with his fellowman. He must learn to understand the Department of Secondary School Principals 469 motives and hungers both of himself and of his neighbor. He must appreci¬ ate the intellectual processes and the emotional tensions which are at the core of man’s behavior. He must discern the nature of man’s evasions and compromises with reality, his yearnings and compensations. He must dis¬ cover the immense values of the congregate as contrasted with the solitary life, and must learn how graciously, gladly, and wholeheartedly to take his place in the social scheme. He must learn to do these and many other things, not by being told about them, but by doing them in the broad labora¬ tory of the school and of life, for the goal of education is the mastery of the art of life. Somehow, too, the new education will succeed in the now unmastered art of emotional integration. Instead of ignoring and belittling values, we will sensitize the adolescent learner to the beautiful and the good and the true wherever they occur. We will lift man above the clod, and pro¬ vide him with an armor of defense against the deadening routine of a relentless machine age. There is reason to believe that the new approach will be based much more generally on the psycho-biological tensions of the learner than is now the case. It is quite probable that the new method will start with the learner’s readiness to learn rather than with the teacher’s readiness to teach, and that it will select its technics and approaches increasingly from this point of view. In the first place, such a method depends for its success on a mastery of the art of developing and maintaining a state of tension, i. e., of interest, which few of us now possess. Whether it be the infection of example, or the more positive method of using the learner’s suggestibility, we will learn how to arouse and maintain interest as we have not done hitherto. It is probable, too, that the emergent method will make larger use of real facts and life experiences rather than of words about these facts. Teachers will be increasingly advisers and counselors, as they now are in good gradu¬ ate schools, instead of drivers. The pupil will come with his problem and will be referred to available books and staff-specialists, and will finally present his problem solution to that teacher who chances to be his appointed guide. The counseling service of the new type school will concern itself not only with the development of the ability to interpret experience in terms of known science, but it will concern itself with problems incident to the integration of personality. Teachers will be expected to note the first signs of such difficulties, and to refer them to proper experts for adjustment. The touchstone of value for every phase of teaching will probably ulti¬ mately be the question: “What will the doing of this thing do to the doer? ” Mere parrotting of information will be abandoned. The goal will be power to meet life and to participate freely, helpfully, and happily in its events. Another aspect of the now-developing system of secondary education is worthy of attention. It is more than probable that the new school will abandon the current methods of topical testing, and will insist that the 470 National Education Association only real test of sagacious knowledge is to be found in doing. The capacity to meet life intelligently will be erected into a crucial test. There remain now to be briefly considered a number of questions which inevitably occur to him who has followed us to this point. First, there is the inevitable problem of the relationship of secondary schools to universities, colleges, and other so-called institutions of higher learning. These institutions have for centuries maintained more or less rigorous entrance requirements which in standardized and regimented form have exerted an all but compelling power upon the framework and practise of secondary schools. What will the new secondary education do about these entrance requirements? The answer is twofold: First, these institutions have abundantly demonstrated within the past thirty years their responsiveness to pressure from the secondary school. Thirty years ago most if not all high-grade institutions insisted on Latin as a condition to entrance, and many insisted on Greek as well. Today, few or none mention Greek, and those who mention Latin advise rather than demand it. Hav¬ ing gone this far, the universities have demonstrated ability to go farther. In the second place, we modestly submit that the output of the new type secondary school need have no hesitation in facing any entrance examination which a university is likely to set. The candidate not only knows, but knows that he knows, and the examination instead of being a terror to him will be a welcome opportunity to demonstrate that he does know. There is scant likelihood that the inertia of higher education will long prove an effective barrier to the further wholesome development of the secondary school. In any case, the function of universities will be immeasurably aided when their student bodies consist of honest, mentally alert, well-adjusted, eager searchers for the higher truth. Second, there is to be faced the far more serious problem of teaching staffs to carry on the new type of program. Tradition dies hard both in the daily practise of a profession, and in training schools for the professions. The fate of the “ reorganized secondary school ” and of the junior high school demonstrates what happens to a brilliantly conceived program when it is entrusted to the hands of staffs which have neither comprehension of nor sympathy for it. The saving element in the situation is the fact that the transition from the old to the new is already under way, that it will not come as the result of convulsive revolutionary upheavals, but as the result of slow and normal growth. One thing is certain, and that is that when we have finally developed the type of teacher who will succeed in the new-type school, he will know far more about the intricacies of human growth and function, more about physical and mental and social hygiene, and infinitely more about the divine art of guiding and inspiring nascent life than the typical teacher knows today. And, as a bit of solace, may we say too, that this new-type teacher will be recognized, respected, and often revered by those who are served as the minister used to be, and as the doctor now is, not for what he pretends to be, but for what he actually is: a human engineer. DEPARTMENT OF Social Studies HISTORICAL NOTE The department of social studies zvas formerly the National Council for the Social Studies and zvas created as a Department of the National Education Association by the Board of Directors at the Indianapolis meeting of the Association in 1925. The officers of the Department for the year 1935-36 are: president, Edgar B. Wesley, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.; first vicepresident, Roy O. Hughes, Director, Department of Curriculum Research, Board of Education, Pittsburgh, Pa.; second vicepresident, Elmer Ellis, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.; secretary-trea¬ surer, Bessie L. Pierce, University of Chicago, Chicago, III.; advisory council: Mary G. Christie, Department of Social Studies, North High School, Denver, Colo.; Harley S. Graston, Department of History, W oodlazvn High School, Birmingham, Ala. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows : 1926:653-663 1928:651-654 1930:597-606 19 32:525-532 1927:679-695 1929:633-642 1931:621-632 19 33:531-536 1934:513-519 [ 472 ] A BACKGROUND OF SIGNIFICANT INFORMATION RUTH WEST, LEWIS AND CLARK HIGH SCHOOL, SPOKANE, WASH. Facts are not fashionable in the social studies, but are needed to preserve civilization. They furnish youth with a picture of the society in which he finds himself and give him some explanation of how we got this way. They give him a greater variety of vicarious experience than he could ever acquire in person. By giving him evidence of constant change in the past, they help to dispel his fear of social change and furnish him with a sounder basis for evaluation and discrimination in adjusting himself to rapidly changing social relationships. Facts are the best preventive of prejudice. They should help youth to be on his guard against deliberate propaganda — to know why he holds his opinions, and to keep his mind open to the reception of new facts. All facts are not equally important1 — the choice of significant facts is a problem to be solved by joint efforts of teachers and students. We cannot be sure what will be the most significant facts tomorrow, but a technic of fact finding, together with frank recognition of the fact of social change and a readiness to accept new facts even if they upset his most cherished opinions, may be the most important contribution the social studies can make to the youth of today. A SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY BEN G. GRAHAM, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PITTSBURGH, PA. As the entire structure of civilized life rests upon the development of the social, intellectual, and moral values of childhood, as the progress of any nation depends upon this development of the intelligence of its citizens, America’s youth must be educated for an intelligent participation in Ameri¬ can life. Toward this enlightened citizenry, the social studies have the most to contribute for they are the studies that beyond all others develop those understandings and attitudes that make for better living together in societal relationships. If all the boys and girls in our high schools are given the idea that citizens ought to know something about the systems of government which obtain in the United States, what the duties of the various officials are supposed to be, and what qualifications a person ought to have before he is elected to public office, our governmental bodies in the future might prove to be less incompetent than they sometimes have been in the past. Therefore, our pupils should be made aware of great political, social, and economic changes as they take place. How they think is more important than what they think. They can be taught how to think far more successfully by considering an unsolved current problem than by studying the results of the thought processes of a past generation. A political controversy challenges the best thinking of our country for its solution. Pupils in our high schools will [473 ] 474 National Education Association find one of their best opportunities in learning to think by studying these current problems that are pressing upon us. The contribution of the social studies, so far as political philosophy is concerned, thus stands revealed. We must turn out citizens of the next generation who have more interest in political issues, problems, and per¬ sonalities, more intelligence of the political variety; better political leaders and more followers who know the qualities that the superior political leader must have ; more knowledge of and respect for law to the end that we may not be described, and accurately, as the most lawless nation on the earth. In the formulation of an economic philosophy the social studies can be of great value if from the classrooms emerge students aware of economic rela¬ tions and their immediate and remote consequences ; with the knowledge that in our society people have divergent ideals and attitudes ; that there is both economic conflict and cooperation ; that economic conditions give rise to different solutions. The ability to acknowledge the existence of a problem and then in an open-minded manner to set about solving that problem, examining one’s own attitude and changing or developing it by study of actual economic situations, would make students better equipped to enter into and participate in the solutions of the country’s needs. Possibly the greatest opportunity for the social studies is to build morale in the children — to give them the right social outlook. How, without our help, can young people build a satisfying philosophy of life for this com¬ plex and changing world? How else can they distinguish between funda¬ mental and superficial values? How, otherwise, can they acquire courage and avoid cynicism? If ever children needed moral and spiritual guidance it is now. They need to see a way out, when all doors seem closed before them. They need perspective with which to evaluate the wholesome and the sordid in every realm of life. They need ideals and purposes, larger than themselves, to which they can give allegiance and devotion. Since we cannot improve living by merely teaching life as it is, why not teach it by capitalizing the worthwhile and facing frankly the shortcomings with a determination to change them? Acceptance of this position, from the point of view of practise as well as theory, implies that the school must take a broader view of its educational responsibilities and potentialities than it now has. In conclusion, let me say, the social studies will contribute to a political, economic, and social philosophy by molding our student body into a group of ideal American citizens — citizens who will know that progress in the sense of human welfare is not inevitable but depends upon the intelligence we bring to bear on the solution of problems that face us ; that the progress of science and industry has vastly changed the terms in which our social prob¬ lems are expressed ; that antiquity alone is not an index of efficiency or desirability ; that political organization is necessary ; that the problems which confront us are essentially social and economic — citizens who will cooperate in social solutions — citizens who will desire to work for the common good, to show responsibility, tolerance, and a respect for personality. Department of Social Studies 475 AN INSPIRATION TOWARD WORTHY CHARACTER AND GOOD CITIZENSHIP GEORGE W. ROSENLOF, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, LINCOLN, NEBR. The statistics of crime and juvenile delinquency in America; the almost daily round of newspaper accounts of malfeasance and dishonesty in offices of high estate ; the evidence on every hand of social and moral disintegration amongst all classes of people in our land ; and the ever-increasingly complex problems confronting law enforcing agencies and those charged with meting out punishment to offenders against law, order, and decency in the United States stand as a challenge to those of us who have been entrusted with responsibility for the right education of the youth that have been heretofore or are now enrolled in our schools. The unfortunate circumstances of life — those things that represent today the failures of and in society and that have occasioned such unexampled losses economically, politically, socially, physically, and morally call out to us as never before to set for ourselves new tasks and responsibilities, to enlarge the sphere of our usefulness as teachers, counselors, and leaders, and to provide youth with new inspirations and encourage these youth to aspire to become the fit representatives of an ideal form of democracy in a changing world order. We can be certain of this that whatever may be the nature of the indi¬ vidual as to his character or conduct or his citizenship ideals, he is what he is by reason of certain hereditary and environmental factors. On the one hand we have certain fundamental and basic determiners of character, and on the other we have the environmental stimuli to conduct. “ Heredity determines the individual’s basic capacities and fundamental urges and drives, while en¬ vironment determines the application of his capacities and the specific ways in which his desires are satisfied.” As to the relative importance of each, no one is yet prepared to speak with certainty, altho evidences are tending more and more to reveal that environmental influences are the more important. First of all, let it be noted that the social studies are unique as agencies for character building and citizenship training in that their very nature involves a consideration of social relationships. We do not, or at least cer¬ tainly should not, present the social studies merely as factual information. The sequence of events in history, the form and structure of government, the theory and principles of economics and sociology while in and of them¬ selves are of great importance factually, have a far greater significance than that. Such an objective or purpose for the social studies requires the revamping of whole technics, method, and procedure in the classroom. It requires that instead of a “ re-citation ” of subjectmatter contained within the textbook, or references used and an intermittent testing of knowledge memorized and retained, that we shall focus attention upon a consideration of social situa¬ tions existent in life and society in and out of the school, interpreting these in terms of their influence upon individual pupils and groups of pupils. 476 National Education Association Again such a purpose or objective for the social studies will require that the teacher be an individual who in every sense of the word represents in his own personality those elements that are conducive to the establishment of right ideals of conduct and behavior. There is no doubt that the character of the teacher is a most important, if not the most important, factor in the right development of youth. Unless one’s mode of living and one’s attitudes toward life or philosophy of life are in accord with the best known ideals of life, he cannot hope to render a full measure of service in this regard. A teacher of the social studies must be one who has drunk deeply at the fountains of life, who has come to know in an intimate manner the sig¬ nificance of life in all of its varying circumstances, and who appreciates not alone the stern realities but something of the sentient influences of idealism that must be the experience of all who would truly lead in making life richer and more wholesome. Such a person is not confined to academic cloisters and constantly associated with the factual materials of his library or study. He lives out in the world and knows life as it is and gives to that life something of the richness of personality and the fullness of experience. Poetic you say, and idealistic? And why not? The world is cold and awaits the fires of Prometheus. It is thus that I would view the responsibility and the high privilege of the teacher of the social studies. Given a curriculum wholly in accord with modern conceptions of what a curriculum should contain and how it should be organized, and given a teacher of training who possesses the best knowl¬ edge and information relating to the most effective technics of instruction and methods of procedure, and given those qualities of personality and fine character, there is no reason to doubt that our program of the social studies may become indeed an inspiration for character and citizenship. WHAT THE SOCIAL STUDIES HAVE DONE FOR ME HUGO N. ESKILDSON, JR., NORTH HIGH SCHOOL, DENVER, COLO. Here in Colorado with the mountains so near at hand there is a passage from the Psalms of David which means a great deal to us. “ I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills from whence cometh my strength.” Just as our mountains stand out from the plains, so has my study of the social subjects stood out above all my other school work. History has become one of the highest and strongest of the peaks in my Social Studies Mountain Range. Without history to guide us, we would still be floundering in the experimental stages. As it is, we may look to his¬ tory and find parallels of our problems with remedies and effects of such remedies to guide us in choosing the best way out of our difficulties. A way to study history, which I believe to be even better than the chrono¬ logical order, is the topical form of study. I find that I like it much better than when such events are merely sandwiched in with the other events of the chronological period. Department of Social Studies 477 The ever-pressing need for making a living easily explains the presence of economics in my Social Studies Mountain Range. A knowledge of business principles and fundamental economic laws is an almost imperative requisite to obtaining the foothold from which to climb on to success in the business world. Not only should the person intent upon entering business have the study of economics as a background but also every person who has the wel¬ fare of governmental policies at heart should have an economic background for intelligent action. Atop Long’s Peak in my Social Studies Mountain Range I would place sociology. If every man, woman, and child in America should have at least a survey course of sociology, this would be a better world to live in because in our everyday social contacts we would find ourselves being more tolerant of the other person. Racial prejudice, too, I believe, would vanish as men studied concerning their mutual problems with the desire to master them. Tolerance for the insane would increase their chances of regaining mental health and, in short, the entire world would proceed as a single working unit, striving for the good of all rather than for just John Doe’s welfare. This, of course, is slightly idealistic but I believe that by educating the future generations in the social subjects, at least a semblance of this Utopia can be reached. RECENT EXPERIMENTATION IN SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHING ELENE M. MICHELL, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Experimentation has been forced upon the secondary schools since they have become the landing fields for youths in their ’teens, many of whom have no interest in education for itself. Recent experiments center about courses in “ social living ” in which social science content is, most commonly, merged with literature and com¬ position, but sometimes music, art, science, and mathematics are also in¬ cluded. Thus suffrage appears not as a mere fact in political science, but as a matter of personal experience and attitudes, of learning in terms of oral and written expression, of the mathematics involved in statistical graphs, of music in campaign songs, and so on. The purpose is to provide learning experiences in entirety, not as fragments separated by subject lines, and to build attitudes and habits that are socially valuable. The new plan occupies from one to three hours a day, for a single term or for two years. Many high schools in California are offering such classes either as alternatives to the traditional courses or in substitution for them. San Francisco, Oakland, Redwood City, Chico, Los Angeles, and Santa Monica are among the cities in which some classes in the public schools follow the new plan. Tho adequate equipment should be a fundamental part of an experi¬ mental program, the lack of classroom libraries is noticeable ; in some cases the teachers themselves have supplied additional reading material. In a 478 National Education Association recent survey two schools received commendation for the libraries in their social science classrooms — the Washington High School, Pasadena, Calif., and East High School, Rochester, N. Y. In each of these schools, wide reading of accepted authorities has become an integral part of the class work. It is not yet possible to evaluate the success of the effort to develop social attitudes and habits. Some mistakes are undoubtedly being made but there is stimulation in the challenge hurled at the traditional content of standard courses. Improved instruction should result as the high school changes its emphasis from subject specialization to the social adjustment of the indi¬ vidual. However, the superior teacher has always striven to achieve both of these outcomes. A PRACTICAL PROGRAM FOR THE SOCIAL STUDIES JOHN A. SEXSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PASADENA, CALIF. In proposing a practical program for the social studies, looking toward a solution of youth problems, the school administrator must interpret the words, “ practical program,” to mean such a program as may be introduced into, and consistently maintained thruout, a public school system for such a period of time as will permit measurable results to accrue. Such a pro¬ gram involves due consideration for adult opinion outside the school, and an appraisal of the professional training, ability, and experience of the teaching staff, a survey of available facilities and materials for teaching and studying, and an intelligent understanding of youth, both as individuals and as a part of such a society as that in which they live today. My first suggestion would be that the program be shaped in the light of the needs of the individual pupil, and that an effort be made to under¬ stand the individual, and to meet the problems of the individual. Emphasis in the social studies has been placed too exclusively upon group tendencies, group trends, and group problems. The social science program should be evolved in the light of general principles. These may be stated, as follows: All life is a process of growth, and the school if it is to serve child life effectively must embody that essential characteristic of life. It must also be comprehensive, touching life at all angles, and it must be developed around the child, both as a present and a future member of society as the central point of interest. Since we live in a democratic social order, our school cur¬ riculum must be based upon and exemplify democratic principles and proc¬ esses in the method of development, in content, and in its application in teach¬ ing procedure. In harmony with these principles, the program should make possible a continuous, progressively coordinated series of experiences which shall be in keeping with presentday philosophy of education, and which shall be a vital and meaningful part of the everyday life of the youth in our current civilization, enabling them more fully to organize, integrate, and interpret all their life experiences, and increasingly achieve a continuous re¬ construction of experience, or growth. Department of Social Studies 479 In setting up these experiences for the elementary school, the general objectives to be kept in mind are health ; citizenship ; practical efficiency; self- expression ; enrichment of undirected time ; and world-mindedness. At the secondary level the specific objectives for social science, which have been formulated on the basis of the general objectives for secondary educa¬ tion, are health ; command of the fundamental processes needed for further growth ; growth in vocational fitness and avocational resourcefulness ; citizen¬ ship, cooperation, leadership, followership, self-dependence, and world- mindedness ; and maximum character development. Six major functions of society upon which the social science program must necessarily be based are the following : 1. Conservation of life, liberty, and property 2. Production and consumption of food, shelter, and clothing 3. Transportation of goods, services, people, ideas 4. Recreation 5. Expression of esthetic impulses, such as art, music, and literature 6. Religion. Any program of the social studies that hopes to be effective in the solu¬ tion of youth problems must transfer the emphasis from institutions to these functions which society necessarily maintains. An administrator proposing the above type of life activities learning program will realize that such a pro¬ gram is not instituted in a school system at a single moment, or continuously from the kindergarten thru the junior college in the course of a single effort. Such a program will start out by the appearance in certain classrooms of activities directly related to traditional subjects of the school curriculum wherein the teacher will select certain types of activities and employ them merely as a basis for the motivation of the subjectmatter already selected. In the course of time, this practise will pass over into one in which the activities are related to certain criteria apart from the regular subjects, and the curriculum will be built around the selected activities retaining the essentials of the fundamental subjects worked over into the new classroom procedure. Finally, in a few of the better rooms under the guidance of the better teachers, there will be found a third type of program in which the activities are selected in direct relation to the interests and activities of the learners, and where the relatively less important traditional curriculum viewpoint will have been successfully embodied in an integrated program of the higher type. It is absurd to conclude that any rigid prescription of grade level activities is absolutely essential to an effective program based upon such principles as those above outlined. It is a basic assumption that the American ideal of the “ good life ” em¬ bodies the ideal of the greatest welfare and happiness of the masses, and that trends and choices in our rapidly changing American life, in its economic, social, and political, and its national and international aspects should be studied in their relationship to this American ideal. This ideal of the “ good life ” is not to be conceived of as a static condition fully visualized at any time, but as a dynamic, growing concept which embodies the finest life mean- 16 480 National Education Association ings evolved out of past and present human experience and which will con¬ tinue to take on new meaning with new experiences. This concept of the American ideal is the basic criterion for the choice of curriculum materials and for the determination of instructional methods. MAKING THE PROGRAM FIT THE NEEDS OF INDIVIDUAL PUPILS MARY M. BALCH, SAFFORD JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, TUCSON, ARIZ. Those who claim that the program already fits the needs of individual pupils are clinging to a phantom. The crux of the question lies in the interpretation of the word “ needs.” Certainly it does not mean surrender¬ ing to the whims of children. What every individual needs is competence in handling each phase of his life: his job, his home-membership, his recrea¬ tion, his civic life. This paper is a challenge directed against the inadequacies of presentday schooling to equip youth with the competences they need, particularly in civic and economic fields. High-school graduates, for the most part, are intellectual kindergartners when it comes to dealing with current problems. Teachers have emphasized “ imparting facts ” at the expense of far more important goals: socialization and ability to handle controversial topics which are the very essence of our public life. We must arouse interest in civic affairs, a truth-seeking habit of mind, and an eagerness to share in the pioneering toward a new and better social order. In the second place, we have not equipped individuals to achieve satis¬ fying vocational goals. Our program has been geared too largely to the needs of the small minority who go to college. We need new courses to develop new skills needed in new jobs. We need training for versatility for those who will enter semi-skilled jobs, whose life work will be not one job, but a succession of jobs. And we need to help students find happy solutions for their particular personal problems: choosing vocational and other life goals, overcoming personal handicaps, and choosing the most suitable school courses. For a practical program, we must attack on three fronts — administrative, instructional, and guidance. The administrative problem is to provide the right program, one that is* broadened and modified to conform to new social, civic, and employment conditions. From the instructional point of view the problem is to harmonize the contents, methods, and standards within each course with the demands of current life and the aptitudes of individual pupils. From the guidance point of view, we need to study the individual pupil — his mental, physical, and emotional make-up — and on the basis of this, help him overcome remedial handicaps and plan a good life. Can this ideal of making the program fit all the needs of all the pupils ever be more than a golden dream? If we are to fulfil our duty to the boys and girls entrusted to our care, we must carry forth this dream into reality. Department of Social Studies 481 IDEALS FOR THE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIAL STUDIES PROGRAM EARLE U. RUGG, COLORADO STATE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, GREELEY, COLO. The school has already available two types of civic materials — the “ read¬ ing ” materials embraced in the summarized subjectmatter of the social studies, and the so-called extracurriculum activities. Both assert citizenship education to be their main objective. It is the writer’s conviction that all the advantages of the vicarious experiences of the social studies should be capitalized but with reference to definite standards or criteria. Rather than knowledge for its own sake or for the doubtful mind-training value, these studies should seek to throw light on definite civic activities and problems of all citizens today. Real understanding of the social structure which we call government is de¬ manded. Real appreciation of the characteristics of citizenship — loyalty, patriotism, service, justice, leadership — must be sought. Every item that can serve such objectives must be taught. A functional point of view is seem¬ ingly demanded. Mind sets, dispositions, attitudes should be promoted that will serve as emotional drives to inculcate the development of abilities re¬ quired of good citizens. And yet the mere study of the reading materials of the social studies will not suffice, because reading, however important in and of itself, is but one avenue of learning. All the other avenues of learning — doing,, observa¬ tion, and the like — must be utilized. The dynamic character of service activi¬ ties (student councils to teach the ideals of leadership and representation and homeroom activities to teach the supervisory obligations of followers), is demanded. School spirit properly directed is a vehicle for teaching what real loyalty and patriotism involve. Student participation in the control of their own affairs should lead not only to habits of law and justice but also to right attitudes towards those institutions. A school in which the pupils are gradually taught why and how to do rather than what must be done because of teacher-authoritarianism should serve to inculcate in pupils a real appreciation of what democracy means. This is a plea for the curriculum maker interested in citizenship educa¬ tion to study and investigate the fundamental implications of social life. It further insists that basic criteria be set up on which to evaluate what is taught in the name of citizenship education. The writer does not deny the need for much of the present social studies. Rather he wishes to see a synthesis of all elements that seemingly relate to the problem of teaching boys and girls (America’s youthful citizens) to do better the things they need to do as citizens in a country committed to the ideal of democracy. It is our task to move pupils up the scale from present civic deficiencies to civic standards, so far as the maturity, capacities, and interests of children permit them to be moved. This can be done only by fundamental investi¬ gation of all aspects of proper social behavior, which is apparently synony¬ mous with the problem now termed “ citizenship education.” 482 National Education Association SECRETARY’S MINUTES Denver, Colorado First Session, Monday Afternoon, July 1, 1935 The first session followed a joint meeting with the Department of Secondary Education. Because of the large number who wished to attend the meeting of the Department, the meeting had to be transferred from the library to the main audi¬ torium in the East High School. The attendance at this meeting was estimated at 500. R. O. Hughes, first vicepresident of the Department, presided, and acted in a similar capacity on the following day, since Mary G. Christie, of the North High School of Denver, was out of the city. The general theme for the afternoon was “ The Contributions of the Social Studies to the Solution of Youth Problems of Today,” which in turn was a development of the theme of the program of the Department of Secondary Education, “ Youth Problems of Today.” Second Session, Tuesday Afternoon, July 2, 1935 This meeting was held in the auditorium of the Capitol Life Insurance Building. The auditorium, which had normal seating capacity for about 200, was greatly overcrowded and many were unable to get into the meeting. The general theme for the program was “Looking Toward a Practical Program.” The meetings at Denver had the largest attendence of any in the history of the Department of Social Studies. DEPARTMENT OF Special Education HISTORICAL NOTE Application for the establishment of a Department of Special Edu¬ cation was made at the Atlanta convention in 1929. A petition hearing more than 250 names was presented at that time. The creation of the Department was authorized a year later at the convention in Columbus. In Los Angeles the group of teachers and administrators interested in special education met on July 2 and final plans for the creation of the Department were made and a constitution was adopted. The officers of the Department for the year 1935-36 are: president, Mabel A. Harms, Boys’ Vocational School, Minneapolis, Minn.; vice- president, Catherine Nutterville, School Psychologist, Board of Educa¬ tion, Butte, Mont.; secretary-treasurer, Latische Henderson, John Marshall High School, St. Paid, Minn. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows : 1931 :633-644 1932 -.533-542 1933:537-550 1934 -.521-534 [ 484 1 NEEDED LEGISLATION IN THE INTEREST OF ALL TYPES OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN CATHERINE NUTTERVILLE, SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGIST, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, BUTTE, MONT. Iaws come into being because of conditions that are offensive to a j people. The whole body of law may be likened to a handwoven tapestry in which the pattern evolved as each generation made its contri¬ bution. This being true, legislation in the interest of exceptional chil¬ dren may be considered at present as a crude frame upon which a few warp threads have been strung with only a few spots showing where the pattern is beginning to take shape. Exceptional children are those who cannot be educated with the typical group. Studies show that 85 percent of the legislation in the interest of these children has been passed since 1914. There is very little agreement among the states concerning this legislation. The blind, the deaf, and the crippled are the types for which most efficient care has been provided. This no doubt is because of the obvious emotional appeal of these groups. The Economic Security Bill now before Congress places the administra¬ tion of funds for the education of crippled and otherwise physically handi¬ capped children in the hands of the Children’s Bureau in the Department of Labor. This causes an overlapping which must necessarily be confusing, since the Office of Education is prepared for and its personnel is trained for this function. Commissioner Studebaker and the state superintendents and commissioners of education protested against this set-up to the proper committees in Congress. On May 25 no change had been made in the bill. If the fabric of legislation in the interest of exceptional children is to develop into a real protection for these children, it is the duty of the edu¬ cators of America to make known the needs of these children. u THE PSYCHOLOGY OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN SARA STINCHFIELD HAWK, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. Out of forty-five million children in this country, we know that approxi- \ mately three million are already in special classes or receiving special edu¬ cation. There are many in need of such training who are unable to receive it at this time, as such work tends to be concentrated in the larger cities. Our experience in the Child Guidance Clinic of Los Angeles and Pasa¬ dena indicates that social workers, teachers, school administrators, physicians connected with the school, psychologists, and psychiatrists are coming closer together in point of view regarding the need of special education for these handicapped children. The groups include children who are not so severely handicapped as to need institutional care, but rather those who suffer from [ 485 ] 486 National Education Association a mild degree of deafness, visual defect, crippled condition, speech defect, behavior difficulty, tendencies toward delinquency, nervousness, psycho¬ pathic or psychotic tendencies which require “ special handling.” It would seem to be the duty of the state and of the nation to make edu¬ cation so safe that parents may realize that their child shall have a fair chance for development, up to the limits of his capabilities and within the range of his special talents or limitations. This is sound social insurance for childhood. The present trend is away from a cut-and-dried program for the handi¬ capped child, and in the direction rather of a loosely-knit, flexible program, adapted to his special needs and to the nature of his handicap, as determined by the school nurse, physician, pediatrician, teacher, and parent. Teachers in schools and classes for handicapped children are those who have had special training. They understand the child better than many of the teach¬ ers in regular classrooms, we believe. The child who is under par often receives, as in the Los Angeles schools, assignment to a special class where he works in a small group, is assigned shorter lessons, recites to the teacher individually rather than in class style, has a special rest period, special physical education program, supervised lunch period and recreation, and his progress is accelerated or slowed up according to the individual’s energy and natural rate of learning. We need to realize that there is a special psychology for the handicapped child which differs for the child with a severe handicap, as compared with one having only a mild degree of difficulty. Sometimes the child with a severe handicap will work harder to overcome his difficulty than a child with a lesser defect, while the slightly handicapped child may become morose, highly sensitive, unsocial, and may use his defect as a weapon by means of which he gets what he wants, in an infantile, childish fashion. He may develop an unsocial personality and set himself apart more than his handicap warrants. Amid the modern radical changes in family life, we should have a knowledge of each child’s natural endowment, should protect him against unfavorable conditions, and provide a form of training which will insure him success and happiness. MEETING THE NEEDS OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN IN RURAL SCHOOLS HELEN HEFFERNAN, CHIEF, DIVISION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION AND RURAL SCHOOLS, STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, SACRAMENTO, CALIF. Provision for the education of exceptional children is a comparatively new departure. According to the report of the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection only about 10 percent of our handicapped children who require instruction of a remedial or corrective nature have opportunity to receive it. Even for cities the problem of meeting the needs of exceptional children is only beginning to be explored. Naturally, the Department of Special Education 487 rural school, where financial support is meager, where teachers are rela¬ tively less well trained, where pupil population is scattered over large areas, and where the attitude of the public may be apathetic or indifferent, is “ bringing up the rear ” in providing adequate opportunity in the field of special education. Recent trends in education have made the school more adapted to the needs of all children and hence more suitable for the exceptional child. The aim of modern education is to know the whole child as completely as possible. As we come to a better understanding of individual differences, it becomes more and more apparent that all education is special education. The modern school aims to provide an environment conducive to the com¬ plete development of every child’s potential possibilities. Such a philosophy has significant implications for special education. The exceptional child is not apart from the school program but merely a child who may need special equipment, differentiated methods and materials, and an educational program adapted to his individual needs. The school believes that its func¬ tion is to help the child to compensate for his handicaps and to use his abilities to the maximum. The great need in rural areas is to give teachers educational perspective in the treatment of the individual child. In the general program of the classroom less rigidity of academic standards and more flexibility in curricu¬ lum adjustments will make it possible to meet the needs of many of our exceptional children. “As nearly normal as possible ” has been suggested as the slogan for the education of the exceptional child. With all the dis¬ advantages which the rural school may possess, perhaps it prevents one of the worst errors into which we have fallen in the treatment of our ex¬ ceptional children — complete segregation from the normal social group. Superintendents, principals, and supervisors can do much to meet the needs of exceptional children in rural schools by encouraging rural teachers to specialize in some field of special education during summer sessions. In California we have been developing a corps of teachers, well distributed over the state, who are qualified to give expert assistance in the field of speech correction. Since 1925 we have had a State Bureau of Speech Edu¬ cation. The work of this bureau has been largely directed toward the training of teachers in speech work. Work with special defectives has been reimbursed by the state on the same basis as work with the physically handicapped, namely, an annual reimbursement of two hundred dollars per pupil in average daily attendance. One great source of leadership in meeting the problems of special cases in rural areas is provided by the school supervisor. In California we have one hundred and sixty persons engaged in the professional direction of the educational program. In two counties supervisors are employed particularly for work with exceptional children, but in other counties the supervisor of health education or the general supervisor renders service comparable to the special education departments of cities. In the counties where special supervisors have been provided, an interest¬ ing pioneer program is being developed. These counties are emphasizing 488 National Education Association the early discovery and adjustment of minor handicaps in a preventive program to avoid later more serious maladjustments. This work includes preschool work, home visitation, speech problems, and individual problems of personality adjustment. In one of the counties a delayed reading program for the mentally immature and a remedial reading program to eliminate school maladjustment have already given evidence of profitable results. The traveling child guidance clinics have been a source of real help for socially maladjusted children in rural and small city communities where a permanent clinic was a financial impossibility. The child guidance clinic has made it possible to treat many problem children in their own community and in their own homes. It has been an agency for constructive planning for childhood thru which the educational forces, health officers, probation departments, and welfare agencies united for concerted action to prevent social and personal maladjustment. SPEECH CURRICULUMS FROM A PERSONALITY APPROACH ELWOOD MURRAY, CHAIRMAN, DEPARTMENT OF SPEECH, UNIVERSITY OF DENVER, DENVER, COLO. Personality is limited in its development to the extent that the means of expression and the social contacts of the person are limited. To increase the range and refinement of expression is to release the personality to achieve its full possibilities. At the same time the basis for effective and highly developed speech behavior is a well-balanced and integrated personality. Whatever conditions help the one help the other, within limits. Yet speech, which is a chief tool of adjustment to social situations, requires the same special solicitude on the part of the educational system as is given the de¬ velopment of other basic skills. Speech offers a most excellent means whereby something may be done directly to the student as a person, in distinction to the conventional treating of a subject. The development and refinement of speech behavior should be provided by an appropriate strand of speech experiences and training, extending from kindergarten thru college. The stress upon such activities as dramatics, debate, and interpretation will not be so much upon the artistic effectiveness (which is important) as it will be upon personality growth, which may be a byproduct of the preparation and presentation of these projects. The creative aspects of speech are most important, both in extempore and con¬ versational situations and in such projects as preparing and presenting plays. Speech work should be correlated with every other subject and activity in the curriculum. At every level the speech curriculums should aim at the development of the following: (1) speech proficiency for vocational and social uses; (2) speech proficiency as a means of helping change the social order as needed ; (3) the well-integrated personality; (4) esthetic appreciations thru the speech approach to fine literature, poetry, and drama. Department of Special Education 489 AUDITORY DEFICIENCY AND DELAYED SPEECH SARA STINCH FIELD HAWK, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. Many problems in speech deficiency and phonetics are beginning to be better understood because of recent researches and inventions such as those which have been made by the Bell Telephone Company in the study of sound transmission, and in the Hollywood and New York film studios, on sound analysis and phonetics. The invention of the audiometer and the audiphone has made teaching of the deaf much more effective. Many schools are equipped with the latest devices for effective speech teaching of very deaf and partially deafened children, as in the city of Los Angeles, where a large school building is set aside for such work. It is important that parents of deaf children should be in touch with schools even before the deaf child is of school age, as direction of the activities of the preschool child thru the nursery school set-up is now possible in most cities. A study of one hundred preschool children in Los Angeles, in the Hill- Young School of Speech, the Parents Cooperative Nursery School, and the Hollywood Day Nursery School has revealed that there are a con¬ siderable number of children with speech defects, and children with delayed speech who have reduced hearing or auditory inacuity to such an extent that speech does not develop normally, as a result of auditory stimuli, and experiments are under way to work out an improved technic for the speech education of such children thru a motor-visual and kinaesthetic method. Many children have difficulty in hearing the high-frequency tones s> z, sh , zh, ch, and ], and the low-intensity tones of th , 1 , and r are also difficult sounds for most children. It is possible for children to be misjudged on the basis of intelligence, because those who do not speak cannot pass tests involving language and communication. Once they acquire speech, something seems to happen to improve power of attention and concentration, building up new mental asso¬ ciations and perceptual processes in the brain, so that the child actually makes a higher score on intelligence tests than before he was able to talk. Speech should therefore not be neglected and parents should not wait for the child to “ outgrow ” a speech defect, as valuable time may be lost edu¬ cationally if they do wait for the difficulty to disappear. The favorable time for speech training, with the child who is not responding to speech stimuli, amid social situations, is between the ages of two and three years. If one waits until school age, much important time has been lost and the child may even be permanently retarded. The need of a fundamental speech therapy is increasingly apparent, in speech clinics, as we are finding out at the Child Guidance Clinic of Los Angeles and Pasadena. 490 National Education Association THE STAMMERER— WHOSE RESPONSIBILITY? MARY A. WILLSEA, SPECIAL TEACHER IN SPEECH CORRECTION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, DENVER, COLO. Since education has learned that it must call the roll of the home, the educator, the psychologist, school administrator, and the doctor for the normal development of the normal child let us now call this same roll on its responsibility to the stammerer. Instead of beginning our discussion of school responsibility with the kindergarten as would seem most logical we are placing our first great re¬ sponsibility on the universities, colleges, and teacher-training schools. We are not asking that every teacher who graduates from university or college have the knowledge which the specialist should have. But we feel that it is fair to expect that every teacher before he receives a certificate to teach have sufficient knowledge of good speech that he may detect speech diffi¬ culties — not necessarily diagnose but be conscious of them and have an alert ear; we feel that it is fair to expect the teacher to have a wholesome attitude of understanding of the child’s handicap and of his struggle to compete with his classmates. While speech re-education is a problem which must be met in all class¬ rooms and every grade, particularly of the elementary schools, we feel that the kindergarten and first grade are the fields of greatest responsibility. There is an ever-increasing appreciation of the value of correcting stammer¬ ing in the early stage before the child is self-conscious, worried, or fearful. Primary stammering, as C. S. Bluemel classifies those who stammer without the anxiety, fear, self-consciousness, and similar emotions which -mani¬ fest themselves in the later stage or secondary stammering, is more easily corrected than the deep-seated secondary stammering. Therefore it is the responsibility of the kindergarten and first-grade teacher to be alert and helpful to the child who is beginning his school life with this handicap. The speech correction teacher has a responsibility toward the child in making the home and the school feel the importance of giving attention to the correction of stammering. He is constantly striving to overcome one of the greatest obstacles in the re-education of the stammerer — indifference. It is our responsibility to sell our work to the superintendents and super¬ visors and principals that they will have a definite knowledge and interest in the field of speech improvement — not a passive interest but a vital interest. In order to do this we must be well equipped. It is the responsibility of the special teacher of speech correction to be professionally equipped. .He should keep informed as to the movements in the field of speech research, keep in touch with new publications and the work of the National Society for the Study of Disorders of Speech. In return it is the responsibility of the school to see that the home is informed and educated for assuming its share of its responsibility in the re-education of the child who stammers. Just as we feel that the teacher should be prepared, so should parents of stammerers have the opportunity Department of Special Education 491 for adequate information. The physical side of the treatment lies almost wholly in the hands of the home. Proper rest periods, control of activities, selection of amusements are entirely the work of the home. A tranquil, well-guided home environment is one of the greatest assets in the correction of the stammerer. 1 he work of the special speech teacher (who should know the home conditions and advise with the parents), the classroom teacher, and the home should be most closely linked together. The mother should visit the speech class frequently so that there will be unity of purpose and method. 1 he physician can give very helpful counsel and advice as to the physical condition of the stammerer and his nerve reactions. His diagnosis may be a definite indication of the method of correction to be used. When one takes a survey of the United States and sees how few com¬ munities have any help for this group of their citizens and how inadequate the force of speech teachers is in these cities it is plain to be seen that those of us who are in the field should feel it our duty to impress the significance of this work. We should do all in our power to make society, the school and the home, educators, doctors, and administrators feel the importance of good, controlled, intelligible speech and the necessity of furnishing oppor¬ tunity for necessary training in this line. THE DEAF CHILD AND PUBLIC RESPONSIBILITY EDNA E. DAVIS, HEAD TEACHER, DAY SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF, SPOKANE, WASH. For centuries people believed that if a person were deaf he was also de¬ prived of intelligence and could never be considered in the same class with other people. Being compelled to fight against this unjust opinion has added just that much more to the deaf child’s already heavy burden. It has hampered his educational opportunities. It is still necessary constantly to prove to the public that the deaf child can be trained to take his place in society with hearing people, that he is a normal child lacking in hearing but not in intelligence. Parents of a deaf child need to be informed that their child benefits by being in school at an early age so that he may have a good start in speech, lip reading, and language, and develop in a normal way and form the proper habits before he is six years of age. The hard-of-hearing pupil should not be neglected. People need to be enlightened, also, about the causes of deafness. The public may be reached thru the parents of the children, thru news¬ paper articles, by means of radio talks, by encouraging visitors to come into the schoolroom, and by demonstrating for men’s and women’s clubs, lodges, medical and dental associations, chambers of commerce, and parent- teacher associations. Our most successful type of demonstration never lasts more than an hour and a quarter. First we show the youngest children giving their first sounds, their first words, and taking their first steps in lip reading. The 492 National Education Association next little group may show how they build up their first sentences. Another group shows one phase of arithmetic, history, or geography to prove that they are capable of studying those subjects. The older children give an oral dramatization to show their ability in speech and lip reading. This dramatization may be based on their school work or it may be chiefly for their pleasure and that of the people in the audience. Rhythm work in speech, dancing, or by the rhythm band makes a good conclusion to the program. Such demonstrations give the pupils an added incentive to work. The children lose their timidity and gain self-confidence and poise. The public gains a sympathetic understanding of the needs of the deaf child. Demonstrations are also helpful in educating the business public. They make it easier for the deaf to secure employment. It is our obligation as teachers to convince people that it is the public’s responsibility to see that each deaf or hard-of-hearing child receives an ade¬ quate education to fit him not only to earn his livelihood but also to enjoy life. The public must be prepared to receive him unto itself. The purpose of this address is to encourage teachers in educating the public, to show the need of public demonstrations, to add to the vision of the inexperienced teacher, or indirectly to broaden the scope of some deaf child’s life. MENTAL HYGIENE AND EDUCATION BERT A. NASH, DIRECTOR, EDUCATIONAL CLINIC, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, LAWRENCE, KANS. AND PRESIDENT, KANSAS STATE SOCIETY FOR MENTAL HYGIENE Education also has its forgotten men. The forgotten men — the school children who are beginning the habits of thought and of behavior which ultimately will result in some form of mental, emotional, or social break¬ down. Too many of the products of our schools are filling our jails, reforma¬ tories, hospitals for the insane, and otherwise are becoming public liabilities. Some of these products are the children who have dropped from the schools because of maladjustment or dissatisfaction, while others have completed the requirements for graduation and have received their diplomas. Schools can never eliminate all the crime or the mental and emotional breakdown so prevalent in society, but they are not capitalizing the opportunity to work on the preventive aspects of these conditions. Our schools have the children when these personal and social inadequacies are first beginning to appear, and this time is most economical for seeking a reduction in these forms of behavior. Delinquency, mental distortion, and emotional instability develop gradu¬ ally. These traits spring from dissatisfaction with the conditions imposed upon children, and it is the function of education to aid children in the facing of reality in a frank and sane manner, and at the same time to help to modify any unusual or unreasonable obstacles which lie in the pathway of the child. Department of Special Education 493 In education we must know more about the physical handicaps of chil¬ dren, as these are the primary foundation of mental health. Teachers must also recognize that failure to learn may be due to some emotional condition of the child, which they may help to overcome. The worries, the anxieties, and the complexes which children experience are reflected in their school activities, and what we have so conveniently called mental retardation often turns out to be some form of mental ill-health which can be overcome with proper guidance. In practise, our present educational program is almost entirely con¬ cerned with academic learning. The “ failure ” system is probably the most pernicious of our present school practises, in terms of the mental health of the school child, but it is the only alternative we now have when the child does not measure up to the inflexible requirements set by our graded system. The school of the future will have a more flexible organization of curriculums and methods as well as a more effective program for ad¬ justment to the variations in child nature. The increased professionalization of teachers will mean the preparation of teachers in terms of understanding children, because teaching is primarily a psychological relationship of two personalities. We must sell education to our patrons on the basis of what the schools can do for the whole person¬ ality of the child. The folly and the tragedy of selling education in terms of fine buildings and equipment and “ subjectmatter teachers ” is partially reflected in our 13 billion dollar crime bill, and the 75,000 persons who annually experience mental or emotional breakdown. At least 25 percent of our school children are in need of some form of special assistance in the personal, mental, or emotional field, if they are to become effective in their social relationships. Even if most of these never become criminals or develop insanity, they will be liabilities to society in the form of reduced effectiveness, and will lower the general morale of the groups in which they mingle. Psychological clinics, guidance counselors, and other trained workers in this field, as well as more adequately trained teachers, will be expensive as items on the school budget, but the saving to society by the reduction of the numbers of misfits, and the heightened effec¬ tiveness of our children will prove to be a most profitable investment. EMOTIONAL TRAINING IN THE RURAL SCHOOL WALLACE T. WAIT, COLORADO STATE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, GREELEY, COLO. The many kinds of emotional responses manifested by the adult to almost every conceivable kind of stimulating situation are largely the result of the habits formed by the individual. By the conditioning experiences of life almost any conceivable stimulus may be made the appropriate cue for calling forth an undesirable response. By undesirable I mean simply in¬ appropriate. Oddly enough, these same stimuli may be made to elicit de¬ sirable or appropriate responses. Which of these two kinds of responses 494 National Education Association is to be called out will depend to a very large extent upon the previous training and upon the previous habits formed by the individual. Another aspect of the emotional life of children in school grows out of the constant manifestation of authority by the teacher. The child has no choice in his reaction to this authority but to submit or contrive some other means of escape which is very apt to result in emotional maladjust¬ ment. This suggests the importance, from the standpoint of the emotionally appropriate development of the child, of either restricting the authority vested in the teacher or, better yet, the training of teachers to the point where they do not have to resort to this undue manifestation of authority. Another source of difficulty in the emotional training of children, some¬ what more applicable to the small rural school than to the city school, is found in the narrowly traditional curriculum content. So much emphasis has been placed in recent years upon the mastery of certain skills and facts that teachers have come to regard these facts as objectives instead of empha¬ sizing social efficiency as the most worthwhile objective of all. Children are being taught facts of arithmetic, geography, and what not, at the expense of being taught how to live efficiently with others, to accept responsibilities, to discover and solve social problems, and in general to be efficiently socialized. There are certain respects in which the rural schools are at a disadvantage as compared with city schools, and certain other ways in which they enjoy a distinct advantage. From the standpoint of disadvantages, the rural schools are unable to hold their best teachers in competition with city schools. They have less adequate opportunities for socially wholesome play activities and social adjustments on the playground than do the city schools. They usually have a somewhat narrower and less socially vital curriculum, altho in all of these respects the disadvantages so markedly apparent form¬ erly will probably gradually disappear. From the standpoint of the advantages enjoyed by the rural school for the emotional training of children, it is appropriate to mention the fact that altho the best teachers tend to migrate to the larger centers of popu¬ lation, the rural schools have the advantage of the enthusiasm and vigor of the beginning teachers just out of teacher-training institutions. This is an advantage not to be lightly disregarded. Another advantage enjoyed by the rural school child is the greater opportunity for the development of self- responsibility as well as matters of responsibility imposed by others. The rural child is often compelled to depend upon his ingenuity and imagination in amusing himself and in solving his everyday life problems. From the standpoint of healthful living conditions, the advantages and disadvantages are probably about evenly divided between the rural and city children with the advantage resting slightly with the rural children. In the important problem of sex education, in the large sense of teach¬ ing children the necessary skills of the sexes playing, working, and living together, not all of the advantages and disadvantages are to be found in either the rural or urban situation. From the standpoint of the biological factors of sex, the rural child has the greater opportunity for developing Department of Special Education 495 matter-of-fact and unemotional attitudes. On the other hand, the relative scarcity and lack of variety of social situations of the two sexes meeting and living together in a variety of rural situations, gives the rural child a rather distinct handicap in the development of social attitudes which should form an extremely important part of any program of sex education. May we then close by pointing out the significance of the fact that the rural conditions are rapidly becoming more like the urban ones. Conse¬ quently the programs of emotional training for children in the two situations have more similarities than dissimilarities. In either case it is a matter of noting specifically the agencies in the community which can be employed to advantage. At the same time, it is also important to note the lacks and scarcities of certain desirable agencies and to supply them in the school program so far as they can be supplied. Naturally, easily, and comfortably, thru the school program the best possible adequate substitutes must be pro¬ vided. Here as in everything else it is important to remember that there is no substitute for common sense, and that the teacher in the rural schools who is concerned about the problem of emotional development of his pupils is particularly enjoined to the necessity of employing his imagination and ingenuity to a maximum degree. THE GIFTED CHILD AND HIS EDUCATION HOWARD TAYLOR, DEAN, OKLAHOMA COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, CHICKASHA, OKLA. That there are gifted children and that they may be discovered is assumed. Our concern is how to educate them effectively in the public schools. Such education is beset with peculiar difficulties which can and must be overcome. Public education is democratic, but intelligence is not; public schools tend to neglect individual differences and to level down. Gifted children are especially the victims of this leveling down process. Public education must be cheap. This cheapness is excessively expensive to the gifted child, since he gets relatively less in return for the investment of his time. Public schools are a system and system cramps those who do not fit into it. Both dull and gifted suffer because of this, but the loss is greatest for those who have the most to lose. That there are few gifted teachers is another obstacle to the education of the gifted. There is a suspicion abroad that “ if they are gifted they are not teachers.” Gifted children, as a group, are superior in physical development and health. They have initiative, are ambitious, resourceful, and original. They read well, learn rapidly, work enthusiastically and persistently, but are bored by routine and useless drill. Gifted children are good citizens, respect authority, and have a sense of justice. Their teachers, therefore, should possess both character and intelligence. Emotionally, gifted children are more stable than the average, but are often put under unnecessary nervous strain. Of course, there are marked individual differences among the gifted with reference to every trait. These differences must be given full con- 496 National Education Association sideration in their education. Variability is especially great in endowments of special abilities, such as music or art. Guiding principles for the education of gifted children are: 1. Should help the child adapt himself to his social environment 2. Should fully challenge the child’s learning ability 3. Should be within the limits of the physical and mental ability of the learner 4. Should have breadth and depth thru enrichment rather than height thru ac¬ celeration 5. Should take into account maturation as well as learning ability. Time is an essential condition of growth 6. Should pfovide for a wide range and variety of individual differences. Suggested procedures include grouping of gifted children, wherever practical. Individualized instruction should be correlated with socialized learning and group activities. Recreational and esthetic interests should not be neglected. Gifted children should have close contact with one another and companionship with gifted teachers. Their education should emphasize social responsibility and provide for normal biological and psychological development as an aid to proper social adjustment. Spiritual growth is a vital part of the education of the gifted. Thru wrong education they may become intellectual monstrosities. There are fundamental loyalties which cannot be ignored. There is still a place in life for intelligent patriotism and for the abiding values which are the substance of religion. The gifted child needs a loyalty to the home, the institution which embodies the most sacred human relationships. All of these things should be a part of the education of our gifted children. To have such education is their right; to give it to them is our duty and our privilege. THE EDUCATION OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN IN A RURAL STATE MAUDE SHOLTY, DIRECTOR, NURSERY SCHOOL, LARAMIE, WYO. It is a tenet of our educational philosophy that an equal opportunity for an education is due all children. Therefore many states are promoting financial measures that will equalize educational advantages thruout the state. Variant children, however, because of physical and mental deviations, cannot always appropriate these advantages. Such advantages do not consti¬ tute opportunities unless they can be grasped. The crux of equal opportunity in school is the privilege of profiting from attendance. The dull child cannot meet the difficult requirements; the hard-of-hearing child cannot hear the instruction; the partially-seeing cannot do the required reading. These and other handicapped children cannot profit from school attendance equally with the normal. School will mean humiliation and frustration to them unless some special adjustments and provisions can be made. City schools are rapidly providing such modifications of regular methods and equipment as will meet these children’s needs. The richer and more Department of Special Education 497 populous states are providing special education for many variant children by transporting them to special classes in towns and consolidated schools. However, if variant children of a rural state are to receive justice in the matter of an education, special provisions must be made for them just where they are in their home schools. It is impossible under present conditions to transport any significant number to centers providing special classes. Many factors are involved in establishing such a program, the most important ones being: (1) training the rural teacher to adapt academic requirements and to make use of physical and mental hygiene measures to meet the needs of exceptional children; (2) state supervision of such a program by means of manuals of instruction, cumulative case records, direct contact, and the planning of programs; and (3) stimulation of local interest in furnishing exceptional provisions for these children. The whole program has as its objective the social adjustment of variant children by helping them build up compensations for insurmountable limita¬ tions. All the factors in their school program should be planned with this end in view in order that they may be prepared to meet life more nearly on an equality with their unhampered classmates. THE EDUCATION OF THE RETARDED CHILD HARVEY L. BALLENGER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, NEW MEXICO NORMAL UNIVERSITY, LAS VEGAS, N. MEX. The children under consideration in this paper are those with I. Q.’s ranging from about 75 to 90. Recognition is given to the fact that the retarded child possesses all the kinds of ability that the normal child has but the differences are a matter of degree. Another basic conception is that their education, as in the case of normal children, should be of such a type as to help them do better those things which as adults they are going to do anyway. The lives of the subnormal will be closely related to each of the seven cardinal principles of education which calls for an education suitable to these needs. Those interests of greatest importance are vocations, leisure¬ time activities, citizenship and moral training. Skills and attitudes on the habitual level are important, hence a large number of actual life-like situ¬ ations should be provided and with sufficient frequency to perfect those habitual forms of behavior which should be perfected. The experience of success should play a large part in their activities and it will be a great advantage if a special group of the retarded children can be organized, but where administrative conditions make this impossible any teacher can so arrange her program as to permit a development of their abilities to a greater extent than is usually done. In either case a well- rounded activity program is an excellent means of providing for the retarded. ■> ' ■ . DEPARTMENT OF Superintendence HISTORICAL NOTE The department of superintendence was the outgrowth of a meet¬ ing of the National Teachers' Association in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, 1865, at which time the state and city superintendents present decided to form an organization of their own. Final action was taken in Washing¬ ton, D. C., in February, 1866. The new organization was called the Na¬ tional Association of School Superintendents. In 1870, the National Association of School Superintendents merged into the National Education Association as a Department. In 1921, the Department was reorganized and a fulltime secretary employed. It pub¬ lishes a report of its annual meeting and a yearbook which are sent only to members. The officers of the Department for the year 1935-36 are: president, A. J. Stoddard, Superintendent of Schools, Providence, R. first vice- president, E. E. Oberholtzer, Superintendent of Schools, Houston , Texas; second vicepresident, A. L. Threlkeld, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo.; executive secretary, Sherwood D. Shankland, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.; executive committee: Carroll R. Reed, Superintendent of Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. ( term expires 1936) ; Frank G. Pickell, Superintendent of Schools, Montclair, N. I. ( term expires 1937) ; George C. Bush, Superintendent of Schools, South Pasadena, Calif. ( term expires 1938) ; Ben G. Graham, Superin¬ tendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. ( term expires 1939). Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1873:244-271 1874:297 1875:291 1877:253-261 1879:223 1880 :235-236 1881:252 1882:Pt.ll:l-112 1883 1884 : 283 -29 2 1885 :160-191 188 6:333-350 188 7:509-538 1888:513-543 1889 :611-613 1890:365-542 1891 -.379-525 1892:559-743 1894 -.252-592 1895 :213-429 189 6:231-392 1897:195-316 1898 : 30 3 -488 1899:251-379 1900 :183-296 1901:189-348 1902 -.151-305 190 3:139-300 1904 :173-332 1905 :155-270 1906: 29-214 190 7:145-327 1908 :129-312 1909 :1 59-330 1910 :143-306 1911 -.161-329 1912: 329- 497 1924:803-961 1913: 99- 354 1925 :633-862 1914: 133- 291 192 6:665-838 1915: 253- 525 192 7:697-871 1916: 895-1099 1928:655-830 1917: 661- 845 1929:643-802 1918: 473- 683 1930 : 607 -770 1919: 483- 673 1931:645-800 1920: 407- 536 1932:543-677 1921: 679- 849 19 33:551-680 1922:1295-1464 1934:535-672 1923: 881-1024 [ 500 ] GENERAL SESSION, MONDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 25, 1935 GOVERNMENTAL PLANNING IN THE UNITED STATES CHARLES E. MERRIAM, CHAIRMAN, DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. ; AND MEMBER, NATIONAL RESOURCES BOARD IN 1931 governor roosevelt declared that “ in the long run state and national planning is essential to the future prosperity, happiness, and exis¬ tence of the American people.” President Hoover’s Research Committee on Recent Social Trends suggested in 1932 the establishment of a National Advisory Council “ including scientific, educational, governmental, eco¬ nomic (including industrial, agricultural, labor) points of contact, or other appropriate elements able to contribute to the consideration of the basic problems of the nation.” “ In any case,” said the Committee, “ and what¬ ever the approach, it is clear that the type of planning now most urgently required is neither economic planning alone, nor governmental planning alone. The new synthesis must include the scientific, the educational, as well as the economic and also the governmental. All these factors are in¬ extricably intertwined in modern life and it is impossible to make rapid progress without drawing them all together.” Under authority of the NIRA, Secretary Ickes appointed in July 1933 a National Planning Board, consisting of Frederick A. Delano, Wesley C. Mitchell, and Charles E. Merriam. This Board undertook two principal tasks : ( 1 ) the long-time planning of public works ; and (2) the preparation of a plan for national planning. The report of July 1, 1934, covered a plan for planning. It was accom¬ panied by a discussion on the role of science in national planning prepared by the National Academy of Science Committee on Governmental Rela¬ tions ; and another on the role of social science in planning prepared by the Social Science Research Council. It contained also an analysis of various planning agencies in the United States, and in a number of other nations, including Japan, Italy, Russia, Germany, and the economic councils of other states. As a result of this report President Roosevelt, by executive order, created in July 1934 the National Resources Board for the consideration of natural resources and of human resources. This Board consisted and now consists of Harold L. Ickes, Secretary of the Interior; Henry A. Wallace, Secretary of Agriculture; Frances Perkins, Secretary of Labor; George H. Dern, Secretary of War; Daniel C. Roper, Secretary of Commerce; Harry L. Hopkins, Federal Emergency Relief Administrator; and Messrs. Delano, Mitchell, and Merriam. The latter three also constituted an advisory com¬ mittee in charge of the inquiries of the Board. [501] 502 National Education Association This report was based on studies made by a technical committee on land use of which Dr. Gray was chairman ; another on water uses, of which Morris L. Cooke was chairman ; another on mineral uses, of which Professor Leith was chairman. There was also included the special material collected for the PWA Board by Maurice Clark, Gayer, Black, Powell and others on long-time planning of public works. The natural resources of America, said the Board in its opening state¬ ment, are the heritage of the whole nation and should be conserved and utilized for the benefit of all of our people. Our national democracy is built upon the principle that the gains of our civilization are essentially mass gains and should be administered for the benefit of the many rather than the few ; our priceless resources of soil, water, minerals are for the service of the American people, for the promotion of the welfare and well-being of all citizens. This report of the President’s National Resources Board brings together, for the first time in our history, exhaustive studies by highly competent in¬ quirers of land use, water use, minerals, and public works in their relation to one another and to national planning. The report lays the basis of a com¬ prehensive long-range national policy for the conservation and development of our fabulous natural resources. If these recommendations are put into effect, it is believed that they will end the untold waste of our national domain now, and will measurably enrich and enlarge these national trea¬ sures as time goes on. It was the special purpose of the National Resources Board to bring to¬ gether these and other social interests, sets of data, and principles of action, and to consider them from the over-all position of national policy. In so doing, however, we should guard against too narrow a view of the possibili¬ ties of natural resources development, attractive as they may be. The eco¬ nomic crisis in the United States was not caused by erosion, serious as its inroads are on our soil assets ; nor is unemployment due chiefly to lack of adequate flood control, calamitous as the consequences of floods are in many instances. It is too much to suppose that the proper development of our drainage basins will of itself solve the problems of the perplexed body politic. Even the problems centering around land and water cannot be solved in these terms alone, but require for their practical and successful treatment a full consideration of the broader but closely related aspects of agriculture, industry, labor, transportation and communication, health, education, pub¬ lic finance, governmental organization. Finally, human resources and human values are more significant than the land, water, and minerals on which men are dependent. The application of engineering and technological knowledge to the reorganization of the natural resources of the nation is not an end in itself, but is to be conceived as a means of progressively decreasing the burdens imposed upon labor, raising the standard of living, and enhancing the well-being of the masses of the people. Department of Superintendence 503 The program indicated is too long to be discussed in detail here, but in broad outline the policy indicated was as follows : 1. Provide for the systematic development of our water resources for purposes of sanitation, power, industrial uses, transportation, recreation, domestic consumption, and other collateral uses on a far higher level than ever before. 2. Remove the recurring menace of great floods and vast losses to persons and property. 3. Reduce the heavy losses of soil caused by uncontrolled erosion. 4. Eliminate the use of land incapable of affording a minimum standard of living, develop agricultural production on the most suitable soils only, and thus aid in raising the standards of living in many agricultural regions. 5. End the wasteful use of our mineral resources and substitute a national policy of mineral conservation. 6. Make available large areas of land for purposes of popular recreation. 7. Assemble basic data necessary for national planning. 8. Avoid the extravagance caused by failure to coordinate public works, federal, state, and local; bring about better programming of socially useful public works; prepare public works projects suitable, if desired, for use in emergency situations. 9. Provide for continuous long-range planning of land, water, and mineral re¬ sources in relation to one another and to the larger background of the social and economic life in which they are set. This program contained many detailed recommendations, but broadly speaking the following were perhaps the most important : 1. A land purchase program providing for the retirement of some five million acres of submarginal land yearly for some fifteen years, with administration thru a permanent land planning section, cooperating with state and local boards and authorities (with many collateral recommendations). 2. A permanent water planning section to proceed with detailed engineering, so¬ cial, financial, and legal studies of seventeen major drainage basins, and the prep¬ aration of constructive programs for their development (with many collateral rec¬ ommendations). 3. In mineral industries, permanent regulation of competition, adequate to con¬ trol production, capacity, surplus stocks, and protection of the workers. Considera¬ tion of retirement of marginal mines is also indicated. Scientific research to foster mining technology was recommended. For all these purposes a permanent mineral policy committee was suggested. A further report on this subject is in preparation, and also a report on hydroelectric power. 4. A permanent public works administration, preparing a six-year works pro¬ gram, operating thru lump sum appropriations by Congress, and assuming the leadership in cooperation between national and local public works authorities. $. Continued encouragement of and cooperation with state and regional planning boards. 6. Collection of basic data for planning, including a financial balance sheet for the federal government, a mid-decennial census of population and employment, com¬ pletion of standard maps of the United States, basic scientific studies of land and water resources. A considerable part of this program has already been put into practise or is now pending and about to be introduced in Congress. 7. In addition the National Resources Board recommended a permanent advisory national planning board to serve as a general staff for the President. It was sug¬ gested that this board consist of not more than five members appointed by and re¬ sponsible to the President, with a rotating panel of consultants and a skeleton staff made up of government personnel and others brought in for special inquiries. The Board and its staff would serve as a clearing-house for significant plans of many types developed in federal, state, or local service — by public 504 National Education Association or private or quasi-public agencies. Appropriate powers of fact finding and facilities for plan analysis would be granted to the Board. At present no such national agency exists and there is often serious difficulty in obtaining the necessary data regarding important plans or projects in actual operation among 175,000 governmental bodies and many other quasi-public groups, industrial, scientific, or otherwise. A mere card catalog of all projects would be of little value for this purpose, but an intelligent understanding of the main lines and types of planning research would be of high value, not only to those engaged in such tasks but to governing officials charged with the final duty of formulating and administering policies. The Board would have the function of tendering its friendly offices as a coordinator of various federal plans, and of federal and state or local plans, or other types of plans where closer cooperation might seem desirable and feasible. For this purpose conferences and consultations would be useful, also continuing analysis of conflicting or unrelated plans and constructive efforts to bring these into some harmony of action. The coordinating activities of the Board would lie in several overlapping fields of which two may be cited : 1. Functional coordination such as that recommended by the water resources sec¬ tion in Part I of this report and exemplified in the work of the water planning com¬ mittee. 2. Geographical or jurisdictional coordination as between local, state, regional, and federal planning agencies. In a two-dimensional figure of this sort it is obvi¬ ously impossible to put any one activity under a single heading; and groups or committees set up to further coordination in general must function to some extent in other fields. At the direction of the President a report on the land and water resources of the United States was prepared and presented December 1 as the first but not the last task of the Board. In this was included also an analysis on long¬ time planning of public works and a discussion of national planning methods in the fields of physical, social, governmental, and economic affairs. Planning agencies have already been developed in a number of federal offices, and it is to be anticipated that more will be set up. Since the division of functions among the several departments is a result of historical growth rather than of planning, “ departmental planning ” may run counter to “ functional planning.” This same difficulty exists in bureau organization but to such a small extent as to be practically negligible. The establishment of interbureau or other planning divisions would contribute greatly to the sound development of national planning. A national board and its staff would encourage and welcome such agencies where they are not now found, cooperate with those in active operation, endeavor to bring together lines of planning that seemed to run too far apart or even unwittingly at variance with one another, and in general use its good offices to bring about the best understanding among planners, and the highest and best use of all such re¬ search agencies for the common national welfare in the domain of planning. In this field it may be observed in passing that the intelligence and vision of a board and its staff, the respect and confidence they enjoy among groups Department of Superintendence 505 whose intimate cooperation is indispensable, will be far more effective than statutory powers or bristling governmental sanctions. The various planning activities going on within departments will con¬ tinue on an even greater scale than heretofore. The government bureaus will always be planning in their special fields. But there are many questions which cut across the boundaries of established departments as in the case of land, water, and mineral resources which are discussed in the text of this report. In such cases the necessary planning requires cooperation, and the very existence of a central planning agency facilitates cooperation in many ways. But every Cabinet member is the head of a huge going concern which he must administer and for which he is responsible. Cabinet members are over¬ burdened with a bewildering variety of administrative duties and are con¬ fronted with an overwhelming mass of decisions which cannot be postponed. They are also drawn into the discussion of urgent national problems upon which action is imminent, and in which their relations to the President, to Congress, and to the public are such as to entail upon them the heaviest and gravest responsibilities. In the sense of having ultimate political and administrative responsibility, the Cabinet members are themselves a final planning council acting with the President and the Congress; but in the technical sense they may advantage¬ ously be served and strengthened by an agency more detached from the stress of daily commitments and obligations. A technical general staff has already been found useful both in public and in private business, and might well be adapted to national governmental purposes. The flexibility and economy of these types of planning organization have been proved by the efforts of the last few months to prepare the land, water, and mineral reports contained within these covers. With a small central staff, necessary funds, and the hearty cooperation of numerous federal, state, and private agencies, needed basic data and policy recommendations have been developed with speed, economy, and assurance. One of the duties imposed upon the previous National Planning Board, and now on the National Resources Board, is that of encouraging and stimulating interest in various forms of planning — state, local, and regional. Judging from the experience of the last year, this is a field of very lively and keen interest. Over forty state planning boards sprang into existence almost as if merely awaiting the suggestion. Until a few years ago state planning was almost unknown, altho there were developments in New York and in Wisconsin, and there were scat¬ tered conservation agencies in one field or another in many of the com¬ monwealths. There are now forty-three state planning boards in operation, and it is safe to say that there will be forty-eight within a short time. These boards were set up with the aid of a state consultant supplied by the National Resources Board and with the cooperation of the governor and other state officials. The scope and method of the work of these boards vary widely from state to state, but include as a minimum land and water use, conservation, transpor- 506 National Education Association tation, and public works. In other instances education, taxation, govern¬ mental reorganization, industrial and social welfare problems, have been made the subject of consideration. Almost all of these states have prepared preliminary reports, ranging from inventories of state assets to constructive proposals regarding their use. These programs are concerned with long¬ time capital expenditure budgets, with grade crossings, with rural electrifi¬ cation, with soil erosion, flood control, and power development, with land use, with recreation, with schools, unemployment, industrial relations, de¬ pending on the special problems of the state or the line of interest of the board. Taken together they constitute a unique development of state plan¬ ning policy and mark a new phase in the organization of our commonwealth activities. In the rural field the development of county planning looms large. Par¬ ticularly in Wisconsin the planning function of the county with reference especially to land use has been advanced in a very notable manner. There are now nearly one hundred county planning agencies in existence and a widespread interest in the further development of rural planning. City planning has developed for the last twenty years and there are now some seven hundred city planning agencies. The activities of these boards have been halted somewhat during the depression, altho some nine thou¬ sand workers under the CWA aided in the development of city plans in 1934. On the whole the cities have fallen behind in the movement they started a quarter of a century ago. There is reason to believe as a result of recent discussion in the Majors’ Conference and in the American Municipal Association that city planning will develop more widely than before in the near future. This advance tends to take the form of ( 1 ) metropolitan regional planning, and of (2) broader social planning in which housing, recreation, employment, and social welfare occupy a more conspicuous place than heretofore. Decentralization of planning activity is essential to the healthy growth of those local and individual interests upon which public support and under¬ standing rest. It is also essential in the development of the planning move¬ ment to develop responsibility in state and local officials and to find new leaders and enthusiasts. It would further be the function of the national board to initiate inde¬ pendent lines of inquiry into various aspects of a national program, con¬ templating the wisest use of our national resources, in the broadest sense, and to present the results of its work to the President with such findings and rec¬ ommendations or alternative recommendations as may be indicated by com¬ prehensive research and mature reflection, and for such use as the responsi¬ ble governing agencies of the nation might deem appropriate under all the circumstances. A discussion of some possible types of inquiry is found in earlier paragraphs of this report. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the role of such an agency would be advisory to those in positions of political power and responsibility with the right and the duty to make the broad decisions in national affairs. Department of Superintendence 507 Standing apart from political and administrative power and responsibility, but in close touch with the chief executive and under the control of the political powers that be, such a group of men would have large opportunity for collecting the basic facts and for mature reflection upon national trends, emerging problems and possibilities, and might well contribute to those in responsible control, facts, interpretations, and suggestions of far-reaching significance. This is not the time nor was I directed to discuss the pros and cons of planning, but I may perhaps be pardoned for referring to a few points, leav¬ ing the documents for further statement of my position. There are three outstanding considerations in looking at plans for plan¬ ning : 1. The necessity and value of coordinating our national, state, and local policies instead of allowing them to drift apart or pull against one another, with disastrous effect. 2. The value of looking forward in national life, of considering in advance rather than afterward, of preventive measures as well as remedial. 3. The value of basing plans upon the most authentic collection and analysis of the facts. Down to the turn of the nineteenth century no country had done more extensive national planning than the United States. Our American program first of all was based on the greatest heresy of the time, namely, that gov¬ ernmental arrangements or constitutions could be planned and made. Our program included the abolition of hereditary government and the substitu¬ tion of democracy, the adoption of the federal system thru the Constitution, itself a masterpiece of economic-political planning, a land system reaching from the abolition of primogeniture and entail on down to the Homestead Act, the American system of tariff. After the Civil War the United States led in large-scale business planning thru powerful industrial combinations. Our planning has not been coordinated, and not always in the public in¬ terest, however, and in a time when coordination becomes essential, the difficulties of disjointed planning become evident. I quote from the report of the National Resources Board : It thus appears that there is need for government economic planning, not to re¬ place business planning, but to render services to the general public and to business itself, which business cannot render. Business cannot satisfy the wants of people who are unable to pay prices that are profitable in the long run, however pressing and important these wants are. Business cannot master the troubles it produces for itself by the widening of markets and the spread of combinations. Business cannot protect itself effectively against the business-cycle hazard. When the government attempts planning in these fields it is attacking problems of enormous difficulty with which men can learn to deal effectively only by careful analysis and well-designed experiment. But in trying to find solutions for these problems, the government would not be making inexpert attempts to do what business accomplishes. So far as govern¬ ment succeeded in finding solutions, it would be broadening and making safer the field of private enterprise. It is an error to conclude that all planning involves regimentation of a deadening nature. I am not referring now to the objections of those who 508 National Education Association think of regimentation as an interference with any robber baron privilege of private exploitation and oppression, but to those who sincerely believe that there is danger of sacrificing something that is valuable in civilization. Dr. Mitchell has discussed President Hoover’s identification of planning and regimentation in the current number of the Political Science Quarterly , and I have done likewise in the current American Political Science Review. Wise planning makes provision for decentralization as well as unification, both for territorial and individual decentralization, for independent crit¬ icism, judgment, and initiative, for preserving and creating free areas of human activity. The zoning of power is as important in political as in eco¬ nomic organization. We may plan indeed for fuller liberty — and indeed are now so planning. Sound planning is not based on control of everything, but of certain stra¬ tegic points in a working system. Control of these points holds the system in balance, reconciling order, justice, liberty. These points change from time to time, sometimes peacefully and sometimes violently. At various times political societies have found it necessary to deal with landowners, with slavery, with army authorities, with the church, with labor or industrial captains, with racial groups, readjusting the power system to the new in¬ terests and values of the new time. This is the ABC of politics, but often seems to be the XYZ of economics. The best planning will find these strategic points, shown by the social directives of the time, with least delay, and seize no more points than are necessary for the purpose in mind. Insight, sagacity, inventiveness, facility in cooperation and management are far more important here than the club or the prison. Force is only too often the result of impatience. What often happens is: (1) change is too long delayed; (2) the readjusters violently seize more than they need; and (3) eventually the readjusters restore what they would not have taken if they had been wiser. To find these strategic points and to utilize them as foci of social control in the light of the social values of the time is the highest task of intelligent national policy — the acid test of American statesmanship. If, however, there are those who believe that our liberties are in jeop¬ ardy, I rejoice that they speak out, that they organize and agitate in support of their judgments, for only in this way may our liberties be maintained. We cannot have freedom if men tamely submit to what they believe is dan¬ gerous and wrong. There can be no greater threat to liberty than absence of free and full discussion of opposing views, political, social, and economic. Already Rus¬ sia, Italy, Germany, Austria have forbidden free public consideration of public questions; and if democratic states adopt the same policy, a new era of darkness opens — an era when we abandon discussion for concussion, hop¬ ing in the rhythm of the club and the statistical sputter of the machine guns to find a better guide to wise action. It would even be legally possible for the Liberty League and the American Civil Liberties Union to merge their forces, altho I am not setting this down as a visible trend. Department of Superintendence 509 I cannot refrain from saying, however, that some of those who declare that our liberties are lost seem to be thinking of liberty as if it were a shield for private rather than public welfare. Nor can it be forgotten that there are even some who look upon efficient government itself as a menace to liberty. A former president of the United States Chamber of Commerce, not speaking, however, for that organization, once declared : “ The best public servant is the worst one. ... A thoroly first-rate man in public service is corrosive. . . . He eats holes in our liberties. The better he is and the longer he stays, the greater is the danger.” Obviously there is no magic in the mere word “ planning ” — neither white nor black magic. Nor is there any mystic charm in a planning mechanism or board per se, any more than there would be any charm in a national drifting board. But intelligent factual study of our national economy and programs is of vital importance in every political society, and it is a task to which students of social processes and mechanisms will be called upon to contribute. One of the most encouraging experiences of the National Re¬ sources Board was the advice given generously by the National Academy of Sciences and the Social Science Research Council on the role of science in national planning. Our democratic system is based upon the principle that the gains of civi¬ lization are essentially mass gains and should be diffused thruout the people as promptly and equitably as possible. With this end in view, there is reason to believe that systematic, forward-looking planning would facilitate the adoption of such policies regarding our natural and human resources as would best serve this basic purpose of our system, increasing our output and providing for sounder distribution. I am not unmindful of the complexities and difficulties in the way, but dangers lie around as well as ahead. There are dangers from non-action that are greater than the dangers of action. We cannot proceed as if nothing had happened in recent years, or could ever happen again. Our doctrines of liberty, equality, democracy are not to be regarded merely as legal phrases to be paraded and celebrated on memorial occasions. They have meaning only as expressed in the general welfare of our American people, in an Amer¬ ican standard of living, in an American set of values. Conditions have de¬ veloped that masses of people will not quietly endure forever and should not endure. No modern social structure is secure that does not promise more to the body and soul of those who feel themselves disinherited by the present order of things. Every man is entitled to his own opinion and I have no desire to thrust my views on others, but perhaps I may be permitted to say quietly as a student of government for a disgraceful number of years and not by nature an alarmist, that especially on returning from Europe this summer, I do not share the complaisance of those who look forward to a world but little changed. Without essaying the role of a prophet, I may say that I anticipate fundamental changes in the scientific, technological, political, and industrial order, changes that will alter many of the presentday and historic social pat¬ terns and remake them in new, and perhaps to some, unwelcome forms. 510 National Education Association The mold in which the modern state was cast is broken or is breaking. But the way is open for America to reconstruct a finer type of life, if we can pioneer our way thru, over, and around difficulties as nobly as did our fathers. Planning in a democracy is a cooperative enterprise, requiring widespread sympathy and support, beyond party and beyond region. Business may brake or block it ; labor, agriculture, the middle class, may brake or block it. But the danger is that we drift away from planning, not into a blissful heaven of politics and economics, to live forever with golden harps and only an occasional Lucifer, but to a point where force mounts the throne and passion writes a plan. In the language of President Hoover’s Committee on Recent Social Trends: The alternative to constructive social initiative may conceivably be a prolonga¬ tion of a policy of drift and some readjustment as time goes on. More definite alternatives, however, are urged by dictatorial systems in which the factors of force and violence may loom large. In such cases the basic decisions are frankly imposed by power groups, and violence may subordinate technical intelligence in social guidance. Unless there can be a more impressive integration of social skills and fusing of social purposes than is revealed by recent trends, there can be no assurance that these alternatives with their accompaniments of violent revolution, dark periods of serious repression of libertarian and democratic forms, the proscription and loss of many useful elements in the present productive system, can be averted. For my part I do not accept the defeatism that seems to paralyze many of the leaders of our civilization ; I reject the cynicism that stands carping at every hopeful change. Americans do not stand at the broken end of a worn- out way. Avenues of greater opportunity than ever open before us. The natural and human assets of Ajnerica give us the means to provide a higher standard of life and fuller realization of essential human values, more equitably diffused than ever before. But this is precisely the time in which the necessary adjustments cannot be made by drift and chance. Rather do they imperatively demand construction and invention of a high and dis¬ tinguished order, nobly directed toward the common goal of that public weal which has always been the promise of American life. THE QUEST FOR NATIONAL SECURITY CHARLES A. BEARD, AUTHOR AND HISTORIAN, NEW MILFORD, CONN. The American republic now tosses heavily amid the tempest of a crisis in its economy. No facts and figures are required to prove that statement. Stark evidences of the crisis lie all around us — in silent industries, in rusting machines, in the broken lives of men, women, and children. But deeper than these outward signs and entangled in them is another crisis, not visible to the eye — a crisis in American thought which springs from our quest for security thru national action on a national scale. This is the phase of the present national dilemma which distinguishes it from previous panics and especially concerns the teachers of the land. Department of Superintendence 511 When, nearly a century ago, the United States was shaken by the eco¬ nomic crash of 1837, the ensuing popular distress was generally taken as a passing visitation of an unknown evil. President Martin Van Buren attrib¬ uted it largely to the sins of greed and speculation. In a message to Congress he declared that, under the Constitution, the federal government could do nothing about it. Moreover, he insisted that, were the powers available, it would be unwise for Congress to meddle with the affairs of private enter¬ prise. Such was the thought of the President during that calamity. The poor suffered in silence or fell by the wayside. In due course came a revival of business as American ingenuity was turned to building railways, opening virgin soil to cultivation, establishing basic industries, and exploiting the national endowment in natural resources. Today the republic finds itself in another economic crash, with similar signs of distress and discouragement. But the whole economic setting has been altered, and thought has changed. The continent has been rounded out ; foreign trade has been pushed to the limits ; the exploitation of natural re¬ sources has reached a point of decline and decay; railway construction has stopped and the mileage shrinks ; basic industries have been established ; and an unexplored wilderness no longer beckons youth with opportunity. The nation stands in the presence of an unparalleled equipment for the produc¬ tion of wealth, and this equipment is nationwide in its connections and ramifications. In the course of a hundred years, the whole economy of the nation has been altered. The independent producer and owner of 1837 has been sup¬ planted by the specialist, the corporation, the cooperative association, and the trade union. The self-sufficing homestead and community have almost disappeared. Individuals, communities, and regions have become interde¬ pendent. All have been so woven into a common economic mesh that, apart from a few primitive farmers, no one, whatever his virtues of industry and thrift, lives unto himself, or by his own efforts applied to nature’s resources wins security for himself and his family. This transformation was coming about before the crisis; it is proceeding amid the crisis; the calamity itself has demonstrated the collective character of our economy and our distress. Individual energy, industry, and virtue no longer guarantee a chance to make a living and attain security. While the economic scene has been changing, thought has been changing, tho lagging behind the alteration in the economic structure. When President Hoover declared that “ no one shall starve in America,” and took steps to check the course of the panic, he made a breach in the historic thought of America. When President Franklin D. Roosevelt, in his message of January 4, 1935, proclaimed his objectives to be security of livelihood, security against the major hazards of life, and security of homes, he widened the breach opened by his predecessor. If economic security is in fact the certain reward of individual industry and thrift, if poverty is the offspring of laziness, then j there is no reason why the poor should not be allowed to starve, to suffer punishment for their sins. There was a time when economists and statesmen j held and celebrated this faith and practise. Charity might dole out soup, 17 512 National Education Association but the nation represented by its government had no moral responsibilities in the case. Thought has changed. The obsolescence of the creed has been demonstrated. President Hoover and President Roosevelt have condemned it. Their measures differed but their thought on this issue was the same. And it is inconceivable that we can go back to the philosophy of President Van Buren or the economic arrangements of his day. A break has come; a return to the past is impossible ; the burden of the new thought and the new responsibility will press harder and harder upon us as the future unfolds. This change in thought did not come upon us out of a blue sky. For more than half a Century practise had been preparing the way for it. Confronted by the alterations brought about in economy by machinery, specialization, integration, and the multiplying ties of social living, our cities, states, and the nation had been making innumerable adaptations in government to meet new problems as they arose. They did this pragmatically without much spec¬ ulation in social theory. The process may be simply illustrated by reference to the substitution of a collective water-works system for the individual pump in the backyard. And, as Theodore Roosevelt remarked long ago, no one thought that his individuality was crushed when he surrendered the pump handle for the faucet in his house. Stage-coach drivers and carters felt aggrieved, no doubt, when continental railways took over long-haul trans¬ portation, but society derived benefits from that achievement of corporate enterprise. When the rates and services of railways were deemed unfair and unreasonable, government stepped in to regulate and control them. But not many citizens felt their liberty destroyed because railroad companies were compelled to heat trains, guard crossings, and subject engineers to tests for color blindness. The history of municipal, state, and federal governments for more than \ fifty years is the history of growing interventions and actions on behalf of the public or collective interest in a quest for greater convenience and secur¬ ity. Compulsory public education was one of the first forms of this trans¬ formation. The individual right of parents to bring their children up in illiteracy and ignorance was denied, and the burden of supporting schools was placed upon society itself. Public health services, parks, playgrounds, hospitals, mothers’ pensions, and public institutions of beneficence all illus¬ trate the increasing assumption of collective responsibility for the welfare and security of individuals. From year to year there has been an increasing intervention of government in the processes of agriculture and industry, an increasing regulation of private enterprise, an extension of government ac¬ tivities into new fields, a growing centralization of control and financing in the hands of the state and federal governments as contrasted with local governments — in health, education, highways, relief, and social insurance, for example. To go into more detail would be superfluous. The story is told with a wealth of cold statistical description in the volumes prepared by Presi¬ dent Hoover’s Committee on Recent Social Trends. And now those findings are almost daily confirmed by Presidential messages, by report after report on resources, welfare, and planning, turned out by engineers, statisticians, and specialists in economy and government. And the particular proposals Department of Superintendence 513 are crowned by a great national project for state and federal cooperation in providing assurance for the aged and the unemployed. The whole nation is engaged in a quest for security for all men, women, and children. Various names have been applied to this new configuration of things and efforts. President Hoover called it “ associational.” The term “ coopera¬ tive ” has been used to characterize it. The Commission on the Social Studies found the word “ collectivism ” appropriate. Over definitions it is not profit¬ able to tarry long. The fact stands: We live in a society that is differenti¬ ated, integrated, centralized, and interdependent in all its parts — a society in which government, representing the common interest, assumes increasing responsibilities, along with farmers’ cooperatives, industrial corporations, and labor organizations, in holding economy together and making it work. Individuals remain. The virtues of intelligence and industry remain. In¬ dividual responsibilities remain and will always remain. But without in¬ formed and efficient collective action, without the subordination of personal ambitions and greed to common plans and purposes, Americans cannot win security, cannot safeguard natural resources, cannot bring an economy of abundance into full flower. This is not a theory, a mere supposition ; it is the configuration of the cold and brutal facts amid which we flounder and blunder today in a search for security and the good life. With the facts, however, our thought has not yet entirely caught up, and this discrepancy makes for tension, distress, and uncertainty. The old theory that security is the simple product of individual thrift and virtue no longer corresponds to the actualities of the social situation, to our knowledge of its stern mandates. And unless we can bring our thought into harmony with established and stubborn facts, with emerging trends, American society can¬ not be brought to the highest possible degree of economic efficiency. Nor can the forms of security required for decent living be attained. The task is conceded, but already voices are heard, telling us that the new adjustments and institutions cannot be made by thought, knowledge, and common efforts; that they must be made by brute power, supported by the sword. Already tones of thunder in Europe proclaim the death of democratic processes — government by public discussion, public decision, and public action, supported by the knowledge and resolve of citizens. Amid the crumbling structures of old practise and thought and emerging practise and thought stand leaders in education, responsible for the schools and the preparation of youth for the coming years. In the nature of things they represent a public or collective interest, as distinguished from special and individual interests. Yet what are their immediate obligations, if any? They may say, of course, that this crisis in economy and thought is not their concern, that they must not be involved in the tensions and conflicts of society, that they will close their eyes and ears to the turmoil of the world, that such great public documents as the report of President Hoover’s Com¬ mittee on Recent Social Trends have no interest to them. They may say, “ Let us go on undisturbed teaching Greek, Latin, mathematics, literature, chemistry, and history in the old way, without any reference to what is taking place in society or the nature of the social order in which children 514 National Education Association are to be graduated from the school.” Or, confronting the fact of a closely integrated society, they may say, “ We believe that a return to the old order of 1850 is possible and that old theories and knowledge may after all work very well again.” Or they may say, “ We are pure scientists concerned with purveying facts and we are not concerned with the use of facts any more than the chemist is concerned whether one of his formulas is used to heal the sick or poison personal enemies.” These intellectual positions are possible — as long as society can afford and will pay salaries to educational leaders who hold to such views of their present responsibility. On the other hand, another position is possible for educational leaders. They may say, “ It is our duty to give to pupils a picture of contemporary society and its trends as realistic and accurate as knowledge can make it. Let us prepare boys and girls thru information and training to take part in this order of things, to contribute to its smooth and efficient functioning, to supply the knowledge and enthusiasm required to sustain the common interest, and to contribute abilities to the maintenance of the democratic processes of government and collective adjustments.” If the schools are, after all, to serve the society which supports them, this seems to be the only position open to the educational leader who is not indifferent and defeatist in thought and spirit. Such a position, however, carries with it imperatives. What are they? First of all is a clarification of thought and purpose, enlarging the mind and giving it firmness without harsh dogmatism, vision without hectic illusions, and guidance without bigotry. Wide and deep knowledge of social develop¬ ment and contemporary social processes, including the history of culture. Acquaintance with ideas and ideals now bidding for the loyalties of Ameri¬ can citizens. A judicial spirit — the capacity to look around each particular issue, to listen to conflicting voices, even tho their tones be hateful, and to weigh and balance evidence. A generous freedom of teaching so that a real¬ istic picture of American society, with its tensions and conflicts, may be squarely presented to students. A recognition by each community of the fact that schools have functions to perform in this respect which transcend spe¬ cial and private interests. The judgment and wisdom that pay strict attention to strategy and tactics and never lose sight of grand objectives in personal or particular quarrels. These, to borrow from Shelley, are the seals of that firm assurance which bars the pit over destruction’s strength. Suppose educational leadership, in common with all leadership, fails at its task, what lies ahead of the republic? Glimpses of its fate are to be found in the monumental report of the Mississippi Valley Committee prepared by competent men of science under the auspices of the United States govern¬ ment. After making a minute survey of the Mississippi basin, comprising all or parts of thirty-one states, the committee presents an illustrative finding: If certain presentday trends were to be projected unaltered into the future, the map (of the Valley) would be a sorry one. We would be compelled to show increas¬ ingly larger stretches of once fertile lands stripped of their life-giving humus, rivers breaking forth in floods of increasing severity as the denuded slopes permitted an ever swifter run-off, industry and agriculture becoming ever more precarious, the life of the people on the land becoming more and more disorganized, and a steady in- Department of Superintendence 515 crease in farm tenancy and of economic dependency. Under such conditions local self-government would be likely to break down and under the spell of a dire and never-ending emergency, economic and political centralization would steadily in¬ crease. The comparison of such a situation with the final days of the Roman Em¬ pire is not too far-fetched. This is not a vague declaration of sociology, social psychology, partisan philosophy, or parlor communism. It is the cold, scientific, and statistical ver¬ dict of engineers, foresters, and geographers, based on a study of indisputa¬ ble and stubborn facts of earth and life. As one among the many great state papers of our time, dealing with the crisis in our economy and thought, it reveals an inescapable phase of the present challenge to American leadership. It lays no iron mandate upon us, but it forecasts our destiny if leadership fails. The past is closed and cannot be recovered. It is for us, the living, to take up the work before us, and to meet the challenge of our time with the indomitable spirit and the inquiring mind which inspired and led the found¬ ers of the American republic. GENERAL SESSION, MONDAY EVENING, FEBRUARY 25, 1935 THE DOUBLE CRISIS OF THE SCHOOLS GLENN FRANK, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WIS. I shall not struggle to say anything new. I am more concerned to sound a battle cry than to tickle your ears with any novelty of doctrine or dialectic. With this vast assembly as a sounding board, I want to restate the gravity of the crisis in education which the crisis in enterprise has precipitated. Out of the No Man’s Land of uncertainty between old deals and new deals, I want to sound again the bitter cry of the children for a square deal. Science, technology, and power production have brought American life and enterprise to a critical juncture. These three forces of social modernism have created a new American civilization. The restless energies of this new civilization are today straining against the obsolete and obsolescent in the traditional patterns and procedures of American life which were, in the main, designed to reflect an American civilization that no longer exists, a civilization in which the scale of enterprise was small, the productivity of enterprise slender, the relationships of enterprise simple, and the tempo of its development slow. Events are compelling even conservative leadership to acknowledge the necessity of rethinking and recasting the old order in terms of a new world in which the scale of enterprise is vast, the productivity of enterprise lavish, the relationships of enterprise complex, and the tempo of its development swift. In this imperative process of readjustment, it is to the schools and related agencies of special and mass education that we must primarily look for the development of superlative leadership and stably intelligent followership. 516 National Education Association Both in public service and in private enterprise the problems with which leadership must now deal are unprecedentedly complex and call for an un¬ precedented richness of information, insight, and intelligence. This means that we must, if we are not to court national disaster, maintain the highest possible quality of education. Then, too, as political leadership moves to eliminate child labor and as economic leadership proceeds to do the world’s work with fewer and fewer workers in less and less time, the new freedom of children and the new leisure of adults throw a vast new load upon the national machinery for formal and informal education. The situation, in short, calls for an increased quantity and an intensified quality of education at a time when, unhappily, both the quantity and the quality of American education are threatened. Never before in the United States and nowhere else in the civilized world has a depression been permitted to scuttle the schools and rape the intellectual resources of the national future. The panic of 1837 ended in the renewal, not in the ruin, of the schools. Between 1837 and 1843, leading American states increased their support of education as much as 34 percent. The panic of 1857 left the schools unharmed. The panic of 1873, despite its severity, did not result in any backward step in education. In twenty- nine representative states, the financial support of the schools was averagely increased by more than 50 percent. The depression of 1893 did not reduce the support of the schools. The depression of 1907 did not tamper with the public investment in education. And the depression of 1922 saw no edu¬ cational retrenchment. It remained for the depression of 1929 to set going a process of social suicide in which a supposedly enlightened people has stood silently by while the very foundations of its education were being sapped. Less than a year ago, when I last examined the situation in some detail, somewhere between 3,250,000 and 3,500,000 American children found the door to educational advantage slammed in their faces. More than a third of these exiles from education were direct casualties of the depression. The locked doors and boarded windows of schools here and there and yonder tell this tragedy. Even the schools kept open have drastically slashed their services. Classes are crowded beyond the point of teaching efficiency and left to the mercy of teachers unpaid or underpaid. Teaching staffs are de¬ pleted as student enrolments mount. And the valid enrichments that have come to the curriculums of the schools during the last quarter century are being ripped out under pressure from this interest or that ignorance to which they are but frills intolerable in a time of stringency. Unless something comprehensively national is done, with promptitude and intelligence, to stabilize the support and stimulate the morale of the nation’s educational system, we shall emerge from the depression having lost a quarter century of educational gains, and the national future will be fashioned by an inadequately disciplined people. To date, virtually no leadership, save the leadership of education itself, has gone manfully out to meet this threat to the national future. Business leadership has not. Conservative business men have, by and large, been on Department of Superintendence 517 the side of uncritical retrenchment in educational expenditure and have ap¬ plauded, here discreetly and there openly, a satirization of the teachers of the nation as parasitic tax-eaters. Political leadership has not. And the conservatism or liberalism of the leadership has not materially altered the fact of its aloofness to the issue. Despite its profound social significance, education has been largely left to shift for itself by a new era politics that purports to put social considerations first. In face of the seeming disposition of political liberalism to insure everything to everybody, the guaranty of ed¬ ucational opportunity to the children of all classes and all conditions of men clamors in vain for its rightful place on the current agenda of liberal politics, save as it can be made a side-issue to relief. This strange slump in the national concern for education is apparently due, not to any particular social philosophy that has swept the rank and file of the people, but to an epidemic blindness to basic values that has attacked a harassed leadership in business and politics. I assume that no extended argument is needed to prove that the crisis in economics has precipitated a crisis in education. The important thing is that the current unconcern of leadership generally with the plight of the schools be shattered by an utterly objective analysis of this plight. Without wandering into any wilderness of details, I want to suggest a point of de¬ parture for such analysis. The crisis that has caught the schools in its vise-like grip is a double crisis. It is, on the one hand, a crisis in external support, and on the other hand, a crisis in internal policy. The current situation puts to society the problem of providing the schools with a financial support that will enable them ade¬ quately to carry the greatly increased load of work thrown upon them by the new freedom of children from labor and the new leisure of adults under a regime of power production which, independent of social policy, must move relentlessly toward shorter and shorter hours. The current situation puts to the schools the problem of providing society with a kind of education that will enable its men and women to master and bend to human advantage the new instrumentalities of this age of science, technology, and power pro¬ duction. I shall not discuss in detail the crisis in external support. I have dealt with that phase of our educational difficulties extensively at both the Chicago and Minneapolis meetings. At neither of these meetings nor at any time during the depression have I suggested that educators be permitted to spend money in reckless prodigality while the ghost of starvation stood at a million win¬ dows. I have asked only that we remember that the highest economy is pro¬ ductive investment, whether it be the funds of a person or the taxes of a people that are involved, and that we execute our economies with broad in¬ telligence and a statesmanlike sense of relative values. One could not function, as I have functioned during these depression years, at so turbulent a storm-center of public expenditure as the executive headship of a large state university without vividly realizing the stark finan¬ cial realities that government must face in a time of stress. But, as I have said again and again during the difficult days of the last five years, in a phase of 518 National Education Association economic crisis, there are interests that lie beyond economics, and, unless these interests that have to do with the bodies and minds and spirits of the men and women and children of the nation are safeguarded in the midst of crisis, economic recovery itself will prove a barren achievement. On the Acropolis in Athens are the ruins of a lovely little temple dedi¬ cated to the Wingless Victory. The lore of later days has it that the sculptor chiseled this symbol of victory without wings to express the hope of the Athenians that victory would never again fly from their city. The victory it celebrated is now forgotten of men, save as the antiquarians may salvage its story. The temple itself is now a scarred ruin, but its mute existence leads us to ask what victories of ancient Greece have stayed and what have been snatched away. It needs no new research to frame the answer. The victories of Athens and of its empire that were victories of sheer force, physical or political, notable as they were at the time, have gone from the minds of all save the historians. But the victories won by the Greeks who were path¬ finders of the mind and spirit, the philosophers and poets and dramatists and historians who expressed the Greek passion for truth and beauty and good¬ ness, these victories have been wingless. They have never left Greece. The Greeks who dealt in deathless values themselves became deathless, and in myriad ways their legacy still lives to water the parched roots of the world’s culture and the world’s conscience. History has unforgettably dramatized the problem of relative values in the story of Athens. The transient values of force, the power of organized interests, concerned with material conquest, and the lust for supremacy, seductive to many at the time, have lost in the court of history. It has always been so. It is so now. It will be so for all time. But man is a stubborn and singularly obtuse animal. He declines to listen to the record. He persists in pursuing victories that will surely fly from him once he wins them. He spends his life in quest of achievements that he should know will turn to ashes in his mouth. Here is a parable for statesmen, whether the day’s work sets for them the task of balancing a budget or reconstructing a social order. In the midst of fiscal difficulties and economic dilemmas, no matter how dire, we must keep our attention tethered to those deathless values that give endur¬ ing greatness to a civilization. And wingless victories can be won, even in the midst of the most drastic retrenchment that necessity may enforce, if we administer our economies with bold intelligence instead of blind hysteria. In the decisions it makes respecting its support of education, the nation is dealing with one of the deathless values of civilization, a value more vital to the complex civilization of this modern phase than to any civilization of simpler centuries. If the nation is short-sighted in the decisions it makes, it cannot confine the wages of its sin to the generation that blunders. We can defer the building of a road, a bridge, or a building and catch up on its construction later. We cannot put educational opportunity for the millions in cold storage for the duration of a depression and restore it later to an unschooled generation grown old. These must go thru life a lost generation Department of Superintendence 519 poisoning the processes of popular thought and political action with their undisciplined judgments. So much for the crisis in the external support of education. I turn now to the crisis in the internal policy of the schools. And here the crisis is quite as real. During the last quarter century, the civilization going on outside the walls of our schools has changed profoundly under the impact of the forces of science, technology, and power production, and has put a bewildering array of new problems to the individual American as well as to business, in¬ dustry, finance, the church, the state, and the family. The rapidity and revolutionary nature of this social change have taxed, almost beyond the point of effective response, the capacity of the schools for flexible adjust¬ ment of the content and procedures of education to the new circumstances of this new civilization for life in which they must contrive to train. Schools do not operate in a vacuum. They function at the center of a swirl of forces that are forever churning and changing the nature and mood of the age. They could not, if they would, stay aloof from the processes of conflict and change that surge thru the social order they seek to serve. In the quarter century before the onset of the depression in 1929, the schools of the United States had the difficult job of playing guardian to the complementary forces of stability and progress in a phase of profound flux. At least seven silent but sweeping revolutions were remaking, for good or for ill, the life around our schools. A political revolution was under way. Self-centered national governments were failing to solve the international problems of the twentieth century. War was assuming an aspect of universal destructiveness. A call to some sort of world organization sounded insistently above the cries of our separate patriotisms. We have since slumped back into a phase of tribalism, but, for a time, the minds of men, at least, clutched at concepts that went beyond tribalism. And everywhere the mass man crowded to the center of the stage with dictatorships and democracies alike bidding for his favor. Democracy was no longer the regnant religion it once was. New and alien philosophies of strong government found fertile soil in the bewilderment of the post-war years. An industrial revolution was under way. The competition between ma¬ chine power and man power raced on with increasing intensity. A famine of employment opportunity that could not be charged to an Act of God loomed as a permanent possibility of the power age. The power to produce was fast exceeding the power to purchase. New technical processes were render¬ ing old economic policies obsolete. Extensive social readjustments were be¬ coming imperative. And foreign policy, as well as domestic economy, was involved. Superpower and mass production were making active interna¬ tional markets, stabilized by some sort of world coordination, more and more necessary. A financial revolution was under way. The determining economic power of the world was rapidly getting out from under the dominance of European politics and was coming under the thumb of American business. Markets 520 National Education Association were becoming financially less dependent upon wealth and more dependent upon wages for stable continuity. There was a progressive broadening of the base of stock ownership, with some momentary influence upon the psy¬ chology of capital and labor, if but little influence upon actual industrial control. The old formulas alike of wealth and of ownership were in process of change. As the modern economy of science, technology, and power pro¬ duction matured, wealth became less and less a static something to be captured and cached, and was increasingly regarded as a dynamic something that must be continuously created and re-created — at least so regarded by all who were alive to the forces of economic modernism. As the process of corporate development marched ahead, the most astute analysis of the modern corporation saw it making for ownership without control and control without ownership. Wealth went dynamic and ownership went impersonal. A scientific revolution was under way. Men pushed their mastery of nature further and further. As they established a firmer and firmer scientific control over their physical environment, they leaned less heavily on forms of religious authority that arose out of some dim past when men faced nature with fear rather than understanding. Science was changing men’s minds in this and a thousand other ways, even if the science of the labora¬ tory seemed but slowly to influence the statecraft of the legislature. The lives of men were being subtly changed by the seemingly inexhaustible flow of new machines, new instruments, new appliances, as the science-born automobile, for example, altered the social habits of the world. A religious revolution was under way. Multitudes of modern men were finding difficulty in adjusting themselves effectively to the modernisms of science and social organization in terms of historic creeds and dogmas. The diverse racial faiths were coming more and more into contact, and each was feeling the impact of the others. There was increasing impatience with a religion insulated from the issues that intimately color and control men’s lives. With race hatreds, wars, and revolutions on their horizon, men were groping for a religious experience that would help them meet the problems thrown up out of the competition of races, nations, and classes. A psychological revolution was under way. Men were slipping the leash of intellectual traditions, group ideals, personal codes, and social disciplines that had long gone unquestioned. On the part of millions there was a rather complete mental and emotional break with the past. The equilibrium of the outer and inner forces of men’s lives was disturbed. And, despite the varied poses of unconcern that were for a time fashionable, men were con¬ cerned to find a new and better balance. A social revolution was under way. The individual was being superseded by the group as the important unit in policy and action. The small local community, with the autonomy and richness of life that once marked it, was passing. There was a steady migration of competence from country to city. America was going urban with astounding rapidity. The center of economic gravity was shifting from agriculture to industry. The old fluidity of classes showed signs of freezing, altho the poor could still climb to the Department of Superintendence 521 seats of power by the grace of superlative capacity. The new economics was putting to the old politics problems for which there were no answers in the textbooks. The masses were beginning to sense what they might do to better their economic lot thru the use of their political power, while radio, motion pictures, the talking film, and the airplane were beginning profoundly to affect the social outlook. These few brush strokes, in lieu of a completer picture, give some sense of the flux and ferment in the society our schools had to serve in the quarter century before 1929. In so mercurial a situation, it was no easy matter to determine wisely just what and how the schools should teach. But one thing was clear, namely, that processes of change so profound and so pervasive made necessary a conscious reconsideration of the content and procedures of education in terms of what these seven revolutions were doing to Ameri¬ can life and to the lives of Americans. For the better part of that quarter century, however, there were special circumstances that made popular pres¬ sure for such reconsideration less insistent than it might have been. First the single-track concentration of the war years and then the lotus-eating mood of the era of speculation diverted the public mind from any absorbing concern with the social adjustment of our basic institutions. Today the situation is the exact reverse. The depression has intensified all the more basic trends of the seven revolutions that were under way before the economic collapse. It has generated in us an extraordinary willingness to subject our traditional policies and institutions to critical reconsidera¬ tion. It has exposed, with compelling effect, how far behind social change many of our social institutions have lagged. It is always a critical moment in the history of social institutions when the civilization they were designed to serve shifts the bases of its thought and action. It is in such moments that historic institutions may either find renewal or be relegated to limbo. If the adjustment of social institutions to the social change surrounding them is inadequate or unduly laggard, they may find themselves suddenly bereft of their traditional support, summarily changed by external authority, or sweepingly disestablished and supplanted by alternative agencies thru which society thinks it can better achieve its aims. If, on the other hand, social institutions adjust themselves intelligently to the social change surrounding them, they may experience a fresh invig- oration and enter a phase of productive development. It is some such situation that today confronts the schools, colleges, and universities of the United States. And their directive leadership may prof¬ itably review the historic record of institutions that have failed fully to reckon with the phenomenon of social change outside their walls. The enterprise of education has bulked about as large in twentieth- century America as the enterprise of religion bulked in the Europe of the Middle Ages. And the educational establishments of modern America now face a situation that bears at least a limited likeness to the situation that confronted the religious establishments of medieval Europe preceding their phase of decline. Schoolmen may with profit reexamine the fate of the religious foundations of the Middle Ages and reflect upon the maladjust- 522 National Education Association ment between their internal policies and the external cricumstances of the time which resulted in their downfall. They failed to meet constructively the changes that went on without their walls. Schoolmen may with equal profit reexamine the record of the impact of the French Revolution upon the French universities. Here, again, is evi¬ dence of what happens to social institutions when they fail to take fully into account changes in the climate of opinion surrounding them. The surface symptoms of the American readjustment now in process are far from identical with the violent manifestations of the French Revolution, but we are confronted with reconstructions of political, social, and economic policy quite as basic even if bloodless. The corporate form to which France had entrusted the interests of the higher learning had lost the capacity for flexible adjustment to changes in the social situation it was designed to serve. The result was that, from the outset of the Revolution, the univer¬ sities were heckled and harrassed by the political authorities. Here and there their property was seized. Their independent status and corporate privileges were revoked. Professional tests were abolished. And, finally, on September 15, 1793, the convention sweepingly suppressed “ the colleges and the faculties of theology, medicine, arts, and law over all the surface of the Republic.” This suppression was suspended within twenty-four hours, but seventeen months later the colleges were definitely abolished by decree. The French universities, like the monasteries of an earlier time, failed to meet constructively the changes that went on without their walls. And the result was that the French Revolution scrapped the French uni¬ versities and set itself to the task of educational reconstruction from the outside. The likelihood of anything so sweeping may be remote, but it is not, in my judgment, impossible that the story of the monasteries and the French universities will be repeated in the course of the American readjustment into which events are forcing the government and enterprise of the United States. There is, at any rate, enough in the analogy to bring everyone con¬ cerned with the preservation and promotion of a valid education promptly to attention. I am keenly aware of the superficiality of much of the criticism that has lately been lodged at the doors of the educators, but I refuse to blind myself to the fact that there is a spreading disillusionment with the content and focus of an education that has not produced a leadership better equipped to keep the social and economic orders from running amuck. As the break¬ down in social management, from which we along with the rest of the Western peoples are suffering, becomes more and more manifest, the con¬ viction grows that the general impact of our education upon popular judg¬ ment and the thinking of leadership has been as unsatisfactory as its tech¬ nical training for specialized enterprise has been satisfactory. In my Thunder and Dawn, in a chapter on “ Educating for Social Mas¬ tery,” I went at length into the grounds for this growing disillusionment, and found myself forced to agree with the critics of my craft in their con¬ tention that, while Western education has been superbly successful in train- Department of Superintendence 523 ing Western man for the technical execution of his separate enterprises, it has signally failed to fit him for realistic statesmanship in the ground plan and governance of his social and economic orders, and that, thru the last quarter century, the fruits of this failure have been evident in a generation of leaders whose fingers have all been thumbs in the molding of those gen¬ eral policies of political, social, and economic organization which, in the end, make or break the separate enterprises of men. I wrote : And, altho it pains me as a schoolman to admit it, I cannot but believe that Western education must share the blame for this breakdown of political, social, and economic organization. We are reaping the Dead Sea fruits of an era of over-specialization in Western education. . . . And we have produced what we have thus been organ¬ ized educationally to produce, namely, a generation of specialists. The vast crowd of customers who enter and leave the schools of the West without becoming good spe¬ cialists nevertheless bear the mark of the system in their minds. They are partialists who are powerless to play a constructive role in the analysis and adjustment of a social order whose current instability is to be found at the point of the relationships of its parts. With a mind molded by specialized instruction, Western man every¬ where displays an increasing reluctance to wrestle with difficult problems as a whole. He dismembers his difficulties and sends their separate parts to the appropriate specialists. And then, when his social order faces a general crisis, as now, he finds the specialists unwilling, even in consultation, to assume responsibility for general conclusions. I wrote this in 1931 before either the National Socialism of Germany or the New Deal of the United States had been added to the Communism of Russia and the Fascism of Italy in seeming contradiction of the con¬ tention that Western man is reluctant and ill-equipped to deal with difficult problems as a whole, because his education has been essentially the education of a specialist, and that the specialists decline responsibility in the field of general policy. But the more I burrow into the current process of political experimentalism, the more I am convinced that the contention holds in the sense that the overspecialized education of these later years has not ade¬ quately equipped us for the prompt mastery of the problem of social man¬ agement that the economy of science, technology, and power production has now put to us. With us, indeed, the national problem has been tackled as a whole, and the specialists have come out of their separate cells of expertness and gone at the building of broad policies with an unprecedented abandon. But it is obvious, I think, that desperation rather than a sense of confident grasp has driven us to the ambitious ventures in national planning upon which we have lately entered. As we put this planning under the microscope, it be¬ comes clear that its net result to date is not so much a national plan as a medley of divergent and mutually contradictory plans, as, for example, the plan to increase wages has been nullified by the plan to increase prices. In theory, the national leadership is planning. In practise, it is playing by ear. I do not quarrel with this. Playing by ear may not be so bad a thing, in a phase of unprecedented uncertainty, if the player has a good ear for music. It can, however, land us in confusion worse confounded; and, if a leadership that is playing by ear hypnotizes itself into the belief that it is planning, it can quickly degenerate into a rigid dogmatism that is sure it 524 National Education Association has in its bag the one remedy that will cure all of our ills in thirty days or money refunded. That is infinitely more dangerous than the frankest of catch-as-catch-can improvising. Finally, the dependability of the judgment of specialists in the field of general policy is still to be proved. We may well find that it is simply not safe to turn the financial experts loose on monetary pdlicy, the economic experts loose on industrial policy, and the social experts loose on budgetary policy without the correlating genius of a broadly educated statesmanship to correct their conclusions in terms of their interaction in practical opera¬ tion. We cannot put the single-track policies of specialists from varied fields together like flag-stones and expect effective national policy to be the result. Effective national policy is not a mosaic of separate judgments. It is a living force that functions as a unity. It is just this genius for correlation, this capacity to see the interrelation of separate and specialized judgments, and this trained ability to ferret out the social implications of knowledge that the education of the last quarter century or more has been least effective in fostering. The sense that this is so lies at the root of the educational disillusionment that has fallen upon so many of the abler minds of the time. Added to this skepticism of traditional education at the more select levels of judgment, there is today a special factor that gravely threatens the popu¬ lar enthusiasm for education which has heretofore been a distinguishing mark of the American temper. I refer to the long and lean army of school, college, and university graduates who have tasted the bitter bread of inse¬ curity and had their spirits broken on the rack of unemployment. I have seen the inside of the minds of hundreds of these men during the last five years, and, as one concerned with the maintenance of a fruitful social atti¬ tude toward the enterprise of education, I do not like what I have seen there. In the long hours of enforced idleness, these men have tightened their belts, and let their minds run reminiscently back over the long years of school, college, and university education that have left them workless in a world of closed doors. They are today, by and large, centers of dissatisfac¬ tion with the content and focus of American education. They are not irrational enough to assume that formal schooling can ever become an in¬ fallible insurance against unemployment for every man with a diploma or degree. They do not assume that the universities can magically stabilize the turbulence of this transition into a new world of science, technology, and power production. But, in a half-wistful half-resentful mood, they do feel that the whole social situation might be different today if, during the last few decades, the schools, colleges, and universities, in their curriculum arrangements and teaching procedures, had attacked more directly the problem of giving their graduates a living and informed sense of the forces and tendencies that have combined to give this historic juncture in American affairs its peculiar and perilous character. They dimly sense what seems to me the obvious fact, namely, that a generation of Americans that had been consciously and comprehensively grounded by the schools in an understanding of the forces that were cur- Department of Superintendence 525 rently making, unmaking, and remaking the political, social, and economic orders would, in general, have reacted with a more flexible intelligence to the political and economic issues of the time and would have thrown up out of its ranks a more realistic leadership that would have been less con¬ tent to let affairs drift relentlessly toward the debacle of 1929. This, they feel, would well have been worth the sacrifice, if necessary, of much that has been traditional in the objectives and content of American education. The reaction of these unemployed and the more conscious analysis of the educational realist alike underscore the fact that the situation now confronting American educators cannot be met by any mere reshuffling of the cards in curriculums. The problem involved is nothing less than a fresh determination of what the directive aim of American education shall be in the light of the new nature and the new needs of the new civilization brought into being on this continent by the forces of science, technology, and power production, a civilization in which social change has so far out¬ stripped institutional change as to throw the survival of our social order in the shadow of serious doubt. Many of the patterns of our educational system, like many of the pat¬ terns of our political and economic orders, were designed in terms of the simpler and more highly personalized life of the pioneer era. To a degree that seems to some indefensible, they reflect also an era in which education was predominantly a source of passive culture of a leisure class and of preparation for the learned professions. The schools must still keep going that relay race of the human spirit in which, from generation to generation, the seasoned wisdom and matured beauty of the centuries are handed on. For the learned professions the schools must now provide a richer and more rigid training than ever before. But the life that made these the dominant, if not exclusive, demands upon education is not the life of contemporary America. And to the degree that we persist in educating for social situa¬ tions that no longer exist, we depress the effectiveness of education and intensify every latent skepticism of its processes. This is the heart of the crisis in internal policy that has struck American education. The crisis in external support is, in some measure, related to this crisis in internal policy. It is related at least in the sense that an education steered by a thoroly modernized directive aim, brought more immediately to focus on the political, social, and economic problems of contemporary America, and animated by the avowed social purpose of training a genera¬ tion of citizens to play a productive role in the creation, comprehension, and control of a workable order of life in an age of plenty will renew and reenforce in the American mind its early, if then somewhat uncritical, belief that, in the words of the ancient Talmud, “ by the breath of the school children shall the state be saved.” And a people so convinced will not long tolerate a crisis in the external support of its educational enterprise. 526 National Education Association THE ECONOMY OF ABUNDANCE STUART CHASE, ECONOMIST AND WRITER, GEORGETOWN, CONN. The other day I was sitting in the office of a corporation in New York listening to its president berate the New Deal. He happens to be high in the councils of the Republican party. The great mahogany table shivered to the thumping of his fist as he protested against little pigs thrown into the Mississippi, cotton plowed under, the regimentation of honest enter¬ prise, the reckless spending of thousands of millions of public credit. “ Why,” he cried, referring to the recent elections in our most eastern state, “ they bought Maine, bought it in cold blood with relief money. . . . And who is going to pay for it all? Where is the money coming from? Why, Jim Farley. . . “ Wait a moment,” I said. “ How many unemployed have we? ” “ They say ten million.” “ How many Americans are on public relief? ” “ They say twenty million.” “ What does it cost a year to keep twenty million people alive? ” “ I do not know.” “ Well,” I said, “ I will tell you. It costs about two thousand million dollars to keep them not much more than half alive, at $100 per head per year. Does this constitute reckless extravagance? ” “ It’s a lot of money.” “ If Mr. Hoover had been elected in 1932, would the depression now be ended, and the unemployed back at work in private industry?” “ Well. . . . No. I’m afraid not.” “ If you Republicans were in office today, what would you do with twenty million destitute Americans? ” “ I suppose we should have to feed them.” “ Precisely. And what would it cost? ” “ You say two billion.” “ In other words,” I said, “ so far as the one outstanding problem of the present crisis is concerned — namely, keeping a sixth of the American popu¬ lation alive — Mr. Hoover, had he been elected, would have had to do just about what Mr. Roosevelt is now doing — and the Democrats would be burning with moral indignation about buying the Maine elections, and about the reckless, drunken spending of public funds.” My corporation president, albeit a stout Republican, is an honest man. “ Yes,” he said, “ I suppose that’s true. Republican or Democrat, we are in the same boat so far as relief is concerned. We cannot let people starve. We cannot invite revolution. But who is going to pay for it? How can it ever be paid ? Millions and millions and millions. . . . Where are we go¬ ing, anyway? I don’t dare plan my business a month in advance. What kind of a crazy world have we entered since 1929? . . . And 1929 was pretty crazy, too. Radio common at $500 a share. What is one to do? What is it all about? ” ! I Department of Superintendence 527 He had become a different man. In place of the outraged Republican partisan was a perplexed, almost humble human being, groping for some understanding of a world which had loosed such thunderbolts about his head. “Well,” he said, “what do you think it is all about? I never met as many as two economists who ever agreed upon anything, but at least you have been studying these larger questions, while I have been trying to keep my business one jump ahead of the sheriff. He nearly got me in ’32.” So I told this baffled business man what I thought it was all about — for an hour and a half. He listened patiently. When I had finished, he said : “ Well, perhaps. At any rate you have made me look over the top of my own ledger. Perhaps you are right ; perhaps we have got to change a lot of things. But you didn’t produce your plan to save the world.” “ I haven’t any,” I said. With your permission, I am going to tell you what I told that business man. He was not convinced by my diagnosis, nor probably will you be, but if I can help you to look over the top of your private ledgers for a few minutes, I shall be content. It is a habit that all of us must cultivate if we are to come safely thru the crisis in which Western mankind finds itself today. I began with a recital of certain gross physical facts. These things have happened, or are happening. They cannot be escaped by argument, words, slogans, phrases, wishful thinking, or any other variety of the escape mecha¬ nism. With the facts before us, we can then try to find a pattern of inter¬ pretation. This is a prerequisite, it seems to me, to any program for constructive action. The first fact — Energy is the basis of life, and the basis of civilization. In the last century in the United States, energy consumed per capita has increased fortyfold. Every man, woman, and child has theoretically at command forty times as much power to do work as obtained a century ago. Most of this energy is not animate, provided by man or beast, but inanimate, from coal, petroleum, and falling water. Its presence in the social mecha¬ nism has engendered vast pressures, unknown in a simpler economy. This energy can build — look at the Empire State Building or at Boulder Dam — and it can smash — look at a Big Bertha. In a very real sense, it was energy which smashed the traditional free market, precipitated the world depres¬ sion, and let one hundred billion dollars go hissing out of Wall Street values in a few days in 1929. The United States has developed energy and en¬ gendered pressures in a more headlong fashion than any other country, but all Western nations have followed the same general course. The second fact — Invention has grown at a rate which, when charted, resembles a compound interest curve. The depression has in some respects accentuated the curve, by encouraging labor-saving devices and cheaper processes as gross income has declined. Invention is like a vine, starting from a single stalk and proliferating upward in spreading branches. The third fact — As a result of the increases in energy and in invention, cost of production in terms of man-hours of work are the lowest in history, 528 National Education Association and constantly going lower. The only proof needed is the colossal extent of the overhead establishment — the salesmen, middlemen, politicians, pro¬ fessional people, armies, navies, advertisers, service tradesmen. These groups, relatively speaking, are supported by a few farmers, industrial and transport workers, aided by inanimate energy. The food, clothing, shelter, and other essentials of life are produced and distributed at a small fraction of the man-hour cost which earlier cultures have known. In the last analysis, the man-hour must be the measure of true cost. But while costs have been tobogganing as mass production methods have improved, money costs in dollars or in pounds have by and large remained stubbornly high. Expressed in man-hours, the cost of living today is prob¬ ably not more than a third of what it was a century ago. Expressed in dol¬ lars, it is higher than it was a century ago. Prices have not come down with technical improvements except in certain cases. When Henry Ford tried deliberately to bring his prices into rough alignment with costs, he was met with horror by the business and financial world. This simply was not cricket. Prices should be fixed at the point of all the traffic will bear. In many industries traffic bore up better by the formation of a monopoly — overt or covert, as the case might be. Prices have been “ sticky ” thruout the industrial revolution, with the result that the price structure is all out of line with the technological struc¬ ture. In 1929 the technological structure burst thru the paper system of the bankers and hurled many prices down the back stairs into the cellar. Other prices did not fall — interest rates, railroad rates, the price of steel in the United States, for instance. The lack of alignment still remains fantastic. The fourth fact — Energy and invention have further disrupted the free market system by fostering technological unemployment, and so diminished buying power. Not long; ago I visited the plant of the A. O. Smith Cor¬ poration in Milwaukee. Here I found, filling a whole building, a great machine which seizes raw steel at one end and pushes out finished frames for automobile bodies at the other end; 10,000 frames a day, 3,000,000 a year at capacity operation. This one building can supply the frames for more automobiles than the entire country produced in 1933. Tending the machine are fewer than 200 men. They do no work on the steel itself, but simply set gages, inspect the process, control the endless flow of shining frames. Side by side with this mill is another of older design. It uses the semi-automatic, not the full automatic process. It is a far larger building, and its output is the same, 10,000 frames a day. Here men do much work on the frames themselves. When operated at capacity 2000 men are em¬ ployed. I asked the president of the company how many men it would take to manufacture 10,000 frames a day by the still older machine process, before conveyor belts and standard parts were introduced. At least 20,000, he said. Here we have the threat of technological unemployment in vivid form. Twenty thousand men using hand machines give way to 2000 men using semi-automatic methods, who give way to 200 men on the full automatic process — all for an identical output. Department of Superintendence 529 Industry has been moving rapidly toward the semi-automatic and, where possible, the automatic method. The photo-electric cell is now taking over some kinds of inspecting and other mental work. Nothing can stop this transition to the cheapest, easiest, most dependable method. As it marches, other things being equal, men lose their jobs and their purchasing power. It is a curious but significant thing that, along about 1920 in the United States the manpower employed in all our great industrial divisions began to decline. Thruout the period of prosperity, with produc¬ tion steadily increasing, we employed fewer farmers, fewer miners, fewer factory workers, fewer railroad workers. The beginning of the last decade was thus a time of signal importance in the history of the industrial revolu¬ tion. It marked the turning point where industrial efficiency apparently had no use for more manpower in the great primary industries, no matter how much output increased. The fifth fact — A further result of energy and invention has been to tie a whole continent into one productive mechanism, where this section fur¬ nishes foodstuffs, another coal, iron ore, petroleum ; other sections specialize in pottery or textiles or motor car manufacturing; while the transport and communication industries link all together with arms of cement, copper, and steel. One can no longer go into business for himself, as he could a hundred years ago. He can establish a business, true, but he will almost instantly land in a court of insolvency unless he is prepared to subordinate himself to the whole economic organism. He is a part of a network which covers his own country, his own continent, and to a lesser extent, the whole world. If he attempts to do what he pleases, regardless of the network, he will find himself ruined. Little farmers, little shopkeepers, little iron masters, in 1800 could boast of their economic individualism and even practise it. To¬ day we boast of it, but nobody dares practise it. Imagine a business man telling the telephone company, or the water company, or the electric light company, to get off his premises. Economic activity today is governed by the whole organism, precisely as a-finger or toe or eyelid is governed by the whole body. True, it can move by itself but only within a limited orbit. In these stern circumstances, the outcries of reactionaries about freedom, unfettered initiative, the curse of regimentation, are just loud and meaningless noises. One can properly discuss how far a finger can wiggle, but one cannot discuss a finger wiggling by itself without an arm and a body behind it. The sixth fact — Population in Western civilization is growing at a decrement, upsetting the plans, valuations, mortgage security of real estate speculators, especially in the United States. The plans were laid, and the mortgages incurred, on the bland assumption that the curve of population was to continue to mount forever as it did in the nineteenth century. A few inventions in biology and some other events have halted this majestic expan¬ sion. Real estate interests in this country are waiting in a sort of dreadful suspense for business to pick up, so that their frozen mortgages may be validated, blind to the fact that to validate their mortgages, they must first pick up the population curve. If these gentlemen had their own best interests 530 National Education Association at heart, they should be running about breaking up birth control clinics, repealing immigration quotas, and offering prizes for large families like Signor Mussolini. The seventh fact — The United States has reached the Pacific and turned back on itself. The pioneer is dead. “ Go West, young man ! ” said Horace Greeley a half century ago. Well, go West today — and try to get a job in Hollywood walking on with a spear. There are relatively more unemployed in California than there are in New York state. The frontier has gone; and with it the new markets that followed the opening of free lands. Meanwhile the industrial and agricultural plant has been developed to a point far in excess of market demand. In 1929, the radio industry could readily have made five times as many radio sets as it sold ; there were four times as many filling stations along the roadside as the traffic called for ; the Wool Institute, in 1927, estimated a woolen mill capacity thrice normal demand. Last year farmers in California alone destroyed 238,000 tons of fresh peaches for which they could find no market, and considered the surplus small. I have a photograph of a pile of oranges, 10 feet high and a solid mile long, dumped from freight cars to rot. In this almost universal condition of excess plant capacity, it is difficult to persuade private capital to add to the plant by investing in more woolen mills and orange groves. Nay, it is downright impossible, as the huge sur¬ pluses of uninvested capital in the banks bear witness. Saving has run far ahead of investment, and investment cannot catch up when energy and invention have already equipped the plant so well. Finally, the vast load of debt on the plant has not been appreciably lifted, and industry hesitates to pile new debts for expansion on top of old ones. The eighth fact — When domestic markets have in the past been saturated, it has been common practise for industrial nations to sell their surplus goods abroad, or to invest the surplus savings abroad. This worked well during the nineteenth century. But, like the United States reaching the Pacific, the conquest of foreign markets has reached the end of the Seven Seas. “ Backward nations ” borrowed Western inventions and developed their own energy, built their own factories, supplied increasingly their own markets, and even invaded the trade preserves of older industrial countries. Look at Japan. Look at Russia. Look at the Argentine. Even as America no longer has the safety valve of free lands, Western industrial powers as a whole no longer have the safety valve of expanding foreign markets into which their surplus may be dumped. Economic nationalism, autarchy, has become the order of the day. Apart from the ferocious infections of jingoism it creates, it forms an almost insuperable barrier to the revival of industry on the capitalistic formula. The old trading grounds are plastered with signs: “ Dump no goods here. Trespassers will be prosecuted to the fullest extent of the law.” The law, incidentally, is a tariff a mile high. The above are the eight major facts I placed before my corporation president. Let us recapitulate them : The growth of inanimate energy The growth of invention Department of Superintendence 531 The decline in man-hour costs, while costs in terms of money have been pegged by monoply and waste The increase in technological unemployment The network of specialization which has destroyed local self-sufficiency The halting of the population curve The development of the productive plant to a capacity far in excess of market demand The saturation of foreign trade, due to the exporting of energy and invention to so-called backward nations. What kind of a pattern can be woven from these facts? How shall they be interpreted? Many orthodox economists would be disposed to admit them, but to deny that the interpretation calls for a new social order. Such economists argue that the whole trouble has arisen from the “ sticky ” prices which have not fallen as costs have fallen. Destroy monopoly, establish free competition, they say, and the old system can be made to work again. But we cannot go back 150 years — except by a cataclysm. Really to establish free competition again would mean scrapping the most of government activity, scrapping labor unions, trade associations, holding companies, a good part of the cor¬ porate structure. It means deflation to the bitter end, and above all takes no account of changed technological methods, the network of specialization which has finished rugged individualism, in fact if not in theory. This interpretation is, in my opinion, pure moonshine. Other students somewhat more realistic, including many business men, interpret the facts in another way. They invite us to look at the poverty of the mass of the people. Here, they point out, is a market for unlimited electric refrigerators, bathtubs, radios, new motor cars, tomato juice, what you will. It is ridiculous, they say, to talk about a saturation point being reached in the capitalist system when people still need so many things. If and when Americans, or Europeans, have their wants satisfied, regard then, the teeming hordes of Asia, Africa, and South America. Why, they cry, there is work enough here to keep all our mines and factories busy for a generation. A partner of a large banking house painted this soothing picture for me only the other day. I asked him how the poor in America were to pay for electric refrigerators, to say nothing of the teeming hordes of China. He had no answer. None of this school have any answer. They hope for the best. These gentlemen are confusing their frames of reference. They seem to j think, in their non-business hours, that business is carried on to supply people with useful commodities. In their business hours, they know better, and act accordingly. A manufacturer of plumbing supplies who went about giving bathtubs to people who needed them would not long remain in business. Indeed, he would be lucky if he escaped detention in a lunatic asylum. We must keep our frames of reference clear, or we fall into vast con¬ fusion. We can look at economic activity in terms of what Thorstein Veblen has called serviceability. This is a physical frame and is concerned with what people need, and the available facilities to satisfy these needs. There 532 National Education Association can be no banks, mortgages, debts, interest charges, insurance, profits, taxes, or money in this frame. It is a straight engineering point of view. Or we can look at economic activity in the frame of business-as-usual, with the bank credit, debts, buying power, money all in. This is the only view permissible to those who believe in maintaining the present financial system. They cannot go about giving goods away; they must sell them. This frame Veblen has called vendibility. You cannot mix serviceability and vendibility any more than you can mix oil and water. You cannot sell radios to citizens of China who have no money to pay for them if vendibility is to be maintained. The world may be starving for the goods which our idle fields and factories are eager to supply, but not a wheel will turn, not a furrow be laid back, without the prospect of a pecuniary market. Let us hear no more nonsense about human needs from those who believe in business-as-usual. My interpretation of the eight facts is this. Energy and invention have produced an economy of abundance. In the frame of reference of vendibility this means a surplus of factory capacity, of agricultural products, of labor. Machines, crops, and manpower are a drug on the market. Even in physical terms, without considering purchasing power, it is probable that energy and invention, aided by the elimination of waste, could give every family in Europe and America a decent but modest standard of living and utterly abolish poverty. The present plan cannot yet provide luxuries for all, but it might do so if invention were given a free hand. The economy of abundance is trying to function in the confines of a financial system laid down when energy and invention were in their infancy. The gold standard, the creation of wealth only thru the creation of debt, the methods whereby capital is allocated and invested, the edifice of insur¬ ance and savings based on the law of compound interest — are all scarcity institutions, formulated in an age when wealth was scarce, and when capital saved from current consumption commanded a large premium. Now we are surfeited with capital, and the premium is no longer mandatory; or better, the rate of premium has been already greatly reduced by an economy of abundance. As I see it, the financial system founded on scarcity has been split wide open by the technological pressures of an abundance economy. I believe that capitalism has outlived its function, tho the wreckage will take many years to clear away. We are habituated to it, and the habits of men change slowly. The Western world is in the birth throes of a new order. It is entering a period of transition from private capitalism to some new system more consistent with the imperatives of a high energy culture, even as feudalism gave way to private capitalism some hundreds of years ago. That transition took many decades. Oxcarts were a favorite method of energy consumption and transport. This transition will be more rapid. Three hundred thousand horsepower turbines are not so patient as oxen. The formula of private capitalism demands continuously expanding markets, and an expanding capital goods sector, where unearned income Department of Superintendence 533 may be profitably invested. The wages and salaries paid to the workers who are building the new capital goods — the railroads, steel mills, skyscrapers, department stores — when added to the wages and salaries paid to the work¬ ers who are producing consumers’ goods keep the system in equilibrium. But it is of the utmost importance to understand that capitalism, to function properly, must expand. Like the Red Queen, it must move faster and faster to keep in the same place. The eight facts have checked the rate of expan¬ sion, I believe, permanently. In the United States, while consumers’ goods have declined about 25 percent during the depression, capital goods have declined 75 percent. There has been no appreciable pick-up under the New Deal. Governments everywhere have been driven to fill the breach left by this abdication. In one sense, that is all the New Deal is. The collapse of invest¬ ment closed every bank in the nation in March 1933. The New Deal pried the bank doors open with public credit. The collapse of investment threw ten million capital goods workers on the streets. The New Deal is feeding them and trying to find employment for them in public and civil works. The plans were carried out hastily and in a great emergency. Few persons realized that the crisis was more than temporary. If you are disposed to accept my interpretation, you have a right to ask me what I propose to do about it. I can reply with equal right that I do not set myself up as an arbiter of vast historical change. No one person can do very much about it — not even Mr. Roosevelt. But many men and women, alive to the facts, can throw their combined weight in certain directions which may prevent the transition from being unnecessarily cruel or unnecessarily sanguinary. The first thing is to admit the necessity of the transition. The second, to appreciate the forces which engendered it. The third, to secure some idea of a new social framework which will be consistent with those forces — act with them rather than against them. Specifically this means a financial mechanism which will release purchasing power as fast as energy and in¬ vention lower man-hour costs and increase potential output. It is important to realize that the hundreds of schemes, plans, and experiments now ad¬ vocated as alternatives to “ sound money ” are in answer to an insistent demand. Somehow, a new financial mechanism must be found. The various proposals for inflation, for the creation of non-interest bearing public credit, the Douglas Plan, the schemes to nationalize private banks — are all aimed in the same direction. Our problem is not to set our faces blindly against such proposals, calling them the visions of crackpots, but to determine which proposal can be tried out with the least social disruption. And we must remember that whatever is tried, some people are bound to be hurt. Again, it does no good in the light of the facts, to register a blanket pro¬ test against government invasion of economic activity. As private capitalism relinquishes responsibility for the employment of capital goods workers, the community thru its agent — the government — must assume responsibility. As my business man admitted, the unemployed cannot be allowed to starve, or even to degenerate into unemployables. If we have even a trace of realism 534 National Education Association in our natures, we must be prepared to see an increasing amount of collec¬ tivism, government interference, centralization of economic control, social planning. Here again, the relevant question is not how to get rid of govern¬ ment interference, but how to apply it for the greatest good of the greatest number. The methods applied to date by Messrs. Hitler and Mussolini leave something to be desired. But these, as well as the methods of Stalin and Roosevelt and the recent conversion of the British public debt, are all items in a historical transition — all answers of one kind or another to a set of inescapable conditions. We must also prepare for a shift of accent from saving to spending, from production to distribution, from vendibility to serviceability. Only so may mass consumption catch up with mass production. Insurance is ceasing to be an affair exclusively of the individual, and is giving way to social in¬ surance. As the economy of abundance gains, it is not too much to expect that every family will be guaranteed economic security on a fairly high level. The essentials of life will flow as a matter of right, even as the water supply, high roads, public health services, and common school education flow today. Indeed, if we can keep our perspective and our heads, we may come out of this troubled transition with a stout foundation laid for the greatest civilization ever dreamed of. Technically, the economic problem is already solved. We can produce enough to go round and more. The task before us is to change traditional institutions so that the technical promise can be realized in fact, and to be perfectly clear in our minds that the technological pressures are smashing these institutions willy nilly. What a happy day it will be when we can drop economics as a universal problem, sink it in the sea and forget it, and go on to some of the real and exciting problems of mankind. I hope that I may live to see myself done out of a job as an economist. GENERAL SESSION, TUESDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 26, 1935 “ SOCIAL CHANGE AND EDUCATION,” THE 1935 YEARBOOK Jury-panel Discussion by Members of Yearbook Commission: John W. Studebaker, United States Commissioner of Educa¬ tion, Washington, D. C., Chairman Frank W. Ballou, Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C. Lyman Bryson, Visiting Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. John L. Childs, Associate Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Department of Superintendence 535 Frederick S. Deibler, Professor of Economics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. J. B. Edmonson, Dean, School of Education, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Fred J. Kelly, Chief, Division of Higher Education, United States Office of Education, Washington, D. C. Worth McClure, Superintendent of Schools, Seattle, Wash. Jesse H. Newlon, Professor of Education and Director of Lin¬ coln School, Teachers College, Columbia LTniversitv, New York, N. Y. W. W. Theisen, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Mil¬ waukee, Wis. Carroll Hill Wooddy, Adult Forum Leader, Des Moines Public Schools, Des Moines, Iowa President Oberholtzer: As you know from the program, we have arranged this morning for discussion of the yearbook of the Department of Superintendence. It is useless for me to comment upon this yearbook. The discussion of this panel this morning will be all of the justification, I think, we need, to evaluate its merits. This array of talent has been gathered together by the chairman of this yearbook. The members of the panel will be introduced to you by him. I think it is not worthwhile for me to spend much time in introducing the chairman of this Yearbook Commission. Dr. Studebaker, as Superin¬ tendent of Schools of Des Moines, has made an enviable reputation as a leader in education. Those of you who know of the public forums that were carried on in the city of Des Moines, know something of the vision and outlook that he has. At the present time he is the Commissioner of Education of the United States, and I, for one, am especially glad to have a practical schoolman who sees the problems first-hand in the classroom, representing public education in the department of our government. I am pleased to introduce to you at this time the chairman of our year¬ book, Dr. John W. Studebaker, United States Commissioner of Education, who will have full charge of the discussion of the morning. Chairman Studebaker: Some great philosopher once said, “A speaker can say enough in fifteen minutes; he can tell all he knows in half an hour.” It is somewhat with this thought in mind that the present panel discussion has been planned. We hope within about one hundred minutes to open and to advance a discussion of a number of fundamental social questions which we trust will be stimulating to you for months to come. It is not my purpose now to talk for half an hour in an effort to tell you all that I know. But I think it will help to orient you in relation to the discussion if I tell you very briefly how this yearbook was prepared, what issues are to be discussed, and how this panel is to be conducted. For several years the resolutions and convention programs of the Depart¬ ment have indicated an intensification of the interest of superintendents in 536 National Education Association social problems. Individually superintendents had come into personal con¬ tact with economic unrest. They had followed the current reports in news¬ papers and periodicals. But much of the discussion moved in circles of confusion ; it offered few specific suggestions for the busy executive whose energies were absorbed by the demands of his school system. In the hope of helping to clarify the situation the Executive Committee voted in April 1932 to authorize a yearbook which should deal with social and economic issues. By November of that year President Milton C. Potter had appointed a commission on this subject. The Commission met in May 1933 to outline the proposed publication. Subsequent meetings were held for the purpose of discussing and preparing the contents of each chapter. A subcommittee, consisting of the chairman and four members, met in the fall of 1934 to prepare the general statement and to complete the final arrangements. It became evident quite early in the deliberations of the Commission that the Department was not ready to issue a “ blueprint ” of the obligations of education to a changing civilization. The report of the President’s Research Committee on Social Trends had been issued only recently. The final re¬ ports of the Commission on the Social Studies of the American Historical Association were still in the course of publication. There did appear, how¬ ever, to be a need for a presentation of social thinking which would help to bridge the gap between theoretical discussions of society and the practical demands of the classroom. With such a handbook superintendents would be prepared to undertake the experimentation in their own school systems which would lead to more vital curriculum offerings. The present yearbook, therefore, is neither a treatise on sociology nor an outline of a social studies curriculum. Its field lies between these extremes. Chapters II thru VII of the yearbook review the nature of recent social trends and summarize the efforts of society to adjust to change. Chapters VIII to XV inclusive point out some of the implications for education of social and economic adjustments. Chapter I attempts to bring out the fundamental differences of opinion on social questions which exist among both laymen and educators. After the preliminary drafts of manuscripts were prepared, it was dis¬ covered that in spite of many common viewpoints the members of the Com¬ mission held a number of divergent opinions. Two ways of proceeding were possible. The points of difference could have been avoided so as to present a report which all members might have conscientiously signed. Obviously, under such a plan this yearbook might have been an incomplete patchwork of innocuous platitudes. A second alternative, and the one finally chosen, was to allow the author of each chapter to develop his topic as he thought best. At the same time the chapters were thoroly discussed by the Com¬ mission as a whole and many individual viewpoints considerably modified. It is inevitable that the decision to have signed chapters should result in a yearbook with widely different interpretations of the same social data. Many of the same differences of opinion exist among the members of the Department as well as among social scientists, government leaders, and Department of Superintendence 537 citizens generally. It is not a condition to be deplored as it sets the stage for frank and stimulating discussions. In conferences of superintendents, in teachers meetings, and in professional periodicals the role of education in a changing civilization needs to be explored. Group discussion has always been a typically American way of reaching decisions on matters of general welfare. In the swirl of social change which threatens at present to engulf man¬ kind, education must strive with double diligence to keep both its balance and its sense of direction. Nothing has yet shaken our faith in education as an indispensable instrumentality of social progress. Nor has anything al¬ tered our belief that the right of every man to his fair chance in life is a principle worth fighting for. These are the things which abide. They re¬ main steadfast as a point of reference while all the conflicting desires of men jostle about for position. Neither urbanization nor technology can stamp out in the lives of men their desire for freedom, one of the most fundamental urges of the centuries thru which man has arisen. But freedom today is harder to attain than it was yesterday. The banker’s freedom may cost me my savings. The stockbroker’s freedom may mean my poverty. The farmer’s freedom to produce as much as he desires may mean not only the loss of his own income but his neighbor’s as well. The milk¬ man’s freedom may mean the death of my child from typhoid fever. In a thousand ways, I must curb my freedom if I am not to injure my neighbor or curtail his freedom. But freedom is still an important part of an American’s conception of the good life. His intelligence is still his guide in attaining it. That new forces arise to baffle him and confuse his motives may add to the difficulty of his quest, but they will not turn him aside. He will seek to understand the new barriers that arise in the way of his progress, and evolve an ever better system to aid his intelligence in overcoming those barriers as he ad¬ justs himself to them. Those who have the destiny of our system of public education in their hands feel their responsibility keenly today. In a nation which fought heroically to establish a government which might serve equally the needs of all people, concentrated wealth has formed a power that often bends govern¬ ment to its own purpose. In a nation which was inspired by the faith that everyone should have an equal chance, control by the few of the instru¬ mentalities of production has closed to many the doors of opportunity. In a nation which once held out to all the promise of opportunity for useful labor, millions are now deprived of that opportunity thru no fault of their own. These and other maladjustments in a land which has boasted of its equal opportunity to all are obstacles in the path toward freedom. Further, when once there was much of mutual participating in common value, there is now much of the blighting effects of competition for private pecuniary gain. Where once there was well-nigh universal faith in demo¬ cratic institutions as the effective guarantee of a freer and nobler life, some interests which now control public opinion increasingly decry that faith. 538 National Education Association It is in such a complex of social change that education must now work. Minds informed about the new problems, and habituated in responding to the new motives, must result from the combined efforts of all the agencies of education. Every teacher, every leader of youth, every parent, has his part to play. And he cannot play it without an understanding of the forces that move society and determine the reactions of individuals. Educators must be students of social forces as well as students of the processes of learning. To help educators to see their vital part in the education of to¬ morrow, this yearbook entitled Social Change and Education has been prepared. There exist among laymen, as well as among educators, certain funda¬ mental and genuine conflicts in point of view. These differences arise chiefly from varying assumptions as to the nature, the needs, and the purposes of society. Several terms are used today to designate these underlying assump¬ tions, such as social philosophy, stereotypes, and frame of reference. Re¬ gardless of the labels, the fact remains that these basic views have, consciously or unconsciously, colored the chapters of the present yearbook and will probably color our discussion here. Now let me state briefly, and in rather extreme form, four fundamental issues which came up many times in the preparation of the yearbook and which perplex the American people today. a. Is it the primary aim of our American civilization to give the individual un¬ hampered freedom of thought and action, or is it completely to integrate the indi¬ vidual with large social processes? b. Is our capitalistic economic system such a failure or a social hindrance that it should be replaced entirely by a collectivistic system designed to meet our Ameri¬ can needs? c. Is our present system of parliamentary government and political parties so un¬ suited for presentday industrial conditions that it should be replaced by a system representative of functional groups within American society? d. Is the primary function of public education to help children and adults to under¬ stand the nature of and trends in American life, or is it actively to formulate the outline of needed changes and to indoctrinate pupils with the desirability of these new proposals? 4 Now one final word as to procedure: 1. In a minute or so I shall begin to call upon the members of the panel in turn to discuss these fundamental issues. Each person will speak for three minutes. Dur¬ ing that time there will be no interruptions by other members of the panel. 2. After each one has had his three-minute period of freedom, a provision in the procedure established by the consent of the group, I shall throw the meeting open to free discussion. Members of the panel will address one another and not the chairman, unless the chairman engages in the discussion. Written questions addressed to a designated member of the panel will be received from the audience by the chairman. These questions will be answered during the last ten minutes. Let me suggest, how¬ ever, that in this free discussion no one should speak continuously for more than three minutes. Lyman Bryson : The first of the principles which you put up here for us to discuss is rather a preliminary to other things which are more con¬ troversial and possibly more important, but it is necessary to clear the Department of Superintendence 539 ground on this first point. Is it the primary aim of our American civilization to give the individual unhampered freedom of thought and action, or is it completely to integrate the individual with large social processes? I should say from my own thinking that that is an impossible alternative. In the first place, the idea of unhampered freedom of thought and action is an unrealistic idea. No society could ever be, or ever has been, con¬ structed in which individuals could have unhampered freedom. The second idea which is offered as a choice, completely to integrate the individual with large social processes, is possible but not at all desirable, and I say that because I do not believe that there is any way of setting up any completely integrated social process to which each individual must be entirely related, without having that social process in the hands or in the control of some of the individuals in that society; in other words, if you have complete integration, you have tyranny, absolutely and necessarily, in my opinion. So the alternative is not between complete freedom and complete integra¬ tion, because one is anarchy, and the other is tyranny, and neither one is acceptable nor desirable. Here we have a false choice put before us; what we want is obviously the best manipulation of a very difficult interrelationship. My freedom as an individual is due in very large measure to the kind of social process in which I live ; that is, I can be free only as society offers me certain kinds of freedom. At the same time, unless that society guards my right to criti¬ cize it, to change it if I care to, to move freely within the pattern, it is unsatisfactory, because there again it limits my freedom. The primary aim of American civilization, like the civilization or society of any other group of people in this world, is to give the individual the greatest possible chance for growth within the social processes which are necessary; in other words, we want a society which will give individuals a chance for the greatest possible personal development, knowing very well that that does not mean anarchy or unhampered freedom, but a civilized or measured freedom which takes into account fully the necessary freedom for the others that are in that society with him. That, of course, is a compromise, a middle ground. I don’t expect all my colleagues to agree with me, because it is an old- fashioned position, but I think it is a sound position, that society should aim at the greatest possible freedom for the individual, knowing that that is a compromise between one man’s freedom and the freedom of his next door neighbor. J. B. Edmonson : I agree with Mr. Bryson that the primary aim of American civilization should be found in a middle course rather than in either of the proposed alternatives. In my opinion both of the proposed alternatives are objectionable. It is my judgment that we should emphasize preparation for greater cooperativeness as a controlling aim of American civilization. I do not believe that we are going to improve the present situation by urging complete freedom of the individual or, on the other hand, advocating that the individual should be lost in the larger group. Greater cooperative- 540 National Education Association ness is needed in order to improve our communities, and to improve the situation in the state and in the nation. It is true that some persons do not yet realize this fact and continue, therefore, to overemphasize the impor¬ tance of freedom of the individual to manage his own affairs. The improvement of our social life depends upon training in cooperative¬ ness. This is true of the individual and it is also true of groups of indi¬ viduals, such as our community. No man thrives best alone. No undertaking thrives best without the support and assistance of many persons. The Bibli¬ cal question, “Am I my brother’s keeper? ” needs to be reviewed by large numbers of people in our American society. The new spirit of cooperative¬ ness is promoted by an unselfish interest in the welfare of others and a desire to work happily with others. This new spirit is opposed by greed, selfishness, and intolerance. Complete individualization is not a desirable goal of American civiliza¬ tion. Complete integration of the individual with larger social groups is equally objectionable. A middle course with emphasis on greater coopera¬ tiveness for the good of the individual in terms of the good of the many is the aim that I would urge for American civilization. Jesse H. Newlon: The chairman has assigned Question B to me for answer. I shall have to read that question: Is our capitalistic economic system such a failure or a social hindrance that it should be replaced entirely by a collectivistic system designed to meet our American needs? Here again we have the statement of two extremes, but I assert that our historic capitalistic system is not a solution to the difficulties which we confront in the United States at the present time. We are moving in towards some form of collectivistic society. We shall go in that direction far enough to insure economic security and opportunity for the pursuit of happiness to all Americans and not just to those who are most fortunately situated in our society. We live in a period of social un¬ certainty and change in which the American people are making the most fundamental decisions since the American Revolution. In such a time education cannot be neutral. The school will be employed either to support the existing order or to build up a better social order. Dr. Oberholtzer has rendered a splendid service to education in recognizing the basic importance of this problem by making it the central theme of this convention. The American people are not afraid of change. They welcome all changes that will bring economic security to all of the millions who do the productive work of the country. Profound changes must be made in our economic system if the natural and technological resources of the country are to be utilized for all. America will choose between fascist control by a privileged group and control by the people, for the people. If the school is to serve the people, the roads of free inquiry must be kept open. Let us not be deceived. Powerful forces are seeking to destroy this freedom. These forces are the enemies of the school and of the people. If the issues are made clear, the people will demand a school that will make a fearless ex¬ amination of the facts of the social situation. Department of Superintendence 541 Whether education is informed and forward-looking depends in large measure on the social vision and courage of educational administrators. I have faith that counsels of fear and evasion will not prevail in our ranks. But if we are to discharge our responsibilities, we must face that fact that we cannot and will not be neutral in the struggle of social forces now going on in this country. Will the school, by giving the people knowledge of the possibilities of American life and of the forces that thwart the realization of these possibilities, serve the true interests of the people, or play straight into the hands of privilege? That is the issue as I see it, Mr. Chairman. Chairman Studebaker: Some of us have felt for a long time that as pedagogs get together annually in large gatherings or in small groups upon frequent occasion, they should have in their midst some experts in the fields of economics, political science, and sociology. Personally, I am persuaded that most of us in the field of pedagogy have only a little veneer of social insight. The next speaker is Dr. Frederick S. Deibler, professor of eco¬ nomics in Northwestern University. Frederick S. Deibler: In discussing Dr. Studebaker’s second question, may I say that I am not one of those who has despaired of the present economic order, notwithstanding the trying times since 1929. My faith in the essential soundness of the present system is based upon four considerations: 1. This is not the first depression thru which we have come, even tho we admit that in point of numbers affected, it is the most severe one. Nor is it the first time that we have had ardent advocates of radical social change. The period following every depression is the heyday for all sorts of social philosophizing. Our economic system is very delicately balanced and even in peace times it is extremely difficult to maintain that balance, but wars completely disrupt our social, political, and economic relations for )^ears to come. Our most serious depressions have always followed wars. It seems, therefore, a much more realistic interpretation of what has happened in Europe and America since 1914, to attribute it to the disrupting influences of war than to charge it to a breakdown of the economic system. 2. Under the present system the material welfare of countries that have embraced it has been developed to a level unattained by any country under any other form of economic organization. Believing, as I do, that our intellectual and spiritual welfare have a mini¬ mum economic basis, I hold that the present economic order has made notable contributions to these aspects of our civilization. 3. We know the present system. We know its strength and we know its weaknesses. The whole pattern of our life is adapted to its mode, and our ways of thinking are very largely conditioned by its operations. Therefore, I find it very difficult to believe that wisdom lies in the direc¬ tion of scrapping the experiences of the past for an adventure on an un¬ charted sea of social and economic revolution. This is not the way of science. When medical men become baffled by a disease beyond their control, do they 542 National Education Association advocate the scrapping of the biological findings of the past for a new system of medicine? Not if I have read the history of science correctly. I have faith to believe that in the social sciences the future holds more for us along the path of evolutionary adaptation of our institutions to the needs of our generation than in the direction of a new order. 4. Any new system will have its own problems. A new system may cor¬ rect some of the evils of the present system, but we may rest assured that it will create others equally baffling and equally difficult to solve. Let no one deceive himself into believing that changing the institutional framework of society will bring about an economic and social millennium. I think Shakespeare’s admonition is still sound doctrine in which he said in sub¬ stance: “ We had better bear with the ills we know than to fly to those we know not of.” For these reasons, very briefly put, I believe that we can make the surest progress in solving the social and economic ills of our time by building on the solid foundations of experience rather than by attempting to construct a new order that would require the acceptance of a new social and economic philosophy. Chairman Studebaker: One of these labels called social philosophy or stereotype or frame of reference, which certainly will color our attitudes toward the learning process, will be more and more this question of the development of an executive government on the one hand of an extreme type, or the retention of a rather widespread representative parliamentary system on the other hand. Dr. Wooddy, a political scientist, may have some¬ thing to say on this subject. Carroll Hill Wooddy: I have the same criticism of this proposition which was expressed concerning the first, and I think it is also true of the second. We have to deal with rather widely spread alternatives in between which there may be any number of middle positions, not merely one. Whether or not our present system of parliamentary government and political parties is unsuited to political conditions is a debatable proposition, but whether it should be replaced by a system representative of functional groups seems to me highly questionable. That, I think, is tantamount to asserting that reform of our political institutions can follow only one direc¬ tion, namely, that of imitation of fascist or soviet states. I shall attempt to analyze the alternatives by presenting one or two propositions which support the extremist view, and then one or two counter propositions which represent what seems to me to be a more reasonable attitude. 1. I think those who believe that our present governmental forms are inadequate to the needs of the present crisis and must be replaced by some form of functional representation assume that an economic revolution has already occurred, is on the verge of occurring, or that it will inevitably occur ; and secondly, they assume that economic revolution always expresses itself in terms of new governmental forms. There is a certain amount of truth in the latter statement, but unless the first be true, the proposition as a whole perhaps falls to the ground. Department of Superintendence 543 2. It is frequently urged as an argument for revolutionary governmental change, that parliamentary democracy has in the past worked best when controlled by a single class, or when there was substantial agreement as to what the economic basis of society should be. When the Duke of Welling¬ ton was Prime Minister of Great Britain, it was said that the government consisted of a number of gentlemen, all of whom lived in Mayfair, talking to one another. That kind of government disappeared in 1832, and Eng¬ land, as it extended the basis of representation, has found it increasingly difficult to operate under the parliamentary system. It is urged that the same type of criticism is valid as applied to our own institution. 3. As a counter proposition, I should like to point out, first, that condi¬ tions in the United States are much more favorable to the continued operation of representative government than is true in the case of those countries where so-called parliamentary democracy has been discarded. We have had a longer experience with widespread political participation than any other nation. It is true that we achieved as early as 1840 adult male suffrage, whereas England didn’t get it until 1884. Thus we have had a more extensive experience in operating a form of parliamentary gov¬ ernment than has any other country. While it is true that we were never entirely a classless society and have been becoming less and less so, it is also true that no single economic class has ever controlled our government, that all economic classes have access to the government, and that the government has proved reasonably re¬ sponsive to the demands of classes which are not economically dominant. This has been true, not only of farmers and laborers, but also of many other elements in our population. The assumption that our government is completely controlled by a propertied class is not in harmony with the facts. 4. Secondly, despite the apparent rigidity of our governmental forms, our governmental mechanism possesses a considerable inherent capacity of adaptation to economic needs when these needs are clearly formulated and adequately supported. Thus in this present emergency, in spite of the fact that we have a nominal division of powers between the legislature and the executive, there has been a decided shift of legislative authority to the Presi¬ dent, in response to a need for greater efficiency. W e have assumed that the Supreme Court operates as a barrier to change which can never be sur¬ mounted ; but this view can scarcely be held after the decision on the gold < clause. We think perhaps of our state boundaries as serious obstacles to the de¬ velopment of a complete national consciousness, yet we now see the region¬ alization of the United States proceeding at a rapid rate under our present administration. 5. I reach this conclusion, then, that those who are interested in economic j change would be well advised to strive to strengthen, to develop, and to . defend the democratic political process as the most effective agency for \ achieving economic justice rather than to insist upon an economic program 544 National Education Association which is likely to overthrow the government and thus destroy the avenues whereby their objectives are most likely to be attained. Secondly, and this is a step in the same direction, they should support those political reforms and administrative changes which will make the government an increasingly useful agency for providing the expertness and statesmanship without which democratic control becomes mere unharnessed energy. John L. Childs: I should like first to express my keen appreciation of the excellent leadership which John W. Studebaker has given as chairman of this Commission. Recognizing that our country is at a turning point in its history, and that honest minds differ about the direction in which we should now move, Dr. Studebaker did not urge us on the Commission to submerge and minimize our important differences. On the contrary, he encouraged us to elaborate these several views in the 1935 yearbook, and he also arranged for this opportunity for their further exploration in public discussion. In pursuing this course, Dr. Studebaker demonstrates that he is one who translates his educational theories into actual practise. It is my aim in this opening statement to redefine one of these funda¬ mental issues which I hope may be discussed this morning. I think I can do this most concisely and appropriately in this gathering by reading a paragraph from a statement made by the honorary president of the National Education Association, John Dewey, in the February issue of the Social Frontier . He says: Let it be admitted that the school must have some social orientation. Let it also be admitted that this necessity is implicit in the nature of education. And when I say “admitted” I do not mean admitted for the sake of argument, but admitted as the fact of the situation, and a fact that cannot be escaped. Let it be admitted also, and for the same reason, that broadly speaking the teach¬ ing profession is now faced with choice between two social orientations. Of these two orientations, one looks to the past, the other to the future. That which looks to the past, looks also by the necessities of the situation to the interests of a small class, having a highly privileged position maintained at the expense of the masses. That which looks to the future is in line with the scientific, technological, and indus¬ trial forces of the present, and, what is more, it is in the interest of the freedom, security, and cultural development of the masses. Everything that has been said about the reality of the contest between these opposed interests and groups, I believe to be also true. In one way or another, teachers as a body and individually do and must make a choice between these opposed social orientations and all they prac¬ tically imply. If Dr. Dewey analyzes correctly the present educational situation (and I think that he does) the problem of indoctrination assumes a new character. On this basis, the crucial issue is not whether education should be based on a social philosophy. Education by its inherent nature must give its allegiance to some social outlook. The important question today is, What is this social philosophy to be, and how is it to be used in our educational activity? Fred J. Kelly: It has been several minutes now since these proposals or issues were read. May I be allowed to re-read the one that I hope to discuss? It reads this way: Is the primary function of public education to Department of Superintendence 545 help children and adults to understand the nature of and trends in American life, or is it actively to formulate the outline of needed changes and to indoctrinate pupils with the desirability of these new proposals? The reason I am choosing to discuss the fourth issue is that no matter how badly I say what I shall try to say, I do not believe I can make the issue of indoctrination more confused than it already is. I believe in the first alternative stated. It is the function of public educa¬ tion to help people understand the nature and trends in American life. But let’s be clear that I do not believe that can be done without what many people are calling indoctrination. If, for example, I am convinced that the trend is toward bureaucracy, I don’t see how I can teach that trend without my students sensing my attitude toward the dangers of bureaucracy. If they respect my judgment, they will tend to become opponents of bureaucracy. Similarly, if I believe the trend is toward the increasing power of the demagog in public life, I don’t see how I can keep my students from sensing my attitude and thus becoming indoctrinated against the demagog. I have chosen these two illustrations because bureaucracy and the dema¬ gog have no friends at court. No one complains about my indoctrination against them. But even in such a case, I shall be careful about my method of teaching if I want to be really effective. I shall not ask my civics class to rise and repeat in concert, “ Down with the demagog! ” I shall have them try to find the evidences, and to understand the tactics of certain men in high places, perhaps senators or newspaper owners, about whose honesty and high purpose I may have some doubt. My students will study their speeches, their radio addresses, and their editorials. If the devices used by these men are too subtle for my students to discern, I shall probably help them to see thru these subtleties just as I would help them to see thru the subtleties of Shakespeare. I shall not be surprised if they come thru with a fairly loathe- some attitude toward the demagog. It is quite likely that if I maintain during this teaching exercise the judicial attitude becoming a teacher, I shall probably not have said anything scathing myself about a demagog. I shall feel disappointed, however, if members of my class haven’t. I shall expect them to have to restrain an impulse to organize a parade and carry a banner on which is inscribed, “ Horsewhip the demagog! ” By this example I mean only to point out that the offense, real or fancied, of indoctrination is in the method of teaching used rather than the materials taught. When I come to believe that Fascism is the best “ ism ” for America, I shall hardly be able to teach my classes in political science without their finding out my belief. But, since Fascism is not quite so one-sided an issue as demagogy, I shall not expect that the evidences will be conclusive enough to convince all my students, nor fire them to march in the next Fascist parade. When the evidences have become so conclusive as that, then no one will bother to call our teaching about it by the epithet indoctrination. While the evidences are still inconclusive, I must respect their inconclusiveness 546 National Education Association unless I wish to transfer from the role of a teacher to that of a demagog myself. Worth McClure : May I approach, in practical fashion, the discussion of this fourth question which the chairman has laid before us, namely, the issue of indoctrination in relation to school problems? There has been too much tendency, I believe, to discuss this question in a vacuum, and, as one who is not by reason of his work able to talk at great length about some of these questions without being confronted with the necessity of a decision, I wish to approach the question from the functional point of view. It has been said already that democracy is a dynamic social process, the goal of which is the production of a finer type of human being. With this statement I am in agreement. I think it was Mazzini, the Italian patriot, who said that democracy is the progress of all thru all under the leadership of the wisest and the best. We catch this same note of the progress of all in Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address, and in many of the other statements of leaders of this republic. Education must, therefore, function along the line of the production of a citizenship composed of individuals who have been disciplined by a social conscience. What does the school contribute toward wholesome individual growth ? What does it contribute toward the sense of personal responsibility for the progress of all? These are questions which every school must ask itself constantly and by which every teacher must constantly test his instruc¬ tion, so I wish to suggest two major lines of development along which the schools perhaps must go, which I believe they must follow for the imme¬ diate and the succeeding years. The first of these is that there must be a rethinking of all of the resources of the school and a mobilization of these resources toward the cultivation of . child growth. Now we can call that character education, if we will. We can call it guidance, if we will. The goal is the same, the capitalization of all of the experiences which exist in the daily mine run of school life for the development of stronger and more intelligent personality. The school for childhood, I believe, since that is my chapter in the book and — I approach this question from that angle — the school for childhood as well as the secondary school, must stress the broadening and finding func¬ tions. We have been entirely too content to believe we could leave explora¬ tion and guidance to the secondary-school years. There needs to be counsel¬ ing based upon studies of individual pupils, such as we have known only in rare instances in the past. We need to know about the child physically, intellectually, emotionally, and socially. The experiment now under progress in the city of Washington, D. C., in character education, is fraught with valuable suggestions along this line for every superintendent in the country. There is another comment upon this first major trend. May I add that the school organization must be made much more flexible than it is at pres¬ ent? There is too much rigidity at present in such organizations as the platoon school, in junior and senior high school, excellent as is the purpose of these plans of organization. We are still too much dominated in them and Department of Superintendence 547 in other types of school organizations as well, by the machine organization concept, the press-the-button idea, that if we get the right kind of school machine, it will automatically do the job. Purposes must dominate the school organization, not the reverse. Third, may I say that character education, the cultivation of this personal growth that we have been talking about, must be based upon a new definition of success. We have had too much emphasis upon success in terms of tangi¬ bles in this country, not enough emphasis on those intangible values which are productive of certain indestructible satisfactions attained by those who achieve the wingless, deathless victories that we heard about last night. As a second major trend, I believe we must merge the school more closely with the community than we have ever done. Such things as excursions must be conducted on a larger scale than we have yet visioned them. We must take the children out into the community where they see social processes in action. * The Ann Arbor, Michigan, experience and those of other school systems which have been extending the life of the school beyond the walls of the school, are valuable for all school superintendents. We need to use the com¬ munity as a social laboratory and as a corollary of that our study of “ current events ” must become a study of the current of events. The current of events points the existence of fundamental problems which society must solve. How would you find out more about the problem which this incident just related brings to view? How have Americans dealt with such problems in the past? What is the responsibility of educated Americans toward such problems ? These are questions which the teacher must ask and must inspire the students to ask. The goals in this process (let us be perfectly clear about this) are the dis¬ covery and stimulation of interests in social problems and in social progress, the sense of responsibility for the progress of all, the mastery of methods of independent thinking and advice, the open mind, not the closed one. Will students be indoctrinated then? Yes, they will be indoctrinated with ideals and values pertaining to American democracy. They will not be in¬ doctrinated with thought-suppressive, ready-made social nostrums, or gov¬ ernmental patterns borrowed from across the sea. Every teacher should ask himself, “ Will my students be better able to deal intelligently and independently with propaganda in all its forms be¬ cause of my teaching? ” The teacher who turns out from his classroom a propaganda-ridden generation because of his own attitude, is false to the ! ideals of teaching. Frank W. Ballou : I presume that we all agree that the school is a fundamentally important social institution. I think the history of education shows that it always has been and I think it will undoubtedly continue to be, in any democratic form of government. I am of the opinion that certain work of the schools inevitably represents i a stabilizing force, and that certain other work that is going on in the schools Sis directly related to the existing social order which historically, I think, is always to some extent a changing social order. 548 National Education Association I should like to pause long enough to observe that while this panel is con¬ cerned with social change, we shall go on teaching reading and arithmetic in the most up-to-date ways, whatever may happen in connection with the adoption of any teaching program in the social studies. We educators are too prone to take up one idea and forget some of the other important activities of the school. I think it is one of the primary func¬ tions of public education to help children and adults to understand the nature of and trends in American life, but I think the public school has other equally important functions to perform. As a superintendent of schools, I am heartily in accord with the general idea that the schools must play an important part in social change ; however, as superintendent, and necessarily concerned with the formulation of a pro¬ gram of instruction in the social studies, I would like to have help in defin¬ ing what that new social order is for which the schools are expected to prepare. When the consensus of the American people shall have decided the kind of a social order they want, I think the schools are prepared to give instruc¬ tion in that social order. The politicians are disagreed, the sociologists are disagreed, the economists are disagreed, and the philosophers and educators are disagreed, and I do not know of any fund of knowledge or group of practises to which we can turn to find out the kind of new social order we ought to have. I should like to say that that is the primary difficulty with which it seems to me the school people of America would be confronted if they were com¬ mitted to the problem of indoctrination concerning that new social order. Personally, and using the word “ indoctrination ” in the usual sense, I am unalterably opposed to indoctrination. I think the school should undertake to teach about the existing social order for the purpose of determining with the pupils of mature or youthful age, some understanding of that social order, some understanding of its strengths and its weaknesses. On that basis I think we can then approach the consideration of improvement in the existing social order. I do not believe that we should undertake to teach the children what to think, but I do think we should undertake to teach them how to think about social problems. I think we should leave to the generation now in our schools the determination on their part of the kind of social order they want when they take our places. W. W. Theisen: Personally I cannot subscribe to either of the two alternatives which the chairman has proposed as to the primary function of education. The first is inadequate, and the second represents an unsound doctrine. I agree rather with those who hold that the primary function of education is to train individuals to think and act cooperatively in the interests of group welfare, and at the same time to encourage the individual to develop his own talents to the fullest so long as the results are not detri¬ mental to society. The advocates of indoctrination assume that teachers are competent to find the proper solutions to our social and economic difficulties, but with the Department of Superintendence 549 average level of training of teachers in this country not above that of normal school graduation, and when our best economists, sociologists, and students of political science can offer only partial solutions to some of our difficulties, it seems rather naive to place such confidence in teachers. While teachers should be students of social problems, it is extremely improbable that even the best among them can find more than temporary solutions to even a few of our difficulties, or that more than a few of their proposed solutions, even granting that they were correct, would be accepted without long and bitter controversies. If we deem it our proper function to undermine the present social order, we should be honest enough to make our intentions known to the public which engages our services. Anything less is rank dishonesty. If we wish to transplant bodily European methods of solving social prob¬ lems, possibly we should proceed to indoctrinate without reservation. Indoc¬ trination for the masses, however, is an appeal to emotional action and only a poor substitute for the rational thinking which we hope to develop in citi¬ zens. The advocates of outright indoctrination must realize that if educators become the champions of untried social schemes and seek to enforce their acceptance, much of the confidence which the public now has in the schools will be destroyed, and financial support withdrawn. Retrogression rather than progress must be the result. Our quarrel is not so much with indoctrination as a process but with a type which is revolutionary as compared with one which is evolutionary and the outgrowth of orderly thinking habits of individuals. It can scarcely be held that the primary function of education is to indoc¬ trinate children with ideas which are dependent upon an assumption of wisdom and insight in teachers far beyond that which anyone could possibly possess. The primary function seems rather to be that of developing indi¬ viduals whose attitudes, habits, and ideals will be sufficiently integrated to lead them to strive for the common welfare and at the same time provide for a rich, full development of the individual. Our job, on the one hand, is to lead individuals to see the possibilities of cooperative effort and to create impelling desires to evoke the orderly proc¬ esses necessary to bring such efforts to fruition. On the other hand, our task is to lead individuals to discover their own special aptitudes and to foster the development of those which promise to yield the greatest life returns con¬ sistent with social welfare. What is needed by teachers today is not so much a blanket authorization to indoctrinate children as it is to have a broader social vision, a clearer con¬ ception of the role which education must play in our democratic society, and a fuller appreciation of the need for enlisting public support in order that the necessary educational opportunities may be made available in every com- i munity. Chairman Studebaker: I will start the more informal part of this pro¬ gram by directing a comment and question to Dr. Newlon, driving again at the question of the relation between some kind of social philosophy and the role of education. 550 National Education Association Now, Dr. Newlon, it seems to me that the germ of your idea was crystal¬ lized in your statement that education cannot remain neutral. What do you mean by education ? Do you take all of us in ? Are all of us in education ? If so, how are }T)u going to make us take sides, and exactly what do you mean by being neutral ? Jesse H. Newlon: First I have got to correct your quotation from my opening statement. You said that I said that education cannot remain neutral. What I said was that education cannot be neutral , never is neutral , and never will be neutral . Chairman Studebaker: I will accept that. Dr. Newlon : It is a very important distinction, because the inference is, if we use the word “ remain,” that there are neutral persons in this audience today with reference to the great problems that confront us at the present time, and I assert that there are no neutral persons in this audience. I assert that we look to the future, as Dr. Childs pointed out, or we look to the past in our social orientation. I would go further and say that American edu¬ cation never was neutral. It was never intended to be neutral so far as the people were concerned. American education is a product in large measure of the American Revolution. The fathers of our republic believed that a system of popular education was necessary if our great experiment in democracy was to succeed in this country, and fifty years after the Revolution our free public school system was established under the leadership of men like Horace Mann, who were not neutral in regard to the great social and economic problems of those days. Horace Mann was considered almost a dangerous person by the conservative interests in society. I include all of us when I speak of education, all of us engaged in educa¬ tion. I mean not only the school but the press and the clergy and everybody engaged in education, and I assert as a most basic fact in this whole discus¬ sion that none of us is neutral with regard to these great social problems. Some have thought them out more fully than others, but none is neutral, j Chairman Studebaker: I think you are a little confusing. You speak as tho education includes all of us, and then you say that we differ among ourselves. If education includes all of us and we differ among ourselves, how can we expect education to push forward to the accomplishment of some preconceived notion which resides in the minds of some of us? Dr. Newlon: Again I want to warn you that you are imputing to me something I have never said. I have not advocated a system of education teaching some preconceived, detailed blueprint of a social order, and I think that eliminates much of what the gentlemen on my left got excited about this morning, because they have been setting up a straw man as tho we want to close the avenues of criticism in America. That is not what we want to do. We want to keep them open, but we know that every person who has a vested interest that he does not want to have disturbed, is an enemy of criticism. The one thing that he does not want to have come into the Amer¬ ican school is intelligence, social intelligence. I don’t know whether that answers your question. Department of Superintendence 551 Chairman Studebaker: I am going to stop in a moment, but I want to ask you one more question. What do you think of the statement made one time by President Angell of Yale? He said the teacher should possess “ that serene detachment which alone can guarantee clarity of judgment and the exercise of dispassionate intelligence.” Dr. Newlon: In answer to that question I shall read a few sentences from Charles Beard that appear in his splendid article in the Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, on “ The Rise of Individualism and Capitalism in the Nineteenth Century.” I have lifted these sentences from an article by Dr. Counts in the current number of the Social Frontier. Dr. Beard says: “ In beginning a survey of this intellectual revolution, it is well to recall that none of the participants were disembodied spirits, not even the cold-blooded scientists who so passionately announced their lack of passion. All of the thinkers in this period stood, as in all other periods, in some relation to the feudal order that was crumbling or the capitalistic order in the process of becoming. . . .” and I think that is a much more ac¬ curate description of the intellectual processes of these great scientists and scholars who are supposed to withdraw into their ivory towers of serenity, than the one we have just heard from President Angell. Carroll Hill Wooddy: In these panel discussions someone has to be the goat and it seems Dr. Newlon is elected to that role. I was interested in his quotation from Dr. Beard, but I wonder how the people of the day, at the time when feudalism was making way for capitalism, knew what capi¬ talism was, and what kind of social order they were coming into. It is easy for us to look back and say feudalism made place for capitalism, but did the feudalists know they were going to be capitalists, or that the next era in human history was to be capitalistic? I detect in something Dr. Newlon said, and also in something Dr. Childs said, a supposition that we know what the next social order is going to be. No doubt I also am misquoting Dr. Newlon, but I wrote down here some¬ thing like this: “ The school must either support the existing order or advo¬ cate a new order.” Now I wonder whether this “ a new order ” means any new order, or some particular new order. Dr. Newlon: Do you want me to answer that? Dr. Wooddy: Yes. Dr. Newlon : Again I have got to point out that you misquoted me. I did not say that the school must support the old order or some new order. I said that the school will, and there is all the difference in the world. I believe that all of us engaged in education either have our faces to the future or we have our faces to the past. Now you ask me do I know exactly what this new order will be. I do not, but I know some things about it, I think. I believe that we live in a very closely integrated economy in the ' modern world. We live in a world of machinery and science. We shall not tura the clock backward. We cannot throw away our machines. We will not throw away modern science. We shall not again live in the simple agrarian society that existed before the age of science and machinery. 552 National Education Association You ask, did the people of, let us say, the eighteenth century, know what kind of society they were going to have ? I would answer, they did not, but the fathers of the American Revolution, men like Thomas Jefferson, knew the kind of society that they wanted to have in the United States, and they went out and fought for that society, and it made all the difference in the world. And we want the same kind of society. We want democracy. All right. I have another question to my right. Come on. J. B. Edmonson : I want to ask Dr. Childs a question, and then I will ask this question that I have written out for you, but I think you need a little rest. Dr. Childs, are you convinced that our schools are now indoctrinating children with reactionary principles that are dictated by the privileged classes ? John L. Childs: As a number of the speakers on the panel have said, the term “ indoctrination ” is one of the most slippery words in the English language, and in the whole educational vocabulary. Personally, I limit the term to designate an educational method where, on the basis of other than evidence, and a careful, critical examination of values, some leaders of one type or another, whether they be in the school or elsewhere, seek to in¬ sinuate by an appeal to stereotypes, by a process of emotional conditioning, certain doctrines and attitudes into the minds of others — old or young. Now, if you mean that kind of indoctrination, I would say there may be some of it in our schools, but I think on the whole the American schools are not trying to do that sort of thing. If, on the other hand, you ask, “Are the American schools completely open-minded on all questions? ” I say they are not, and they cannot be, and they should not be. We are living in a democratic society, and a democratic society rests upon certain social pre¬ suppositions, and, from my point of view, the schools would be recreant to their trust if they were not trying to develop in the minds of the young those ideals, beliefs, and even emotional attachments appropriate to that way of life that we call democracy. Now, it has been said here that democracy is a living, dynamic social process. I believe that it is. I would go farther and would say with Professor Mead, of the University of Chicago, that democracy is an attempt to insti¬ tutionalize revolution, meaning by that that it is an attempt to allow us, thru orderly institutional procedure, to make whatever adjustments chang¬ ing conditions call upon us to make. It is true we cannot give the blueprints of this new social order. I agree, tho, with Dr. Newlon that we can give you some of the characteristics of it. First, we are living in a collective, interdependent world. The kind of rugged individualism that went with our frontier, agrarian economy, with a self-sufficient household economy, is gone. It is dead. If we pass on the notion that laissez faire individualism can be rehabilitated, we are passing on an idea that has lost its power. It no longer fits the conditions under which we live. In the second place, we are living in an economy of potential abundance, and we are living under a social and economic system that does not seem to Department of Superintendence 553 be able to organize the resources of this economy of abundance so as to use them effectually for the welfare of the masses of the people. Moreover, until we change that economic system, I believe we shall not utilize these resources. May I say to you superintendents who have been fighting a good fight for the maintenance of the schools, I do not believe we will ever maintain the public school system unless we broaden our fight to include a demand for an economy that will use, and not waste, our material, technological, and human resources. Any notion that we can keep our school system as it is, regardless of whether or not we as a nation are moving progressively to lower the standard of living of the American people, is an ill-conceived notion. Moreover, I believe that if educators continue to fight on such a narrow front, and do not broaden the program to include a new social organization, that we will rightfully earn the resentment of the great mass of the people. In the third place, I believe that without some kind of planning and control — conscious control — we cannot integrate, coordinate, and use these resources in this technological, interdependent society. I believe many of our industrialists and business leaders now recognize this to be true. Owen D. Young, Gerard Swope, of the General Electric, and others, have said that we are “ on a one-way street,” and we will not go back. The crucial issue, therefore, is, if there is to be planning and control, in whose interests is that planning and control to be exercised? I maintain that the school system cannot be neutral on that issue. Democracy is indeed dynamic, but democracy does not exist apart from us. Unless we are willing to move out of our old position and have the courage to dare and risk something, we cannot expect democracy of itself to be dynamic and to make its adjustments by an automatic process apart from courageous, intelligent, human leader¬ ship. Will educators supply their share of that leadership ? Dr. Edmonson : Well, Dr. Newlon, I really want to put you on the spot now. I want to ask you a question that has disturbed me a good deal. Are you convinced that the members of the teaching profession are more critical of the existing social and economic order than are the members of the clergy, the editors, the lawyers, the industrialists; and, if so, why? Dr. Newlon : Well, Dean Edmonson, I consider that a rather easy ques¬ tion, altho a very important one. William T. Harris said before the National Education Association some thirty or forty years ago that the teachers, the clergy, and the lawyers, con¬ stituted the most conservative groups in society, and it was their function to conserve social stability, maintain social stability. Now, I think there is some truth in what William T. Harris said, but I do not think it was wholly true even in his day, nor do I think it is as true today as it was when he made this statement, thirty or forty years ago. First, let us start with the clergy. Let us start with the Founder of the Christian religion. The Founder of the Christian religion was put to death for His ideas, and from the time of the founding of the Christian religion down to the present time, there have always been members of the clergy 554 National Education Association who have stood out boldly as champions of the people, common people. I could name them today. I could name men like Bishop McConnell, of the Methodist Episcopal Church, or I could name the Episcopal bishop in San Francisco, who a couple of weeks ago had the courage to speak out against the suppression that is being carried on in that state by certain interests in the name of liberty, warning them they were bringing about their own destruction. I would put it this way: Teachers at the present time, are, as a group, more critical of the existing social order than are the lawyers as a group, more critical than are the industrialists as a group, if you please. If you ask me why, I will say that we are chosen, or consecrated, or devoted, whatever word you wish to use, to the education of youth, to a collective service. Our interests are different in important respects from the interests of the lawyers who serve mainly the industrialists, and one’s inter¬ ests make all the difference in the world in his outlook. Coming back to the clergy, comparing teachers with the clergy, are we more critical or less critical than the clergy at the present time? Well, if I should compare the resolutions adopted by the teachers organizations, state teachers associations, branches of the National Education Association, with the pronouncements of some of the great religious bodies of the United States in their national conventions or assemblies in regard to the present critical economic situation, I think I would be forced to conclude that they have spoken out more boldly, more critically, of the injustices of our order, than have the teachers. I want to say that for the clergy of the United States at the present time. I should like to follow up one other point, made by Dr. Childs. I should like to say this, that if we wish to gain support and secure and maintain support for public education in the future, we superintendents of schools and teachers must make our appeal to the rank and file of the American people that the schools were intended to serve, rather than to the privileged classes in society. Fred J. Kelly: Dr. Deibler, you included among your arguments for the present capitalistic system one we hear, I think, rather often, that capitalism has brought us to this fine place of high standard of living, etc., in this country. Isn’t it true that capitalism as a system has also been the prevailing system in other countries which have not reached that high standard of living during these past decades? Frederick S. Deibler: I can say yes, and add to that, if you undertake to compare the material welfare of those countries with any other country that has lived under any other system, you would find that their material welfare was higher. The point I make is that you cannot charge the present system with the difficulties that are sometimes charged against it, but I would maintain that the present system has been a very strong contributing factor to the material welfare of all countries which have embraced it. Dr. Kelly: Well, what countries are you thinking of now, to compare it with, that have not lived under the capitalistic system? Dr. Deibler: Well, I suppose one could say that in India and in China today the economic organization is quite different from the capitalistic Department of Superintendence 555 system of Western countries; and if we go back further in history, we will find a feudal system in which the conditions of economic life were very different from those we recognize in our economic order. I think we may include also the Russian experiment and many collectivist colonies, like the Amana Society in Iowa. My belief is that any such comparison will show that the material welfare has developed further under capitalistic systems than under any other form of economic organization. Dr. Childs : I should like to ask Dr. Deibler a question. I am not sure that I understood him. Before I ask my question, however, I should like to indicate for the benefit of my good colleague here, Dr. Studebaker, that, as he said in his opening statement, it may be true that many mere “ peda- gogs ” have only a thin veneer of knowledge in the social science field. Hence we are all very happy to have in the panel a specially trained econo¬ mist. I should also like to point out, however, that last night we also had a specially trained economist on the platform. It would have been very interesting if he could have had two hours with Dr. Deibler and Stuart Chase discussing these questions. Obviously today there are economists and economists. I am rather inclined to agree with Dr. Keynes, of Cambridge, England, one of the great economists of our period, when he says the problem that confronts us today is not primarily an economic problem ; it is a civiliza¬ tion problem ; it is a question of values, and the kind of life that you want, and that is not a problem for the economist alone. The question I want to ask Dr. Deibler is this: If I understood you, you intended to indicate that the scientific way of proceeding was to elaborate old points of view and further develop old systems rather than to begin with a new point of view which might involve a departure from an old point of view or an old system. Did I understand you correctly, and is that your view of science ? Dr. Deibler: Not at all, any more than I believe that we have to change radically from what we have done in order to have a basis to face the future. I think my attitude as expressed in the brief time allotted me, was fairly stated in what I had to say about the medical men. When medi¬ cal men find a disease they cannot control, they do not scrap their knowledge of biological science for a new system of medicine. They proceed on what they know, and, if they are unable to solve that difficulty by their hypotheses, then they proceed to develop new hypotheses and test these in the same way they did the old ones. There has been a disposition here, as it seems to me, to assume that only those persons have their faces turned toward the future who are advocating a complete change in the economic order. My conten¬ tion is that those who believe the present system can be adapted to our needs, face the future quite as realistically as those who advocate a new order. Dr. Childs : I am glad to have that statement made, because I think that brings us closer together. The issue is, then, have we reached a time in the development of our economy when a new hypothesis has to be in¬ troduced ? 556 National Education Association Dr. Newlon : May I answer that? Dr. Deibler: I think I have already answered it. My judgment is that we haven’t. Dr. Newlon: I should like to ask Dr. Deibler a question. He spoke of building on experience, building on our American experience, utilizing the experience of the American people, I assume, for one hundred and fifty years, in improving present conditions. I should like to ask him how he would build upon experience and what experience he expects to build upon. Do we want to build upon the type of experience that is represented by the exploitation and waste of our natural resources, by the exploitation of human labor that went on in the nineteenth century, and undoubtedly did much to bring us to 1935 with twelve million unemployed in the United States? The experience of the American people has many elements in it. Would there be no selectivity with regard to this experience in building for the future? Dr. Deibler: I think I shall have to use Dr. Newlon’s comeback. You didn’t quite quote me correctly. I mean by building on experience what I tried to say, namely, that we have our thinking molded very largely by the conditions under which we have lived. These patterns of thought cannot be easily or quickly changed. I am interested to hear these men with their prophetic vision of what we are going to have in the future, but, after all, our thinking is very definitely conditioned by what we have been accustomed to thinking in the past. I have no objection to those men letting their imagination run riot, if they please, but I believe that experience is a better basis on which to erect our economic structure. Chairman Studebaker: I have a question for one of the members of the panel, from the audience, and I am going to show that some of us up here do believe in democracy, by reading this question before we let the panel further monopolize this discussion. The question is directed to Dr. Ballou : We do not know with exactitude what sort of society will face our boys and girls when they leave the influence of the schools. Should not the efforts of educators be everlastingly directed towards efforts in training pupils to meet new experiences of a great variety of kinds, and to meet these experiences with intelligent understanding of how to handle them¬ selves ? Dr. Ballou : That is a very fine question and I can answer it very specifically by calling attention to the fact that I stated that it should be the purpose of the school to so organize its program of instruction that the children and young people will be acquainted with the existing social order, with its shortcomings, with its strength, as a basis on which to de¬ velop a process of thinking on their part about the social order. I can conceive of no more definite, specific statement that might be made in answer to that question. With respect to what has just been said, which relates to this problem directly, I don’t conceive that basing one’s future action on past experiences necessarily means that the past experiences which have been unfortunate are going to be duplicated in the future. It would be Department of Superintendence 557 hoped that we would learn by those experiences, and a process of selection of experiences to be projected into the future would be a part of that edu¬ cational program. Child labor, for example, would be one of those experi¬ ences which it seems to me would not be projected into the future. Dr. McClure: Might I comment, apropos of what Dr. Ballou has said, that as a superintendent of schools my experience has been that when teachers have done that kind of thing, and have not attempted to appear in the role of propagandists in the classroom, there has been very little, if any, criticism or difficulty, or any outside attempt to dominate the teaching of the school. It is only when the teacher appears to the community, either rightfully or wrongfully, to have acted in the role of an advocate, that difficulty arises, and that we do find the criticism which is objected to, so I feel that perhaps there has been somewhat of a tendency, well, since the term “ straw man ” has been used, to set up a straw man, as to the amount of dominance that is exercised over the schools in the free discussion of these public questions. Dr. Wooddy: I want to ask a question of Dr. Newlon and of Dr. Theisen, and I do not care which answers first, but I think perhaps Dr. Newlon should. It may sound rather impertinent, and yet I ask it seriously. Dr. Newlon suggested that superintendents of schools should appeal not to the vested interests but to the great American people for whom the schools are intended. At the same time we recognize the fact that education is under lay control, and boards of education are composed of laymen who have got on in the world and may be regarded generally as associated with vested interests. If the superintendent of schools appeals over the head of the vested interests to the great American people, how long will he remain a superintendent of schools? Dr. Newlon: That depends on how effective he makes that appeal. That depends on his courage. Chairman Studebaker: How effective, or how tactfully? Dr. Newlon: I mean how effectively. It depends on his courage, on his vision, on his insight. Nothing that I have said could be construed to mean that there are no friends of public education in the so-called upper classes of American society, or that our appeal should not be to all the people. It should be. What I tried to say was that our appeal should be not especially to what you have described as the vested interests, but rather to what we call in America the common people, because they have the biggest stake in education, and if I had the time, I could cite you instances in the history of the American school systems in the last few years, in which superinten¬ dents of schools have carried their appeal straight to the people against powerful vested interests in the community, and I could point to some of those programs that are still apparently flourishing and on a solid foundation. I might even call attention to the courage of the chairman of this Com¬ mission in a great battle that he fought in Des Moines some years ago against unreason and hysteria, in which he carried the message straight to the people of Des Moines, and he was supported. 558 National Education Association Chairman Studebaker: I am going to demonstrate that in one re¬ spect, at least, this Commission can be very practical. We are going to close on time. I promised the president of our Department that we would do that, so we are going to close the discussion in just a minute or two. I assure you that you will find many gems of wisdom both on the re¬ actionary and on the progressive side in this yearbook. I commend it to your reading. I ask you one or two questions just in closing. I wish I had time to ask a question of my friend, Dr. Newlon, so there would be no disagreement as to the question asked, but I should like to ask all of you, in connection with methods of discussing controversial issues, whether or not there is a definite difference between those of us working in education and those of us who wish to participate in the rough and tumble game of American politics as aggressive advocates out on the public platform, try¬ ing to persuade people that we should turn in a certain economic or political or social direction? I want to ask another question which I wish I might have directed again to my friend, Dr. Newlon. He is a prophet of change. He believes that change will come about. He says that education will indoctrinate, always has indoctrinated. Now, I ask, may it be possible that education itself in its processes might change? Is it possible that education as an organized pro¬ fession in American democracy might rise to the level of the real art of interpreting all possibilities for progress in American life, without being the victim of the theory of propaganda and indoctrination? Is that change in education possible? Those are some questions which you and I are going to have to handle. Some of us as superintendents of schools, and Dr. Newlon has been one, have stood for many years before the public, trying to persuade that public that there should be actual freedom of speech in education. I, for one, believe with Superintendent McClure, of Seattle, that the only guarantee that we shall have in American democracy the wide, free, open road to learning about all of the possible aspects of controversial issues — and we have no trouble except with controversial issues — I, for one, believe that the way in which we can open up the road to free learning in education is to demonstrate without any shadow of a doubt to the whole American public, to all of the propagandistic organizations on the outside that want us to “ teach ” what they imposed, that we don’t believe in imposing, but in fairly revealing to all people, young and old alike, at all appropriate levels of education, all possibilities of social progress. Now the panel is adjourned. President Oberholtzer: I should like to say further to the audience here that I am fully agreed with the thought that we must have some experimentation. In setting up this program there had to be some experi¬ mentation. Some said the panel idea wouldn’t go over in a general session. The success of this was due to our worthy chairman and the talent he collected in this yearbook to assist him, and I think it has been demonstrated that this method is a good method to be used out in the various communities ; in fact, it was given here this morning in order that you might understand Department of Superintendence 559 how Superintendent Studebaker carried on his great forum discussions in his own city at Des Moines ; and if you believe it has been worthwhile, and if you believe that it is necessary for us to have these varying points of view brought out in the open, then I think you should carry this yearbook back with you for your own faculty to study and have these discussions in your faculty. Perhaps you might want to have them carried over into the community discussion as well. GENERAL SESSION, TUESDAY EVENING, FEBRUARY 26, 1935 * 1 Joint Meeting with the Department of Secondary School Principals in Celebration of Three-Hundredth Anniversary of Founding of Secondary Schools in America The Historical Development of Secondary Education in America, Charles H. Judd, Head, Department of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. The Philosophy Which Must Guide Secondary Education Today, Thomas H. Briggs, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. The Financial Policies Which Must Be Worked Out for Secondary Education, Sidney B. Hall, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Richmond, Va. The Public and the Program of Secondary Education, George F. Zook, Director, American Council on Education, Washington, D. C. GENERAL SESSION, WEDNESDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 27, 1935 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN A TROUBLED WORLD GEORGE D. STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. A discussion of educational leadership in these troublous times might con¬ cern itself with an attempt to review our social and economic ills, to show i\ their relationship to education, and to propose the way out by means of economic and social reconstruction. I shall assume that all of you are familiar with current discussion concerning the maladjustments in our so¬ ciety. I shall take it for granted, as well, that you are conversant with the opposed points of view of those who see the need for complete reorganiza¬ tion of our economic life, our government, and indeed the whole social order, and those who believe that progress lies in the more gradual evolution of our society. I feel sure that you will agree with me that leaders in educa¬ tion and in all other walks of life will need to cooperate in finding and putting into effect those changes which will contribute to the common good. I take it, as well, that you would agree that those of us who work 1 National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Official Report. Washing- U ton, D. C. : Department of Superintendence. National Education Association, 1935. p. 89-117. l \ fl National Education Association, Department of Secondary School Principals. “ Proceedings ! of the Nineteenth Annual Meeting, 1935.” Bulletin No. 55: 68-109; March, 1935. Chicago, Ill.: | the Department. 560 National Education Association in the field of education must depend for guidance on experts in economics, in government, in psychology, sociology, and anthropology, if we are to have a sound basis in fact for our thinking with respect to social change. I find that among the most competent scholars in the social sciences there is no complete agreement concerning the way out. I am therefore per¬ suaded that dogmatic statements concerning the pattern which society will take should not be accepted as a basis for the reorganization of our educa¬ tional program. The discussion of the varying points of view held by com¬ petent students of economics, government, and politics will undoubtedly prove helpful in the development of a sane public opinion. Educational leaders, along with all other groups in our society, have an obligation to inquire concerning the validity of the theories which are proposed and, in the light of all of the evidence available, to reach the conclusions which will govern their thought and action. While this period of discussion and of change is going on, we can all agree that certain obligations rest in peculiar manner upon leaders in the field of education. There are many possibilities of improving the service of education and by this means contributing to the realization of the good life for all of our citizens. We know better than we do. There are areas in which we need further investigation in order that we may do a better job. One of the outstanding phenomena of the period thru which we are passing has been the failure of our society to maintain schools at the level which they had attained before the depression. This situation is due in con¬ siderable measure to a failure on the part of leaders in education to devote themselves to a study of the problems of educational finance. It is no answer to this indictment to propose that in times of prosperity we were adequately supporting public education. As a matter of fact, in our most prosperous period many children were not in school at all or went to school for very short terms. A considerable percentage of the teachers engaged in schools were poorly prepared and underpaid. Millions of children were housed in inadequate and insanitary school buildings with little of the equipment necessary for the development of a modern program of education. Our failure to finance public education adequately has been due in large measure to our dependence upon local taxation, chiefly the general property tax. We knew before the depression hit us that the maintenance of an ade¬ quate program of education thruout any state was most certainly dependent upon the financing of schools on a statewide basis. The technics necessary for the measurement of the ability to support education of each local administrative area and the measurement of the need for support of each of these areas had been well established. In a few of the states a financial program, based upon a modern system of taxation acknowledging the re¬ sponsibility of the state for the support of the fundamental program of education, had been carried into effect. But in the great majority of all the states no such adequate provision for the support of schools had been made. This period of distress has driven home to us the necessity for the as¬ sumption of leadership by those responsible for the administration of educa- f i l Department of Superintendence 561 tion in the development of more scientifically devised programs of taxation and more equitable schemes of state school support. We shall, of course, be dependent upon tax specialists for guidance in the development of revenue systems in line with our current economic life. The tax experts in their turn must look to Paul R. Mort and to others who have developed the technic for distributing moneys from the state treasury to the localities. I would not have you believe, however, that the whole financial problem will be solved when state programs for the financing of education and state revenue systems have been developed. If we take seriously the promise of our democracy that there shall be equality of opportunity, then the financing of education must rest upon a national basis. Just as it has been found necessary in the past to enlarge the unit of support from the district to the township, to the county, and to the state in order that the opportunity for education and the burden to be borne by citizens in support of this enterprise may be equalized, just so the ultimate realization of our ideal will be de¬ pendent upon a program of support by the federal government. The action already taken by the national government in keeping open schools that would otherwise have been closed, in providing salaries for unemployed teachers who work in the field of adult education, in providing partial support for 100,000 college students, in developing an educational program in the Civilian Conservation Corps camps, and in the proposal that a part of the money from the public works program be used for the construction of school buildings, amounts to an acknowledgment of the responsibility of the federal government for the maintenance of public edu¬ cation. Simple equity demands, however, that the contribution by the fed¬ eral government be not sporadic and made available only for the sake of averting a complete breakdown of the system of education. In a nation in which our economic life is organized on a national scale, the central gov¬ ernment should act as an agency for the collection of revenue and its redis¬ tribution to the several states. This distribution should be on an objective basis. It should be based upon the ability of each of the states to support that fundamental program of education which is considered essential for all of our people. Early studies in the field of educational finance revealed great disparity in the ability of the several states to support schools when measured by wealth or income. It was discovered that one state was six times as able as another to provide education, if this service were made available for all children from six to fourteen years of age. More recent studies have dem¬ onstrated the fact that if a model tax plan were applied in each of the states I of the union, the disparity in ability to support the necessary fundamental program of education would still exist. Leslie L. Chism, in a study of the economic ability of the states, soon to be published, has found that the rela¬ tive ability of the states to finance education under a model system of state and local taxation would vary by more than six to one. He calls attention I to the fact that it would be necessary for the poorest state to spend for ^ education more than its total tax collections under the model tax plan in jj order to support a defensible minimum program. i ■ 562 National Education Association It seems reasonable to propose that it is the duty of educational leaders to bring to the attention of citizens thruout the United States the reforms in taxation and in the method of school support necessary for the mainte¬ nance and improvement of our public schools. Whatever resources we have available in national, state, and local organizations might well be used to conduct inquiries and to disseminate information among all the people. It is not true in the United States today that we cannot afford to support our schools, but it is true that we cannot keep our schools open or maintain them at any high degree of efficiency so long as our dependence is, as at the present time, so largely upon local support. The changes in school support which have been made necessary by the development of our economic system can be brought about without inter¬ fering with the right and obligation of the several states to control and administer their schools. Our economic organization knows no state lines. Raw materials and manufactured products associated with particular regions and localities are distributed thruout the nation. Along with the develop¬ ment of interdependence of all sections of the country, there has come a reorganization of the financing of all our economic enterprises. The out¬ standing characteristic of our economic life is found in the consolidation of industry into great national units. The financing of these enterprises and their ownership are quite commonly located in the larger centers of popula¬ tion. On this account the ability to pay taxes tends to be much greater in these centers of industry and finance than in other parts of the country. Incomes accruing from enterprises carried on in one part of the United States will very frequently be subject to taxation in another part of the country. Added to these factors of interdependence and the segregation of wealth and income in the larger centers of population is the further factor of the mobility of our population. Boys and girls born and educated in rural com¬ munities move to the city. Those educated or denied this opportunity in one state move to other states after they reach adult life. It is therefore apparent that the well-being of each section of the country is dependent upon the provision for education that is made in each of the several states. Ignorance cannot be segregated in the United States. During the first seventy-five years of our national history the federal government provided most generously for the support of schools without interfering in any way with the responsibility of the several states for the control and administration of their own school systems. There is a parallel situation in the support provided in the states to the localities. In those states in which the most generous provision is made by the state for the support of education, it is still true that the administration and control of the schools are left primarily in the hands of local schoolboards. It is just as possible to have federal support without federal control. The need of the hour is for leadership that will distinguish clearly be¬ tween the desirable supervisory activities, research, and dissemination of information which may be conducted on a statewide or even a nationwide scale, and the detailed administration and development of curriculums and I I Department of Superintendence 563 methods of teaching which are the proper responsibility of local school authorities and the local professional personnel. In the great majority of the states of the union there is a crying need for the reduction of the number of administrative units. In like manner thru consolidation of schools and transportation of pupils the number of at¬ tendance units should be greatly diminished. There is no present prospect of efficiency or economy in the administration of schools except upon the basis of the organization of units of administration large enough to justify the employment of a chief executive officer supported by competent specialists in the field of administration and supervision. There is little real possi¬ bility of improving the curriculums of elementary and secondary schools so long as a large percentage of children are enrolled in one- or two-teacher elementary schools or in the small high schools in which two or three teachers are asked to accept responsibility for all that is taught. Howard A. Dawson, in his Satisfactory Local School Units, proposes a desirable minimum of seven teachers for an elementary school and ten teachers for a six-year high school. He finds, as well, on the basis of an analysis of the situation in several states, that it is desirable to set up an administrative organization to include from 6000 to 12,000 pupils, with a minimum administrative unit responsible for 1750 pupils. These reforms he considers essential in order that there may be an efficient educational administration of the school system, competent supervision of instruction, adequate health supervision, and effective census and attendance service. Any proposal for the re-financing of education on a state and national basis may well take account of this necessity for the reorganization of local units of attendance and administration. While it would not seem desirable to force the issue of consolidation upon the people locally, it has been found possible, upon the basis of careful surveys and by means of support for new buildings, to bring about the desired reorganization with the complete acceptance and goodwill of those involved. We have a professional obligation in this field of the reorganization of our school system which calls for extended inquiries and for the acquain¬ tance of our public with the changes which are necessary in order that the service which we represent may be performed more effectively and more economically. In a recent Research Bulletin of the National Education Association, dealing with the nation’s school building needs, it is revealed, upon the basis of an inquiry that was instituted in several states, that approximately 1,392,000 pupils are housed in buildings that have been pronounced unsafe or insanitary. It is my judgment that this is an understatement rather than an exaggeration of the situation with respect to school buildings. From surveys made in more than fifty cities scattered thruout the United States and in three states, I estimate that at least 25 percent of all school buildings now in use are little suited to the program of education which our current social situation demands. There are millions of children housed in school buildings which offer only the most meager accommodation of a fixed seat, a dingy blackboard, a few textbooks, and a very minimum of sanitary 564 National Education Association facilities. I estimate, as well, that at least one-fourth of all the children enrolled in our schools have no adequate play facilities provided for them. If large units of attendance and of administration are to be set up, they will serve the communities in which they are placed only when more adequate buildings and more generous equipment are provided. In a bulletin on Space Requirements for the Children s Playground , issued by the National Recreation Association, it is proposed that the mini¬ mum play space required to serve 300 elementary-school children is two and one-half acres, and that a playground for 1000 elementary-school chil¬ dren would have to include as much as five and one-third acres in order to care for the play needs of this group. When one allows for the space occupied by the building and for landscaping, it would appear that the minimum desirable site for an elementary school would be five acres, and that correspondingly larger spaces of from ten to twenty acres would be required to accommodate the play needs of junior and senior high-school groups. It is essential that these opportunities for play be provided for school children if we are to take account of their physical well-being and of their social development. There are cities in the United States that have already met these standards in their more recent schoolhousing, but the job remains to be done for the most urban and most rural communities. The program of reconstruction of school buildings will involve the adap¬ tation of the school plant to the needs of our current program of education. We can no longer rest satisfied with classrooms of the traditional sort. Modern elementary and secondary schools must be equipped with libraries, laboratories, shops, gardens, studios, auditoriums, and gymnasiums. Without these facilities it will be difficult, if not impossible, even for able teachers to render the service to children that is essential for their personal and social development. A billion or more of the $4,800,000,000 proposed for public works could be spent to advantage on school buildings thruout the United States. There is no other area in which the need is more certainly indicated and one in which the return to our society would be more sure. It is the duty of educational leaders locally, in the state, and in the nation, to call attention to these needs for better schoolhousing, and to present the case to the local, to the state, and to the national governments for action. It is gratifying to know that the United States Commissioner of Education already has under consideration a survey of school building needs thruout the nation. Some progress has been made during the period of the depression in raising the level for entrance to the profession. Much remains to be done in the revision of the curriculums of teachers colleges and of the graduate schools of education in our universities. One might even have the temerity to propose that this would be a good time to carry into effect thruout the United States provision for the certification of supervisory and administra¬ tive officers on the basis of that broad professional training which educa¬ tional leadership implies. Our profession has an obligation to work for the establishment, particu¬ larly in the state and county administrative offices, of the principle of selec- Department of Superintendence 565 tion of persons competent for these most important posts without reference to partisan politics. The highest type of educational leadership, as has been amply demonstrated in American cities, is dependent upon the selec¬ tion of a professional executive by a board of education that is free to choose the man or woman best qualified without respect to the political affiliation, the religion, or the place of residence of the one selected. It is true that in many of the states it would be necessary to amend the constitution in order to provide this better basis for the development of state and local leadership. It is the duty of our profession to seek the consent of the people to this change in the interest of the cause of public education. The movement for the recognition of the professional executive is com¬ ing more and more to be acknowledged in government. The council-manager type of city government follows the pattern, established almost a hundred years ago, of the board of education employing a professional superintendent of schools. The professionalization of the state office has already been de¬ veloped in fourteen of our states. Leaders in education have an obligation to work for the establishment of this better practise in state and county educational administration. Competent leadership will express itself in the growth of the entire professional personnel of our schools. However high we may make the requirement for entrance to the profession of teaching, the real job of developing professional competence will be accomplished, if at all, during the period of professional service. The most satisfactory measure of the quality of leadership in any school system is to be found in the responsibility accepted by all members of the teaching staff for the improvement and development of the educational service. It is only in school systems in which the ideas and achievements of those who work with children are utilized in the development of curriculums, in the modification of school procedures, and in the organization and administration of the schools, that true leader¬ ship exists. All that has been proposed as the task of leadership in the fields of finance, better housing, larger units of administration, and better personnel, has its meaning in the provision of a better program of education for chil¬ dren, for youth, and for adults. We face in the United States the necessity of providing for the education of young children in nursery schools and kindergartens, of older children in the elementary school, of practically all of our youth in junior and senior high schools, of an increasing percentage of the total population in higher education, and of all adults who need to be re-trained and of those whose intellectual and social life can be satisfied only by engaging in some form of creative endeavor. We have known for more than a quarter of a century of the inadequacy I of our traditional school program. The failure of education to take account of individual differences has been recorded in millions of failures in ele¬ mentary and in secondary schools. It is still possible to go into most school systems in the United States and to find from 10 to 20 percent of failure in the elementary school and from 10 to 30 percent of failure in courses offered on the secondary-school level. We have as a primary obligation the 566 National Education Association elimination of failure so far as it is caused by factors under our control. There must be provided in connection with our schools services which will acquaint us more certainly with the needs and capacities of boys and girls as well as knowledge of their limitations. We have only begun to provide the service in physical examination and corrective treatment which furnishes the necessary foundation for any significant achievement for many boys and girls. We still condemn children to failure because of a lack of the knowl¬ edge which the psychologist or psj^chiatrist should furnish. We still permit and encourage children to enrol in courses for which they have no aptitude and in which they must inevitably fail. We still ignore environmental con¬ ditions which contend against the influence of the school for a controlling position in the education of children. We still close school buildings at four o’clock in the afternoon and turn children loose in an environment which suggests and encourages antisocial conduct. I would not propose that we have the final solution with respect to the organization of children in groups or classes for instruction or that our curriculums or programs of work even in the most favored communities are fully adjusted to the demand which is now made upon the schools. But I do propose that it is of paramount importance that leaders in education devote themselves to the revision of the program so far as it has been found inadequate. We may not all of us contribute in any large measure indi¬ vidually, but we may encourage the allocation of whatever resources are available, either from the public treasury or from private sources, in order that the fundamental studies for the solution of this problem may be made. In the meantime, in every school system in which there is real leadership, the duty of the leader is to encourage experimentation and to seek the cooperation of the public in making available resources in personnel com¬ petent to deal with these fundamental educational problems. Many of you find yourselves overwhelmed in these days with respon¬ sibilities that seem to lie outside the work of the schools. You have been drafted for that service which provides relief for the destitute. You have accepted an obligation to work with others in the development of a program of recreation. A new program of adult education, based upon the vocational, cultural, and broad social needs of the community, has challenged your best thought. The necessity for education which will result in the social reha¬ bilitation of delinquents has been brought to your attention. These consti¬ tute only a part of the program of cooperation with other social agencies which leaders in education may reasonably be expected to accept. The challenge which I have sought to bring to your attention has in it little of novelty. On the other hand, I contend without fear of contradiction that our schools cannot adequately serve our public except upon the basis of the solution of the major issues which I have presented. This is not the time to retreat in our campaign for the realization of the ideals of our democracy. At this time more certainly than at any other time in our history the call is for leadership that will utilize the professional knowledge which we already possess for the development of a more adequate educational service. Department of Superintendence 567 We must organize the friends of public education behind a program of more adequate support. We can, if we will, bring about a reorganization of attendance and administrative units which will make possible a higher degree of efficiency and a multiplication of educational opportunity for all of our children. We must provide better housing, more generous play¬ grounds, more adequate facilities in libraries, shops, studios, auditoriums, gymnasiums, and gardens in order to make possible an adequate program of education. We can, if we have the qualities of leadership, increase in large degree the professional enthusiasm and competence of all who are engaged in the educational service. We must develop the kind of an educa¬ tional program which will provide experience for children, for youth, and for adults, related to their individual capacity and to the needs of our time. We can no longer rest satisfied with a situation in which schools operate out of relation to the environment in which they are placed, or the other social agencies which contribute to the achievement of the good life for all. The demand of the hour is for the consolidation of our forces. If leader¬ ship is effective it will organize teachers and citizens locally, within the state, and on a national basis, in support of those measures which are necessary for the maintenance and improvement of our system of free public education. The funds of local, state, and national educational associations will be utilized for the promotion of research and the dissemination of information concerning the crisis which confronts our schools. A noteworthy contribution to the realization of this purpose has been made by the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education. But the greater part of the job remains to be done. Under your leadership there is the possibility of organizing a great movement which shall have as its aim the realization of our democratic ideal thru education. The friends of democracy are the friends of public education. Their number is legion. They await the chal¬ lenge which it is our duty to bring to their attention. I have confidence that this leadership is equal to the task. PUBLIC EDUCATION AS A FORCE FOR SOCIAL IMPROVEMENT WILLIAM H. KILPATRICK, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The situation and the topic — There are many who think that our social- economic system should be radically reconstructed. To this proposal, opinion responds over a wide range from an extreme yes to an extreme no, with all gradations in between. Some who are most anxious to bring about this social-economic reconstruction urge the school to take an active part in helping to build the new social order. To this proposal, also, opinion re¬ sponds over a wide range from an extreme yes thru intermediate positions to an extreme no. It is this situation that I am asked to discuss : Granted the wide range of opinion as to the need for a new social order, what is right, proper, and feasible for the public school to do? In what follows, the public 568 National Education Association elementary and secondary schools are most in mind, tho higher education and adult education are not excluded. Fairness to you compels me to state my position on the social problem in order that you may the better judge my discussion on what the school should do. I believe that thru modern technology we have become economically interdepen¬ dent and, this to such a degree, that we should now consciously set up the inclusive public economic welfare as the prerequisite to the individual’s economic welfare. I believe this largely because I believe in democracy and count this to be hence¬ forth the only feasible way in which to bring genuine equality of opportunity to all. I believe that all decisions, either for bringing this reconstruction or for the sub¬ sequent essential management thereof, should be made by majority vote of the peo¬ ple after free discussion. I reject all forms of dictatorship or minority rule. I believe that effecting the desired social-economic changes will have to be a mat¬ ter of decades so that education broadly conceived can and must be a significant factor in the process. I believe that, as with human affairs generally, the outcome of the situation be¬ fore us is in doubt. The result for good or ill and the degree thereof will depend on the degree of public intelligence that we can bring effectually to bear on the making and execution of policies. It is in this way, as I see it, that the education of all con¬ cerned becomes an essential factor in determining the outcome of the situation. Some distinctive positions — A preliminary glance at some of the distinc¬ tive positions on the problem may help to get the question the better before us. 1. The school has in the past never tried to bring social changes; it should not undertake any now. 2. The people will not stand for it. We would simply make trouble for all concerned. 3. Even if it were desirable, we do not have the teaching personnel adequate to do it. It cannot be done. 4. The school has always followed public opinion, has always taught the accepted culture. This is its proper function. It should continue so to teach. 5. Public school teachers are state agents; they must and should teach only and exactly what the state provides. 6. The public school exists to make intelligent citizens. The discussion of controversial issues is necessary to buildingf an intelligent social outlook and philosophy, but the school teacher should remain neutral as between the sides of any controversy. 7. The school cannot really teach without taking sides. The teacher should know what constitutes social progress and teach accordingly. 8. To finish the range we may call attention to the totalitarian states of Russia, Italy, and Germany where the state undertakes to make one inclusive policy for every aspect of life. The schools teach specifically for this. Department of Superintendence 569 Some underlying conceptions needed for further discussion : 1. How the culture educates. Intelligence as a cumulative cultural product. Each one is born into a cultural group, with its language, its tools, its customs, its thought forms and distinctions — all with their implicit outlook on life. Participating in the use of these cultural products is the correlative of group living. Continued existence depends on it. As each learns to use the group culture and live the group life, his mind is built on the group model. In static societies, the elders stand guard over the culture. To vary is taboo. Conservatism is a cardinal virtue. What is once learned unquestionably sticks tenaciously. Still, even in static cultures, improvements have come, albeit slowly. In the Stone Age, man made no significant improvement for 30,000 years, yet eventually worked out of it. Once improvements are accepted, they are conserved. Culture, or communicable intelligence thus accumu¬ lates, and the individual becomes in turn more effectually intelligent. He can apply more thought. 2. Change: Its cumulative hastening; attitudes toward it. a. Two facts about change concern us here. ( 1 ) Always the stream of affairs develops in novel fashion ; along with the abiding and recurring come the unexpected and the new. In spite of our best efforts, results remain precarious. Think¬ ing thus becomes forever necessary; only in this way can we care for the new and doubtful. Mere habit cannot suffice. (2) As culture accumulates, a more rapid change in culture be¬ comes probable. With the growth of tested thought (dating especially from 1590), discoveries increase in geometric ratio. We have at length discovered the method of discovery. To see how far we have come, compare the present rate of dis¬ covery and invention with that of the 30,000 years of the Stone Age. More changes, some say, since 1835 than in all the preceding years of man. b. Three attitudes toward change: ( 1 ) The attitude of static tribal life. A static culture, assisted by ritual, repeates itself religiously. Life is indoctrination. Change is taboo. Any change that may happen is accidental and clandestine. But once accepted, any cultural change is preserved and so changes thus accumulate. (2) The attitude favorable to instrumental change. When cul¬ ture accumulates sufficiently, and ritual abates, man wel¬ comes those changes that help him do better what otherwise he would do only less well. So we now welcome natural science and its inventions. Such service or instrumental changes call for a minimum of reconstruction of means only, not of goals. In this stage, philosophy and religion, hand 570 National Education Association in glove with vested interests, rationalize the status quo goals and count any fundamental change unthinkable. But science has brought modern technology, and this at length upsets the old social order. (3) The attitude favorable to fundamental criticism. With the growth of science, philosophy escapes from theology and be¬ comes increasingly critical even of goals. Now at last the common man, partly from science, partly from social changes, partly from economic turmoil, is learning to criticize the fundamental structure of his culture. 3. Our present need and the resulting dilemma. Technological develop¬ ments introduce social changes which call in question our old system of life and thought. Intelligence is our only reliable hope of dealing with this situation. We must apply constructive criticism. Intelli¬ gence, as we have seen, is socially built thru cultural accumulation. Moreover, intelligence, as psychology teaches us, is relatively specific. To learn to deal with social change we must study social change, and partly while it is in process. A changing civilization must pro¬ vide the means for building the social intelligence needed to deal with change, else it is doomed either to ignorant blunders or perhaps to angry violence ; it must provide for the widespread and popular study of social changes. Our present dilemma: Changes already in effect demand major changes in goals and beliefs; but deep-rooted cultural conservatism opposes any adequate proposals for social reconstruction, partly mere cultural conservatism, the result of cultural indoctrination and partly the self-protective efforts of selfish vested interests. The Problem Is Psychological and Educational: How can a nation which does not yet believe in needed changes bring itself to accept the idea and find and make the changes de¬ manded by the situation? The problem is the more difficult because the existing economic system, under which we must meanwhile live, by its very operation educates against the cooperative attitudes and habits which seem undoubtedly necessary for the new state of affairs. Criticism of proposals as to what the school should do: 1. The school must be suspicious of social innovation, must indeed throw its weight against change. This position was well stated by the Lusk Committee in 1920 (vol. 3, p. 2343) : “ No person who is not eager to combat the theories of social change should be entrusted with the task of fitting the young and old of this state for the responsibilities of citizenship.” Such sentiments are common to many groups who profess to speak in the name of patriotism. A variety of motives group themselves under this general wish to keep the school unspotted from social innovation: An antiquarian Department of Superintendence 571 interest in maintaining patriotic myths, holding naively and often erroneously to the letter of our revolutionary heritage as opposed to its spirit ; a chauvinistic slant on patriotism ; a conservative, not to say reactionary, attitude toward the status quo as maintaining vested interests. Certain fundamental conceptions seem to underlie this position : Denial of any significant place to change in human affairs ; acceptance of the logic of black versus white distinctions — both are pre-scientific and antimodern conceptions, usually now coupled with a general willingness not to think. A further but less well-defined belief is that teaching is properly a handing down of fixed beliefs and attitudes, that is, is essentially indoctrination. The upholders of this position do not conceive a modern type school. 2. The school must teach the socially accepted culture, not try to be a factor in changing it. This position is respectably held and demands serious consideration. We must admit that historically the school has existed to teach the established culture. a. However, because the school has hitherto so acted, it does not therefore follow that it must forever do so. On such a theory, no existing institution would ever take on new functions, and no new institution would ever come into existence. Clearly the factor of change is not only not taken into account but is by implication denied. b. This also assumes that teaching is primarily a handing down of fixed content. There is no apparent appreciation of the give-and- take of study and discussion leading to ever better independent judging such as is sought in the best modern schools. c. This position assumes an accepted culture so clearly defined that the school knows what to hand down. But in a changing civiliza¬ tion the culture must always be in process of change : Some things going out, some coming, with possible most commonly accepted. So again, and more clearly, the fact of change is disregarded. The school is to act as if change did not exist. If the school is to hand down beliefs, it must either itself choose what to teach or be so told from the outside. If the state is to tell, we discuss that next. If not the state, the source is usually custom, the status quo; and this , I believe, defines this position: It means to uphold the status quo with its privileges and injustices. d. Any intelligent attempt to hand down a dynamic and changing culture destroys this position. The fact of contemporary change must be noted, and the proper treatment of it discussed, but this is no longer mere handing down. Intelligently done, it is prepara¬ tion for better change. The position is self-consistent only on a theory of no change. 3. The school is the agent of the state, it must therefore teach as the state directs. To do less is dereliction of duty, to do more is malfeas¬ ance. The objections to this position appear weighty and conclusive. 572 National Education Association a. So far as the state would act on this theory, it would fix and hand down an official orthodoxy. For higher education, this would destroy the conception of research and inquiry. Academic freedom would go. This position would bring the totalitarian state to America. For elementary and secondary education, there would be no academic freedom, no genuine discussion of controversial issues, no conception of creative study and learning wherever the orthodoxy had spoken ; teaching would be execution of orders, supervision would be inspection to enforce orders. Initiative, creation, experiment — except within orthodox bounds — would be denied. Such a position seems an almost total denial of all the democratic and humane trends of modern life and education. It seems to ascribe omniscience to state house officials, leaving only docile obedience to the rest of us. b. This position either denies significance to the factor of change, or denies to education any part in making it more intelligent. There seems no acceptance of the need to base the state and society on the fact of continuing change. In opposition to this position, I wish to maintain that the state schools from the top down have as a chief function the bringing up of youth into a citizenship able and disposed to bring intelligence to bear upon public prob¬ lems — in fact to help create an ever higher and finer social intelli¬ gence to control direct social change. This is impossible unless the idea permeates the school thru and thru from top to bottom. And the idea will not be realized unless there is genuine discussion of controversial issues with increasing development of personal responsibility to share in bringing about the changes that intelli¬ gent study approves. 4. In marked contrast with the foregoing is the extreme European-bred revolutionary position, namely: the class war is inherent and in¬ evitable, and, being war, all available means are justifiable, including violence and deceit; victory is predestined to the workers — the own¬ ers, clinging to their privileges, will so resist as to force their violent overthrow; for this the general strike is the all-sufficient means; meanwhile, right-thinking people will drill all workers and available youth in strike tactics. I will not comment on this further than to say that to me it seems for this country false and wrong in almost every detail: the class conception does not fit, nor the class war; nor is any one outcome fated ; always means, including morality, must be chosen with due regard to consequences; our democratic tradition of discussion and voting seems far more promising of good results; to condition youth to any fix-in-advance and undebatable position is abhorrent. 5. Quite antithetical to the two immediately preceding positions is one which holds that the teaching profession must accept responsibility for building up an intelligent citizenship, and this it will do by having Department of Superintendence 573 pupils study as fully and impartially as possible the various sides of the current controversial issues. The school and the teacher, however, are to take pains to remain neutral as between the opposed sides. There is so much here in keeping with our historical traditions that we must examine it at length. a. It accepts the fact and factor of change and proposes a way of caring for it. b. The way provided lies commendably along the line of building vital social intelligence in the learners by study into the merits of current controversial questions. The hope is that this will build up youth for subsequent intelligent self-direction. c. The teacher commendably takes the part not of conditioner to prior chosen positions, but as helper to more intelligent thinking. These things seem so far good, but there are counter con¬ siderations. d. Will the kind of teacher we wish be able and content to remain neutral? If he is in fact neutral in his own mind, what kind of study has he done? Is not something lacking in him? Is one who cannot make up his mind or has not reached some pertinent con¬ victions — still growing, let us hope — the kind of person we wish to put in charge of our classes? For myself, I have to answer these questions in the negative. I cannot conceive how a good leader of youth can be the kind of person to study and not conclude. e. But suppose he does have honest and growing convictions, can he as a rule so teach as really to conceal his convictions? Again for myself, I have to say no. I believe the effort would so often fail that to pretend to follow it would be a sham ; and therefore, like all shams, hurtful. f. We seem therefore forced to say that we cannot make this program work and should not try. For myself, I wish every teacher to have convictions. These should not be so fixed that he cannot and will not be sensitive to the possibilities of reexamining them upon proper evidence. We must then somehow build our teaching pro¬ gram on honesty of avowal. 6. A position somewhat like the foregoing is that we should recognize the need that each one build a philosophy of life as inclusive and con¬ sistent and helpful as we can effect it. In so doing, I as teacher will have my philosophy and will not hesitate to avow it, but I shall do all I can to force each student to think for himself. I will bring his unsuspected inconsistencies to his attention. If he uses what I deem bad logic, I shall argue with him. But I will respect the integrity of his thinking and leave him to conclude for himself. In particular I shall shun any and all pressures to have him conclude on other than personally seen merits. If I can succeed in helping my student thus 574 National Education Association to build a philosophy that really integrates him within himself and with his environment, then I can feel that I have done all I could do to make him intelligently self-directing. There is so much in this position that one accepts that one hesitates to criticize it, but I must point out some limitations. a. This seems to contemplate college and university students and not to take sufficient account of the elementary- and secondary- school situation. Tho, of course, beginnings can be made there. b. This seems to isolate the intellect as if it could function alone apart from feeling and acting; and to separate learning from the living situation, in a way that seems highly questionable. c. In particular, it seems not to concern itself directly with the actual social situation as something to concern oneself constructively about. Conclusion — We have now passed in review most of the positions pro¬ posed for the American school as it faces our social situation. One that either is or sounds very like positive indoctrination of a prior chosen situa¬ tion remains to be examined. Possibly we can do this as we try to draw a conclusion. Some things seem now to stand out as necessary constituents in any satis¬ factory conclusion : 1. We must take effectual account of the facts of change and the precariousness of any social planning that may be undertaken. Provision must be made for intelli¬ gent change as regards both means and goals. 2. We must, so I believe and hope, hold to essential democracy and educate ac¬ cordingly. These two taken together dispose of the indoctrination of any prior chosen plan or scheme of social reconstruction. It is a planning society we wish, not a once-for- all planned society. Democratic planning means that all must be as socially intelli¬ gent as possible in order to pass on essential policies involved. Inherent precarious¬ ness of human affairs means that we must expect to revise any plans made. 3. The school has to take both prudential and considerate account of the present attitudes of parents and citizens. Prudentially so, lest we be dismissed and others less progressive take our places. Considerately so, because parents love their children and have rights and feelings in connection that we must in both kindness and justice consider. It is part of our school duty to interchange education with the parents and citizens of the community. To effect this, the road of decent consideration offers the best return. These things do not mean that the school must not work for right of full discus¬ sion of all appropriate topics without interference from the community. In my judg¬ ment, school people should not only work for freedom from interference but should organize to protect themselves in their just rights, especially to protect against meddlesome busybodies who profess patriotism but really mean obscurantism and unjust privilege. 4. As school people, we must become socially intelligent in the highest possible degree, and we must help all others within reach to grow in social intelligence. Again it is not indoctrination or propaganda that is contemplated but the building of in¬ telligence. This means parent-teacher associations to study social problems; it means adult education on an unprecedented scale to give conscious study to all problems affecting life; it means that our schools must study social problems as never before. Department of Superintendence 575 We who are now citizens must become much more intelligent. The rising generation must be more socially intelligent by far than we now are. 5. This means, as I see it, both the study of social problems and the participation as far as feasible in cooperative community enterprises, all of course appropriate to the age involved. Only as study contemplates actual conditions is it real. Only as we are engaged socially in actual enterprises can we build proper social habits and attitudes. Only as we have contact with actual life conditions can we make our social generalizations real and defensible. To learn how to run our schools in this fashion will be no simple matter, but we must undertake it. In final conclusion, it is greatly increased social intelligence that is needed, an intelligence adequate to deal with our complex and rapidly changing society; and our schools and universities must accept the major responsibility for effecting this intelligence. “ When this happens schools will be the dangerous outposts of a humane civilization. But they will also begin to be supremely interesting places.” And not only interesting, but supremely important. This is how the school can be a force for social improvement. EDUCATION AND PUBLIC SERVICE LOTUS D. COFFMAN, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. The United States maintains the most extensive school system in the world, and yet makes less use of it in the selection of public officials than do any of the other self-governing nations of the world. In nearly every field except government, we have placed greater and greater reliance upon the person of competence and training for the work he is expected to do. When men are ill, they summon to their aid a trained diagnostician ; when a bridge is to be built, they employ a competent engineer ; when a pulpit is unoccupied, they call a graduate of a theological school to fill the post ; when children are to be taught, they insist upon specifying the qualifications of the teacher ; but when a government office becomes vacant, they maintain that almost anyone is competent to fill it. Science, invention, and the ingenuity of men in general, have transformed life in nearly every field of human action except government. In government we still lumber along, holding steadfastly to the ways of the ox-cart and sod shanty age. There are still in existence in this country one hundred and seventj^-five thousand independent units of government, each with the power to raise and spend money. Altho we know that many of them are archaic, out-of-date, obsolete, and useless, we cling tenaciously to them as if their perpetuation were a matter of life and death. We seem to delude ourselves into believing that they represent a precious heritage that should not be given up. Originally, government was concerned with a number of simple things, such as the exercising of police functions, supporting the schools, building dirt roads, and promoting and protecting the interests of the people in many minor ways. More recently, it has become the chief agency for realizing the economic aims of individuals. Its influence has extended into every phase 19 576 National Education Association of business ; it controls banks, insurance companies, railroads ; it regulates industry, commerce, and agriculture; it underwrites gigantic public works and relief programs ; it educates the youth ; it ministers to the health of the citizens; it establishes new enterprises as, for example, the Tennessee Valley Authority. Its budget is counted in billions. All of the activities of govern¬ ment must be administered. More than three and a quarter million persons are employed as government servants, not counting those at work on emer¬ gency projects. It is an obvious fact that many of the men and women in public office are not chosen because of any particular fitness for the positions they hold. 1 here are several reasons for this disregard of competence — one is that we still insist that to the victors belong the spoils. During campaigns the air is filled with the shouts of candidates insisting that courthouse and capitol must be cleaned from attic to cellar. They assure the listening voter that if a house-cleaning can be effected, innocence and purity and justice and economy will prevail in public administration. Every candidate, and espe¬ cially those not in office, is the advocate of some kind of a deal — a new deal, a square deal, a fair deal, no deal, or a double deal. As the torrents of discussion flood the air from platform and the radio, one listens in vain for one calm, deliberate, dispassionate discussion of the issues and problems of most vital concern to the American people. The voter is at first be¬ wildered, then perhaps alarmed, as he hears it reiterated that all of those in office are incompetent, if not less than scoundrels. The average citizen begins to suspect that he should organize to protect himself from these office holders against whom opposing candidates are haranguing. Is not the penitentiary perhaps the place for these public servants who may have learned something by the very fact of holding office? If he believed all he heard, this would be a logical conclusion, for when the political “ outs ” attack the political “ ins ” there is no good in anything. One may almost assume that the old saying about pot calling kettle black originally had reference to the political pot. When shall we learn that we solve no prob- f lems by calling people names, or by indulging in invectives, or by parading meaningless slogans before the electorate ! The policy of dismissing large numbers of incumbents when a new party comes into power justifies the criticism that as far as government is concerned we are a nation of amateurs. President Andrew Jackson was responsible for one popular misconcep¬ tion to which we still cling. He declared that the duties of government are “ so plain and simple that men of intelligence can qualify themselves for their performance.” That may have been true in Jackson’s day; it is true no longer. When government becomes concerned directly with banks, rail¬ roads, airways, highways, insurance, agriculture, commerce, industry, credit, exchange, health, education, in fact, with everything that touches or affects the life of people generally, then it needs expert service. Unless special knowledge is brought to bear upon the various activities of government, then extravagance, incompetency, and inefficiency will flourish and continue to increase. Department of Superintendence 577 Another of the prevailing popular notions is that charity begins on the public payroll. All over this country we elect or appoint men and women because they need the office ; they have failed in business ; they have a large family; a leg has been lost; someone has died or some other misfortune has befallen the individual. We seem to assume that this qualifies for public office. Still another assumption is that political parties exist to secure patronage for their constituents. Long ago, Theodore Roosevelt declared that patron¬ age is the curse of politics. It is the selling out price of democracy, because it turns the political party into a job brokerage machine, creating a merce¬ nary army of occupation, which, under the guise of democracy, actually robs us of self-government. It is said that a Congressman in the Tennessee valley received letters from forty-six hundred of his constituents asking him to recommend them for jobs in the Tennessee Valley Authority. The Congressman dutifully wrote forty-six hundred letters to the administrators in charge of the project, declaring in each letter that he knew the candidate personally and that he knew him to be well qualified for the job he sought. What a commentary this is on American politics ! The politicians and the various pressure groups are reluctant to abandon this practise, for the reason that it helps to keep them in power. In crises such as we are now experiencing, the pressures are somewhat greater than at other times, for men in distress will sell their liberty for bread, and the political spoilsman is ready to take advantage of the situation. The appeal of the political spoilsman is always an appeal to emotion, to greed, or to class hatred. This appeal is always effective in a democracy, and it is especially powerful when the people are the victims of lost hopes and destroyed ambitions. Even in normal times the citizens of a democracy find it difficult to set up remote goals and strive consistently for their attain¬ ment. They are disposed to follow the lines of least resistance; they are prone to compromise with the future. Put in another way, the American people, like democratic peoples generally, are always seeking substitutes for intelligence. Instead of relying upon expert guidance and advice in the realms of government and politics, they are willing to accept inexpert lead¬ ership which, more or less, they blindly follow. Clearly, we must learn in this country to bring trained intelligence to bear upon the problems that affect our political, social, and economic wel¬ fare. This means we must find ways of curtailing, and eventually of de¬ stroying, the spoils system in public affairs. Just so long as we permit clever politicians, or selfish pressure groups, to prostitute public welfare for pri¬ vate gain, the economic losses this country will suffer will be enormous. The so-called “ honest grafter,” who keeps himself and his crowd in power by dispensing patronage, is a lecherous parasite on the body politic. The ill-gotten funds he obtains might better be used to provide education for youth and for the legitimate employment of the millions who are out of work. Not only does the spoils system waste public money, it drives am- 578 National Education Association bitious and capable young men away from public office. Worst of all, it disenfranchises and endangers democracy itself. In answer to these indictments it must be said that civil service exists in nine states and in three hundred and sixty-five municipalities. Even so, in these states and in these municipalities the political leaders are especially skilful in circumventing the successful administration of the civil service laws. The American people believe in the importance of sound public ad¬ ministration ; they will vote for it whenever there is a referendum on the subject; but once having established it, they have little interest in it and are not alert to sustain it. Just as one must recognize civil service as a step in the right direction, so he must, in all fairness, declare that there are in municipal, state, and federal governments, thousands of competent officials who are devoting themselves faithfully to the discharge of their respective duties. If these officials could be freed from machine politics and the unreasonable demands of pressure groups, we could expect a still higher quality of public service from them. It is certain that one thing we need to do in this country is to develop an interest in good government, and to devise ways of securing the cooperation of all citizens in it. The effort to do this should not be confined to any particular class; it should include all classes, even those now dependent upon the government for sustenance. As a matter of fact, we might expect to receive a quick and ready response from them because their needs are so imperative and immediate. One of the most hopeful signs has been the disposition of the government in the present emergency to call to its aid business and college men who have acquired especial knowledge of some phase of government as a result of their experiences or their studies. The government is finding it necessary to rely more and more upon such persons. It is true that those persons are sometimes referred to as the “ brain trust,” which is only another way of ridiculing the man who knows something about some phase of government and who is willing to put that knowledge to public use. These brain trust positions should develop into career positions. Indeed every position on the administrative, professional, clerical, skilled, and unskilled labor levels, should become a career position. Each level and type of service should be closely tied in with the educational system of the country. In other words, the amount and kind of training should be closely related to the responsibilities of the office. Great Britain long ago recog¬ nized the importance of this relationship. Perhaps her most conspicuous contribution to government personnel is that she applied this theory to the selection of her administrative officers as well as to those holding positions of lesser importance. For administrative posts she selects only the top honor men of Cambridge and Oxford and the other colleges. She gives them an apprenticeship experience in the various administrative offices, and when they have demonstrated their ability for administrative work they are given junior secretaryships that carry with them permanency and something more than a mere living salary. No matter how frequently the cabinet may Department of Superintendence 579 change in England, under or junior secretaries remain on the job. England has not only used this plan for the selection of junior secretaries in the federal service, but has also made a profession of the position of town clerk. Men of recognized ability, standing, and training are chosen for this post. Regardless of how often the city council changes, the town clerk stays on. He is the expert in government who advises the city council as to the pro¬ cedure it should follow in any public matter. Frequently, town clerks are invited to go from one city to another because of their demonstrated effi¬ ciency. Their careers are permanent careers. It is not enough, however, for government to fill positions with men of talent and ability and to offer them permanency; it must devise means of stimulating the growth of its employees and of encouraging their aspirations. To fit them into occupational niches without opportunity for growth is one of the most deadening things it can do. The influence of filling positions on the administrative, professional, clerical, skilled, and unskilled labor levels with career people will be felt in many ways ; not only in better administration of government, but in toning up the service generally because of the hope of advancement thru good work rather than thru favoritism. A career plan will permit and en¬ courage young men and young women to prepare themselves, realizing that they can enter the public service and receive advancement in a fair competi¬ tive system. The public servant will have the esteem of the public and the tremendous satisfaction of knowing that in serving the public, good and able service will be rewarded. Patronage will largely disappear and cam¬ paigns will tend more to be conducted on issues rather* than by the vilifica¬ tion of personalities in the opposing party. A career plan will enable the government to select those who by education and experience are best fitted for public service, and it will stimulate the continued growth of public servants. At present no university would advise its graduates to enter the public service in the hope that they would find a career in it ; under a career plan, however, all this would change and the government would be in a position to obtain the best men and women for its service. A social order which over many generations consistently drains off its best human resources from any of the essential social institutions, is in grave danger of serious dislocation. If, for many years, few men of capacity en¬ tered the law, or medicine, or finance, or industry,, as surely as night follows the day there would ensue in the neglected field a condition of decay which would seriously weaken the entire structure, and set up within it strains which might, if not corrected in time, bring a serious collapse to the entire institutional structure. Apparently this is the situation we face in governmental administration in the United States today. Someone has said that it is impossible to build a dam in the midst of a flood ; and yet, perhaps, that is the very time we should prepare our plans for the building of the dam. While we should get as much consolation as possible out of whatever good is emerging from gov¬ ernment experimentation, as intelligent persons interested in the general welfare, we should at the same time set up the machinery and provide the 580 National Education Association agencies that will reduce waste, discover incompetency, select the capable for public office, and provide for their permanency and the recognition of their growth. We, in America, think we are building a new world. We know that there is some sort of an awakening. In this new world we say there will be shorter hours of labor, higher standards of living, more leisure, more comforts. We shall not realize any of these achievements and we shall lose the contributions of the past if governments fail. Speaking for myself, I should say that what America needs is not large armies and large navies, higher tariff walls, more national isolation, a break¬ down of capitalism — what America needs is a program that provides for intelligent citizenship and economic security, a program whose administra¬ tion should rest in the hands of those who thru study and experience have qualified themselves for its administration. It is clear to me that public service and education are mutually dependent; they both exist to serve the same end — the advancement of human welfare. If one fails, the other will be defeated. GENERAL SESSION, WEDNESDAY EVENING, FEBRUARY 27, 1935 THE CHILD IN RELATION TO THE TWENTIETH CENTURY MARY E. WOOLLEY, PRESIDENT, MT. HOLYOKE COLLEGE, SOUTH HADLEY, MASS. It is quite possible that my first statement should be an explanation of my subject. Why the child in relation to the twentieth century? Have there not been both children and centuries before the twentieth? Why this special emphasis upon connection between the two? There is possible a second reaction, a feeling that the shoemaker should stick to his last. Why should a person whose life has been given to the college student venture an opinion upon the preschool child ? Sometimes an exhortation from a layman helps to point home a truth. What kind of a century is it, into which a child is born today? There are some characterizations on which the agreement would, I believe, be unanimous, and near the head of the list is “ complexity.” Is there a normal human being who would hesitate to agree that we are living in a complex age, and, as a corollary, an age which peculiarly needs the development of human beings? It is not easy to devise a formula for twentieth-century living, either for the individual or for the group, and it will not grow easier when the children of today become the men and women of tomorrow. There is no formula for sane and sound living. It depends not upon formulas, but upon human beings and their development. We have been much concerned in this country with the development of resources, and Department of Superintendence 581 when we talk about it, we know exactly what we mean; that is, material resources of some kind or other, not human resources. Well, the time has come when we must reverse our policy, putting at the head of the list our human “ potentials ” realizing that that is the logical procedure. The first question naturally is, what are the primary needs of this modern world, the day in which we live? There are numerous answers to that question ; I have selected three. My first is ability to use the human mind. As I make that remark, I seem to hear, passing thru the minds of some of you, “ Now she is miles away, thinking of the intellectually gifted, the highly trained, the scientist, the expert, the thinker.” Not at all. Every normal human being has a mind to use — and the tragedy is that so many never put it into action ! “Tragedy” is not too strong a word when we stop to consider that we are living in a democracy where the vote of the citizen who has never learned to use his mind counts numerically as much as that of the one who has learned that invaluable lesson. What has that to do with the preschool child? The remark of an ele¬ mentary-school teacher in a crowded foreign district of New York, a re¬ mark made years ago, I have often recalled. “ When I look at my room full of little children, hardly a face or a name indicating American ancestry or background, I say to myself, ‘ Here is a room full of American citizens in the making.’ ” She might have said just as truly, “American thinkers in the making.” Learning how to use the mind should not be left until the college stage, should not be left until the high-school stage, or even until the grades. It is a continuous process, beginning in the “ interest-drives,” for example, of the nursery school. “ The ‘ drives ’ are expressed in efforts to modify and to understand environment,” we are told. That is not a slight achievement. Some of us “ grown-ups ” often have occasion to wish that we were more proficient in just that direction! Yes, the beginning of the power to use the mind goes back into the very early years, as no wise mother or teacher needs to be told. If A second outstanding need of the day in which we live, is emotional con¬ trol. Emotional instability is one of our greatest weaknesses as a people ; perhaps I should go further and say, “ One of the greatest weaknesses of the human race.” In corroboration of that statement, we need go only to the record of the morning papers — fatalities, crimes, disasters of all types, are an appalling proof of the lack of self-control. President Lewis of La- < fayette College, in a recent address, asks and answers a searching question : “In whose hands have we placed emotional education? In those of the moving picture producer, the jazz orchestra leader, the publisher of sex magazines, the comic strip writer, the radio buffoon.” How does the nursery school help in emotional control? Study the pro¬ gram and you will readily see the answer. Physical well-being bears a relation to emotional self-control. The development of good habits, the lesson of adjustment, learning group activities, all play a part in emotional control. Perhaps even more potent, is the acquirement of interest in some¬ thing outside of oneself, the “ having-a-job motive,” if I may coin a 582 National Education Association phrase. We are reminded that “ the nursery school covers that compara¬ tively short period of time when sheer activity engrosses the child and when activity is of the utmost physiological importance to him ; the use of large pieces of equipment must help to assure the child control over himself and his immediate environment.” There is another side to this activity, and that is the kind of amusement, entertainment, for which the taste of the child is being cultivated. “ Tell me the amusements of a people and I will tell you their character,” is a criterion which we might well hesitate to have applied to our own national life. “ The moving picture producer, the jazz orchestra leader, the publisher of sex magazines, the comic strip writer, the radio buffoon ” are thinking in terms of the pocketbook, not of character, and that is a serious matter in the light of the increase of leisure among all classes, which we are facing. If the nursery schools were doing nothing beyond the provision of whole¬ some amusement and thus cultivating the taste for such amusement, as wholesome food creates a taste for wholesome food, we might well say: “ May their tribe increase! ” There is a third need of the day in which we live, a supreme need, namely, higher moral and spiritual standards. That is a realization no longer confined to preachers and religious teachers. Men and women of all creeds, of all nationalities and races, who really care for the future of humanity, are one on this question. We must build character on the en¬ during foundations of the moral and spiritual, and the laying of the founda¬ tions must begin with the child, that goes without saying. Home and church are not exempt from responsibility, but alas in this modern day, in the lives of thousands of children, neither home nor church plays a part. Upon the shoulders of the school rests the responsibility. There is another question sometimes uppermost in the mind of the prac¬ tical taxpayer: “ Why add the preschool child to the tax burden already heavy? ” There are other tax burdens besides those of education. The Virginia Journal of Education says “ the average cost of educating a child in America is one-fourth the cost of maintaining a man in prison without taking in the cost of apprehending the criminal and the administration of criminal courts.” You pay your money and you take your choice ! All along the line, your answer to the question whether public education is an ex¬ travagance, is determined by what you wish to accomplish. If your aim is to tear down civilization, in this country and in the world, then it is extravagant, for destruction is not brought about that way. If, on the contrary, your aim is to maintain and build up civilization, in this country and in the world, no possible expenditure of money could be more economi¬ cal. It is for you, the citizens of the United States, to decide what it is that you really wish, destruction or construction, a Future or only a Past. Department of Superintendence 583 GENERAL SESSION, THURSDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 28, 1935 WHAT DO WE MEAN BY ADAPTING THE SCHOOLS TO SOCIAL AND PUPIL NEEDS? HERBERT S. WEET, FORMER SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ROCHESTER, N. Y. However we may phrase it, the question raised by this subject is the question uppermost in the minds of the public schools of this country today. There is a demand from within the schools and without for revisions in public school procedure to make of these schools a more dynamic influence for good in the social order. Up to this point the path is not difficult to follow. Beyond this there is no path. There are scores of opinions but that is about all. I shall not add to the confusion by adding to these opinions. We shall all be forgiven for not knowing in times like these just what it means to adapt these schools most helpfully to the social and community needs that lie ahead. The thing for which we cannot be forgiven is failure to establish to the limit of our ability provisions for the process, not the event, of determining what these needs are to which these schools are to adapt themselves, and then reckoning intelligently with the facilities, limi¬ tations, and costs involved in meeting them. What I want to do is to submit for your consideration certain guiding principles in the hope that they may contribute somewhat to this common effort to chart as wisely as possible for the future, the course of public education. In comparatively recent years, the public schools have accumulated a wide variety of responsibilities with little long term regard either by the schools or the public for the social, educational, and financial consequences. Times have been good. The schools have seemed the natural place for doing a lot of things that were formerly done by other agencies in the community, and the theory of remedying all social ills by training the young to better things has increasingly made its appeal. It would be folly to spend time in explaining the reasons for this condition, indulging in praise or censure con¬ cerning it. We all recognize this adding of responsibilities as a part of the process of adapting these schools to changing social needs in the light of changing social conditions. Does better adaptation mean still more added responsibilities? It would seem obvious that we have never been more seriously in need of facing this question with all the wisdom that both the schools and the public can bring to it than we are at the present time. Unless it is faced the schools will find themselves absorbing heavily increased responsibilities as a result of these depression years that may prove to be mistaken adaptations to social needs. And “ absorbing ” is the word. There are thousands of unemployed youth in the high schools today for whom the high schools are not equipped from any point of view. They are to be absorbed not under 584 National Education Association stable but under reduced budget allowances. The time and energy that the schools of this country are giving to welfare relief to provide the physical necessities of life for thousands upon thousands of children today are just beyond the comprehension of anybody who is not close to the problem. Neither of these cases is an emergency except in degree. The junior college above and the nursery school below are increasingly pressing for attention. It does not make sense to talk about social, educational, and financial plan¬ ning without provisions for counting the costs, socially, educationally, and financially of more and more adding these responsibilities to the public school. The implied premise in past development has been that the public school is the one institution that has no limitations. We shall do well in the future to examine the premise. Now it will be taken for granted that the schools will in part adapt themselves to social and community needs in proportion as they assume such share of the total social and community responsibilities as can be met more effectively and economically by the schools than by other agencies . Let us see how far the schools have met this first specification. At the beginning of the present century our schools had a purely academic pro¬ gram. Their purposes were clearly defined. Their general purposes were to guarantee literacy and to raise the general level of intelligence. Their specific purpose was to prepare for college. In other words, they were directly concerned with the art of learning only. To be sure, the knowledge gained and the mental skills acquired were to find their place in community life, but what that place was to be it was left largely for the individual and the community to determine. The art of living in this community outside was no direct and immediate concern of the school. The schools will in part adapt themselves to social and community needs in proportion as they assume their full share of the job to be done. What an astoundingly increased share of these responsibilities has been assumed by the public schools as time has gone on ! There is not an important factor today involved in this art of living in the world outside that is not a direct responsibility of the public schools. This is true in health and in recreation ; it is true in home improvement, use of leisure time, and character building ; and it is also true in vocational education and adult education. These are responsibilities that were scarcely dreamed of for the school when not a few who are in this room began their teaching careers. They are matters with which we are all familiar, and they are developments in this process of adaptation of which many of us have been a part. There is no one of these already extended responsibilities that should not today be subjected to critical review in the light of changed social and eco¬ nomic conditions. Recreation is bound to be an increasing community re¬ sponsibility in the days ahead. What part of it can be most effectively and economically met by the schools? What are the facilities required and the costs involved in meeting these responsibilities? What shall be said of adult education as to the nature and extent of its future demands upon our public school system ? What is to be the long term effect of these changed condi- Department of Superintendence 585 tions upon the types and the place of those forms of vocational education now operative in the secondary schools? More and more this subject of the leisure hours has made its claim. There is no other field in which people in general derive the personal satisfactions that come from work in the fine and practical arts, if only there be given opportunity for their development. Civilizations long since gone have left thru these arts those lasting products that were not consumed by the generation that produced them. They live today and we speak of them as civilizing influences in community life. What are the opportunities and what are the responsibili¬ ties of the public schools thru these arts in their relation to this problem of leisure? It is doubtful whether any unit in the social order has been more deeply affected by all these social and economic changes than has the home. What does this mean to the school in connection with this already added responsibility for home improvement? These are funda¬ mental questions and to assume that they cannot be answered is to admit that intelligent social, educational, and financial planning for the future is impossible. So much for this added responsibility factor in adapting these public schools to social needs. Among the many implications in it, for future planning, there are three which we can do little more than state. One is that it presents planning problems that can never be solved either by the federal government or by the state. Health and recreation and homemaking and vocational education and all these other added responsibilities are the variables in the educational program so affected by conditions peculiar to the local community that the statesmanship required for grappling with them must be found in the local community. Another is that we shall resist with all the power at our command the sniping at educational costs that ignores the services and facilities required for meeting these ever-increasing responsibilities. And the third is that we have long since reached the point when the schools alone cannot answer the questions raised by this added responsibility factor of adaptation. But more of this later. We must now turn to another factor in this process of adapting the schools to social and community needs. It is suggested in the second place that the schools will in part adapt themselves to social and community needs in proportion as they so adapt and operate the curriculum for those who attend the schools, as best to meet pupil needs and thereby discharge as efficiently and as economically as possible such of these total social and community responsibilities as the schools are to assume. In this matter of adapting the curriculum to pupil needs, another revo¬ lution in school procedure has been working itself out under our very eyes. Here again neither the school nor the public has sensed what this adapta¬ tion of the curriculum to pupil needs means in the way of facilities, limita¬ tions, and costs, both for ascertaining these pupil needs as well as for meeting them. Within the memory of most of us the pupil adapted himself to the academic curriculum established in the school or withdrew from school. The school was not held primarily responsible for his failure. That re¬ sponsibility was traced rather to the pupil and to the home, and they 586 National Education Association assumed it. If the pupil had the peculiar abilities, interests, industry, and parental authority back of him, all well and good, his progress was assured. If he did not have these elements he failed and withdrew, and there was a place for him in business or in industry or on the farm. Scant or leniently enforced compulsory education laws made it possible for him to go. Today the school is held primarily responsible for the failure of the pupil satis¬ factorily to progress and where failure does result neither employment opportunity nor compulsory education laws make withdrawal from school possible. I wish there were time to look a little more closely into some of a score or more of the critically important implications in this perfectly valid theory of adapting the curriculum to pupil needs. Any one of them could well command more time than is available for this entire discussion. What are pupil needs in this one subject of health ; what are the facilities, limitations, and costs involved in ascertaining these needs; and what are the facilities, limitations, and costs in adapting the curriculum to meet these needs, once they are ascertained? Applying this same question to each responsibility which the school of today is assuming for the welfare of these pupils and thru them for the welfare of the social order, we at once plunge ourselves into the fundamentals of social, educational, and financial planning. The schools will in part adapt themselves to social needs in proportion as they adapt the curriculum to pupil needs. One of these rather appealing generalizations heard quite as much from within the schools as from with¬ out is that the schools are far more interested in teaching subjects than in teaching children. We all recognize that there is an element of truth in this comment. Perhaps one of the prime reasons for whatever validity this criticism has is that we have had at least some knowledge of subjects and but little knowledge of what child needs really are. We shall do well in attempting to chart the future course of public education to recognize the strides that have been made thru research and experimentation in a better understanding of child needs. There are already evidences that these con¬ tributions are being recognized by teacher-training institutions and that the teachers of the future will bring to the classroom both keener interests and greater knowledge in this regard. But has our practical difficulty grown primarily out of a lack of knowledge of child needs? Suppose for a minute we turn to a concrete illustration in a large and congested city school system. The amount of retardation or failure to make normal school progress is heavy. We all deplore it. Failure does something to the individual that is apt to leave its scar both upon him and upon society. Each such failure tends to bring to the teacher discouragement, to the pupil loss of confidence, and to the home lack of faith in both the school and the child. Discouragement, loss of confidence, and lack of faith are the shaping elements of morale that today surround the child in his life outside the school as never before. The relation of it all to juvenile delinquency and crime at once suggests itself. No search for revisions in school procedure would seem to be more important at the present time than a search to Department of Superintendence 587 substitute for these elements encouragement, confidence, and a sense of security. But where does the search lead us? Well, it clearly leads us to the cur¬ riculum, for the curriculum is what the pupil does to learn under the guidance and direction of the school. It accordingly includes not only the subjects which the pupil studies but all the activities in which he participates, and in short everything organized and directed by the school for his wel¬ fare. We cannot, however, stop here. Unless all these operating factors and conditions, including personal service, class size, and buildings and other facilities are adapted to the needs of the curriculum, little headway can be made in adapting the curriculum to the needs of the pupil. And here among these operating factors and conditions come all the demands for school expenditures. Adapting the curriculum to pupil needs is a legiti¬ mate demand. What it means, however, in the way of facilities, limitations, and costs is yet to be understood, at least by those active in economy drives. We shall welcome anything that constructively makes for economies and reduction in school expenditures. What we shall not welcome and can but resist are attempts in these directions that fail to consider the quality of the work expected of these schools. Since we have entered upon this subject of pupil failure we must at least refer to the third field to which our search carries us in any sincere and intelligent attempt to seek out causes and remedies. It is, of course, this field of outside agencies and influences. There is abundant evidence to show that wholly apart from whatever limitations in ability the pupil himself may have, the influence of agencies and conditions outside of and beyond the school are even more of a deter¬ mining factor in pupil progress in school alone (to say nothing of the effect of these conditions upon character development) than are all the efforts of the schools themselves. This leads us at once to our third and last factor in this process of adapting the public schools to social and pupil needs. In the days when our public schools were confined to an academic cur¬ riculum, they were meeting a responsibility that was not shared by any other agency in the community. The minute these schools stepped out of that path, that minute they began sharing responsibility with other agencies in the community life. They share it today directly with the home in home¬ making; directly with business and industry, in vocational education; di¬ rectly with the home and other important agencies both public and private in this matter of health ; while in character building there is a sharing with the home, the church, and the large number of character building agencies that have developed during the past quarter of a century. This suggests the third factor or guiding principle in this inquiry for a better adaptation of the schools to social and pupil needs. The schools will in part most help¬ fully adapt themselves to these needs in proportion as they so assist in the coordination of their own efforts with those of other responsible agencies — the home, the church, business and industry, and other agencies both public and private — as to secure for each child the maximum benefits which all these agencies can provide. 588 National Education Association The best that the well-ordered home can bring to sound character de¬ velopment is thru wholesome teaching, fair treatment, intelligent placing of responsibilities, and insistence upon the meeting of those responsibilities. This is simply to say that there are certain things about character develop¬ ment that can be taught. Such teachings will be reenforced and become effective in proportion as parents respect them in their own conduct in the home and give to the meeting of home responsibilities its indispensable place in the rearing of a child. These but express the principles which our schools have increasingly come to respect as the result of attempts to meet to the full the school’s responsibility for this important thing that we speak of as character development. We shall not ignore our responsibility for helping to bring to the home and to the school all the contributions that agencies and organizations outside can make thru respecting these same principles. Not until all these interested and responsible forces have exhausted their efforts for securing these coordinations, can claim be made of sincere and intelligent attempts to guide these boys and girls thru the maze of temptations that beset them today and bring out of it all those things which this country of ours has cherished in the way of human happiness and welfare. Our public schools then will adapt themselves to social and community needs in proportion as they assume their full share of social and community responsibilities; meet those responsibilities thru curriculum adaptations and operation as effectively and as economically as possible ; and so coordinate their efforts with those of other interested and responsible organizations as to bring to every child the maximum benefits which all have to offer. If our purpose were to laud the accomplishments of the public schools, we could find ample material by reviewing what has been done in each of these three directions. So far as there is merit in the added responsibilities which they have assumed, thereby substituting for other agencies to safe¬ guard what have been thought of as essentials to the common welfare, they have a notable record. The progress in diagnosing pupil needs and in making use of the facilities available for meeting those needs has been sub¬ stantial. Increasingly effective coordinations with other units in the social order are apparent. We have gone thru a transition period, and we find ourselves today with a foundation for future building unexcelled, if equalled by any other unit in the social order. Since I am now standing upon the side-lines with no responsibility for the operation, I shall be bold enough to suggest the procedure by which we shall secure from these guiding principles those things without which in¬ telligent social, educational, and financial planning seems to me impossible. I would have in every local unit a group representing the best wisdom that can be brought to each of these three major inquiries by the schools, those who are responsible for financing them and other agencies, both public and private, that share responsibilities. The days of selling the schools to the community are over. The emergency in American education is not over. If it is met it will not be met by the defensive and individualistic methods that selling the schools by the schoolmaster implies. It will be met rather by Department of Superintendence 589 the kind of intelligent and cooperative procedure which such a group can establish. In this I am not thinking of the local units wholly as they stand today, but rather of those consolidated units that are being developed in the vari¬ ous states, beyond the urban centers. There is nothing in all this that ignores the necessity of state and federal efforts, nor the necessity of state and fed¬ eral planning for education. Quite to the contrary, state aid and control must continue and permanent federal aid must come. All that we are trying to say is that these boys and girls and these adults, these varying needs and conditions, are in the local communities and it is here that the secret of social and educational planning must be found. What we have today in the way of educational progress has come largely thru local initiative and experimentation. All that the state and the federal government should be expected to do is to encourage and stimulate such efforts, seize upon those that really make for progress, and thru financial aid, legislation, or other necessary means guarantee their retention and their extension. If we are to build well upon the foundations already laid, I personally see no other course. In conclusion, it may well be that such a procedure is visionary. It is easy to understand full well the reasoning of him who declares that there is not enough money at best to go around and that the only practical course is for the school and the individual to get the most that he can and make the best of it. Perhaps this is the only course. If it is, then it needs no prophet to determine the ultimate end of all the best that this country has cherished from its beginning in the way of human happiness and welfare. If it were a mere matter of financial profit or loss with these schools we might reconcile ourselves to such a philosophy. I believe that the greatest decision which the public school people of this country have to make today is whether they are to accept this philosophy or reject it. The public schools should be the last to accept it and the first to lead in its rejection, for these things are of the very essence and spirit of our democratic institutions. The struggle thru which we are going today is in principle as old as the nations themselves. I suspect that the one unique advantage that this nation has over those that have gone down in the struggle is its educational system. My life has been spent in intimate contact with these public schools. There is no greater inspiration, no more wholesome means of restoring one’s per¬ spective and renewing one’s faith, than to sit for a time in the classroom of the public school at its best. There is no greater need than to carry the spirit of that classroom into the social order. Can we do it ? 590 National Education Association LOOKING AHEAD TOWARD EDUCATIONAL RECOVERY JOHN K. NORTON, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. In February 1933 the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education was appointed and instructed to inquire into the difficulties, financial and otherwise, which the schools were encountering, and to take action aimed to meet these difficulties. For two years the Commission has striven valiantly to carry out this assignment. A review of the more important phases of its program is contained in the leaflet, entitled Two Year's 1 Work, placed in your hands when you registered at this convention. The Joint Commission has developed its work along two major lines: First, it has carried on activities aimed at acute difficulties of an emergency character. Facts, depicting the plight of the schools, have been collected and widely disseminated. An ex-officio national board of 893 consultants has been summoned in a series of eighteen regional conferences, covering all sections of the country. Newsletters, issued twice a month, have kept the Commission in close touch with this advisory board. In anticipation of the current sessions of the state legislatures, a national conference of representatives of state boards of education and state educa¬ tion associations was held last December in Washington, D. C. Forty-one states thus received direct help in dealing with legislative problems affecting the schools. A number of special bulletins, dealing with emergency problems, have been issued and widely distributed. Many articles prepared by members of the Commission have appeared in national and state educational journals and leading newspapers and magazines of general circulation. In cooperation with the Legislative Commission of the National Educa¬ tion Association and the National Committee for Federal Aid for Educa¬ tion, the Joint Commission has aided in the development and active pro¬ motion of a six-point program for federal emergency relief for education. This activity was undoubtedly one of the factors which resulted in the expenditure of more than $150,000,000 for the aid of education in a variety of forms by the federal government during the past year. Early in its deliberations, however, the Joint Commission recognized that many of the current problems of the schools have their roots in con¬ ditions which existed before the onset of the depression. There is no quick and easy method of eradicating these conditions. We knew long before 1929 that the financing of education rested upon shaky foundations. Under the added weight of the depression, these weak foundations have given way in many communities and in some whole states. The multiplicity of ineffi¬ cient and costly local school districts, carried over from the early part of the nineteenth century, has proved to be an unbearable burden for education during the past five years. Lack of public understanding of what the mod¬ ern school is attempting to do has resulted in tragic curtailment of educa¬ tional facilities in hundreds of communities. The lay friends of the public Department of Superintendence 591 schools have made the mistake of assuming that the century-old battle for free, universal, and tax-supported education has been completely won. The lag of the school curriculum behind the demands of our complex, inter¬ dependent, industrial civilization has become clear under the revealing light which recent years have turned upon all social institutions. The Joint Commission realized that factors such as these must be clearly recognized and frankly faced before satisfactory educational recovery could be achieved. Accordingly, the work of the Commission aimed at something more than a mere return to the educational status of 1929. With the long-standing weakness in school finance in mind, the Joint Commission organized a National Conference on the Financing of Educa¬ tion. The Report and Charter, drafted by this Conference, constitute the blueprints from which many states have already begun to reconstruct their systems of school finance. A publication entitled Evaluating the Public Schools was prepared to encourage the organization of citizens’ conferences for the appraisal of present educational conditions and the development of more adequate pro¬ grams for the future. Let us not forget that free public schools exist in this country primarily because of the far-sighted and militant activities of laymen. The friends of education who bore the brunt of crucial battles for free schools, fought in such states as Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio in the first half of the nineteenth century, included but few teachers, superintendents of schools, and college profes¬ sors. It is a significant omen that this convention included a sectional pro¬ gram in which a number of outstanding laymen spoke on “ The Citizen’s Responsibilities for Safeguarding and Improving Public Education.” A year ago the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education was directed by resolutions of the Department of Superintendence and of the Executive Committee of the National Education Association to expand the phases of its program, aimed at long-time educational improvement. With I the limited resources at its command, the Commission has striven to meet this responsibility. During the past year it has published a Directory of National Delibera¬ tive Committees in Education. This report reveals that some 250 commit¬ tees and organizations are carrying on activities of a character which need to be taken into account in developing a comprehensive program for educa¬ tional recovery and reconstruction. At the National Conference, organized by the Joint Commission in Washington last December, long-time educational planning was one of the two major subjects considered. Reports were prepared dealing with the machinery of state educational planning and its role in improving the school program. It was the consensus of that conference that far more effective educational planning is needed in the future, if the schools are to achieve their aims. Education is so closely related to other services of gdvernment and the work of the schools is so intimately involved in social and economic development, that educational planning should be carried on in close and sympathetic cooperation with agencies engaged in planning in these areas. 592 National Education Association It is unfortunate that governmental and non-governmental agencies and commissions often fail to recognize the fundamental role which education must play in achieving any great social advance in a democratic society. The clearer vision which adversity is giving us makes certain things quite plain. Science, invention, and the machine have catapulted a series of new factors into human life. The resulting congeries of changes known as the industrial revolution open a vista of marvelous possibilities to humanity. It is already clear, however, that the road towards the better life is not an easy one. Humanity will encounter many obstacles as it presses forward toward the more abundant life. These obstacles, we hope, are not insuper¬ able. It is evident, however, their conquest must involve an unparalleled exercise of intelligence. The simple individualistic activities and small-scale social operations which served satisfactorily in the pastoral, agricultural, and handicraft stages of economic evolution no longer suffice. Twenty million Americans now dependent upon public relief for their existence stand as eloquent testi¬ mony that technology uncontrolled may be a curse as well as a blessing. The myth of a self-regulating economic system has exploded in our faces. We are frantically groping for those controls which will bring the untamed machine to heel and make it the servant rather than the master of man¬ kind. Just what these controls will be no one can now say with certainty. That they must be evolved is the only certainty. Every industrial nation is testifying to this fact. Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany, and Communist Russia are one with democratic Great Britain and America in frantically search¬ ing for the all-important controls which will permit the harnessing of the instruments of production, brought to the hand of man by the industrial revolution. The basic end sought by these nations is the same. They are all striving to bring sufficient intelligence into their economic activities to guarantee a reasonable degree of security to all men. The methods used in working towards this all-important intelligence are fundamentally different. Russia, Italy, and Germany look to the dictator and his band of henchmen to plan and administer the mechanisms and controls which are to resolve chaos and provide economic security for all. In Great Britain and the United States, we cling to the hope that there is a better way. We still be¬ lieve that it is possible to develop the requisite social understanding and in¬ telligence under democratic control. It is at this point that education becomes a crucial factor. In a degree, intelligent planning and administration are inconsistent with democratic control. Foresight and majority rule are wholly inconsistent if the masses are ignorant. To the degree that the masses become intelligent this incon¬ sistency tends to disappear. This principle has already been demonstrated in some areas of life. Let us cite one example. The American people today willingly submit to the regimentation of their lives in the area of health and sanitation. The typical American citizen does not feel that his liberty is being curtailed and his personality crushed because he is prohibited from dumping his garbage in Department of Superintendence 593 the street in front of his home. He does not feel aggrieved if his child with scarlet fever is quarantined. It is not necessary to go back far in the history of the Western world, however, to reach the time when such sanitary and health regulations would have been considered encroachments on individual rights. Even today there are areas in the world where health regulations can be enforced only at the point of a bayonet. What is the factor which in one situation causes man to resist certain essential sanitary and health con¬ trols as infringements on his liberty, but in another causes him to demand that these controls be set up and rigidly enforced as a protection to his lib¬ erty? The answer is education. In the United States schools and other educational agencies have made us literate in the fields of health and sanitation. We, therefore, welcome, rather than resist, sensible regulations enforced in the interest of sanitation and health. We need no dictator to force observance of rules which intelli¬ gence tells us are for our own good. There are other areas in which the masses of the American people are essentially illiterate. Economics is such a sphere. We react to efforts, de¬ signed to bring economic and social life under intelligent regulation, much as the fanatical Hindu does when prohibited from bathing in the polluted Ganges. Superstition and ignorance are the controlling forces in both in¬ stances. Intelligence can be brought into both situations by either of two agents — the dictator or the educator. The quick and easy way is to acknowledge that as a people we are incom¬ petent to develop and to observe requisite mechanisms and controls. Lacking this competence, we turn over the job to “ the man on horseback.” This is the route which Russia, Italy, and Germany have taken. In spite of the lessons of history they have accepted the principle of the totalitarian state and the dictator. A similar choice will be made by the people of any nation when they lose faith in their capacity to regulate their affairs in some crucial area. The totalitarian state and the dictator are essentially a substitute for social intelligence widely diffused among the people. Education can create a condition in which there is no necessity for this substitute. It can develop a population which recognizes that planning is inevitable in a society marked by the characteristics which distinguish ours. It can develop a people sufficiently intelligent to recognize that social mechanisms and controls must be brought into the picture if we are to avoid economic epidemics of the type which began in 1929. Education can help to create a group intelligence which recognizes that experimentation, based on careful planning, is the surest route to economic and social security. Education can be an important factor in developing a level of literacy in economics and politics, similar to that already achieved in sanitation and health, which recognizes that sensible regulations, enforced in the interest of general economic security, expand rather than restrict liberty. Education can do these things, but it has not done them as yet. There is no certainty that it will do them. The problem is immensely difficult and complicated for several reasons. First, the field of the social sciences has 594 National Education Association not yet developed an exact body of information comparable to that which exists in the physical and medical sciences. This body of information can be developed only thru social experimentation based upon the best possible planning or foresight. The social scientist cannot isolate his laboratory from life as does the student of the more exact sciences. The actual functioning of society itself is the laboratory of the social scientist. Unless there is some degree of intelligent experimentation in this laboratory it is unlikely that the requisite body of social information will be built up. The first task of education, therefore, becomes one of creating an intelligently experimental attitude on the part of a substantial portion of our citizenry. Education is finding it tremendously difficult to make its crucial contri¬ bution for a second and very practical reason. I refer to the general lack of realization that education does have a crucial role to play in a nation which attempts to solve its economic and social problems under democratic controls. This lack is illustrated by our failure to develop a national program for education, comparable to that which the federal government is striving to develop in such fields as finance, industry, agriculture, and social insurance. The federal government has not been wholly unmindful of education during the depression. Federal funds have literally prevented the collapse of thousands of schools and colleges. This money has meant the difference between some educational opportunity and no educational opportunity for thousands of children and youths. It has provided subsistence for many un¬ employed and destitute teachers. It has permitted experimentation, such as that in adult education, which is of large significance to future educational progress. For this indispensable help in a time of great need teachers and the public in general owe a debt to Secretary Ickes, Administrator Hop¬ kins, and other federal administrative and legislative officers. An adequate appraisal of the situation demands, however, that we take account of the liabilities, as well as the gains, which have accompanied federal relief for education. Most of these liabilities originate from the fact that there has been no federal policy for education. Rather, there has been a general program for unemployment relief and public works. The aid provided has been incidental to these general projects. Practises, doubtless desirable in feeding the unemployed and in encouraging public works, have been carried over and applied to well-organized going concerns — the schools and colleges of the nation. Before this audience there is no need to stress the unfortunate outcomes resulting from this practise. What is needed is a fundamentally different orientation as to the role of education in the current social scene. Those who lead in thought and action in this country need to recognize that a carefully planned and effectively administered system of education is an indispensable ingredient of any so¬ cial program developed under democratic control. Such recognition will lead to a number of revisions in the procedures of recent years. It will become the practise to include, rather than exclude, representa¬ tives of the schools at the council tables where matters of major social concern are under consideration. Education has an indispensable role to Department of Superintendence 595 play in every major social development in a democratic society. To be specific, unemployment is a problem which must be solved. It can be eradicated, just as other human scourges have been wiped out. This victory cannot be won in a democracy, howeyer, unless a reasonable proportion of the population has some understanding of the causes back of the malady, and the methods by which it may be cured. The people must have the will to submerge social superstition and selfish individualism sufficiently so that a consistent and cooperative attack may be made. Education is the instru¬ mentality whereby a population comes to possess such characteristics. It is unlikely that education can make its indispensable contribution to orderly social evolution if it lags behind the realities of social development. It will lag behind if its representatives do not participate in the discus¬ sions and thinking thru which a democratic society plans its development. The objective should be a situation in which the schools and other educa¬ tional agencies will be able to make their indispensable contribution to orderly social evolution. Education needs to be more dynamically aware of the factors and forces which operate in our complex, industrial civilization. It needs to have a more definite program for developing that degree of social literacy which a modern industrial nation must possess if it is to take the democratic, rather than the dictatorial, route to the solution of its problems. THE NEED FOR A UNIFYING PURPOSE HENRY A. WALLACE, SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, D. C. In thinking about the good and the bad points of capitalism, I have been baffled as to just where the difficulties enter. It has seemed to me that the outstanding good characteristic of capitalism is something like the outstand¬ ing good characteristic of Protestantism, that it has emphasized the sacred¬ ness of the individual. Protestantism in its origin asserted the right of the individual to meet God face to face, without priestly intermediary, asserted the doctrine that the individual could worship God in his daily secular life just as well as someone who had withdrawn from the world into a mon¬ astery. And capitalism took up essentially that same theme. It was a splendid theme to be emphasized. I feel that that tendency, which received its initial impetus perhaps 400 years ago, gave us much of the power which enabled us to conquer this con¬ tinent in record-breaking time. Doubtless God in His infinite wisdom said, “ Now is the time come to unleash certain forces.” I feel those forces were quite appropriate and that they bore great fruit in the conquest of nature thru science in the conquest of new continents. Now the continents have been conquered, and certain other forces become manifest, forces which also are inherent in capitalism. We see the tendency of different regions, different groups, different individuals, to go out to , get all this region, group, or individual can, for his or their own particular needs. Once the conquest of new areas comes to an end, then we reach the 596 National Education Association point where the different groups and different regions fight each other to attain the maximum of profit. Then the disintegrating forces come along. Now it happens that last week I was in western North Carolina, speaking to a rather large group of church peQple, some of whom had the, shall we say, rather primitive attitude on certain religious matters. On that occasion, I attempted to derive part of our troubles from the teaching which had gone on in our colleges, especially during the past hundred years, teaching which found its origin in Darwinism, and I made the flat statement that I thought the sociological results from the teaching of Darwinism had been most un¬ fortunate. Apparently I was close enough to the Tennessee line so that there was quite a little burst of applause. I hastened then, of course, to say that I was not undertaking to state anything with regard to the scientific aspects of Darwinism, altho I rather felt as a scientist that much of that which is taught in the name of Darwinism is false science, but I said I did feel most strongly that the social effects of teaching the survival of the fittest had been profoundly unfortunate. And I feel, furthermore, that the social effects of the teaching of the Manchester School of Economics have been profoundly unfortunate. Whether it comes from the economic side or from the side of biology, the emphasis on the free play of competitive forces, on the survival of the fittest, perhaps appropriate at one time, nevertheless at the present time is, in my opinion, proving definitely destructive. I suspect every person in this room has had his mind made more or less in the mold of the Darwinistic, laissez faire economics of the nineteenth cen¬ tury. I feel that the end of that road is approaching, if it is not already here. Now in giving a discourse something along that line to these mountaineer preachers, I made some comments about certain aspects of capitalism which may not have been altogether complimentary. One gentleman, formerly a Presbyterian minister, a graduate of one of the northern Presbyterian theo- | logical schools, trained to look most highly on capitalism, started talking with me after the meeting was over and said my talk suggested certain thoughts which were brought out in Henry Adams’ The Degradation of the Democratic Dogma. The Adamses, as you are aware, have been our most aristocratic family. They have been with this democracy of ours since its founding, generation after generation. They have puzzled about the meaning of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, the Jacksonian uprising (you will remember that John Quincy suffered very severely from the Jacksonian up¬ rising), and the meaning of Lincolnian Republicanism. The puzzling which went on in the minds of the later generations of Adamses really should have some significance to us. This particular book is written in part by Brooks Adams and in part by Henry Adams. They were brothers. The crisis of 1893 came along; prices went down. The Adams family fortunes were imperiled, especially Brooks Adams’. He investigated the cause of the trouble. He became convinced that the silverites were right — rather a strange thing, you know, for a respectable family like the Adams family to reach a conclusion of that sort. He cabled Henry Adams, who was abroad, to come home and talk the subject over with him. Department of Superintendence 597 Brooks Adams, in his puzzling about the significance of history, started Henry Adams on his later investigations into “ Phase ” and his writings on “ Chartres ” and those other rather delicate analyses of rhythm in civiliza¬ tion which so many of us have admired. But it all originated, apparently, in the financial difficulties which certain branches of the Adams family entered upon in 1893. Brooks Adams discussed with Henry Adams the extent to which certain of his investigations should be published. Henry told him that he himself would have to keep hands strictly off, that he had no intention of antago¬ nizing the gold bugs. But he thought it was a good thing for Brooks to come out with it, nevertheless. Brooks wrote: The question between Henry and me, as I then stated it, was, assuming the gen¬ eral law of the past to hold, whether our family could keep solvent until relief came, or whether we should go under like the Roman peasants or the British yeomen. Henry thought, or was inclined to think, we should be crushed. I thought that, with good luck, courage, economy, and patience, we should be able to hold on until relief in some form came, and crawl in with the bankers on the rise. Which, in fact, we subsequently did, but the process stimulated thought. And it was then, as Henry has pointed out in his “ Education,” that his great effort at thought began. Henry Adams and Brooks Adams thought of the apex of our civilization as being typified in the personality of George Washington, who had seen the confusion of the period of the Confederation and had furnished a cen¬ tralizing sense of unity of purpose, to which John Quincy Adams had at¬ tempted to give a more definite formulation with an educated understanding of science as a basis. Those of you who have studied the life of John Quincy Adams will be amazed at how earnest his endeavors were in that direction. He seems to have been out of touch with his time. The Jacksonian uprising completely upset him. John Quincy Adams was a conservationist who believed in the central government holding on to the public lands and not giving them away. He was enormously disturbed to see in the Jack¬ sonian era the tremendous dispersion of the public lands for the speculators. The crowd that came in at that time was essentially a land speculating, gambling crowd, and they wanted to use the central government to further those instincts — altho that is stating it too brutally, perhaps. John Quincy Adams, a second generation man, saw deeply into the heart of what he believed to be the long-time welfare of the nation, and he went down under the popular fury of the moment. Now we have come to the playing out again of the same old drama. History always repeats itself but always in a different way. At this par¬ ticular time we have a situation startlingly like that of the time of the Articles of Confederation, a tremendous need for bringing order out of chaos by — you might almost say — some new type of constitution which could be operative on a worldwide scale, a cosmic sense of unity of purpose. Unless something of that sort is furnished, capitalism tends to destroy itself because of the extraordinary emphasis which it places on the individual. When you place extraordinary emphasis on the individual, it is necessary also to have some other force that commands the allegiance of the individual. As long 598 National Education Association as we had a frontier to be exploited, free land to be had, that was a sufficient centralizing force to hold us together. With the free land no longer to be had, with the business opportunities largely under the sway of the great corporations, opportunities as we have customarily looked on them in the past have gone. The new generation is largely disillusioned. Now I suspect that at this time, in order not to cause misunderstanding, it would be wise for me to indicate some of the opportunities that are here, because a person should not be a pessimist for more than a certain length of time in these. United States of America, because we are, and of right should be, an optimistic people. I will stop at this particular moment and indicate some of the opportunities of the future which I think are of concern to schoolmen. It certainly is a mistake to educate our children as tho the opportunities of the past were there, because the opportunities of the past are not there. There are new kinds of opportunities. The new kind of opportunity un¬ doubtedly has an effect on the kind of education that we should have in these United States. It would seem to me that there is going to be much more opportunity working for the government than there has been in the past, whether it is federal or state or local. Of course, I know that many business men would decry a statement of this sort because they feel there are too many people working for the government now, and yet as civilizations go on, it does seem that there are more people working for the government, and it does seem as if those people can serve useful ends if they are properly trained and if they have integrity. Of course, that is the kind of public servant we want. We have never gone at it systematically in this country to train our public servants. I think we have a splendid body of public servants, but I think they could be still more splendid if they could be better trained. If we are going at it systematically to make over the face of these United States by reforestation, by erosion control, by the proper handling of our streams, we will need men trained with the proper appreciation of forestry, erosion, stream control, wild life. I think that we are going to need people who are trained in catering more definitely to culture and recreation. Of course it is doubtless a heinous crime to speak of the need of putting people to work teaching us to play and to understand culture in times like these when so many people have difficulty in getting the bare necessities of life. But I would not be surprised if in case we did put large numbers of our people at work in this field, the rest would have more to eat and better clothes to wear than would otherwise be the case. In fact, I am practically certain that that would be true. With modern farm machinery, modern agricultural technic, with modern types of factories, we know that we can produce all that we need to eat and wear and consume, with perhaps only one-half or two-thirds of the working population that we have in this country. With our country filled up, with factories built, with pretty good school- houses (of course, we could have more), I am wondering if there is going Department of Superintendence 599 to be as much need for emphasis on the capital goods industries. I am won¬ dering if it isn’t just about time to figure out what a civilization is for anyway. Thus far we have been conquering this continent. What are we going to do after we get it conquered? Doesn’t that mean finally we have to live, and if we are going to live — well, is it criminal to enjoy ourselves? Of course, I really do not like to see recreation too much organized. My whole being revolts against that. I think it is just a contradiction in terms. But there are people who can minister to us from the standpoint of the arts and they should have an opportunity to train themselves. We all ought to have an opportunity to spend a week or two or three a year in the mountains of Tennessee and North Carolina, out in Arizona, California. With trans¬ portation as we are going to have it, with airplanes perfected, there is no reason why the most humble of us should not have the opportunity to live several weeks in a year under primitive conditions. In such case there will be needed people to keep these areas in proper condition. It is a good thing for children to have an opportunity to get out and live under primitive conditions for a month a year. All our children should have that opportunity, and they can have it. Yes, there are opportunities, I think, for teaching some of our people to appreciate possibilities of this sort. There are opportunities for teaching people also in the kind of corpora¬ tion that is to be, not the corporation that is, but the corporation that is to be. The corporation of the past will not indefinitely endure. Of course, the corporation of the past was built around the great empire builder, a great individual ; it was the lengthened shadow of a great man. And they were great men. They contributed to the building of this country mightily. As long as the corporation was in the grip of one of those great men, that cor¬ poration to some extent was a living and a vital thing. But now corporation ownership becomes increasingly dispersed and all the different individuals who own stock in the corporation become increasingly interested only in the dividends that can be paid by the corporation. I suspect that kind of corporation is worse from a social point of view than the former corporation, altho great store is placed by certain publicity men on wide distribution of stock ownership. I suspect that there are hun¬ dreds of people in this room who own stock in different corporations, and the only interest they have in those corporations is the dividends that will be returned. They do not care anything about the working conditions of the workers, and if better working conditions meant lower returns on their stocks, they would undoubtedly vote for better returns on the stock. That is part of the capitalistic spirit and each one of us is animated by that; of necessity we must be. I think the time is coming when corporations will not be completely animated by that spirit. In other words, I think the capitalistic system is going to be modified. I think when it is modified there will be opportunity for the education of young people to enter into public service by the corporation -route, just as by the route of working for the state or federal or local governments. It would be a splendid thing, altho it is a very difficult thing, if we could hold up a well-rounded ideal of the fine life on this American continent, 600 National Education Association the fine life that can be here in view of the natural resources we have, in view of the scientific understanding we have, and in view of the educated people we already have. It would be a fine thing if we could hold up that ideal and examine the different segments and say this part has to do with properly conserving and properly using our natural resources, and this part has to do with the proper functioning of our factories, and this part has to do with the proper relation between agriculture and industry, and this part has to do with the understanding of the balance between economic groups, one with the other, and this part has to do with the balance of the regions one with the other. Then if all of these are properly integrated, this is the kind of satisfaction that the people of these United States can have. Now, at the present time, if anyone held up in terms of action an ideal of that kind he would be labeled a Bolshevik, a Communist, or a Fascist, or something undemocratic and un-American. Planning has almost reached that stage where it is un-American in the minds of perhaps half the press of the country, or, we will say, in the minds of the people who manage half the press of the country. The point I am making again is that we must have a unifying purpose of some kind or we will have disintegration. Henry Adams and Brooks Adams, as they sat down and reasoned about it back in 1894 and 1895 and tried to plot the course of history, reached the conclusion and went on record that a significant crisis would come about 1917, and after that, another crisis about 1921. I think that was Henry Adams’ approach. Brooks Adams rather disagreed and thought the crisis would come in 1930. They were reasoning purely from the forces — of well, from what they called the degradation of democratic dogma — from that tendency on the part of freely competing forces eventually to precipitate inevitable conflicts, finding their ourcome either by war or by economic conflict. Now it may be that at the present time we have enough inflation in prospect so that we are going to get off the hot spot again in the same way that was described in the Adams book. I think it was Brooks Adams who said he thought the inflation was coming on fast enough to save not only the Adams fortunes but also to save the capitalistic structure for the moment. Now it may be that that is coming on again, this time fast enough. The curious thing at that time, of course, was that the gold bugs were saved in spite of themselves because of the very rapid production of new gold. It may be that the modern equivalent of the gold bugs of 1895 will again be saved in spite of themselves by the wild men from the West and the silver- ites and so on. And it might be that the things which the wild men from the West are primarily interested in would be much more quickly and surely obtained if there were no inflation at all. I question whether we are going to have as long a period to play with the economic forces as we had following 1896. We had from 1896 to 1914 to play with them, that time before the seeds of conflict precipitated the World War. This time if we get our inflation, I don’t think it will last that long. Now if I may come a little closer to the immediate problem, let me go over ground which is very familiar to me but may not be so familiar to you. Department of Superintendence 601 Let me state another thesis. The problem, as I see it at the moment, is to discover that balance between liberty on the one hand and security on the other, which, referred continually to the hard facts of the situation, will enable us to maintain our democratic approach to government. We have always in the course of democracy had to discover the appropriate moving equilibrium between liberty and security. In times of stress we always give up liberty in favor of security ; in times of great war we do. In times of depression we give up a considerable amount of liberty in favor of security. Before the World War, the United States was a debtor nation, owed Europe every year in interest charges over $150,000,000. The European nations liked to use our wheat and cotton and lard and tobacco, and they were able to buy as much of the farm products as they did because of that $150,000,000 interest we owed. During the World War, we loaned foreign nations a lot of money, ten or fifteen billion dollars, and after the World War ended, we loaned some more. The outside nations still wanted our farm products and they purchased the product of some 60,000,000 acres of land, directly and indirectly; that is, directly they purchased the product of perhaps 50,000,000 acres of land, and then the horses that were necessary to keep up that 50,000,000 acres of land consumed the products, we will say, of another 10,000,000 acres. Well, they continued after the World War to purchase our products because we loaned them money to the extent of an average of more than $500,000,000 annually. That made it possible to bring about a balance because of the loaning. We were able to export because we loaned. That came to an end in 1930; that is, we stopped loaning on long-time accounts. In 1930 we started loaning on short-term accounts to some extent but didn’t loan as much. The thing blew up. Farm prices went to pieces. The export farmers producing export products were in trouble. When they were in trouble, they stopped buying things from the cities. Factories were closed down. Then the farmers who produced things for the cities in the East were in trouble. All farmers were in trouble. Since 1933, foreign purchasing power has been in part renewed because we have increased the price of gold. Because we bid up for gold, more than a billion dollars came into this country during the past year. Because more than a billion dollars came into this country the past year, foreign nations were able to continue to buy considerable quantities of our stuff. How long we will be able to continue to import a billion dollars of gold annually, I do not know. I do not know how long the rest of the world will let us have it. Of course, they are producing more gold now ; maybe that can go on for quite some time. I do know that eventually we either will have to write off the debts owed us from outside, or we will have to accept increased quanti¬ ties of goods from abroad. The American people still believe that they can export large quantities of goods without importing. It cannot be done. Sooner or later you have to face the fact. You cannot dodge the situation indefinitely by monetary measures, by loaning money to other nations, by increasing the price of gold, 602 National Education Association by remonetizing silver or anything of that sort. All of those things may get you off the hot spot for a period of years. The loaning of money abroad got us off the hot spot for a period of ten years. We dodged the facts for ten years. Other monetary measures may get us off the hot spot again for a period of years. They won’t do it indefinitely. That is one of the hard facts. I do not see how that fact can be controverted by any thoughtful person. The American people are completely incapable at the present time of acting in conformity with that fact, completely incapable. There is just no sign of acting in conformity with that fact as yet. But I think they know ten times as much about that situation as they knew two years ago. Our agricultural adjustment program has driven it home in a very dramatic way. We took out of use this past year 36,000,000 acres of land that was producing those crops which we sell to the foreign markets. We took out of use land which was in those crops of which there was a surplus. You see when this Administration came into power, we had nearly three times the normal carryover of cotton, nearly three times the normal carry¬ over of wheat. Next July 1, which is the time when they calculate the carryover of wheat, we will still have, I suppose, 10 or 15 percent more than the normal carryover, in spite of the two shortest wheat crops in the past forty years. The shortness was due much more to weather than it was to our activities. In spite of that, we will still have more than the normal wheat carryover next July 1. We will still have nearly twice the normal carryover of cotton next August 1. Because of the drought, there is going to be a very real consumer outcry concerning the high cost of farm products during the next seven or eight months, and that outcry may also be made against the agri¬ cultural adjustment program. I trust that it will not have a damaging effect on the long-time aspect of the agricultural adjustment program, altho it is just the kind of thing that can be played up by special interests to create continuing discord. It is a disadvantage of the democratic process that newspapers, for example, like to catch a situation of this sort and build it up, get delegations acting this way and that way and the other way, without any concept about what will bring the ultimate harmonious balance among groups, With ordinary weather next year, we will again have a very great surplus of farm products within a year or two, because the surplus acres, the product of which we formerly sold abroad, are still there. School teachers, because they are on a salary, instinctively, of course, have the consumer point of view. Instinctively, they hold up their hands in horror at the agricultural adjustment program, unless their minds have been awakened to the fundamentals of the situation. The economically sound thing is to bring a large enough volume of imports into this country so that foreign purchasing power is restored for the product of 50,000,000 acres. That is what farmers would like, of course. But that cannot be done hastily. Otherwise, factories, especially here on the Atlantic seaboard, will suffer grave dislocations which will throw people out of work. Yes, we are Department of Superintendence 603 caught on the horns of a most terrible dilemma and there is no way out that is painless. We have never previous to 1914 had to face a dilemma of this sort in this country. The Adams brothers in the ’90’s foresaw the fundamental metaphysical, spiritual causes of eventual conflict. They were digging deep. But the thing had not been dramatized in the clear-cut physical statistical way that it has since the World War. Now we have the tension applied to the people of the United States in such a manner that we cannot escape, and if we endeavor to escape, we will suffer from the most extraordinary suffering. If we endeavor to escape altogether by cheap, temporary means, we will suffer eventually from extra¬ ordinary chaos and disintegration, and there will be no escape. The point which I wish to leave with you in closing is that all our teach¬ ing must eventually, should eventually, for the sake of the nation, for the sake of the world, center around the development of a unified sense of purpose. That unified sense of purpose should not be crystallized prema¬ turely; it should not be given a too definite outline. It seems to me that it is necessary, because the goal is never attained, to have the thought that all our endeavors are invaded by the eternal. Of course, our schools cannot teach any particular type of religion, but there is a central core to all religions which can appropriately permeate all school teaching. I examined some little time ago the social creed of the Protestant church, as adopted from time to time by the Federal Council of Churches since 1908. I have examined the Jewish social creed as it was set forth at one of the rabbinical gatherings in 1928, the Catholic social creed as it was set forth especially in the Papal Encyclical, “ Quadragesimo Anno.” I find in those creeds, there is to some extent a social core of central doc¬ trine; there is no conflict about certain matters. I do not see why that should not be at the back of all our school teaching, and even more than that. Fundamentally, my criticism of capitalism is exactly the same as my criticism of Communism and Fascism. They are all shot thru with the same fundamental error, it seems to me, which is the error of materialism, which eventually brings material destruction. That is, the great blessing of capitalism was the emphasis on the individual ; the great curse of capital¬ ism is the way its ends tend to be stated in purely material terms. From that point of view, I look on capitalism and Communism and Fascism as all of a piece; they are materialistic and godless. The type of education that eventually will prove fruitful will be an edu¬ cation which holds forth an ideal of something which is on beyond, which recognizes the intangible, which recognizes forces outside of the material¬ istic universe but always refers that kind of subtle, intangible attitude to the hard physical facts. So that there is this continual interchange of conscious¬ ness between the metaphysical and the material. Now that particular attitude cannot be given definite formulation, but it is an attitude of mind which can be contagious. Eventually, I suspect it can be given a certain amount of formulation, but what I have been trying 604 National Education Association to say is in the nature of a function, a habit of mind, an attitude toward that part of the universe which cannot be comprehended by the human mind. I wonder if you remember the words of Pascal. Pascal said that when you knew just a little bit, your knowledge was like a small circle, contact¬ ing the unknown ; when you knew a great deal, it was like a large circle, contacting the unknown; and the more you knew, the more there was to be known. It seems to me that that is appropriate to be in the minds of all educators. I agree with John Dewey, it is important not to teach a particular body of doctrine, but to teach people to think. But tho I would go with John Dewey’s school, I would have this quarrel : they possibly are staying too close to earth (maybe I am doing the school an injustice), too close to the material. At any rate, I observe that certain offshoots of that school tend in their emphasis on the material to bring about situations which result in bitter strife. It seems to me that if we are to have unity of purpose, we must get away from this tendency of group to fight against group, region against region, the tendency towards disintegration. We must emphasize those things which have to do with unity of purpose. The men who worked out the Constitution of the United States tried to work out a certain framework; they laid the maximum of emphasis on liberty as distinguished from duty. They laid emphasis on rights, on free¬ dom. I think, now that the world is filled up, that we are going to have to lay an increasing emphasis on security, on duty, on responsibility, on the things that hold humanity together, rather than the things that tend to drive humanity apart. GENERAL SESSION, THURSDAY AFTERNOON, j FEBRUARY 28, 1935 THE CITY ROOM AND THE SCHOOL ROOM HEYWOOD BROUN, NEWSPAPER MAN, NEW YORK, N. Y. I had written out a speech for this session of a slightly humorous and harmonizing nature, but I attended the morning session here, so I am going to tear my speech up and speak without it. It is not my intention to be humorous; it is my intention to be rude. I am sorry, because I am a guest of this convention, and yet, “ God help me, I can do no other,” because I sat here this morning and I was shocked. I sat and listened to the Resolutions Committee come in with its report on academic freedom and the Resolutions Committee said in effect that they had thought of not bringing anything on academic freedom at all and they only added it as an afterthought because they felt it might be dangerous. They felt it might be dangerous because they would be put in the position of defending certain teachers and professors who had gone back to Moscow. I wonder whether the superintendents of the schools have the nerve to go back to the Declaration of Independence. Department of Superintendence 605 I wonder whether it means anything when a body says, “ We believe in academic freedom, but we will set up no machinery whatsoever to fight for it.” When a man says, “ I believe in something but I will not fight for it,” I challenge his belief. I applaud those men in the schools and colleges who are called the radical group. We have had from the beginning of America a sufficient radicalism of our own from our forefathers which we should keep alive and defend today. This convention has been afraid of mentioning even the name of William Randolph Hearst. This convention has said in effect that if Mr. William Randolph Hearst attacks a professor, that is news; if a professor attacks William Randolph Hearst, that is not news. This convention will say nothing about it and the great press associations of this country will say nothing about it, either. This convention is willing to sit here smugly and say, “ We live under the oligarchy of newspaper publishers who can come to every Senator, every Representative, and even to the President of the United States and say, ‘ This is what the Associ¬ ated Newspaper Publishers of America want, and we defy you to do otherwise.’ ” I say there will be no freedom of the press or no other kind of freedom until that oligarchy is blasted. You have talked about Reds, not on the floor of this convention, but up and down the corridors and you have not even made a scholarly ap¬ proach. Nobody has attempted to define what the word “ Red ” means. I will guarantee to take the most conservative member of this assembly and find some spot in America where his views will be considered extreme and radical. In the case of a few members of the Superintendence convention, I might have to take them deep into the hills of a backwoods state, but still I could find the spot where their views would be considered extreme and radical. “ Redness ” is a local issue in America. What is called traditional, rather old traditions, A. F. of L., trade unionism, in New York, in the Imperial Valley of California is Red Communism. I say that no document has ever been written more radical than the Declaration of Independence. Did the men who signed the Declaration of Independence say, “ No, we won’t sign it, it is too dangerous”? They did not. Every man who signed that knew he was putting his head in a noose. I think we have had a cock-eyed idea in teaching American history in the schools. We have taught the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States. On the contrary, we should teach the Declaration of In¬ dependence, but the Constitution of the United States. The documents are mutually exclusive. One was written by men drunk with danger and peril, men who knew when they signed their names they might be hanged if the cause of the Revolution was lost, and then they won. And after anybody has won anything, privilege and property rights come in. When our forefathers sat down to form a constitution, they were not of the same mind as when they signed the Declaration of Independence. They began then to set up the system of checks and balances. It may be 606 National Education Association true that even Jefferson himself had his fingers crossed when he wrote that all men are created free and equal. I assume that he did not mean negroes when he wrote that. I know perfectly well from reading some of his let¬ ters that he didn’t mean women, but there are the words. I say words are stronger than the man who wrote them; there they stand. “All men are created free and equal.” Now that does not mean that our forefathers wanted to establish an economic set-up in which the star of Bethlehem — Mr. Grace — could draw down incentive bonuses of $12,000,000 in the space of a few years. That was not the intention of Thomas Jefferson. Try and teach that in the schools of Bethlehem and see what happens to you. So I say I am glad that the superintendents do not own the schools. They do not even fight for them because there is a ferment working which will make good academic freedom. I know perfectly well that those brave and bold professors who have stuck their necks out, who have taken an advance position, who have fulfilled the best traditions of American history in saying that we can discuss the whole length of views of all mankind* are in danger. I know that they will be sniped at. I fear that they will be shot down and you superintendents will sit there smugly and let them be shot. But after they are gone, there will still stand on the walls of every schoolhouse the Declaration of Independence and the phrase that all men are created free and equal, and other men will rise up to fight for that phrase and to make it good. Your Resolutions Committee said that to set up any mechanism to en¬ force academic freedom was too dangerous. What is education but a dan¬ gerous adventure? Every tyrant, every oligarchy has always known that education is dangerous. Even democracies must realize that education is explosive and I say that no man is completely educated until he has been taken to a high point and shown the kingdoms of the world, the kingdoms of ideas, past, present, and future, those which are good and those which are bad, even those dreams and visions of mankind which may never come into being. When he is in that high place, he may grow dizzy and fall, but if he comes back to earth again after having seen the kingdoms of the world, there is your educated man and there is no other. I read in the papers a few days ago that a professor at West Point, a colonel, wanted to establish a university where patriotism should be taught — just patriotism, nothing else. Well, now, I don’t know exactly how you would go about teaching patriotism. His schedule was that anybody who disagreed with the patriotic ideas set forth by the faculty of this civilian university should immediately be expelled. I believe that even those who feel that patriotism means an absolute fidelity to the existing order — and I do not believe that — are wrong in thinking of this secluded education in which no outside ideas may come in. I will tell you briefly one small anecdote of my own experience in col¬ lege. I went to Harvard. I lived in Weld Hall and across the way there was a young man, who used to conduct revival meetings every night. Department of Superintendence 607 Sometimes nobody came, but he would conduct the revival meeting just the same. He made a lot of noise and when we remonstrated with him, he told his sad story. His sad story was that his father was a militant atheist and would not allow him to have access to the Bible. The boy had never seen the Bible until he was eighteen years old. When he first met the Bible at the age of eighteen, well, it kind of knocked him for a loop, as you might say. He took it very hard. He is now a missionary in China. I don’t know whether that is lamentable or not, but it was not his father’s intention. So I say the only way to educate people is to show them the full scope of the world and then let them choose. I was a pupil in school and teach¬ ers assigned me certain things to do when I came late. I think that this convention is very late, and I am going to give you a little assignment before I sit down. Go home, take paper and pencil and write in a legible hand one thousand times. “All men are created free and equal.” And then come back to your next convention and decide whether or not you are going to fight for academic freedom. Thank you ! President Oberholtzer: Now, for your information, there were no restrictions of time put on our speaker who just finished. I think from vour applause, you want him to go on. Heywood Broun : I didn’t mean to stop entirely on that note, because I was viewing with alarm. If you will let me have about three minutes to point with pride, I would like to point with pride. I feel, and I have said, and I say it very sincerely, that we are under an oligarchy of newspaper publishers. I have here a newspaper clipping. You may or may not know that Dr. Beard made a very severe attack on William Randolph Hearst here in Atlantic City. The merit of that attack does not need to concern us. I, frankly, of course, was all with Dr. Beard. But, at any rate, Dr. Beard is a great educator, the dean of American historians, and when he stood up before some 900 people in the Traymore Hotel (it was not an official session of the convention, I know that; it was a group of educators) and attacked Hearst in very violent terms, I contend that is news. I have been a newspaper man for twenty-eight years and I don’t think any newspaper man will say that wasn’t news. I have here a clipping from the Pittsbui'gh Press. The Pittsburgh Press carried a column of mine commenting on the speech. They were puzzled as to what was this speech, so they put a little editorial note. They copied it out of the New York Times. Let’s give due credit to the Times. The Times printed the speech in full. It says here in the editor’s note in the Pittsburgh Press: “ The speech above referred to by Heywood Broun was not received by the Press thru its regular telegraphic services.” That means that the U. P. and the A. P. decided we don’t want to send out that kind of a story. Now the individual press might say, “ Uncle Charlie was talking pretty severely. Maybe we could be sued for libel.” Press associations can’t be sued for libel. They simply send out the news to be printed or spiked, as the individual subscriber to the service may choose. Press associations are supposed to be simply pipe lines to disseminate news and not to exercise editorial judgment. That is left to the local papers. 20 608 National Education Association Now I want to go on from there to say that I feel there is a way out. I think the way out is by a combination, by the bringing together of all those people who mold public opinion. I speak of newspaper men, I speak naturally of teachers, I speak of authors, dramatists, screen writers, radio broadcasters, and ministers. I think we should have an association of writ¬ ers and educators, a convention in which we can get together and discuss what are the forces behind the molding of public opinion. For instance, I think it is pertinent to know, if a newspaper man, a newspaper owner, is constantly writing about a very big navy, I would like to know whether he has a financial interest in steel companies or in munitions companies. I think we have a right to know that, because pub¬ lishers say that they are defending the freedom of the press, they are giv¬ ing public service. I think we have a right to know who owns the owner, what is behind this editorial expression which you find in various papers. I do not fear the man on horseback, but I do fear the man behind a flat topped desk who can reach out and push a button and say, “ Let’s have a war with Mexico,” and start going those forces of the radio, the press, the pulpit, and the screen which make wars possible. I was talking only about two weeks ago with a French newspaper man, and he said, “ Of course, all we French newspaper men know now that before the Great War every one of us was set to telling lies about Ger¬ many. And, of course, every newspaper man in Germany was telling lies about France, and everybody in England was telling lies about Austria, and in Turkey, about Serbia, and in Serbia, about Turkey.” Wars are not possible unless you have those front line troops, those people who come before the cavalry, the airplanes, the infantry, and the tanks. That is the liars’ division, the people who come running, walking, crawling on their bellies, to make all things possible for the next war. I do not care how benevolent, how high-minded this little group in America or any other country may be, I could name ten or twelve men who control, who own the media of public expression. That is too small a group. Let us get together, let us organize, we who write for papers, we who teach, we who broadcast, we who write books, we who write maga¬ zine articles. Let’s get together in a loose confederation, nothing radical about it, simply an organization of the molders of public opinion to find out whether each and every one is writing on his own or whether he is being pushed by some sinister force which he doesn’t even realize. This is not fantastic. It will only take a few moves to achieve it. Already the authors of America are organized in the Authors’ League. The dram¬ atists are organized in the Dramatists’ Guild. The screen writers are or¬ ganized in the Screen Writers’ Guild, and they are already joined with the Authors’ League. You have three of the groups already. There is then the Newspaper Guild, the Union of Writing Newspaper Men and Women. We have been talking, and I assume will join with that group. Then we can take in the teachers, any group you please, and have a radical union, a conservative group, each group prescribing its own autonomy but meeting once a year and under the leadership, let’s say, of a president and Department of Superintendence 609 a council having no more than advisory power, to discuss the common problems of education. Certainly education is not contained within the four walls of a school¬ room. You cannot profess to say when you get the child in the schoolroom that you tell him or can tell him that he is living wholly in the light of Lincoln and in the tradition of Washington and Jefferson, because the moment he gets out, he is going to pick up a paper and the headlines are Hauptmann and Huey Long. You have got to have some concerted effort on all these forces which mold the children* of America. You have got to get together, you have got to talk together. I am sorry if I was rude in the beginning, because I want to harmonize. I want to say that, of course, we want academic freedom. You want aca¬ demic freedom ; we want freedom of the press and freedom of speech. I say you cannot leave those things to a small group of publishers. A pub¬ lisher interprets freedom of speech to mean that he can print what he pleases and throw away the rest. I am not asking for any propaganda drive at all. I don’t think the school should send out a batch of children or a batch of adolescents with air cushions to sit on for the rest of their lives, I don’t care what color those air cushions are. I say schools should send out people who have been sufficiently educated to make a free choice, and I am not so partisan as to say there is only one choice. But I say there is no choice possible, no choice important, until you know the whole realm of choices. Now let’s get together with a dignity which has never been known be¬ fore among newspaper men and teachers and authors and ministers and screen writers. If I say I think you are afraid of certain things, I do think you are, and you have every reason to be afraid. I am a newspaper man and I am very much afraid of certain publishers. I know their power, but I say the essence of power, the true base should be not those who own the media of expression, but those who actually write and talk and do the stuff themselves. It belongs to us. Let’s make it our common heritage and make no rule except we will preserve the integrity of the news, the integrity of truth, and that is good enough for anybody’s cause. SO CONCEIVED AND SO DEDICATED WILLIAM F. RUSSELL, DEAN, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. In a recent publication Mr. Hoover states that the American people are faced by the “ issue of human liberty.” “ The whole philosophy of individual liberty is under attack.” “ In haste to bring under control the sweeping so¬ cial forces unleashed by the political and economic dislocations of the World War, by the tremendous advances in productive technology during the last quarter-century, by failure to march with a growing sense of justice, people and governments are blindly wounding, even destroying those fundamental human liberties which have been the foundation and inspiration of progress 610 National Education Association since the Middle Ages.” “ Men and women have died . . . that the human spirit might be free — at Plymouth Rock, at Lexington, at Valley Forge, at Yorktown, at New Orleans, at every step of the Western Frontier, at Appomattox, at San Juan Hill, in the Argonne.” “ Liberty,” continues Mr. Hoover, “ is freedom to worship, to think, to hold opinions, to speak without fear, to choose one’s own calling, to de¬ velop his talents, to win and keep a home sacred from intrusion, to rear children in ordered security, to earn, to spend, to save, and to accumulate property honestly.” • This, a political faith, and today “ voices of discouragement join with voices of other political faiths to assert that an irreconcilable conflict has arisen in which liberty must be sacrificed on the altar of the Machine Age.” Once again the United States of America faces the test whether a “ nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure.” Altho he does not say so directly, Mr. Hoover implies that recent governmental measures have gone so far toward national regimentation that they violate the liberties of the American people, and hence are in conflict with the American tradition. Mr. Hoover is not the only critic of the New Deal. There are cannons to the right and cannons to the left, and they all volley and thunder. Some view the future thru red-colored spectacles, and some thru blue, and the Administration turns its cheek. The New Deal is too radical. The New Deal is too conservative. It has gone too far. It has not gone far enough. In the club car, in the locker room, and at the nineteenth hole there is one opinion. Over the dinner pail there is another. To one group, President Roosevelt is almost a communist ; to the other the epitome of capitalism. To illustrate the opposition of the left wing, I turn to the publications of a movement known as New America. The address is given as Chicago. I know nothing of the organization, save that some of its directors are mem¬ bers of the Continental Committee on Technocracy. It has a youth section. Many of its statements are reminiscent of those of certain professors that I know. In its publications it has adopted the pamphleteering technic used by the Jacobin Clubs during the French Revolution. The argument of this school of thought starts in agreement with that of Mr. Hoover. “ The American nation now stands facing the greatest crisis in its history.” But there the similarity ceases. “ Have you lost your job?” New America asks, “ Is your child thru high school, thru college, and now can’t get a job, or a decent kind of a job? Have you lost your savings ? Has your mortgage been foreclosed ? The economic machine has broken down. Millions have been deprived of security — they are losing their savings, their homes, their farms, the opportunity to educate their children.” “ We stand,” they say, “ confused and baffled . . . between dis¬ astrous economic and social breakdown on the one hand, and unheard of economic and social possibilities on the other.” The American people have had “ their heritage taken away from them,” and they are now being “ denied their future ” by the profit system. This we are urged to destroy and in¬ augurate in its stead a new social order. “ The change must be adequately prepared for, but it must be speedy and thoro.” The goals reminiscent of Department of Superintendence 611 technocracy are: (1) “to adjust production to measured consumption re¬ quirements ” ; (2) “to eliminate private ownership (making) profit, rent and interest both unnecessary and impossible (3) “ reduce the time and energy spent in necessary economic pursuit to a minimum ” ; and (4) “ end unemployment and crises, abolish poverty, enable maximum prevention of crime and disease, and stimulate the arts and sciences.” “ New America stands for the continuous development of the social order in which there shall be no class divisions or distinctions and no discriminations on account of race or sex; in which all able-bodied persons participate in some neces¬ sary function of society; in which the principle of maximum and minimum income obtains.” “ New America springs from American needs — continues the American Revolutionary tradition and plans to realize the American dream of equalitarian social democracy.” To Mr. Hoover the philosophy of “ National Regimentation ” is “ the very negation of American liberalism.’' To New America, unless “ profit system ... be replaced with a planned and democratically controlled social economy,” we shall not have realized the? American dream. Mr. Hoover would “ recall our American heritage.” New America, by drawing the “ plans and blueprints of the new society,” would restore the “ ideals which are our American heritage.” Here we find repeated reference to the same ideals, and at the same time the means of realizing them as far apart as the poles. Here we are con¬ fronted with diametrically opposed social philosophies which nevertheless appeal to the same justification in history. Is it simply oratory? Are both sides merely waving the flag? Surely we could not accuse Mr. Hoover of trying to deceive us; nor am I convinced that the New America pamphlets are written by dishonest men. Can it be possible that both are right ? If one were to ask the thinking American for the ideals of his country, the reply would include such slogans as “ life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness,” “ give me liberty or give me death,” “ our liberties we prize and our rights we will maintain,” “ no taxation without representation,” “ all men are created free and equal,” and “ all governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed.” Lincoln summed it up when he said, “ Four-score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposi¬ tion that all men are created equal.” Could liberty and equality as ideals require such diverse means for their realization? To examine this possi¬ bility it would be necessary to study the history and relation of the two ideals. We could begin with the ideal of liberty among the ancients. We could follow the progress toward political liberty thru Magna Charta, the Peti¬ tion of Right, the Bill of Rights, and the Habeas Corpus Act. We could show the development of freedom of worship, thought, and speech ; and the gradual realization of the possibility of liberating the powers of man from superstition, disease, and ignorance thru the work of Roger and Francis Bacon, Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Diderot. We could trace the extension of the idea of liberty to industry, agriculture, and commerce 612 National Education Association by following the physiocrats, Quesnay and Turgot, and later on Adam Smith who developed the idea of laissez faire ; and we should certainly assess the contributions of Condorcet, who not only advocated liberty in all its aspects, but in his report to the National Convention in 1793, revealed the role of education, universal, lay, public education, and even adult edu¬ cation as necessary to the achievement of liberty. These ideas were brought to America by some of the first settlers, who wanted liberty for themselves but not for others ; and were sponsored in their broader conception by Ben¬ jamin Franklin, Thomas Paine, John Adams, and many others. It is in¬ teresting to trace the influence of English and French thought upon Wash¬ ington, Hamilton, and Dewitt Clinton, upon Madison, John Marshall, and Monroe. “ Sweet land of liberty ” was no accident. The “ land of the brave and the free ” did not “ just grow.” It was the culmination of the aspiration and the sacrifice of many generations. In a similar way, the ideal of equality goes far back. There is the state¬ ment about the camel and the eye of the needle. Consider the account of the Peasants’ Revolt in England in 1381 and the following extract from a sermon which Froissart attributed to John Ball: A ye good people, the maters gothe nat well to passe in Englande, nor shall nat do tyll euery thyng be comon; and that there be no villayns nor gentylmen, but that we may be all vnyed toguyder, and that the lordes be no greatter maisters than we be. What haue we deserued, or why shulde we be kept thus in seruage? We be all come fro one father and one mother, Adam and Eue; whereby can they say or shewe that they be gretter lorder than we be? sauynge by that they cause vs to wyn and labour, for that they dispende; they ar clothed in veluet and chamlet furred with grise, and we vestured with pore cloths; They haue their wynes, spyces and good breed, and we haue the drawyng out of the chaffe, and drinke water; they dwell in fayre houses, and we haue the payne and traueyle, rayne, and wynde in the feldes; and by that that cometh of our labours they kepe and maynteyne their estates. John Ball, Wat Tyler, and Jack Straw gave their lives for equality, but the ideal went marching on. Sometimes it flamed into open revolt. More often it was hidden behind closed doors. John Locke gave it a great ad¬ vance when he announced not only that the mind at birth was an empty tablet, but that in consequence all distinctions and discriminations were the result of what went on in the world. Men were unequal only because men themselves made them so. This was taken up by Helvetius and d’Holbach and by that most eloquent molder of public opinion, Jean Jacques Rousseau. In America equality had a home on the frontier and in the minds of a few leaders like Thomas Jefferson, but certainly it was not welcome among the planters of the South, the patroons, nor among the holders of patents from the King. Liberty and equality sound well together, Liberte and Egalite grace buildings in France as an inscription. Lincoln coupled them in the Gettys¬ burg Address. But they have never liked each other. Liberty and equality have always been locked in a struggle of life and death. Read Voltaire’s comments on Helvetius and Rousseau. Note the controversy between Department of Superintendence 613 d’Holbach and Turgot. Hamilton, the exponent of liberty, and Jefferson the advocate of equality, fought all their lives. The French Revolution admirably illustrates the conflict. The National Assembly, first in control of the liberals, the believers in liberty, men like Mirabeau and Camille DesMoulins drafted the Declaration of the Rights of Man, to guarantee freedom of the person, freedom of worship, of speech, of the press ; and it tried to liberate commerce and industry, by taking the government out of business. Then came the National Convention and Marat and Robespierre with their passion for equality, which not only put the government back, but even guillotined the wealthy. “ The deepest cause which made the French Revolution so disastrous to liberty,” says Lord Acton, “ was its theory of equality.” The struggle between liberty and equality is equally apparent in our own history. Equality loomed large in 1776 and stood first in the Declara¬ tion of Independence. By 1787 it had waned; Jefferson was in France, and liberty was supreme in the Constitutional Convention. The Federalist Papers, written by Hamilton, Jay, and Madison, in justifying the pro¬ posed constitution to the people, made not a single reference to equality. If we were to paint the canvas with broad quick strokes, I should say that the equalitarians drafted the Declaration of Independence, and the Ordinance of 1785 ; the liberals drafted the Constitution, and held the power until the time of Andrew Jackson;, the liberals founded the colleges, and fostered the local control of schools. But it was the equalitarians who built up school funds, demanded state departments of education, and developed our system of public schools. It was working men’s societies and fraternal organizations who held up the hands of Horace Mann, Gideon Hawley, and Henry Barnard. We have always had organizations in the United States that preferred equality to liberty. There have been Coxey’s Armies, I.W.W.’s, Non¬ partisan Leagues, and Single Taxers. They say with New America, “ Why must millions go undernourished and underclad ? Why must 90 percent of farm homes, 80 percent of those in villages, and 35 percent in towns be without sanitary plumbing? Why must millions be deprived of the sports, the travel, the scientific knowledge which the few now enjoy? ” These are the same questions which John Ball asked 554 years ago. Can’t we have equality? Certainly, say the technologists. Assuredly, say the “ frontier thinkers,” but we must have a new social order. Why? This depression is not like any other depression. Technology, particularly since the war, has made such changes that we may term our times The Second Industrial Revolution , or The Pozver Age. Just as the invention of the spinning jenny and the power loom once changed the whole fabric of English society, so modern technology is forcing profound alterations in our social structure. The present situation is different from any that has gone before because modern business enterprise for the first time is able to bring “ under one central control all necessary raw materials and fuel resources, the mecha¬ nism of transport and communication, the mechanism of fabrication and as¬ sembling of parts to produce the completed article of consumption.” For- 614 National Education Association merly this unification was impossible. Capitalists had to wait until four developments had been made ; great central generating stations capable of “ transmitting power over long distances,” “ machines of great force and cleverness,” “ vast and precise machine tools with which to make these ma¬ chines,” and “ precise measuring instruments,” without which quantity pro¬ duction would be confined to products of the cruder sort. With these great organizations of production, run according to new technics, the necessities of man can be produced by straight line production methods, in great quantities at little cost, and with little human labor. “ Stuart Chase now es¬ timates,” I again quote from New America two years ago, “ allowing for new machines and methods, with a forty-hour week, 12,200,000 will be out of work in 1934.” These frontier thinkers claim that we can produce faster than we can secure the means to purchase, that the present price system, private owner¬ ship, and all the economy of a capitalistic society based upon laissez faire have broken down, and that technology will destroy us. With Rugg they view the past and state: “ This depression is not a mere fourteenth instal¬ ment paying time (referring to thirteen previous depressions). It is a day of inventory and final reckoning !’ But, say the technocrats, we can save this societ5^. We can give everybody an equal treatment. We will provide each person not with a happy hunting ground, not with ten acres and a mule, but with everything that an income of $20,000 a year will buy (Howard Scott) or $4000 a year (Goodwin Watson). We will give you equality. To be sure, we must have a planned economy. Consider America as a unit from the Panama Canal to Hudson Bay, and we will organize the entire social and industrial life. We will determine by technics that we have mastered the capacity for consumption of the American people and we will plan production to match it. We will keep the engine running evenly. We will readjust at intervals. We will tell people what work they are to do, and provide everybody with everything that it is good for them to have. All this can be done, say the technocrats, by adults from twenty- one to forty-five working for a few hours a day for a few days a week. There wifi be no depressions, no money, prices, debts, taxes, bankers, law¬ yers, insurance, poor relief, or charity. And there will be no liberty, either, say the liberals. This is what they are trying to do in Russia, in Italy, and in Germany. The frontier thinkers, the technocrats, the communists can talk all they like about democratic control. It will not work that way. Even the slight efforts in this direction under the New Deal show that orders go with control. True, it may bring a little more equality, but, “ Give me liberty or give me death.” True Amer¬ icans, as contrasted with New Americans, would rather live without a bathtub and be free. So to come back to our original argument. When Mr. Hoover refers to America as a “ nation so conceived and so dedicated,” he is thinking more of “ conceived in liberty ” than of “ dedicated to equality.” New America, in referring to American ideals, is thinking more of equality than of liberty. Department of Superintendence 615 In fact, it dismisses freedom with a few generalities. Nevertheless, both are in the American tradition. The trouble is that the American Dream is double, and liberty and equal¬ ity harmonize only in speech. The words look well together, but the ideas behind the words have always been in conflict. If you have liberty to the full, you cannot have equality. If you have equality to the full, you cannot have liberty. If you have more liberty, you will have less equality. If you have more equality, you will have less liberty; and America, up to now, has adopted the policy of the middle course. We say we want just as much liberty as we can have with some equality, or just as much equality as we can have with some liberty. During some periods the pendulum swung toward liberty, at others toward equality. Never was the trend toward liberty strong enough to satisfy a Hamilton. Never was the trend toward equality powerful enough to satisfy a Norman Thomas or an Upton Sin¬ clair. We pursued a middle course. And in this case, a middle course, a synthesis, a compromise, if you will, is the strong position. We have seen extremists in either direction bring destruction in their wake. For men are so constituted that they want both liberty and equality; and they cannot eat their cake and have it too. Hence, half a loaf is better than none. So the political economist in the United States has no pattern to follow. There is no exact point at which he can aim. We want as much liberty as we can get, but only so much as will be consistent with the equality we want. This will be the task rather for the artist and philosopher, demand¬ ing a delicate sense of balance. It will require a process of feel and fumble, of trial and error, of adjustment and readjustment, and gradual approxima¬ tion. This is what we have had for one hundred and fifty years. It is the only road to success. When Americans come generally to realize the double characteristic of their national aims, they will see more clearly and be more charitable to the similar division in the ranks of our educators. There we have liberals and equalitarians, too. Educators who hold more to liberty are not advo¬ cating radical changes in our school system. They do not think that we need a new social order, hence education does not have to build one. It is their belief that the future citizen should be trained upon well-recognized prece¬ dents. They will give a liberal education, that is an education fit for a liber — a free man — and they will try to make him resourceful and indepen¬ dent. They will do their best to promote simplicity, probity, charity, and patriotism and to provide that curb on selfishness and greed that only a good education can give. But there are also equalitarians in education. They believe that educa¬ tion has a new function to perform in this world. Education must lead the way. Professors and teachers must envision the new social order, and in the schools and thru the schools, lead our country toward it. “ If the school is to justify its maintenance and assume its responsibilities,’’ says the Report of the Social Studies Commission of the American Historical Association , “ it must recognize the new order and proceed to equip the rising genera- 616 National Education Association tion to cooperate effectively in the increasingly interdependent society and to live rationally and well within its limitations and possibilities. As educa¬ tion continues to emphasize the philosophy of individualism in economy, it will increase the accompanying social tensions. If it organizes a program in terms of a philosophy which harmonizes with the facts of a closely in¬ tegrated society, it will have the strains of a transition taking place in ac¬ tuality. The making of choices cannot be evaded, for inaction in education is a form of action. “ From this point of view, a supreme purpose of education in the United States, in addition to the development of rich and many-sided personalities, is the preparation of the rising generation to enter the society now coming into being thru thought, ideal, and knowledge, rather than thru coercion, regimentation, and ignorance ; and to shape the form of that society in ac¬ cordance with American ideals of popular democracy and personal liberty and dignity.” Thus in education, we also have two groups, one for a continuation and gentle amelioration of the past, one for a new social order, one to improve the present economic system, one to substitute for it something radically different. One speaks of recovery and regeneration, the other of “ a whole new civilization ” ; one thinks of liberty more than equality, the other of equality more than liberty. I suppose that most schoolmasters belong to one camp or the other — and having made their choice, they wonder how anyone of good sense could have belonged to the other. In a university known to me, where there are many professors and students divided into these two schools, with all sorts of gradations from right to left, much light has been generated and con¬ siderable heat. Hardly a day passes but some student, professor, alumnus, citizen, or journal requests me to curb the speech and thought of some pro¬ fessor. As one alumnus wrote me : “ Everyone was greatly distressed at what happened at Cleveland. I was told it was a current expression to say: ‘ We have been talking a good while about the little red schoolhouse. Now we shall have to talk about the Big Red University.’ The frontier thinkers seem to think that schoolmen can lead this nation in the political-economic sense. That is to laugh. They have their part to contribute, to be sure, but the nation is not looking to them for the role of Moses.” And in cases like these, it is always suggested by the ardent exponent of either extreme that the other extreme be forced to “ cease firing.” To this, I think I might agree, if it were perfectly plain that one extreme were right. But in the search for social justice and the good life, the social ideals of liberty and equality must both be considered, and must both have ’a part. If John Ball, or Jean Jacques Rousseau or Karl Marx or other advocates of equality had had full power, it is possible that we should have had more bathtubs in the remaining 90 percent of the farm homes, 80 percent of village homes, and 35 percent of town homes ; but we should probably have orders from Washington as to when to take these baths. If Voltaire, or Mirabeau, or Hamilton, or John Adams had had full power, we should probably have had Lords, Dukes, and Barons, college preparatory schools Department of Superintendence 617 for the few, and the rest of the pupils in CCC camps. It required the constant conflict of the two ideas to reach the Golden, or should I say the Golden-and-Silver Mean. The easiest thing in the world is to go to an extreme. The next easiest is to make a compromise, to effect an average, to blow neither hot nor cold. But in this case, the middle course is the strong course. This is not the first time that men and women thought that the world was entering upon a new civilization. It has happened over and over again. There are two kinds of waves on the ocean — the little waves that we see and the great waves — the results of which are the tides. The period since the World War is a little wave. The period since John Locke and Voltaire is the big wave; and we must not confuse the little with the big. During this period of time, in Europe and the United States, and in some measure elsewhere, men have been trying to achieve here below the ideals of liberty and equality. The leaders in this movement are not only John Dewey, but also John Ball and John Locke. Not only Thomas and Tugwell, but also Turgot; Montesquieu, Mill, and Moley ; Counts and Condorcet. These leaders have been opposed by kings and princes, and are being opposed by merchant kings and merchant princes. Some thinkers were exiled. Others spent years in prison. But their ideas came to the world. Our safety in the United States, and the progress of our people toward a happy life, depend upon the degree to which we can effect a compromise between our desires. No philosopher is going to think it thru to our satis¬ faction. No political scientist will suit us with a plan. Our only hope is full, free, frank, open discussion from all sides, open propaganda, open in¬ fluence upon the press, upon public opinion, upon our Congress and legisla¬ tors, and upon our governors and President. Whoever thinks, let him speak. Whoever would muzzle another, let him stay his hand. Bring on the opposition. Let it be heard. Then will we have all the forces in full play. Where we have too much liberty and too little equality, we can re¬ adjust. Where we have too much equality and too little liberty, we can modify. There may be areas where we have neither. Then we can abolish and create. Let the whole orchestra sound forth. Then in time we can hope that this nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal, may begin to achieve here on earth that happy combination of the opposing ideals that will yield the best of each — and at last reach the goal for which our ancestors have sacrificed and struggled and prayed these many years. 618 National Education Association REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS Adopted February 28, 1935 I. The Public Schools and American Ideals In order that the United States of America may rapidly and fully achieve its goal of economic, social, and spiritual well-being for all, and in order that the schools may be an effective agency for the realization of this demo¬ cratic goal, we pledge ourselves to an educational program for all which will stress: 1. Knowledge and appreciation of the great ideals of human betterment toward which America strives. 2. Loyalty to the American form of democratic government which acts for and with the people to realize those ideals. 3. The ability and desire to use intelligence rather than pressure and force in making such social and economic changes as are needed for the improvement of American life. 4. Understandings that will help to build a sound economic order planned for human welfare. 5. The development of the capacity to live on as high a level as our potential economic resources will permit. 6. Vocational competence of each individual together with an understanding and appreciation of the contributions of other workers. 7. Conditions which promote sound and stable physical and mental health. 8. Advance in emotional stability and spiritual strength which results in poise and control of conduct essential to the welfare of the individual and society as a whole. 9. An understanding of other peoples of the world and a desire to bring about a feeling of goodwill among the nations. II. Federal Participation in American Education In order that such an educational program may be made available to all citizens in every state of the Union, we ask of the President of the United States and the senators and representatives in Congress assembled: 1. Emergency Aid We ask that the emergency aid necessary in distressed areas to keep the schools open in order that children may not suffer the loss of educational op¬ portunity be based upon a program similar to that which the federal govern¬ ment has provided in other vital areas of our life, and that this program be administered thru the Office of Education, and the regularly constituted educational officers of the various states. 2. National Equalization of Educational Opportunity In those areas where it is not possible for local or state resources to give every child an adequate educational opportunity, we ask that a program of federal support be instituted, which will insure the provision of adequate education for all children, and that this program be administered thru the Office of Education and the departments of education of the various states. Department of Superintendence 619 3. Greater Service from the Office of Education In order that the federal government may be able to cooperate more effec¬ tively in an American educational program we ask that the personnel of the Office of Education be restored immediately to that which obtained before the depression and that its staff be increased gradually to meet the need for research and service which changing conditions demand. 4. A Comprehensive National Survey In order that all school districts may cooperate most effectively in the effort to meet the ideals and standards for American education, we ask that provision be made for a comprehensive national survey under the general direction of the Office of Education ; that in the survey all aspects of the educational program in each state upon which there is no recent and reliable data be covered ; this survey to be the basis for, first, a determination of the need of federal support, and second, a long-time plan for the development of our national program of education. 5. Provision for Unemployed Youth Whereas, the present unemployment situation of American youth, espe¬ cially those from sixteen to twenty-three years of age, constitutes a national problem of first magnitude with implications of great significance for the future welfare of the nation, we ask that adequate allocation be made from any fund providing for relief, for the purpose of providing immediately for these unemployed youth a program of work and education. We believe that the educational phase of such a program should be ad¬ ministered under the direction of the Office of Education and the state de¬ partments of education. III. Improvement Within the Schools In order to meet the new social and economic conditions, the public schools must continue to improve. To bring about this improvement we favor : 1. A Greater Emphasis on Mental Hygiene «• With the steady increase in the number of psychopathic adults in the United States, more attention should be given to mental hygiene in the public schools. 2. Better Preparation for Citizenship An improvement in the public school program which will better prepare for citizenship in its broadest sense. The political, social, and economic problems are so complex today that only a well-informed and socially-minded citizenry can hope to cope with them. Democracy must justify itself by in¬ telligence at the polls. 620 National Education Association 3. More Adequate Salaries for Teachers Of all public servants the teacher has suffered the greatest material loss. With the federal government leading the way in the complete restoration of salary rates, we believe that salaries for workers in education should likewise be restored. 4. Provision for Physically Handicapped Children Increased medical and physical care of crippled children as provided for in H.R. 4120 and S. 1130. We recognize also the need for increased edu¬ cational facilities not only for crippled children but for all types of physically handicapped children. We therefore urge that there be included in the bill definite provisions under which states will be assisted in improving educa¬ tional facilities for physically handicapped children, and that any educational responsibilities involved in the bill be placed with the Commissioner of Education in the United States Office of Education. 5. Greater Emphasis on a Phase of Traffic Safety Realizing that each year thousands of children and adults are killed or injured by those whose driving skill has been affected by intemperance, we urge a greater emphasis upon the knowledges and attitudes that will lead to an intelligent solution of this problem. 6. Academic Freedom for Workers in Education We reaffirm our unqualified belief in the principle of academic freedom for all workers in education, and favor the active cooperation of the Depart¬ ment of Superintendence with the National Education Association in the study of the problems of academic freedom. IV. Movements Favorable to Education We recognize the significance of those movements outside of the school seeking to improve conditions affecting education, and to bring about the educational program necessary to realize American ideals; we therefore favor : 1. Legislation abolishing child labor in machine industry and in all other employment in which the health and the intellectual and spiritual well-being of children is sacrificed. 2. Taking the profit out of war and war-making as originally presented in the American Legion plan to perpetuate peace. 3. The abolition of compulsory block-booking and blind-selling which the motion picture industry has forced upon local exhibitors, and urge legis¬ lation which will give communities the freedom and the opportunity of se¬ lection of the motion pictures presented to their people. 4. A provision for better radio programs with more time for education and the establishment, if necessary, of a United States government network of radio stations with control of programs under the direction of a commit- Department of Superintendence 621 tee representing the foremost non-profit national educational and cultural agencies, these agencies to be designated by the President of the United States. V. Commendation of Agencies Effective in Support of Schools 1. We commend the activities of the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education and we believe that the Commission has served effectively as a rallying point for the forces interested in the well-being of public education. We recommend : a. That this Commission be continued for the purpose of completing the projects it may now have under way. b. That it continue to collect and disseminate facts concerning the effects of the depression on schools with the end in view of arousing the American people to a recognition of the gravity of the present educational crisis. c. That it continue its emphasis on the preparation and distribution of materials in the field of public relations. We particularly commend the Commission for the publication of the bulletin entitled Evaluating the Public Schools, the Report of the National Conference on Financing Education, and other similar publications. d. That the Commission be commended for its vigorous defense of the principle of universal educational opportunity and for its aggressive attack on those who would use the depression to make education the privilege of few rather than the right of many. e. That the Commission be encouraged in its recent efforts to stimulate interest in long-term educational planning in the several states. 2. We appreciate the support and cooperation which the schools thruout the country have received from lay organizations interested in the welfare of children and in the development of the American citizen of tomorrow, and we commend those newspapers, periodicals, and broadcasting companies, which have actively supported public education. VI. Expression of Appreciation We desire to express our appreciation to President E. E. Oberholtzer and his Executive Committee for the excellent programs which have been pre¬ sented at this meeting ; to the press and the radio for the nationwide publicity given to the proceedings; and to Superintendent A. S. Chenoweth and his staff for the contribution which the Atlantic City schools have made to our programs; and to all others who have contributed to the success of this meeting. R. W. Bardwell, Chairman Merle J. Abbett Louis P. Benezet T. H. Cobb J. C. Cochran Hobart M. Corning Charles E. Dickey Mildred English Will French H. E. Hendrix Horace M. Ivy Charles H. Lake Millard C. Lefler L. John Nuttall, Jr. W. H. PlLLSBURY Charles A. Rice George C. Rogers Agnes Samuelson Julius E. Warren 622 National Education Association THE WHITE HOUSE WASHINGTON February 20, 1935. My dear Doctor Oberholtzer: It is with deep regret that I find it impossible to be with you in person. At least I can take this opportunity to extend cordial greetings to you who work in education — you who constitute one-third of all of us who are engaged in public service. I am glad that the central theme of your convention is "Social Change and Education.1' Education must light the path for social change. The social and economic problems confronting us are growing in complexity* The more complex and difficult these problems become, the more essential it is to provide broad and complete education; that kind of education that will equip us as a Nation to decide these problems for the best interest of all concerned. Our ultimate security, to a large extent, is based upon the individual's character, information, skill and attitude and the responsibility rests squarely upon those who direct education in America. It is your duty, no less than mine, to look beyond the narrow confines of the schoolroom; to see that education provides understanding, strength and security for those institutions we have treasured since we first established ourselves as a Nation and shall continue everlastingly to cherish. Very sincerely yours. President, Department of Superintendence, National Education Association, Convention Hall, Atlantic City, New Jersey. Department of Superintendence 623 SECRETARY’S MINUTES Atlantic City Convention February 23 The sixty-fifth annual meeting of the Department of Superintendence was held in the Atlantic City Auditorium, Atlantic City, N. J. Registration and exhibits opened Saturday, February 23, 1935. Two hundred and eight firms and organizations were represented in the exhibit which was one of the most effective displays ever pre¬ sented at the winter meeting. A special feature was an international exhibit of high-school art work selected from entries submitted from seven hundred towns and cities of the United States and from five European countries. February 24 The opening vesper service was held in the Ballroom of the Atlantic City Audi¬ torium on Sunday afternoon, February 24, at four o’clock. That evening a musical fairy tale, “ Hansel and Gretel ” by Humperdinck, was presented by a chorus of 375 voices from the elementary schools of Atlantic City, Helen M. Kennedy, director; the Atlantic County Service Orchestra, Herman Fiedler, conductor; and selected artists. The entire production was by Choralopera, with Osbourne McConathy, conductor, and Corinne Wolersen, at the piano. February 25 After the convention was called to order Monday morning, Henry P. Miller, principal of the Atlantic City High School, presented a gavel and block to Presi¬ dent E. E. Oberholtzer. This set was made by the boys of the free employment classes of the Atlantic City vocational school. The Honorable Jesse Jones, chairman of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, addressed the convention and presented a personal message from President Frank¬ lin D. Roosevelt, which is reproduced on page 622 of this volume. On Monday afternoon, six forum-discussion groups, organized to consider various phases of American education, held their first meetings. February 26 Nominations for officers were as follows: For president, William J. Bogan, superin¬ tendent of schools, Chicago, Ill., and A. J. Stoddard, superintendent of schools, Providence, R. I ; for second vicepresident, Merle J. Abbett, superintendent of schools, Fort Wayne, Ind., and A. L. Threlkeld, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo.; for member of the Executive Committee for four years, Ben G. Graham, superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. Associate Superintendent Louis Nusbaum of Philadelphia, Pa., presented the report of the Auditing Committee, which was accepted and ordered printed in the Official Report. Superintendent Paul C. Stetson of Indianapolis, Ind., made a report of progress for I the Committee on a Longer Planned Program for the Department of Superintendence. On motion, his report was received, and the committee continued for another year. ■ On Tuesday afternoon thirty-eight study-discussion groups held meetings. Each group had prepared in advance valuable material on the topic assigned. A joint session with the Department of Secondary School Principals was held Tuesday evening, in celebration of the three hundredth anniversary of the founding i of secondary schools in America. 624 National Education Association February 27 In the afternoon, the six forum-discussion groups, organized to consider various phases of American education, held their second meetings. A joint meeting with the National Council of Childhood Education was held in the evening, with an address by President Mary E. Woolley, of Mt. Holyoke College. This program was featured by a concert by the Westminster Choir of Princeton, N. J., under the direction of Dr. John Finley Williamson. February 28 The report of the Committee on Resolutions was presented by Superintendent R. W. Bardwell of Madison, Wis. Commissioner Payson Smith of Massachusetts moved that the following items be referred to the President and the Executive Committee for their consideration in connection with the program of next year: Section II, Item 2. National Equalization of Educational Opportunity. Section II, Item 4. A Comprehensive National Survey. A standing vote was taken, and the motion was lost. Superintendent Frederick H. Bair of Shaker Heights, Ohio, moved that the following paragraph be added to Section III, Item 6, Academic Freedom for Workers in Education: The schools of a democracy have an obligation to serve as scientifically as possible as an instrumentality for criticism of our societal organization. Aca¬ demic freedom, particularly in such a time as this, should be explicitly de¬ fended in a penetrating and continuous inquiry into the causes and conditions of national distress. This Department proposes to support with all its re¬ sources teachers attacked in the clear exercise of their professional obligation to such inquiry, if necessary, to the extent of financing determinative legal appeal to the plain word and intent of the Constitution touching freedom of speech. The motion to amend was lost. The resolutions as originally presented by the Committee on Resolutions were then adopted. On motion of Superintendent Burr J. Merriam of Framingham, Mass., it was voted that: The Resolutions Committee of the Department of Superintendence shall have its formal report available for distribution at the registration desk at the annual convention at least twenty-four hours before it is brought before the convention for action. At the afternoon session the report of the Board of Tellers was presented as follows: REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TELLERS ATLANTIC CITY CONVENTION February 27, 1935 To the President, Executive Committee, and Members of the Department of Superintendence : We hereby certify that the election of officers of the Department of Superin¬ tendence of the National Education Association was held this day and con¬ ducted in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution and Bylaws. Department of Superintendence 625 The following received a majority of the votes cast and were elected: President for one year — A. J. Stoddard, superintendent of schools, Providence, R. I. Second vice'Presid.ent for one year — A. L. Threlkeld, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo. Member of the Executive Committee for four years — Ben G. Graham, superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. The retiring president, E. E. Oberholtzer, superintendent of schools, Houston, Texas, by provision of the Constitution automatically becomes first vicepresident for the ensuing year. Respectfully submitted, W. Karl Hopkins, Chairman R. L. Hunt H. O. Dietrich V. L. Beggs Roy W. Feik W. H. Lemmel Superintendent Milton C. Potter of Milwaukee, Wis., presented to Superintendent Oberholtzer a past president’s key similar to those awarded to other former presi¬ dents of the Department of Superintendence. The convention then adjourned. S. D. Shankland, Executive Secretary 1 ■ fi im ' . ■ * - * 1 1,1 DEPARTMENT OF Supervisors and T>i rectors of Instruction HISTORICAL NOTE The department of supervisors and directors of instruction in its inception was an independent society called the national Conference on Educational Method , organized at Atlantic City in February 1921. The first number of its publication the journal of1 educational method, was published in September of the same year. At the Boston meeting, in February 1928, the name of the society was changed to the National Conference of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction, and the Execu¬ tive Committee was instructed to prepare a petition asking for acceptance as a department by the National Education Association. This petition was acted upon favorably at the Minneapolis meeting of the N. E. A. in July 1929 and a regular department was thus created. The Department publishes a yearbook and a journal, now called educational method. Meetings are held twice a year, in connection with the conventions of the N. E. A. and of the Department of Superintendence. The officers of the Department for the year 1935-26 are: president, Rudolph D. Lindquist, Director, The University School, Columbus, Ohio; first vicepresident, Mary Browning, Supervisor, Early Ele¬ mentary Education, Board of Education, Louisville, Ky.; second vice- president, Robert H. Lane, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, Calif.; secretary-treasurer, James F. Hosic, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y .; executive committee: Mildred English, Director of Training School, Georgia State College for Women, Milledgeville, Ga.; Ernest Horn, Pro¬ fessor of Education, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; Paul T. Rankin, Supervising Director of Instruction, Board of Education, Detroit, Mich. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of its meetings may be found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows : 19 28:831-832 1930:773-800 19 32:679-693 1929 :803-825 1931 -.801-824 1933:681-695 1934:673-692 [ 628 ] WHAT CONSTITUTES SOCIALLY USEFUL ACTIVITIES FOR EARLY ELEMENTARY PUPILS? LEONARD POWER, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, TULSA, OKLA. This question was addressed to one hundred teachers and thirty prin¬ cipals and their suggestions, including those of the speaker, supported the following criteria : ( 1 ) socially useful activities for early elementary pupils must be actual and real. This criterion excludes the “ make-believe.” (2) Socially useful activities for early elementary pupils must be related to needed concepts. This criterion calls for analyses of concepts needed in curriculum content — particularly in readers. (3) Socially useful activities for early elementary pupils must be within the range of the language ex¬ periences of the pupils. This criterion requires much use of oral expression related to the preparation for the activity, the description of the activity, and the results of the activity. The most useful activity for early elementary pupils is language. ACTIVITIES OF THE CURRICULUM COMMISSION OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH W. WILBUR HATFIELD, CHICAGO NORMAL COLLEGE, CHICAGO, ILL. The forthcoming report of this Commission is not intended as a ready¬ made curriculum to be adopted bodily by any school or school system. It is rather a concrete illustration of the systematic application of important curriculum principles, which should prove suggestive to state and local curriculum committees. The dominating idea of the document is that the curriculum should consist of life experiences similar to the present and future extra-classroom experiences of the pupils. The experience may be either work or play, but it must be genuinely whatever it pretends to be — not so simplified and formalized as to have lost its vitality. These experiences should be fairly representative of the wide range of activities in life: conversing, telephoning, discussing, writing reports, writ¬ ing letters; re-living (thru literature) tragedy and comedy, philosophical reflections and lyric emotion ; reading to find information, to solve problems, to secure directions for action ; and a number of others. These experiences should be arranged in an ascending order of difficulty, but should not be assigned to definite grades because of the tremendous variations in the social background and native ability of different classes. The technics should be introduced as instruments for the attainment of personal or social purposes, and should be practised chiefly in the attainment of such ends. The principle of the “ intrinsic device ” as stated by Professor Gates in connection with primary and remedial reading seems valid in other phases of English also. Grammar, for example, may be learned in the manipulation of sentence elements in order to increase effectiveness, with- [ 62 9 ] 630 National Education Association out the devotion of a single period to grammar as such. Such teaching is in a sense incidental but when carefully planned is not accidental or uncertain. The English curriculum should ideally be part of an integrated program. For the present, English courses may be so outlined that they can be executed independently or as part of a partly or completely integrated total curriculum. Symposium — Issues in the Supervision of English THE PROBLEM OF GRADE PLACEMENT PRUDENCE CUTRIGHT, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. There is an increasing tendency on the part of course of study committees to produce in the field of English composition ungraded courses of study. Some courses make no attempt at the grade placement of teaching activities, while others assign activities for groups of grades as for the primary grades, intermediate grades, junior high-school grades, and senior high-school grades. While this tendency toward ungraded courses or senior ungraded courses may be educationally sound, still it is not as well understood by classroom teachers as supervisors might wish it to be. Ungraded courses indicate at least two supervisory obligations: 1. To develop some understanding that ungraded or semi-ungraded courses in English composition are educationally sound 2. To aid teachers in establishing technics which will insure progress in English composition from grade to grade and from level to level. In carrying out the first obligation, it might be well to consider with teachers some of the difficulties of grade placement. An understanding of the following points might aid : 1. Modern education subscribes to the doctrine of meeting individual needs. 2. In the field of English usage we know from the results of a number of care¬ fully conducted studies that errors tend to persist. 3. In the field of functional uses of English, conversing, discussing, telephoning, reporting, and letter writing, each use is quite as appropriate to one level as to another. 4. At the present we have only a very limited number of studies of grade place¬ ment and these are not particularly helpful. If a study of the points mentioned seems to point to the desirability of an ungraded course, then the supervisor is faced with the second obliga¬ tion, namely that of working out with teachers some technic which will insure progress from grade to grade and from level to level. In the field of usage innumerable studies offer assistance in determining what should be taught and one very recent study not only lists the points of usage which need attention, but also arranges these items in sequences. I refer to O’Rourke’s study, Rebuilding the English Usage Curriculum to Insure Greater Mastery of Essentials. O’Rourke arranged the items in his list in teaching order on the basis of three factors: (1) the practical Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 631 utility of each phase of usage; (2) the difficulty of each phase of usage; and (3) the relation of each phase of usage to other phases. In functional uses of English while the actual uses cannot well be given definite grade designation, still it is highly probable that progress can be insured by arranging activities in conversing, discussing, letter writing, and the like in sequence, placing first those simple activities appropriate to the uses of very young children and leading to the more complex activi¬ ties associated with the needs of senior high-school pupils. One fact seems evident that if the individual needs of children are to be met and cared for, then we must abandon some of our notions of the rigid grade placement of teaching activities. Since English composition is primarily a tool subject, it seems to be a particularly appropriate area in which to try out technics for handling ungraded courses or semi-ungraded courses. However, such a procedure places heavy responsibility on the supervisor or director not only for developing an understanding of the reasons for ungraded courses, but for the even more important function of working out technics which will insure progress toward acceptable goals in each year of the child’s school life. Symposium^ — Issues in the Supervision of English THE PROBLEM OF VOCABULARY THOMAS W. GOSLING, NATIONAL DIRECTOR, AMERICAN JUNIOR RED CROSS, WASHINGTON, D. C. Accurate and complete communication of thought becomes increasingly difficult in proportion to the richness of the thought itself. Some messages are transferred easily from one person to another. Gestures, pictures, and simple almost inarticulate speech have served the purpose. They still serve on levels where complexity of ideas is not involved. On higher levels the communication of thought is much more difficult. It is natural that it should be so because by means of mere external symbols we try to translate thru space invisible, intangible, imperceptible mental processes. If the instrument of translation or transfer is inadequate, the message cannot be delivered. There is another aspect of the problem. If one is to receive messages from another, one must be able to transmute the symbols into mental pro¬ cesses identical with those of the sender. Otherwise something is lost or changed ; and the purpose of the sender is defeated thru imperfect com¬ munication. At least two important conclusions flow from this relationship between sender, symbol, and receiver. In the first place, the symbol should have the same meaning to the person who sends the message as to the person who receives it. Here is the great obstacle to complete understanding. Words are charged with emotional as well as intellectual content. For this reason it is not likely that any but the most threadbare and shopworn words will have identical meanings to any two persons. The process of knowing, 632 National Education Association however, is greatly accelerated by the large use of words with clearly defined meanings. Another obvious and distressing conclusion arising out of the use of language as a means of communication is that large numbers of persons are permanently barred from sharing the intellectual processes of many others. Great inequalities exist not only in the range and the quality of thought but also in the mastery of the language by which thought is ex¬ pressed and transmitted. Frequently speakers and writers are urged to use simple language in order that they may be understood by the crowd. There is nothing new about a proposal to increase the vocabulary of students. It is fitting, however, to emphasize this proposal at a time when careless usage is wearing our language down and making it a somewhat attenuated figure of what it might be. To the fulfilment of the purposes of a society that wishes to have a wide diffusion of political power and a high standard of general culture, it is of the utmost importance that all constituents of that society shall be in easy and complete communication thru the use of a common medium adequate to all essential demands. It is not expected, of course, that the specialized and technical vocabulary in the various fields of esoteric erudi¬ tion shall be common property; nor is it expected that the ideal of perfect communication ever will be reached. The shadows of imperfect under¬ standing will always isolate some groups from their fellows. Nevertheless to increase the mastery of words on the various levels of a diverse and non-integrated society is to perform a patriotic service of a high order. The problem of vocabulary is not primarily a problem of scholarship ; it is a problem of giving satisfaction thru adequate self-expression to the thinkers of high thoughts and of making these high thoughts available to others for purposes of an enriched common culture. Fundamentally, then, vocabulary serves both individual and social ends. These ends define both the privilege and the responsibility of teachers and of supervisors of instruction. Symposium — Issues in the Supervision of English AN ENGLISH CURRICULUM BUILT COOPERATIVELY ELISABETH M. LINCOLN, ELEMENTARY SUPERVISOR, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEOMINSTER, MASS. It would have been so much quicker, it would have saved hours of labor on the part of teachers, principals, and myself, and it would have prevented some friction and unhappiness if we had adopted a curriculum someone else had made. With the exception of certain local needs, this curriculum would probably have been as good as our own but it would never have been a vital living thing, something for which they have felt a need, over which they have labored, and from which they have seen results. Before we started the work on the curriculum two things had to be done : first, our point of view in education had to be brought up-to-date ; Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 633 second, the teachers had to feel the need for a new English curriculum. These were done simultaneously. Our point of view was influenced by a course on “ Foundations of Method ” followed by a series of general teachers meetings where the changes in education were discussed, the effect of the point of view on the curriculum was shown, and the philosophies of educational leaders were presented. At the final meeting the teachers chose a general committee under whose direction they were to work on the English curriculum. A guiding committee composed of the superintendent of schools and super¬ visors had charge of the whole procedure. The need for the English curriculum was made apparent to principals and teachers thru informal discussions and surveys of sentence sense, spell¬ ing, distinct and correct speech. These surveys also indicated definite things that must be included in the curriculum. The following year John J. Mahoney gave a course on “ The Teaching of Constructive English.” He not only knew the technic of curriculum making but was a subjectmatter specialist. At the end of a year the teachers and an editing committee had a tentative course of study in the hands of the teachers. The next year, after some changes, it was mimeographed. We have seen some very definite outcomes of this “ Constructive English Curriculum ” built comparatively. Certain tangible things we have mea¬ sured. A second sentence sense survey, one year after the curriculum was in use, showed we had reduced o\m: sentence sense error nearly 50 percent. The frequent invitations that I have to hear oral English, such as club meetings, reports of activities, book reviews, and radio programs, and the written English that comes to my attention, such as letters, invitations, diaries, newspapers, and yearbooks, show that English is fast becoming a part of the life of the school. The most gratifying result is what it has done to the teachers themselves. Along with the ability to work together has come an open-mindedness towards new ideas. The newer methods suggested for English are being used in other subjects. Thus the outcome of supervision of English has been not only a new curriculum but a new point of view toward the whole school program. THE PLACE OF SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL PROGRAM I. JEWELL SIMPSON, ASSISTANT STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BALTIMORE, MD. Elementary science as a subject that will help children to an intelligent understanding of their environment is becoming more and more popular in the newer curriculums. Some of the larger outcomes that the curriculum makers have in mind are: 634 National Education Association 1. The stimulation of intellectual curiosity which will result in the development of permanent interests in many enriching fields of thought and action. 2. The development of ability to make accurate observations and correct interpretations. 3. The development of an open-mindedness toward new truths and new explanations. 4. The gradual development of a consciousness of some great concepts in science, some unifying principles and illuminating ideas. The newer science curriculums emphasize understandings, big meanings, fundamental principles. Meanings and principles are larger than facts. Of course, children will learn many facts. But as somebody aptly said, “ We had better learn how to deal with facts since we have to live with them anyway.” Elementary teachers have had little training in the field of science and they do not know much science but they are going after it. They are taking special courses. But they are also learning a great deal as they work along day by day with children who are alert and curious. Together with the children they make observations and collect material for class study and experimentation. The traditional order of things has been for children to try to keep up with the demands of the teacher; but elementary science is proving so interesting and challenging a subject that we find the teacher trying to keep up with the demands of the children. I THE QUESTION OF SCIENCE EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS HARRY A. CARPENTER, SPECIALIST IN SCIENCE, ROCHESTER SCHOOLS, ROCHESTER, N. Y. I'he selection of equipment and materials for use in elementary-school science must be determined on the basis of cost, suitability to the experi¬ mental work and projects to be carried out, ability of the classroom teacher to manipulate, and the safe as well as desired use by pupils. Because it is desirable to promote a maximum of home science activities, use, as much as possible, should be made of home materials, bottles, pans, and cups, and of pupil-owned microscope sets, chemistry sets, and the like. It would be desirable for someone to produce a home science set that would enable the child to perform not only simple microscopic and chemical experiments, but physical experiments as well. Every elementary school should have at least one room equipped as a science room, not with the thought that the science work of all classes will be done in this room, but rather that it shall become the center of science interests for the whole school. Large elementary schools should have more than one science-interest-center room, preferably one for use by the first three grades and others for use by the fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade chil¬ dren. This room should not be thought of as a storeroom for materials, but as a science activity room in which various materials, plants, and small Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 635 animals, for use in elementary science instruction will be exhibited and cared for by pupils of various grades acting as a committee of curators. The science-interest-center room should be equipped with a work bench along the window side of the room, supplied with portable plant boxes, aquariums, terrariums, and with hot and cold water, electricity, and gas, if available. It should contain storage and specimen display cabinets. School plant laboratories and school gardens where available for use in connection with science work in the junior-senior high schools should become centers for the development and distribution of plant and animal materials needed in the elementary schools. All schools should, if possible, have their own school garden. The problem of teacher training in service not only with respect to methods of teaching and knowledge of content, but with the use and manipulation of simple science equipment is important. In Rochester for two years we have been teaching science by radio to seventh- and eighth- grade classes, and last September we started science radio lessons for sixth- grade classes. This method not only provides accurate and well-planned instruction in science for these grades, but gives an opportunity for experi¬ enced radio teachers to suggest laboratory and home activities of all kinds. The radio thus becomes of service not only to the pupil but its value for teacher training can hardly be underestimated. THE INTEGRATION OF THE CURRICULUM THRU THE ARTS MANLEY E. IRWIN, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF CURRICULUM RESEARCH, DETROIT PUBLIC SCHOOLS, DETROIT, MICH. In planning any unit of work it is quite necessary that supervisors and teachers answer for themselves the following questions, before putting into operation activities which are intended to integrate the work of the school : 1. Are the proposed activities of interest to the child? 2. Is the child, rather than a subject, the center of the activities? 3. Are the activities such that the child may generalize in terms of life outside of school ? 4. Does the activity besides giving needed skills and knowledges contribute to the realization of the general objectives of education? 5. Are the elements that contribute to attitudes or character traits obvious enough that generalizations may be made readily? 6. Are both teachers and pupils who are taking part in the activities conscious of the unit of each activity? 7. Do the activities induce the pupils to put forth their greatest effort without unduly discouraging any individual? 8. Does the activity lead the child to express himself thru the medium best fitted to his needs ? 9. Have the other agencies of the life of the child been integrated with the school life? In my own thinking I have been more concerned with the arts in an integrated curriculum than with integrating the curriculum thru the 636 National Education Association arts. During the last few years when attacks have been made on the arts, I fear that too often we school people have been rather short-sighted in our defense of the fine arts. We need to think of the arts as a part of the whole program and not as subjects which need to be defended or contrasted to the so-called fundamental subjects. The arts need no defense. They can be, and are being used in every school activity, becoming an integral part of the program and not isolated as something which is attached or added to a crowded curriculum. r CIVIC INSTITUTIONS AND INTERESTS AS SOURCE MATERIAL IN ART EDUCATION HARRY W. JACOBS, DIRECTOR OF ART EDUCATION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, BUFFALO, N. Y. If art teachers, directors, or supervisors will present to any civic institu¬ tion or organization an outline of a sane and useful course in art education, these institutions and organizations will open their doors wide and offer them all the resources at their command. We are rebuilding our technical high school into a junior college, offering five-year courses. One of these courses is graphic arts, and during the fifth year each student is to spend ten weeks in a local industry where art is an important factor. I visited many leaders of these industries, outlined our course and plan, and re¬ quested that we place one of these student-art workers in their plant or art department for a period of ten weeks. Of the many visits I made, not one was skeptical about the idea, but was enthusiastic over the venture and would be glad to cooperate. These to me are civic-minded people, operat¬ ing civic institutions. To correlate with these civic institutions, courses of instruction in the appreciation of art form a definite part of the curriculum in every school. In practically every secondary school some drawing or design work is given to students as a subject; certain art laws are referred to during the progress of the course, but the main objective is to produce a pleasing drawing or pattern, in many instances far removed from any practical use. I recommend for your consideration a course in art appreciation, a course not bound by the teaching of the history of art, or the laborious lecture and note-taking course — but a course that will exercise the students’ judg¬ ment, which is necessary in the cultivation of taste. Instead of teaching beauty or the cultivation of taste as something theoretical in its relation to the good and true, or as an emotion foreign to objects in our immediate environment, the approach will be influenced by more practical types of art judgments pertaining to the development of good taste. There is in every community, no matter how small, some beautifully designed building which the designer built for beauty and use, or some simple bungalow with the laws of design carefully applied. In this com¬ munity there is no doubt beauty in some symbolic statue, in the paintings Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 637 that are exhibited each year. Every magazine carries examples of beautiful typography and layout, and in all catalogs and announcements there is emphasized the laws of good design. There is beauty in the pleasingly shaped and harmoniously colored objects made for the home, and in many instances the containers or cartons found in store merchandise, and in the story illustrations and decorative covers produced by a gifted draftsman. Acquaint students with some phases of this living art ; provide them with an introduction to this art which permeates the business house, the home, and the city street; train the taste of these future consumers of art products, so that they may become sensitive to the delight brought by a beauiful book, a noble building, a pleasing costume, a finely proportional piece of furniture, a beautiful page of printing, or a masterful painting. When your art course creates a desire for good design, increases pro¬ duction, helps sales people to sell, makes possible good display, and adds beauty and economy to your community, your art course becomes a civic institution which develops better living, because you are creating a better place in which to live. THE ART PROBLEMS OF THE GENERAL SUPERVISOR JULIA C. HARNEY, GENERAL SUPERVISOR OF ELEMENTARY GRADES, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, JERSEY CITY, N. J. May I venture to say, that just because of the vastness of his held, the general supervisor has, perhaps, even greater opportunity than the art specialist to inform with the esthetic spirit the lives of children? May it not be said that art is a way of life ? Is not the freedom to express themselves thru line, and color, and mass akin to that which allows the children to express their thoughts freely in speech and in writing as well? Are not the principles of unity and dominance, of harmony and rhythm, which, thru experience, they are led to realize in your field, the same as those which they learn to use, tho expressed in other terms, in speech and in writing? Is there not an art aspect even to the more homely things of life — the physical conditions about the bulletin board, the appearance of black¬ boards, the placement of work on paper, the care and dress of the person ? Interesting children in art principles as standards would doubtless be far more effective than prohibitions. Cultivating a sense of fitness should preclude appearance in school in costume designed for use elsewhere. While it seems to me to be a serious duty of the art department, with all of us is the responsibility to carry out the principles of art so that the classroom and indeed the entire school and its setting may promote rather than oppose the sense of harmony, and fitness, and beauty that the workers in art are attempting to awaken and cherish. Indeed if we really catch the spirit, we shall less and less distinguish between that which passes as useful and that which is dignified as artistic, and, while admitting that neither is necessarily the other, we shall realize that things are often used because 638 National Education Association they satisfy the esthetic need and are often made beautiful in order that they may be used. On the whole, we general supervisors might well imitate the generous and all-embracing attitude of the art people. They seem to believe in the creative spark in every child. While this is true, of course, in a certain sense, it is often difficult to follow them as far as they go; but their creed points the way for a generous attitude towards the efforts of the less gifted. It may be that we miss fostering the more tender germ of originality by overemphasis on the more rapidly and perhaps more rankly growing species. The faith and patience of the artist with timid effort should be an inspira¬ tion to all who, dealing with children, are anxious to secure results, and perhaps unmindful of the hidden interests and secret longings of the ap¬ parently dull. Have we general supervisors fully sensed the ethical values of art ? As the child grows dissatisfied with his early crude attempts at expression and wants his things to look better, and later develops greater power to evalu¬ ate, should we not take advantage of his refinement of taste to make him see that not the biggest thing is the best, but, rather, that which best adapts form to function and is what it seems to be — that sincerity is to be prized above pretentiousness? There is for all of us the problem of helping to make the community art conscious. Often the art group is left with the help of a few interested laymen to try to bring the finer things to the consciousness of the com¬ munity at large. Witness the indifference met when a campaign against unlovely and marring advertising is waged. That modern art work has been so planned as to make a vital appeal to children is obvious to any chance visitor to a group engaged in this work. Such absorption on the part of young people is a striking illustra¬ tion of the joy of purposeful activity and is a real inspiration to those re¬ sponsible for other phases of the child’s training. It is a challenge to all concerned with education to seek the magic appeal to child interest, to vitalize the school’s offerings, to furnish opportunity for constructive ac¬ tivity, to stimulate personal expression — in short, to help the child to a rich and meaningful experience resulting in a unified personality that will make a valuable contribution to social life. THE INTEGRATION OF THE CHILD— THE GOAL OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM IRA S. WILE, M. D., DIRECTOR OF HEALTH CLASS AND ASSOCIATE IN PEDIATRICS, MOUNT SINAI HOSPITAL, NEW YORK, N. Y. Historically education attempts to realize in individuals ideals control¬ ling a given people. Mental hygiene seeks for an individual his maximum of efficiency with the least amount of friction. Herein lies the conflict at the root of the problem of the integration of the child as a goal. Children Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 639 too long have been subject to educational pressures without any considera¬ tion of them as individuals with potentials and aspirations. Today educational programs are based upon the potential usefulness of the child to the state. The prospective citizen, namely the child at school, is molded so as to meet the exigencies of life only to the degree that educa¬ tional institutions call for a modernized evaluation of them in terms of mental hygiene. The school should be concerned with the child. The subjectmatter is less significant than the physical and psychical state of all things connected with the classroom, the intellectual struggle, the emo¬ tional tensions, and the social experiences of teachers and children. It must deal with different types of children, with their unconscious and conscious forces. It should serve to promote pupil satisfactions which are outgrowths of independence, success, response, and recognition while it endeavors to foster social adaptability. The general core of the program of education today is utilitarian. The minor subjects, rather than the three R’s, offer the richer creative experi¬ ences conducive to self-direction and emotional release. For almost a generation the emphasis has been placed upon individual differences and these should constitute the foundation for synthesizing all plans for the integration of the child. The curriculum may attempt to meet special challenges, but the school should be organized to solve basic personal difficulties. If the whole child goes to school, then the whole child must be con¬ sidered by the school and he must be regarded as an integer rather than a fraction. The child is consciously and unconsciously trying to make adjust- I ments satisfactory to himself and this in itself is an organismic or totali¬ tarian reaction. The whole child, greater than some or the sum of his I parts, is a personality supplying the dynamic responsive mechanism for adaptation. His motivations and emotional reactions are observable in his relations to work, play, love, and worship. The inferior child is no greater a victim than the superior child. Their special conflicts or maladjustments cannot be dissociated from what they are and what schools are and demand in the name of education. All learning should take place in response to the personal needs and demands of the organism. Identities of school programs do not offer identi¬ cal stimuli to different children. The children, therefore, should be the subjects of greater consideration, not as objects to be educated but as subjects to be led forth to learn in terms of total living, in which harmoni¬ ous integration is most necessary. 21 640 National Education Association DIRECTING THE ACTIVITIES OF THE CLASSROOM TOWARD THE MENTAL HEALTH OBJECTIVE LAWRENCE A. AVERILL, PROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, WORCESTER, MASS. In a changing social age, the school has been surprisingly slow to adapt itself to the needs of those who are to control the human scene tomorrow. The rank and file of schoolmen are still thinking in terms of an obsolescent age. If Americans in considerable numbers today shrug their shoulders at graft and chicanery; if they condone jingoism and play to the galleries; if they countenance the ways of the demagog and the propagandist ; if they tolerate the machinations of the racketeer and the extortionist; if they per¬ mit the continuance of the slums and the underworld; if they refuse to take their place with other nations in the rational planning of world affairs ; if they draw about themselves smugly and circumspectly the cloak of nationalism and self-sufficiency — it is because of no other circumstance than the fact that the schools of yesterday failed to educate for intelligent and participative citizenship. Content with building in academic knowl¬ edge and scholastic skills, they succeeded but in turning out a generation economically short-sighted and socially impotent. In a complex social age, which is changing more rapidly than probably has been true of any previous age, where shall our vaunted democracy — our very civilization itself — end up if we dare to train tomorrow’s citizens according to the same innocuous formulas by which those now in the saddle of affairs were trained ? We are coming slowly to understand that the mere facts which a boy learns in school are infinitely less important than are the permanent atti¬ tudes, purposes, and ideals that are created and cultivated in him. The conventional schoolroom experience of today is quite as apt to foster in the pupil rather attitudes of ennui and boredom, of prejudice and parochialism, of laissez faire, of distaste for reflective thinking and reasoning, and of that peculiarly abominable American ambition of “ getting by,” than it is to develop in him sympathies with other peoples of the world, respect for the open mind, and a background of sentiment and conviction for an ag¬ gressive and dynamic citizenship in an evolving world. These ideals can arise only out of schoolroom experiences with the proper educational content and under the guidance of teachers competent to nur¬ ture growing young minds. We have been too long and too generally content in this country with permitting anyone to teach who chose to apply. We have not been unduly distressed by the homely rebuke that “ them as can, does, them as can’t, teaches! ” We have entrusted our schools to poorly selected and meagerly trained teachers who have not had the background or perhaps even the capacity to understand the social implica¬ tions of our progressing democracy. We have not insisted that only those* possessed of a world-view that encompasses the human scene in some sort Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 641 of rational perspective shall preside over the educational unfolding of young minds. We have allowed those whose attitudes toward the social weal are smug and casual to foster the building into the character and personality fabrics of the people of tomorrow those traits and values that are in¬ dispensable if this democracy is to endure. Panel THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN COURSE OF STUDY WRITING AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT MRS. HELEN R. GUMLICK, SUPERVISOR OF KINDERGARTEN, FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD GRADES, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, DENVER, COLO. Participants : Cora C. Bruns, Director of Primary Training, Western State College of Colorado, Gunnison, Colo. Hobart M. Corning, Superintendent of Schools, Colorado Springs, Colo. C. L. Cushman, Director, Department of Research and Curricu¬ lum, Public Schools, Denver, Colo. Annie M. McCowen, Adviser of Elementary Majors, Colorado State College of Education, Greeley, Colo. Marie Mehl, Supervisor of Student Teaching, College of Educa¬ tion, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. James H. Risley, Superintendent of Schools, District Number One, Pueblo, Colo. Gilbert S. Willey, Principal, University Park School, Denver, Colo. R. H. Palmer, assistant superintendent in charge of elementary education in Denver, presided. Questions prepared by Rudolph D. Lindquist, president of the Depart¬ ment, were in the hands of the members of the panel and provided the basis of discussion. These questions were : Should course of study writing and curriculum development be done by all teachers or by a small group of selected experts? Does not curriculum development cover a large part of the work in supervision? Is not the leadership necessary to get teachers to think thru their problems in materials and methods the essence of the problem of curriculum development as well as of supervision? The group agreed that supervisory leadership might well be directed toward helping teachers with curriculum development problems, such as revision, adaptation, materials, and methods. It was also agreed that a supervisor who would be capable of such leadership must be able to con¬ tribute creatively to such curriculum problems. There was much discussion and no agreement as to whether all teachers should be encouraged to participate in such phases of curriculum develop¬ ment as setting up specific objectives, selecting and organizing activities, 642 National Education Association adapting an accepted curriculum to a particular group or locality, and as to whether the actual writing of the courses of study should be done by teachers or by experts. Some members of the panel and of the audience felt that superintendents, principals, supervisors should select the teachers to work on the curriculum, as such leaders knew those who could do an efficient job. Others felt that all teachers should be urged to participate, and if any selection was to be made teacher-leaders should do it. As to the writing of the courses of study, some felt that writing was such a special art that experts should take teacher contributions and write them up ; and others felt that the only way to get many teachers to contribute was to insist upon them doing some writing. Several rural representatives asked for suggestions as to how to help rural teachers participate in curriculum development. The discussion closed with the suggestion that members of the group carry the questions into their own situations the next school year and experi¬ ment on what could be done. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Atlantic City, New Jersey February 25-27, 1935 New features marked the annual meeting of the Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction in Atlantic City, February 25 to 27. One general program was planned and conducted in cooperation with the National Committee for Mental Hygiene. Dr. Wile, of Mount Sinai Hospital in New York, anaylzed the results to be sought thru a mental hygiene program in terms of conduct. Principal Runnels of Maplewood, New Jersey, reported his experience in attempting to lead his teachers to provide for personality adjustment. He caused amusement by telling how his young stenographer was surprised to find that she understood and approved his plans. In the absence of Professor Averill, the secretary of the Department reviewed his paper and made a plea for guidance of pupils as the all-important service to be rendered by teachers. Superintendent Washburne of Winnetka and Dr. Stevenson of the National Committee for Mental Hygiene discussed the addresses and summed up. In the afternoon a small group met informally to continue the subject. This pro¬ gram left no doubt that supervision has responsibilities scarcely dreamed of a few years ago. The second general session opened with a preview of the current yearbook, which this year will not appear until the end of May. This is due, first, to the fact that this yearbook was interpolated in a series long-planned, and, second, to the lack of funds to enable the members of the committee to get together. The chairman, Professor Dunn, and several other members of the committee spoke briefly of their contribu¬ tions. The yearbook, entitled Materials of Instruction, will emphasize materials in the environment and general reference material. Superintendent Stoddard of Providence urged the importance of supervision in comparison with writing courses of study. He would have* supervisors attend care¬ fully to the actual teaching-learning processes going on in school. Professor Courtis, of the University of Michigan, the last speaker, made clear that democracy has its essential technics and these children should learn by using them, not merely by hear¬ ing about them. He illustrated at some length the technic of cooperation, on which he gives a course in his own university. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 643 The speaker at the luncheon was Commissioner Smith of Massachusetts. He traced the development of public education and characterized the present as a period of evaluation. All traditional practises are being examined to determine whether they should be continued or supplanted. He told how he met a group of patrons who wanted to know whether education is five times as good, now that it costs five times as much, as forty-five years ago by asking the same question about eggs. Two groups of section meetings occupied Monday morning and afternoon. The panel discussion method was used in the main, the interest and attendance were good, and this innovation obviously justified itself. The topics, with the chairmen, were: “Problems of Supervision in the Upper Elementary Grades and Junior High School,” Wendell Vreeland, supervisor of research in Detroit; “Socially Useful Activities for Early Elementary Pupils,” Jean Betzner, assistant professor of edu¬ cation in Teachers College; “Problems in the Supervision of English,” Mildred English, assistant superintendent of schools, Raleigh, North Carolina; “Problems in the Supervision of Elementary-School Science,” Edward F. Wildman, director of science education, Philadelphia; “Problems in the Supervision of Art,” Forest Grant, director of art education, New York City. Some thirty-five persons in all appeared on the programs of these five sections. In addition, other persons present participated freely. Several section meetings will evidently help to provide the much- needed opportunity for the members of the Department to have a more active part. The Board of Directors and Executive Committee met at Haddon Hall on Sunday and again on Wednesday. There were also meetings of the Membership Committee and of two yearbook committees, on “ Materials of Instruction ” and on “ Super¬ vision of English.” The Board approved the minutes of the Cleveland meeting as printed in Educa¬ tional Method, for April 1934. The treasurer’s report, including a proposed budget for 1935-36, with two changes in the latter to provide more liberally for preparation of yearbooks and for expenses of the annual meeting, was also approved. The chairman of the Membership Committee, Maybell G. Bush of Madison, Wis¬ consin, reported a nationwide organization, with seven regional directors and repre¬ sentatives in almost all states. It was voted to replace the single chairman of this committee with a central directive committee of three. The chairman appointed Miss Bush, Helen Piper of Lynn, Massachusetts, and F. M. Underwood of St. Louis, Missouri, to constitute this committee. It was further decided that the Membership Committee shall serve as a committee to promote all of the interests of the Depart¬ ment, particularly the circulation of is publications — the journal and the yearbooks — and shall henceforth be known as the Promotion Committee. In this connection the Executive Committee was authorized to experiment with regional conferences of the Department, with the cooperation of the Promotion Committee and its local repre¬ sentatives. The assistance of state departments and departments of education in colleges and universities will also be sought. An application from the Illinois Supervisors Association to be made a state branch was presented by Mabel C. O’Donnell, primary supervisor in Aurora. A letter from Mr. Moore, secretary of the Illinois State Teachers Association, stating that this is the recognized organization in that state was submitted. On this showing the affiliation of this group was authorized and the election by it of a member of the Board for a term of three years ordered. The situation as to yearbooks was examined. The report on materials of instruc¬ tion will soon be ready. This is to be followed by a yearbook on the supervision of English by a committee of which Marquis Shattuck of Detroit is chairman. It was voted that the next subject yearbook be that on the supervision of science, in¬ cluding health and mathematics. The Executive Committee was directed to consider the advisability of preparing a yearbook dealing with the curriculum as a whole, and was further directed to consult with the officers of the Society for Curriculum Study with regard to the matter. The Board went on record as holding that the task of developing and improving the program of activities in a school or school 644 National Education Association system is the work of supervisors by whatever name called, and should be regarded as the chief function of supervision. The Board approved the publishing of four special numbers of Educational Method each year, and advised for 1935-36 a group of topics adapted to the needs of supervisory officers who are seeking to improve the program of activities by leading their teachers in a study of recent curriculum developments. The Nominating Committee was composed of Directors Underwood, English, and Lindquist, with the secretary-treasurer as consultant. (See Historical Note, p. 628.) Members of the Board present and voting were: Directors Browning, English, Hahn, Hosic, Lindquist, Morrison, Piper, Power, Rankin, and Underwood. Miss O’Donnell, Miss Bush, and Mr. Shattuck attended the meeting of the Board by invitation. DEPARTMENT OF Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics HISTORICAL NOTE At the Atlanta meeting of the Association in 1929 the necessary peti¬ tion for the formulation of a Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics was presented to the Representative Assembly and to the Executive Committee. This petition was presented by the National Conference of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics. In 1930 at the Columbus , Ohio, meeting the Department was created by formal vote. The former home economics organization has had a history rich in accomplishments. Its good work will continue as a department of the Association. The officers of the Department for the year 1935-36 are: president, Mrs. Leila Bunce Smith, 424 West Peachtree Street, Atlanta, Ga.; vice- president , Mrs. Dorothea F. Marlow, Shaker Heights High School, Shaker Heights, Ohio; secretary, Mrs. Erma Christie, Supervisor of Home Economics, Board of Education, Muncie, Ind.; treasurer, Miriam A. Weikert, 1203 South Queen Street, York, Pa. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of its meetings may be found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1931:825-844 1932:695-712 19 33:697-708 1934:693-704 GREETINGS MRS. LEILA BUNCE SMITH, PRESIDENT, DEPARTMENT OF SUPERVISORS AND TEACHERS OF HOME ECONOMICS, ATLANTA, GA. \ / IT gives me great pleasure to extend greetings to the members of this Department. My wish is that during the coming year all of us may find increasing satisfaction and happiness in the stability resulting from local and national recovery. I am sure we realize as members of a department in the National Educa¬ tion Association that we have an unusual opportunity to interpret home economics to educators in every field of learning. Altho we have accom¬ plished much during the few years we have been organized, there is yet a great deal to be done. Our aims can only be realized by the organized efforts of an active group of members. All teachers of home economics are eligible for membership in this Depart¬ ment. Former members are urged to renew their membership as soon as possible and are asked to help in strengthening the Department by inviting their associates to become members. General Aims of Department 1. To promote the growth and the progressive development of home eco¬ nomics education in the public school program 2. To encourage the progressive development of home economics teachers 3. To bring about an intelligent understanding between the educational officers of school systems and the home economics supervising and teaching groups 4. To foster cooperative studies for the improvement of home economics instruction in the public schools. THE PLACE OF HOME ECONOMICS IN DEVELOPING BETTER CITIZENS EDWIN C. BROOME, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PHILADELPHIA, PA. The old saying, “ The hand that rocks the cradle rules the world ” is out of date. They do not use cradles any more. They put the baby into the clothes basket. And many couples do not have anything to put into the clothes basket. Better, “ The hand that cooks the dinner rocks the world.” The manage¬ ment of the house is responsible for more distress and more happiness in the world than any other factor. It is the fundamental and all-important busi¬ ness of our people. That is why instruction in home economics has become an important feature of education. [ 647] 648 National Education Association The old system of apprenticeship to mother versus the new one of scientific training: No girl should receive a diploma from any school who has not had a thoro course in homemaking in all its branches : food purchasing, planning, cooking, serving meals ; purchasing, designing, making, and repairing of clothing ; home planning and furnishing ; personal and family hygiene, in¬ cluding care of children ; budgeting and purchasing ; savings and invest¬ ments ; manners, etiquette, and family relations ; and allied sciences. Boys, too, should have instruction in such branches of home management as they will need to know in order to become successful husbands and fathers. HOME ECONOMICS: A FUNDAMENTAL IN THE CURRICULUM 1 THOMAS W. GOSLING, NATIONAL DIRECTOR, JUNIOR RED CROSS, WASHINGTON, D. C. When we study the development of home economics in our American schools, we find a gratifying evolution of purpose. The courses originally were intended for girls only ; in fact, even now girls occupy a place of first importance. Gradually, however, the position of boys and of men in the economy of the home is receiving recognition. At first, cooking and sewing comprised the whole of home economics. Millinery, laundering, home decoration, home sanitation, home hygiene, home nursing followed. Then instead of cooking and sewing, courses in foods and clothing were intro¬ duced. This change of name is of great significance because it indicates a considerable expansion of ideas. In its more recent aspects home economics impinges upon the departments of physics, chemistry, music, the graphic arts, the manual and industrial arts, economics, and political science. Good leadership on the part of the professional advocates of home economics may make this subject most influential in the development of the new curriculum which is sorely needed and which is now in the making. I am aware that a few years ago the home economics departments in some elementary and high schools suffered casualties. In a period of financial re¬ trenchment the so-called special subjects were the first to be eliminated. They were labeled as the fads and frills of the curriculum. Sometimes this was the expression of genuine conviction and sometimes, we are forced to think, it was a subterfuge practised by persons more interested in reducing expenditures than in providing adequate educational opportunities. The consequence of this demonstration of public opinion has been to reduce or to remove altogether in certain school systems those activities which had been developed for the purpose of supplying reality and concreteness to a curricu¬ lum which previously had given disproportionate emphasis to the verbal and the abstract. When we look for an explanation of this unfortunate retrenchment, we quickly conclude that home economics and the other special subjects are un- 1 Complete address printed in Journal of Home Economics, June-July, 1935. Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 649 usually vulnerable because they are relatively new and untried and because they have not had time to become established among the accepted conven¬ tions of educational practise. Consequently, when the need for retrench¬ ment came, these subjects were the first to yield to pressure. It would be profitless now to state the case for the defense on any of these charges. What we need is to learn such lessons as we can from past experience and to face the future with full confidence in the value of an enriched curriculum. We seem to be about to enter upon a period of rapid and fundamental change in our educational procedures. Dissatisfaction with past achieve¬ ments is plainly apparent not only in the ranks of the so-called liberals and radicals but even among the most conservative members of the educational profession. This state of unrest is made the more acute by the attacks of those critics who assert that the schools make too heavy a drain upon public revenues. To ignore all charges and to continue in old ways with smug complacency are not marks of real leadership. As teachers and administra¬ tors we are under obligation to reexamine our faith and our practise from time to time in order to determine their validity under new conditions. Fortunately there are signs of an awakening to a sense of responsibility to the young. Coordinated efforts to promote child welfare are in the making. We may hope that ultimately society will recognize that its most important task is the proper education of children and youths. This task is more im¬ portant than building cities, exploiting natural resources, accumulating wealth, seeking power and place, and more important than conquering the sea and the air. While these outside movements and ameliorations are developing, it be¬ hooves the schools to set their house in order. Unfortunately there is a wide variance of opinion among educational authorities concerning the appro¬ priate method to use. Some would have no patterns for youth to follow and would depend upon the orderly unfolding of life under a suitable environment. According to the theory of this group of thinkers, the task of the school is to supply the proper environment, including desirable ma¬ terials for study. They of course would decide what is desirable and what is not, altho they would stimulate children to use their own initiative in finding and selecting. Another view of educational function, sometimes called the theory of indoctrination, assumes that adults have discovered certain patterns which it is desirable for children to understand and to follow. This latter view has prevailed quite generally in school practise. The criticism which is now leading to the making of the new curriculum is that there have been serious omissions in the selection of the patterns. Instead of choosing those which are well within the range of child experience and which have a direct bear¬ ing upon daily life, we have tended to emphasize the importance of master¬ ing racial achievements which are abstract and lacking in challenging sig¬ nificance to the young. Arithmetic, reading, geography, history, and the other so-called academic subjects on both the lower and higher levels, con¬ stitute a priceless racial heritage. But they are not our sole heritage. They represent mastery in the realm of the intellect. Other rich legacies have 650 National Education Association come down to us in the form of social and political institutions. To ignore or even to minimize these is to count as of little present value those centuries of painful struggle and striving thru which by slow degrees we have come to be what we are. It is the comparative neglect of some of these important social institutions that has thrown our educational system out of balance. Its consequences are now stimulating a demand for new materials and methods. Thus we shall find ourselves in the near future forced in sheer self-defense to ask what responsibilities rest upon the schools to preserve the patterns of individual liberty and of free institutions whereby men govern themselves thru political machinery of their own making ; and we shall have to ask in particular what responsibility rests upon the schools to preserve the pattern of the home wherein man and wife and children in love and loyalty constitute a social unit to which centuries of experience have given incontestable validity. If we are unwilling to admit into the curriculum those studies which deal directly with these social patterns, then we shall be under the necessity of proving that our intellectual heritage is so valuable that we can afford to ignore everything else. In the long run, if not immediately, we are likely thru the exercise of good judgment to balance our curriculum by giving due recognition to all phases of life appropriate to children and essential to social continuity. This situation presents an unusual opportunity and a clear challenge to teachers and to supervisors of home economics. You are concerned with the problems of the home. These problems are not material only ; they are social, moral, esthetic, economic, and spiritual. Nor are these problems of inter¬ est and of importance to girls and women only ; they are of equal concern to boys and girls and to men and women. Of course there will be differentia¬ tion of treatment just as in the well-ordered home there will be a division of labor. In order that the whole problem of the home may be given adequate consideration, it seems desirable that the departments of home economics and of industrial arts be unified in some manner helpful to both. If we had a department of ethics in the schools, it should become a part of the merger. The readiest solution is to make the teaching of ethics a part of the obliga¬ tion of every teacher of home economics or industrial arts. The kind of curriculum here proposed assumes that a unified program dealing with the home is to be required of all boys and girls. It will be sufficiently comprehensive to begin in the early years of the elementary school and to extend thruout youth. A sufficient number of teachers ade¬ quately prepared to conduct this program is not at present available. It will be necessary, therefore, to make small beginnings and to proceed slowly until teacher-training institutions can meet the demand. Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 651 THE NATURE AND FUNCTION OF HOME ECONOMICS 1 EFFIE RAITT, PRESIDENT, AMERICAN HOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION, UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON, SEATTLE, WASH. Have we a philosophy of home economics? Do we realize its purpose and appreciate its significance ? Are we aware of its nature and its relation¬ ship to other subjects in the curriculum? We have a philosophy, complete and integrated, if we will but possess it. Ever since that far-seeing group met at Lake Placid from 1899 to 1909 to consider what a changing world required for education of women that might improve homes and the life within, we have had a philosophy, altho not readily do we see all of its implications. The philosophy for the integration of our subjectmatter is based upon function ; therefore, we must state our objectives in terms of purposes rather than as units of subjectmatter to be mastered. Skills should not be dis¬ credited, but they are a means to an end. Organized knowledge we must have. It is the foundation. Without it we would never develop full intel¬ lectual strength. Lacking exact knowledge we would drift and be readily swayed by every wind of doctrine. We cannot claim for our field knowledge that does not function. Mastery of available data in regard to nutrition, food preparation, textiles, housing, income management, child development, family relationships, is essential not as general knowledge disconnected with current situations, but for better understanding and improved use of resources. The function of home economics is to assemble and disseminate whatever may serve to pro¬ mote the ideal for the home and the lives within. Our purpose is enrichment of homes and of home life and activities growing out of them. The relation¬ ship to other divisions of knowledge and to other lines of activity must be recognized if the subject is to be seen in its proper perspective. It behooves each worker in home economics to survey all fields of knowledge, all lines of activity, and to glean therefrom whatever may serve the end we seek — improvement of homes and home life. Our goal (we say it glibly) is enrichment of homes and home life, more abundant living. Stating a comprehensive objective in fine-sounding phrases is futile without analysis, evaluation, conclusions, and formulation of procedures. What can be taught in home economics that will enrich homes and home life and so lead to more abundant living thru increasing satisfactions, or, what may be quite as important, lessening dissatisfactions? Our task is a dual one: First, to enlarge those resources from which we benefit and also, as Dr. Suzzallo said once when he faced a trying situation, “ to turn liabilities into assets.” Let us take a little time to mention a few of the outcomes of teaching that fall within our province and contribute to this end. Making better choices, whether of commodities, services, or use of leisure time — choices that are based upon reliable information. 1 Complete address printed in Journal of Home Economics, May, 1935. 652 National Education Association Increasing abilities and opportunities to enjoy things that are worthy. This may apply to home furnishing, to clothing, to friends, or to good literature. Developing a feeling of social security by helping pupils to a recognition of their own intrinsic worth. Cultivating a sense of fair play. Cooperative activities in the laboratory give excellent opportunity for the give-and-take necessary to develop this spirit. Helping to distinguish between those things that yield merely transitory pleasure and those that furnish enduring satisfactions. This requires careful analysis, but is worth much effort. It is the basic principle in budget making. Providing opportunities for creative expression. Pride in work is a great incen¬ tive, whether the product be a perfect glass of jelly, a well-made garment, or a beautiful flower arrangement. Enlarging opportunities for enjoyment of human relationship. Boys and girls respond enthusiastically to teaching of social amenities. Help pupils plan their parties. Helping to fix worthy ideals that are not too far above possibility of attainment. Too wide a gap between existing conditions and the goal set may result only in discontent. The habit of failure may result from always attempting too much. Gaining an insight that will increase understanding and respect for one’s own family. Girls and boys are extremely sensitive to family conduct that does not conform to their group standards. Help them adjust to and appreciate real values. I would add that as opportunity offers, a realizing sense of relationship to a higher power should be fostered. On the negative side, methods might be studied that would decrease waste, lessen irritation and distrust, get rid of a feeling of inadequacy, eliminate competition within the family group, overcome lack of system and orderli¬ ness, lessen the tendency to tolerate the mediocre and tawdry, whether in tangible things like home furnishing and clothing or in social relationships. These outcomes are reached not directly by precepts, thru a lesson or series of lessons, but thru a variety of experiences encountered in solving everyday problems. When any teacher has as a part of her inner consciousness a con¬ ception of our ultimate goal — the improvement of home living — she will find countless opportunities to attain these results as she teaches classes in food, clothing, shelter, child development, or income management. No lesson or series of lessons in home economics should be considered com¬ plete unless in addition to the acquisition of skills and knowledge a basis for selective judgment has been reached and an understanding of its sig¬ nificance to the student has been realized. As our horizons have broadened we have realized the necessity for going deeper to establish our foundations. We have a philosophy complete and integrated. Mrs. Ellen H. Richards epitomized it in these few sentences which we would do well to use as a litany : Home economics stands for Ideal home life of today unhampered by tradition of the past The resources of modern science to improve home life Freedom of the home from the dominance of things, and their due subordina¬ tion to ideals That simplicity in material surroundings that will free the spirit for the more important and permanent interests of home and of society Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 653 TO THE HOME ECONOMICS TEACHERS OF THE NATION HENRY LESTER SMITH, DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, INDIANA UNIVERSITY, BLOOMINGTON, IND. ; AND PRESIDENT, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION To each of you I extend the cordial hand of fellowship and good wishes. As I come into the high responsibilities of my year as president of the National Education Association I need your active and wholehearted help to work out the problems of the Association and the profession. For seventy- seven years the finest teachers of America have put their best into our Asso¬ ciation. Like the structure of our democratic government, it brings together into working cooperation the forces of locality, state, and nation. It is the only organization which has the possibility of enlisting and welding together the teachers of America. The work of the Association is carried on by three groups, the head¬ quarters staff, the state and local associations, and the twenty-four depart¬ ments — including the Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics — which meet the needs of workers in the special fields. I have pledged myself to a program of action which calls for the active support of each of these three groups. Will you not cooperate in its realization? The following is the program around which I shall build my work for the year : Security of positions for teachers Minimum wage law Uniform school term Adequate retirement allowance State and local financial support for schools Federal aid but not control Recognition of classroom teachers The amendment which was adopted at Washington Democracy in the N. E. A. United organization with a single purpose — furthering the educational facilities of our land and encouraging full participation in these facilities by our children, youth, and adult citizenship. This program can be made effective only by a willingness on the part of each member of our National Education Association to give his best. May I then on behalf of the Association appeal to each of you to throw your whole strength into its important work? You will think of many things to do. May I suggest for home economics teachers three lines of effort: first, the interpretation of school service to the home in order that there may be that understanding and support so essential to the security of the schools in these critical times; second, a continuing study of the various housing projects and enterprises now being sponsored by the federal government in order that the consumer may understand how to obtain a house within his means, suitable for his family situation, well constructed, and worth the price which he pays for it ; and third, that emphasis be placed on the art of living so that people who move into better homes will make increasing im¬ provements in personal character and fineness. 654 National Education Association The home economics teachers are perhaps closer to the homes than any other one group. They were quick to see the almost endless opportunities which the school has for raising the standard of well-being in the home. President Roosevelt’s plans for the improvement of the nation’s homes are receiving public understanding and support, largely because of the steady, year-by-year teaching of homemaking in the schools. In every community in the United States, the influence of the home economics teacher can be seen at work. It can be seen in the records of homes made more beautiful or more secure, of manners refined and standards uplifted because the opportunities of children have been enlarged, their spirits awakened, their tastes cultivated, their skills trained. May I pay tribute in this connection to the splendid group meetings which were held by the Department of Home Economics at the Washington con¬ vention of the National Education Association. The discussion of such topics as “ home economics education for intelligent living,” “ the contributions of home economics education to worthwhile leisure,” and “ home economics education for citizenship,” indicates the close connection which the work of the home economics teacher has with the entire life of the community. Let us lead parents to appreciate still further the service of the school. Let us visit homes and invite parents to visit the schools. It is only on a basis of public understanding and support that the tides of retrenchment can be turned back and the work of reconstruction begun. HOME ECONOMICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM E. E. OBERHOLTZER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, HOUSTON, TEXAS; AND PRESIDENT, N. E. A. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE The Department of Home Economics in the Houston Public Schools is striving to broaden and integrate the type of education which will help students to understand better the basic problems of health and general wel¬ fare as related to the development and organization of home life. Home economics has its place in the school curriculum because it is designed to help pupils learn new and improved ways of living. It should contribute to both physical and mental improvement by adding to the skill which one must have to meet the problems of modern life. This department should con¬ tribute to the enjoyment and satisfaction of results by intelligent and ap¬ preciative understanding of the purposes of life. In certain respects, home economics may also contribute to vocational efficiency of the individual. This department should prepare the background for certain of the vocations, such as nursing or dietetics or even the vocation of the homemaker, who must become manager of the home and look after the general welfare of the family and children in particular. Many of the problems that exist today in the social and economic world are results of the inefficiency of the home due to lack of understanding and appreciation of some of these fundamentals in human living. One of the paramount problems in education today is how to enable people to adjust Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 655 themselves to the changing conditions of society. Certainly, one aspect of this problem must be how to adjust the family budget to declining income, how to adjust one’s living habits to the changing type of community from rural to urban, from the simple house to the complicated apartment, and from the old home life to organized social life, which is mostly becoming life away from the home. Summarizing, then, I should say that the Department of Home Economics has a most vital place in the program of education. It should be integrated with all the other fields of subjectmatter and should operate under condi¬ tions that are practical and real. It should come to grips with the everyday problems of life. INTEGRATION OF EDUCATION FOR BETTER LIVING- PANEL DISCUSSION Panel: Sam R. Hill, Principal, Manual Training High School, Denver, Colo., Leader Ward I. Miller, Superintendent of Schools, Fort Collins, Colo. Frances Zuill, Head, Home Economics Department, State Uni¬ versity of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa George W. Frasier, President, Colorado State College of Educa¬ tion, Greeley, Colo. Elizabeth Riner, Director of Adult Education in Homemaking, Public Schools, Omaha, Nebr. George L. Maxwell, State Director of Emergency Education, Denver, Colo. Agnes Tilson, Director of Parent Education, Merrill-Palmer School, Detroit, Mich. Mrs. Kate W. Kinyon, Director of Home Economics, Public Schools, Denver, Colo. Birdie Vorhies, Supervisor of Home Economics, State Department of Education, Lincoln, Nebr. Walter F. Dyde, Professor of Education, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. 1. What is the necessity for thinking of education as an integrated process by the administrator? the teacher? the child? A functioning educational program must contribute to helping the learner face life problems more adequately. It must help to integrate conflicting beliefs and behavior, reconstruct values and standards in changing condi¬ tions, develop personality, and orient the individual toward a better under¬ standing and desire for sharing the common purposes of the group, all to the end that individual and group living may be increasingly improved and enriched. The first step in the discussion should be a clarification of the meaning of integration in this particular situation. Dr. Hopkins presents the follow- 656 National Education Association ing definition of the term: “ Integration is a term used to designate the internal aspects of behavior exhibited by an individual in resolving the con¬ flicts which arise within his movements in his environment.” Integration, so far as the individual is concerned, is the harmonious functioning of inward and outward behavior processes to the end of producing a unified self. The integrated individual builds up technics and reactions which he uses in facing situations which bring self and environment into harmony. Someone has said that there is no integration unless it exists in the mind of the learner, no matter how well the educational program has been planned. The teacher who is not himself an integrated personality cannot hope to contribute much to the integration of the child. He must have a social philosophy and an appreciation and understanding of the growth and devel¬ opment of the child. He must be a guide and also a learner with the child. The classroom under such a teacher becomes an opportunity to examine the behavior aspects of the life experiences of the individual. The teacher must also help the child in his disturbing home influences, and work with com¬ munity leaders to shape viewpoints. The integrated individual develops in his total environment growing toward a unified self. The administrator must contribute very positively to the promotion of an environment in which teachers and pupils can develop integration. Administration must be human¬ ized and socialized. 2. What constitutes a program which will secure integration? A program which gives opportunity for integration must : a. Give opportunity for many contacts in the environment. b. The experiences resulting from these contacts must give opportunity for selecting, organizing, “ doing,” and evaluating in the solution of the problems arising out of the experiences to the end of changed behavior. c. Relationships must be seen and there must be a technic for their use. d. The school program is moving rapidly toward life activities as the center of the curriculum. Science and social science are looking to life within and without the home for subjectmatter. This procedure offers op¬ portunity for many and varied contacts with the environment. Many fields of subjectmatter go to the home and the community for basic materials, applying these materials to the problem of personal living and home life. The special contribution of home economics will come thru guiding indi¬ viduals in reaching decisions as to values most worth working for in personal living and home and family life. 3. What changes in our present practise in home economics are implied by the acceptance of such a program ? a. Philosophies of education and home economics must be examined and reshaped. b. Teacher-training institutions must revamp programs to include courses giving an appreciation and understanding of human relationships thru mental and social hygiene and the social studies. c. Teachers must see that skills are only one phase of the development of the integrated personality. Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 657 d. The school curriculum must be a unified undertaking. Water-tight compartments must go. e. The program must become coeducational. f. More adequate means of discovering vital individual and group needs must be devised together with means of actually meeting these needs with satisfaction to the individual and the home. Just growing up brings many needs to the individual, but growing up in a particular family and a par¬ ticular community makes certain needs more important than others. The need for integration of conflicting beliefs and behavior is seen with the out¬ ward acceptance of the teaching of science, while conduct is still being influ¬ enced by superstitions. Black cats, ladders, and “ mad stones ” still influence behavior. g. Home economics must be interested in the major social trends as they are shaping individual, home, and community life. REPORT OF PRESIDENT MRS. LEILA BUNCE SMITH, WEST PEACHTREE STREET, ATLANTA, GA. It is with pleasure that I report my activities during the first year of office, as follows: 1. Five hundred letters (mimeographed) mailed to home economists, soliciting their interest in the Department 2. Forty-eight letters (mimeographed) mailed to state superintendents of schools, stating the aims of the Department and asking for their cooperation 3. Forty-eight letters (mimeographed) mailed to editors of state education journals, enclosing announcements of the Department for publication 4. Forty-eight letters (mimeographed) mailed, appointing state membership chairmen 5. Letters written to the president of the National Education Association and president of the American Home Economics Association, offering the cooperation of this Department in their activities 6. Appointed a News Letter Committee, of which Clara Lee Cone is chairman. Five hundred copies of the News Letter were printed and mailed early in January. The edition was financed with ads, which appeared on the back page 7. Appointed a Plan of Work Committee, of which France^ Swain is chairman 8. Appointed Freda Winning chairman of the Yearbook Committee 9. Secured $200 from the National Education Association to begin work on the yearbook 10. Appointed Maude Williamson chairman of the Program Committee for the Denver meeting 11. Appointed Mrs. Kate Kinyon chairman of Local Arrangements Committee for the annual meeting 12. Appointed Alice Currier chairman of the Constitution Committee 13. Appointed Carlotta C. Greer chairman of the Nominating Committee 14. Reappointed the Economics Committee with Dr. Andrews chairman, and the Bibliography Committee with Miss Coon chairman 15. A substantial increase in membership has been made. Thanks are due the officers of the Department and the chairmen of the committees for the excellent spirit of cooperation which was manifested on all occasions. Especially are thanks due Maude Williamson and Mrs. 658 National Education Association Kate Kinyon for planning the program and making arrangements for the Denver meeting. To Carlotta Greer, who has worked untiringly to per¬ form the service that I could not render as president, I confess an eternal debt of gratitude. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Denver, Colorado July 2-3, 1935 f The Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics had two meetings, one Tuesday, a session on “ Understanding People,” and one Wednesday, a panel discussion on the “ Integration of Education for Better Living.” Ruth Lloyd, director of the Psychiatric Social Service of the Colorado Psychopathic Hospital in Denver talked concerning the youth of today and its explanation. Some of the key points which she brought out were as follows: Women have a larger unconscious life than men, largely because of a greater sympathetic nervous system which results in a higher intuitive power and also results in an increase in sympathy and understanding. Women represent the “ feeling ” type of human being while men represent the “ power ” type and this causes the struggle which we see going on during the adolescent period. The entrance of woman into the economic situation has emphasized the development of individualism. To understand the adolescent girl, we must understand sex characteristics, the first evidence of which is the desire to attract the attention of the other sex. The greatest conflict in adolescent girls and young women is caused by that of the maternal or sex instincts and the will to power with the social inhibitions which we have developed. R. F. Gustavson, professor of chemistry, Denver University, told in a very scientific and yet understanding manner of the present status of knowledge con¬ cerning the endocrine glands and human behavior. It is impossible to summarize his talk in a brief space but suffice it to say, he held his audience of some five hundred people in tense attention during the entire time. The panel discussion on Wednesday was led by Sam R. Hill, principal, Manual Training High School, Denver, Colo. (Summary appears in preceding pages.) DEPARTMENT OF Teachers Colleges HISTORICAL NOTE The department of teachers colleges takes the place of the Depart¬ ment of Normal Schools, which was formed at the Cleveland meeting, August 19, 1870, by a reorganization of the American Normal School As¬ sociation which had been organized in 1858. See proceedings, 1870:176; 1906: 524. In 1924 it was voted to appoint a committee to discuss the possibility of combining with the American Association of Teachers Colleges. See proceedings, 1924:614. In 1925 the combination was effected. It was arranged that the National Education Association take over the publications of the American Association of Teachers Colleges, including its yearbook, in 1926. The officers of the Department for the year 1935-36 are: president, H. A. Sprague, President, New Jersey State Teachers College, Mont¬ clair, N. /.; vicepresident, Eugene Fair, President, Northeast Mis¬ souri State Teachers College, Kirksville, Mo.; secretary-treasurer, Charles W. Hunt, Principal, State Normal School, Oneonta, N. Y.; executive committee: Clarence L. Phelps, President, State Teachers College, Santa Barbara, Calif. ( term expires 1936) ; Norman IV. Cam¬ eron, President, State Teachers College, West Chester, Pa. ( term expires 1937) ; L. A. Pittenger, President, Ball State Teachers College, Muncie, Ind. ( term expires 1938). Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1870: 1- 88 1873:164-199 1874:214-254 1875:138-153 18 76:157-211 18 77:139-174 1879:113-135 1880 :176-192 1881 -.199-218 1882 -.173-180 1884:236-258 1885 :223-247 188 6:387-420 1887:465-508 1888:463-512 1889 -.555-609 1890 -.715-755 1891 :709-740 1892 -.407-433 1894:819-870 1895 -.672-717 189 6:642-665 189 7:709-735 1898:728-756 1899:835-903 1900 -.480-490 1901:635-645 190 2:529-643 190 3:539-593 1904 :567-591 1905 -.517-555 190 6:707-711 190 7:739-758 1908 :703-738 1909 -.547-596 1910:563-593 1911: 695- 707 1912: 809- 896 1913: 523- 552 1914: 497- 564 1915: 763- 813 1916: 441- 460 1917: 383- 416 1918: 209- 234 1919: 221- 257 1920: 237- 262 1921: 515 19 22:1063-1084 19 23:737-743 1924 :613-635 1925:863 19 26:839-947 192 7:873-950 1928 :833-948 1929:827-936 1930:801-910 1931:845-945 1932:713-785 19 33:709-777 1934:705-776 [ 660 ] OUR NEXT ORDER OF BUSINESS H. L. DONOVAN, PRESIDENT, EASTERN KENTUCKY STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, RICHMOND, KY. Professional unity — Altho our Association has had a phenomenal de¬ velopment, yet I am persuaded that we can wield a greater and better influence in the nation. In order to do this, the membership of our Associa¬ tion should include all institutions offering like professional teacher training and exclude those which do not. Our interests are identical with those of the colleges of education in the great universities. We have approximately the same function to perform. These two groups of colleges, dedicated to the same service, have each been pursuing their own professional course. In my opinion, it is highly desirable that the deans of the colleges of education and the presidents of teachers colleges should meet together and consolidate their professional interests. Should not the American Association of Teach¬ ers Colleges invite the colleges of education to affiliate with it to the end that the professional colleges for the education of teachers may be united in one group? Membership — Each year we are having applications for membership in our Association from institutions that have no very definite objectives. These schools are not primarily colleges for the education of teachers. With many of them, the preparation of teachers is regarded as a byproduct. Colleges whose function is not primarily the education of teachers have no place in our organization. The time has come when we should pursue a policy such as that which the medical profession has adopted in the education of doctors, and reduce the number of teachers colleges and colleges of education rather than encourage the establishment of new institutions of this type. Let us lend our efforts to improve the quality of those colleges that are now well established and oppose ill-advised movements to salvage dying colleges of another type by making teachers colleges of them. We do not need more colleges for the education of teachers but better colleges. A journal — As an Association, we have no house organ ; and, as a group of colleges, we have no journal we can refer to as representing our inter¬ ests. There are more than two hundred teachers colleges and normal schools with approximately 15,000 faculty members. Can we not support a journal of our own ? If we hope to wield the influence we are entitled to have, this is a matter in which we should become interested. When members of our faculties produce good articles, they often are not able to get them published because other groups have the first claim on the columns of most of the journals of education. Is the time propitious for us to consider linking up with one of the educational journals in order that we may have first claim on it? Standards — I have been tremendously impressed by the study of the North Central Association. It is my opinion that this investigation is going to force [661] 662 National Education Association all accrediting agencies to reform their methods of evaluating a college. Their effort to secure a total picture of the college merits most favorable consideration. I, personally, have but little faith in paper reports. Colleges should be inspected at least once every three years. This is the only way to know the worth of an institution. Inspection is a great stimulus to any college, and institutions are entitled to such assistance from accrediting agencies. We should be ready to take advantage of every good thing revealed in the North Central investigation. Assuredly, qualitative standards will in the near future displace quantitative standards. Our standards as they stand today (and I helped write them) are too formal and mechanical. I can conceive of a college meeting every standard of our Association and still not being a college with a soul — breaking the bread of life to young men and women. Improvement of certification laws — The certification laws of this coun¬ try are the greatest barrier to educational progress with which we have to contend. So long as the ignorant and the half-educated can procure license to teach, educational advancement will be difficult to make. The legisla¬ tures of most states are induced for political considerations to pass laws permitting low grade certificates in order to protect an army of “ school keepers,” while many well-qualified teachers join the army of the unem¬ ployed. The teachers colleges should make a concerted movement to reform the certification laws of many of our states. There is no longer any need for the employment of a teacher in this country who in preparation for teaching has not had at least two years of work at the college level. Publicity — That institution of higher education which most directly affects the welfare of the masses is the teachers college. We have failed to establish in the minds of the people our essential value to them. The part which the teachers college plays in raising the general cultural level of society is not understood by the public. Without depreciating the value of any other institution, for all of them have a place in our social order, the teachers college is in fact and truth the people’s college. Our Associa¬ tion, as well as its individual members, should make a much greater effort to interpret to the public the supreme value of the work of the teachers colleges of America in the making of a nation. WHAT HAS HAPPENED TO THE FINANCES OF THE TEACHERS COLLEGES DURING THE DEPRESSION? GEORGE W. FRASIER, PRESIDENT, COLORADO STATE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, GREELEY, COLO. A question blank was sent to all four-year teachers colleges that are members of the American Association of Teachers Colleges. This blank was for the purpose of collecting information concerning the annual ex¬ penditures of the colleges over the last six years from 1929-30 to 1934-35 inclusive. Seventy-four teachers colleges submitted complete information Department of Teachers Colleges 663 in ample time for the necessary statistical work to be done. Reports came from several other colleges when it was too late to use the material. Thirty-three of these colleges are located in the north central area ; fifteen in the northeastern region ; ten in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific states ; and sixteen in the southern area. In many of our tables we present sepa¬ rate data for each of the four sections of the country. • Most of the value of this study will come from a careful perusal of the tables on the following pages. Complete information has already been sent to the presidents of all colleges cooperating. It is my purpose to mention only general trends. The year 1929-30 is used as a basic year. All percentages given in this study use 1929-30 as a base; for example, 70 percent expendi¬ ture at any level means 70 percent of the expenditures in 1929-30. The total expenditures for the six-year period are found in Table I, and show for the north central group a drop to 72.4 percent. The northeastern group dropped to 56.5 percent; the southern group to 68.6 percent; and the western group to 80.3 percent. In the groups studied, the northeastern TABLE I— TOTAL ANNUAL EXPENDITURES AND PERCENTAGE OF CHANGE IN SEVENTY-FOUR STATE TEACHERS COLLEGES IN FOUR GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS FOR A SIX-YEAR PERIOD, 1929-1935 Year North Central Percent Northeast Percent Southern Percent Rocky Mountain and Pacific Percent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1929— 30a $10,457,009 100.0 $5,883,809 100.0 $4,568,005 100.0 $2,794,323 100.0 1930-31 9,739,828 93.1 6,213,401 105.3 4,371,970 95.7 2,666,34 3 95.4 1931-32 10,035,914 96.0 5,053,639 85.9 3,948,223 86.4 2,513,039 89.9 1932-33 8,595,242 82.2 4,379,855 74.4 3,523,595 77.1 2,320,056 83.1 1933-34 7,648,078 73.1 3,615,139 61.4 3,103,382 67.9 1,972,300 70.6 1934-35b 7,574,082 72.4 3,322,139 56.5 3, 134,260 68.6 2,243,434 80.3 Total range. . . $2,882,927 27.6 $2,891,262 48.8 $1,464,623 32.1 $822,023 29.4 Average . . 9,008,359 86.1 4,744,664 80.6 3,77 4,906 82.6 2,418,249 86.6 a This year is taken as the base. b The budget amount. group suffered the greatest reduction, followed by the southern states, north central, and the Rocky Mountain and Pacific states. Table II shows the information concerning capital outlay for the same group of states. Here you will notice a tremendous falling off, the schools in the northeast going down in 1934-35 to 6.7 percent of the capital expen¬ ditures for 1920-30; those in the north central dropping to 11.9 percent; the southern to 23.5 percent; and the western to 74.1 percent. The data for annual faculty salaries show for the six-year period a reduc¬ tion to 77 percent for the southern states, 80 percent for the north central states, 86 percent for the northeastern states, and 89 percent for the Rocky Mountain and Pacific states. 664 National Education Association TABLE II— TOTAL ANNUAL CAPITAL EXPENDITURES AND PER¬ CENTAGE OF CHANGE IN SEVENTY-FOUR STATE TEACHERS COLLEGES IN FOUR GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS FOR A SIX-YEAR PERIOD, 1929-1935 Year North Central Percent Northeast Percent Southern Percent Rocky Mountain and Pacific 1 Percent 1 2 3 4 5 . 6 7 8 9 1929—30® $1,133,799 100.0 $1,472,876 100.0 $1,281,472 100.0 $412,519 100.0 1930-31 926,416 81.7 1,264,790 85.9 1,014,897 79.2 644,717 136.0 1931-32 696,909 61.5 345,710 23.5 348,202 27.2 143,863 33.9 1932-33 553,246 48.8 219,229 14.9 222,416 17.4 368,610 89.4 1933-34 131,478 11.6 167,412 11.4 213,985 16.7 170,121 41.3 1934 — 35b 134,562 11.9 98,794 6.7 301,145 23.5 305,850 74.1 Total range. . . $1,002,321 88.4 $1,374,082 93.3 $1,067,487 83.3 $268,656 102.1 Average . 596,068 52.6 594,802 40.4 563,686 44.0 340,947 79.1 ® This year is taken as the base. b The budget amount. TABLE III— TOTAL ANNUAL FACULTY SALARIES AND « PERCENTAGE OF CHANGE IN SEVENTY-FOUR STATE TEACHERS COLLEGES IN FOUR GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS FOR A SIX- YEAR PERIOD, 1929-1935 Rocky North Mountain Year Central Percent Northeast Percent Southern Percent and Pacific Percent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1929-30® $6,175,410 100.0 $2,280,245 100.0 $2,361,906 100.0 $1,615,554 100.0 1930-31 5,983,488 96.9 2,561,994 111.0 2,444,325 103.4 1,674,932 103.5 1931-32 6,530,215 105.4 2,645,107 116.0 2,392,830 101.3 1,719,388 106.0 1932-33 5,453,542 88.3 2,557,722 112.2 2,078,163 88.0 1,619,799 100.3 1933-34 5,003,581 81.1 2,206,767 99.7 1,880,739 79.6 1,353,222 83.8 1934-35b 4,947,056 80.1 1,970,593 86.4 1,809,630 76.6 1,432,603 88.7 Total range . . . $1,583,160 25.3 $674,514 29.6 $634,695 26.8 $366,166 22.2 Average . . 5,682,215 91.9 2,370,405 104.2 2,161,265 91.5 1,569,250 97.1 a This year is taken as the base. b The budget amount. Table IV shows expenditures for library books and magazines. In 1934- 35 these expenditures had fallen to 45.6 percent for the colleges of the northeast, to 68.8 percent for the colleges of the south, to 81.5 percent for the north central colleges, and to 82.3 percent for the colleges of the Rocky Mountain and Pacific area. Department of Teachers Colleges 665 TABLE IV— TOTAL ANNUAL EXPENDITURES FOR LIBRARY BOOKS AND MAGAZINES AND PERCENTAGE OF CHANGE IN SEVENTY- FOUR STATE TEACHERS COLLEGES IN FOUR GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS FOR A SIX-YEAR PERIOD, 1929-1935 Year North Central Percent Northeast Percent Southern Percent Rocky Mountain and Pacific Percent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1929-30a $141,211 100.0 $67,079 100.0 $72,842 100.0 $40,770 100.0 1930-31 129,622 91.8 55,744 83.1 65,961 90.6 41,938 102.8 1931-32 138,316 97.9 51,603 76.9 78,463 107.2 39,269 96.3 1932-33 123,310 87.3 47,043 70.1 54,248 74.5 27,525 67.5 1933-34 120,106 85.1 29,903 44.6 52,738 72.4 23,104 56.7 1934— 35b 115,084 81.5 30,612 45.6 50,136 68.8 33,550 82.3 Total range . . . $26,127 18.5 $37,176 55.4 $28,327 38.4 $18,834 46.1 Average . . 127,942 90.6 46,997 70.1 62,398 85.6 34,359 84.3 a This year is taken as the base. b The budget amount. Table V gives for each year and each section the percentage of total expenditures, annual capital outlay, faculty salaries, library books and magazines. These percentages are taken from preceding tables, but the amounts of money are not given. Table VI gives the total annual expenditures, expenditures for capital outlay, for salaries, and library books for all of the 74 colleges combined. For total expenditures the average for the six-year period is 84.2 percent of the expenditures for 1929-30; for capital outlay it is 48.7 percent; for faculty salaries, 94.8 percent ; and for library books, 84.4 percent. This table contains some very interesting information. It is evident that in spite of the drop in total expenditures to 68.7 percent at the lowest point, for the country as a whole, faculty salaries dropped only to 81.7 percent. In other words faculty salaries have been kept at a very high level during the depression at the average teachers college. Magazines and books are slightly below, and there has been very little money spent for capital outlay. Table VIII shows which faculty welfare services were practised in 1929, and the extent of their discontinuance during the depression. This table deals with expenses to meetings, group insurance, annuities, research budgets, etc. In all cases there has been a marked cutting down during the depres¬ sion ; but a beginning has been made in the restoration of all these services. 666 National Education Association w h H CO P4 G O I I* h Z w '> w co tr> to ON rH I ON cm On tH O O p— i P* w pH z HH co W P4 G h hH Q Z W z w < z o HH H < U fa Q W Z i— i w O z < ffi u fa o fa o <5 H z fa u fa fa PLh fa K h fa fa pp < H fa < fa Z Z HH C/5 < fa o fa co Z O o fa fa fa < u fa Ph s O o fa 0 fa fa o fa z co fa o fa fa fa o u co fa fa fa u < fa H iH C uj C/3 ! vd oi rH ro vd fa-’ rH O O ON VOLT) co fa- 00 N fa °T3 t— P T— ) tuO § s fa fa s • r^ o NO CNI to Tf CO fa- vO nd •fa _■ 'O o o tr oi cd 00 LO fa 3 >H T— 1 OOpONKVO ro 00 fa O o . — ( 1—\ CO CO • o o ■5 +■ O i-i On I-H NO NO fa" rH -Q t jg to O to no O to t r> o >> V-» ZS ooonn -r tr T“H to fa fa rO rfa 3 fa Vh >H "fa o fa fa" O 00 On to rH to O p—P to r— P LO VO 00* o far S3 O to r-p’ 130 On no VO rH >> 3 v- o O OOOOONN CM OV -fa r— P T— P P 3 CO o fa ■ *fa cS ■*■* oooNNtt VO CM 3 tj i NO to CO o 33 u 00 cd fa^ 3 fa O V CO O CNI ^p 1-1 Cd H 00 rf 3 fa o 1 rfa fa fa J-. C/3 O On to on tO^J; 3 o fa tx O to to i— 1 NO to o fa fa Z " OCOCNlrtP-l rH On^ fa < •5 2 »H £> o S3 O W to 00 NO ON ...... H" NO K, -> 03 ’o ^ -a n) o on p no to H- NO O 0^ to oid on to o o On vd CO « 0-0 oonoooonco rH CM 00 3 p 1 43 ^ r tS O ro ON t}- -pf to 00 no fa o S ro O LO id -rtC i-P NO 00 o fa fa zw oooot^Noio rH rH M- oo T—i fa fa O H North Central CM O i— < O CM 1—1 ^ o to no oi rd csi NOrt • • Lx VO O On On co t>» tH CM 00 OS & O h CM ro fa" to ii bo rt c« 5 g Wh fa V rH II 1 1 1 1 OvOrH^xjrofa- (M G\ 0\ 0\ Q\ Q\ C\ M u > H < H H rH tH tH a This year is taken as the base. b The budget amount. Department of Teachers Colleges 667 TABLE VI— TOTAL ANNUAL EXPENDITURES AND PERCENTAGE OF CHANGE IN SEVENTY-FOUR STATE TEACHERS COLLEGES IN FOUR GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS FOR A SIX-YEAR PERIOD, 1929-1935 Year Total ex¬ penditures Per¬ cent Capital outlay Per¬ cent Faculty salaries Per¬ cent Library books and magazines Per¬ cent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1929-30a $23,703,147 100.0 $4,300,666 100.0 $12,433,115 100.0 $321,902 100.0 1930-31 22,991,542 97.0 3,850,820 89.5 12,664,739 101.8 293,321 91.1 1931-32 21,550,814 90.9 1,534,684 35.7 13,287,540 106.9 307,651 95.6 1932-33 18,818,748 79.4 1,363,501 31.7 11,709,226 94.2 252,126 78.3 1933-34 16,338,899 68.9 682,996 15.9 10,444,309 84.0 225,851 70.2 1 934 — 3 5b 16,273,916 68.7 840,351 19.5 10,159,881 81.7 229,383 71.3 Total range . . $7,429,231 31.3 $3,617,670 84.1 $3,127,659 25.2 $96,051 29.8 Average. . 19,946,178 84.2 2,095,503 48.7 11,783,135 94.8 271,706 84.4 a This year is taken as the base. b The budget amount. TABLE VII— THE MEDIAN PERCENTAGE OF CHANGE IN THE EXPENDITURES OF INSTITUTIONS FOR HIGHER EDUCATION, 1929-30 TO 1934-35 Groups Frequency Current expenditures 1 2 3 1. Universities and colleges'1 a. Public . 70 - 10.7 b. Private . 159 - 3.1 c. Teachers colleges and normal schools . 2. Four-year teachers collegesb . 88 74 - 19.4 (Q, ~ 16.2) - 29.0 (Q, - n.9) a Badger, H. G., The Economic Outlook in Higher Education for 1934-35, Pamphlet No. 58, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. (1934). b Actual total annual expenditures, 1934-35 is the budget. TABLE VIII— TRENDS IN FACULTY WELFARE SERVICES IN SEVENTY- FOUR STATE TEACHERS COLLEGES IN FOUR GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS FOR A SIX-YEAR PERIOD, 1929-1935 Practise Discontinued dur- Reestablished Item before 1929 ing depression now Yes No Yes No Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. Faculty expenses to professional meetings . . 46 21 16 30 3 13 2. Faculty group insurance . 8 59 1 7 0 0 3. Faculty annuities . . 18 48 2 16 2 0 4. Faculty research budgets . . . 18 50 4 14 0 4 5. Faculty office telephones . . . 39 28 12 27 7 5 6. Departmental research budgets . . . 17 49 5 12 2 4 Total . . . 146 255 40 106 14 26 Percentages . . 36.4 63.6 27.4 a 72. 6a 35b 65b a Based on column 2. b Based on column 4. 668 National Education Association TABLE IX— SIGNIFICANT ITEMS OF PRESENT STATUS IN SEVENTY-FOUR STATE TEACHERS COLLEGES IN FOUR GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS, 1935 Item Present situation Frequency 1 2 3 1. Salaries a. Partial restoration of salary cuts . 8 b. Salaries reduced 10 to 20 percent . 8 c. Salaries reduced more than 25 percent . 2 d. Emeritus salaries maintained . 1 e. One-half salary for graduate study . 1 f. Faculty have leave on pay . 1 2. Curriculum a. One to three departments curtailed . 5 b. Have added some departments . 4 c. One to three departments dropped . 3 3. Outlook for the future a. Trends slightly better . 6 b. No upward trends . 5 4. Plant a. C.W.A. and F.E.R.A. plant improvements . 2 b. Material reduction in capital appropriations . 2 c. General plant improvements made . 1 5. Sabbatical leaves a. Continued on full or half pay . 4 b. Discontinued . 1 6. Retirement a. All teachers are members of the state retirement system. 2 7. Supervision a. Discontinued in public elementary schools . 2 8. Student assistants a. Graduate students assist in research . 1 9. Student teaching a. Discontinued in rural schools . 1 The general conclusion that I would draw from this information is that we have reached the bottom and are at least holding our own in the matter of expenditures for teacher education. We have slight evidence of a start in the positive direction. I am also very much interested in the fact that budgets for teacher education, altho seriously cut, did not cut teachers’ salaries more than 18.3 percent for the country at large. THE WAYS AND MEANS OF AROUSING PUBLIC INTEREST IN THE FINANCIAL NEEDS OF TEACHERS COLLEGES L. A. PITTENGER, PRESIDENT, BALL STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, MUNCIE, IND. In discussing the ways and means of arousing public interest in the finan¬ cial needs of teachers colleges we wish to assume three premises: 1. Only institutions established by the public for the specific purpose of edu¬ cating young men and women to teach in tax-supported schools are included in this discussion. The collective quality of our enterprise and the democratic gov¬ ernmental ends desired by our people establish the validity and timeliness of this assumption. 2. We assume that teachers colleges, in their work of providing well-qualified teachers for the nation, are meeting a specific and vital social need, not other¬ wise afforded, and that any other supposition makes a consideration of this sub¬ ject superfluous. Department of Teachers Colleges 669 3. Any effort we may make to arouse public interest in our cause should be placed on a high level. Otherwise, any methods we employ will defeat the purposes for which they are intended. When educational interests and procedures, con¬ sciously or unconsciously, slip into political areas, motives are questioned and the interest of the public is thrown into reverse action. When a teachers college requests an appropriation from the state, its bartering power is in no way equal to that of the state budget committee and the finance committees of the two houses. Legislators are vested with life and death power to deal with any proposition before them, while the requestor of funds may all too often be measured by the number of votes he marshalled at the last election and continues to control. Ignorant, unappreciative, and humorous citizens delight in belittling their representatives in legislative halls, but the wise seeker of funds soon learns that representatives and senators are men and women like himself charged with large responsibilities to the state. Legislators are subject to terrific pressures from all directions by forces that derive their powerful effectiveness from the very people who elected the legislators. They receive convincing petitions signed by a long list of honorable, well-meaning citizens; powerful organizations focus on them carefully planned attacks. Chambers of commerce, labor unions, farm organizations, teachers federations, public officials, state institutions, tax¬ payers associations, and many other well-organized bodies know exactly what they want and drive deep their shafts of group requirements. Most of these causes are commendable, but no legislature could grant completely their requests and hope for the survival of the state. Sometimes a legislature can disregard public opinion ; sometimes it can form it ; sometimes the members must scrupulously follow it ; and some¬ times they are driven headlong, as if for their lives, before an overwhelm¬ ing tide. Some days the psychological temper of an assembly is smooth and placid ; on others the least controversial subject inspires a killing mood that the most worthy proposal cannot survive. The atmosphere about the legislature is surcharged with rumors and reports that make analytical, objective thinking almost impossible. The committees on education and finance are informed often and impressively that educators are not practical and that what they have to say about legislation should be taken with several grains of salt. These committees are informed that teachers are overpaid ; that there are too many of them ; and that their work is easy, compared with other occupations. There is a persistent belief in legislative halls that educators should not enter politics and that when they do they should and do lose caste with their fellow- teachers. Sometimes this report reaches proportions amounting almost to a conspiracy against the teaching profession. Another idea that is ever present, but subdued by some common understanding, is that higher teacher qualifications make political appointments of teachers more difficult. Small wonder then that men and women from all walks of life suddenly finding themselves, thru the magic of an election, charged with the responsibility of solving grave and complex social problems, become desperately con- 670 National Education Association fused by group pressures and a veritable hurricane of jangled rumors and reports. To these men and women in this highly emotionalized and con¬ fused situation we go to request appropriations for the operation of our colleges. We submitted the following questions to 49 presidents of teachers col¬ leges representing all sections of the United States: What have you done to arouse public interest in the teachers-college financial needs f Do you know of ways and means other colleges have used f If so, please name them. Do you have any suggestions to off erf We received 35 replies. In four of these replies the presidents emphasized the use of alumni activities to spread information concerning the needs of their colleges and to contact legislators. Home-coming events and publication of alumni editions of the college paper are considered two of the best means of pre¬ senting full information concerning the financial needs of the colleges. There is no denying that alumni activities are valuable in many ways, but there are certain precautionary suggestions that should be carefully con¬ sidered. Over-zealous activities can easily annul the best laid plans. Any word or action that gives the legislators the impression that the college is trying to put something over by political pressure creates an antagonistic attitude and raises doubts concerning the educational value of the work done in such a college. When political measures take the place of educa¬ tional performance the college so involved is placed in a very embarrassing position with thinking legislators. Alumni activities must always be in a sane and justifiable proportion to the needs and requests of all state functionings. If alumni pressure is ever strong enough to embarrass a budget committee in its consideration of all the requests before it, the alumni have hindered rather than helped. To have the right person in the right place at the right time is the secret of good lobbying. A number of replies indicated that bulletins covering special activities of the college, picturing the physical plant for the public, and explaining any new undertaking of the college are excellent means for arousing public interest. Some have found the college catalog sufficient to acquaint their public with the college. Our own experience in this field has not been as satisfying as we had hoped. Our college was established in 1918 and grew very rapidly in student numbers, in faculty, and in buildings. We endeavored, with limited funds, to give our people a true picture of this development by a series of publications. Some four years after this effort a citizen, presumably well informed in state matters, inquired if we had more than one building. (Our literature had carried the information that we had eight.) So much printed matter comes to the desks of busy men and women that much of it cannot be read thoroly. Then, too, some of our written material may I Department of Teachers Colleges 671 have an ailment similar to that which Goethe accredited to the poets of his time when he said, “ Modern poets mix too much water with their ink.” Some advise contacting legislators near the time of the convening of the session. Such contacts must be made in an acceptable manner. Unless the school official has an open door and a genial atmosphere in which to make this contact he will do well to find a reliable person to make this connec¬ tion. As a matter of fact it is the better part of wisdom to plan a third party action in most cases. Most political influence works its way quietly thru a mutual friendly third person. Insistence is dangerous for it soon takes on the form of begging and creates the unfair impression that the individual cares very little for all the other pressing items in the state’s program and selfishly demands the fulfilment of his requests. Too serious an attitude may create the impression that the requestor does not have real worth in his work and seeks to convince the committee by the tensity of his own emotional attitude. The best approach is marked by quiet, poiseful manner, backed by sufficient facts to convince even the most stubborn minded. Contention, uncertainty, and bravado are sure signs that all is not well. With a due appreciation of a sense of humor, the requestor should try to create in the minds of the committee the feel¬ ing that the college belongs to the state and that they must share in the responsibility of developing the institution. Entertaining visitors seems to a few of the correspondents as one of the best methods to arouse public interest in the financial needs of the college. It is presumed that these visitors must be folk of influence who can reach into the meetings of legislative committees; otherwise no direct results can be expected. One person with the proper connection and in¬ fluence, when once thoroly convinced of the college’s need, can very easily be worth more than many people who pay no attention to legislative activi¬ ties. Numbers serve well the purpose of developing a reputation for the college but the few who can penetrate the inner circles are the people upon whom we must depend to help us in securing appropriations. Some stress entertainments. The music department, debaters, dramatic clubs, and faculty members who can present special features of interest to the laity are used with good effect. It is suggested that the music must be high grade but not above the public’s ability to appreciate. All enter¬ tainment must be serious enough to give the impression that the work of the college is worthwhile. An entertainer can easily stamp the institution with a popular feeling that his presentation is a true picture of the curricu¬ lum work of the college. In this event the entertainment may do more harm than good and the administration of the college very probably may hear as much from the legislators. Debaters should choose subjects near to the people. The cooperative movement among farmers, and money and industrial problems in the cities have been excellent subjects to debate because the people have been anxiously searching for the truth in these subjects. Impulsive youth, not yet tested by the actualities of life, may injure the cause of the college if wise guidance does not guard the situa- 22 672 National Education Association tion. Too much theory and too many untried plans will create in the minds of the average audience distrust of the work of the college. From the viewpoint of legislators school people must lead in new thinking and at the same time be practical. Impossible sometimes, of course, but expected by the public just the same. Not all faculty members may be able to represent the college in its best light before the public. Highly specialized in their chosen subjects they rightly build up a strong preference for the body of information in their particular fields. To the general public, interested most directly in solving immediate economic and social problems, this preference for a specialty is considered overdrawn and impractical. Speakers representing the college should know not only subjectmatter but the people to whom they speak. Their language, their attitudes, and their beliefs must possess a certain amount of accord with the people if they hope to represent the college well. This does not mean that faculty members cannot present new and even antagonistic ideas to their audiences, but it does mean that they should know the technic of presenting their material so well that audiences leave them with a train of thought that will not be denied. Parent-teacher groups, chambers of commerce, farm bureaus, labor or¬ ganizations, commencements, teachers institutes, service clubs, churches, and various types of conferences make possible much speaking. Results cannot be determined. It seems sometimes that a speech is just a part of the routine that must be endured, and that in the vast majority of cases nothing new or of constructive force has been said. But our whole social order is set up on the basis of much printing, much speaking, and broad action. How can refinement and quiet, poiseful culture of the spirit make themselves felt in public gatherings in such a manner that the public will believe in such an educational program and be glad to finance it? This is our problem. In this field we can pioneer to our hearts’ content but always the noise and the speed of the world will be crashing in our ears. One of the most effective ways to reach the inner sanctum of committee rooms is thru pressure groups. Civic clubs, chambers of commerce, manu¬ facturing associations, the American Legion, parent-teacher groups, Ameri¬ can Association of University Women, farm and labor organizations, all are mentioned by our correspondents. In any plan to use these groups it is necessary to keep in mind that each and all of them have first and always their own problems to present to the legislators and that there is ever present the danger of having the college fall between two warring ele¬ ments. The college belongs to all the people and at no time should it be too greatly indebted to any one person or group of persons and it should, if possible, be kept free from partisan clashes. This thought leads some to think there should be no campaign to arouse the public to the financial needs of the college. Let the college stand or fall on the merits of its work. Quality alone is the basis upon which the public should judge the school. We should teach, do research, write, and speak in our respective fields and let the world judge. They would have us forget newspapers and their place in society and devote our full time Department of Teachers Colleges 673 to the classrooms. This is a glorious idea and no doubt true, but to anyone who has had the responsibility of steering appropriations for education thru a legislature it appears too good to be true. In the fury of the struggles, wherein all the passions of all classes of society compete to secure their share of the state budget, “ quality of work ” sometimes becomes a faint and distant cry in the dark. But quality of work does add strength and keenness to the sword of the fighter. It convinces fair-minded bud- geteers and bolsters waning voting power, but goodness must be good for something when it meets the fires of legislation. The radio is used for publicity purposes by a number of colleges, but no one seems to have any notion about the effectiveness of its service. Music, drama, and speeches are the materials most used. College material fur¬ nishes good copy, no doubt, on which to base sales of advertising. Radio programs do furnish an excellent opportunity for students and faculty to reach the public if only the fickle dial stands still long enough. Regular newspaper items and articles are thought helpful, especially those items concerning individual students sent to the home papers. News¬ paper publicity is very probably the best means we have for giving the public a running knowledge of our colleges, but it is not the best way to acquaint the people with our financial needs. News is passing information, but institutional financial needs are long-time items that must have the careful thought of thinking people. Our financing is pure business that must be considered, judged, and provided by persons who hold their posi¬ tions by virtue of popular elections. Their considerations must be in terms of the general thinking of the people -and not in terms of flashes from newspapers and radios. It is far better for our colleges that our efforts to secure adequate appropriations should not become involved in the daily run of the news, especially when newspaper editors are easily tempted to write editorials on controversial issues. Four replies laid emphasis on visitations by faculty and student body. These visits are so scheduled that all the territory contiguous to or allotted to the college is covered. Reasons stated for these visitations give the impression that they are directly intended to entertain or instruct the populace and the advertising that comes from the contacts is to be a byproduct. Debaters and glee clubs lead the list of student visitors, and faculty members serve mostly in the field of speaking. Adult education in its various forms seems to be the most logical reason for these visits and provides a setting for service to the people and indi¬ rectly benefits the colleges. Some colleges are dividing their territory and assigning faculty members to visit designated areas. In thinking thru these replies certain miscellaneous impressions appear more or less clear. 1. It is useless now to attempt a program of educating the public relative to the financial needs of our college because the people are so absorbed in their own trying conditions. 674 National Education Association 2. Some states are so organized that the responsibility for securing appropria¬ tions has passed from the individual institution to a centralized body or to an individual. 3. There appears in spots a feeling of inferiority on the part of the teachers- college requestors for state appropriations. 4. The policy of securing more students to request more state funds to secure still more students has almost disappeared in these depression years. 5. If we can save our institutions until better economic times return we shall be content. 6. Ours is the greatest work in the educational field and should be well financed. There are certain considerations a petitioner for state appropriations should have in mind when he approaches a state budget committee. First, the petitioner should be well acquainted with the duties of the committee and be duly sympathetic with it in its effort to serve the state under very trying circumstances. Such an attitude is just and is appreciated by budgeteers. Second, the petitioner should believe thoroly in his requests, should have assembled clear-cut, concise reasons for every item in his budget, and should be able to present his material in a pleasant, business-like manner. Any confusion or uncertainty on the part of the requestor makes it easy for the budget committee to reject wholly or in part the best intentioned requests. Third, the petitioner ought to be a careful student of the taxpayers’ ability to pay, and show, when before the budget committee, a sympa¬ thetic attitude toward taxpayers. It is advantageous for him to be a tax¬ payer himself and to know intimately the relation of his income from and the tax imposed on his property. This sympathy for taxpayers may balance but should never outweigh his obligations to the boys and girls whose future welfare depends on the state providing adequately for the best possible education of teachers. Fourth, the petitioner should be clear as to the part a teachers college plays in the entire state educational program. If he cannot meet the charge of overlappings and duplications his case is in jeopardy. His best argument against objections to his requests is the possession of a logical program that can be stated so clearly and convincingly that even the untutored understand and cannot deny. Fifth, the petitioner cannot hope to be effective if he forsakes educa¬ tional considerations and standards and falls before the temptation of using political influence to gain his ends. The petitioner has a very direct responsibility in the matter of informing the budget committee, and shares with the committee the duty of determining the responsibilities of the state in the field of teacher education. Department of Teachers Colleges 675 ADVENTURES IN FACULTY COOPERATION AND PARTICIPATION IN THE TRAINING SCHOOL L. R. GREGORY, PRINCIPAL, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, FREDONIA, N. Y. In beginning the treatment of this subject it may be well to consider some of the quick responses of members of this organization to it. I quote from the replies to my inquiry for adventures: To my mind there has been altogether too much adventuring in the problem of correlating theory and practise in teacher-educating institutions. I came to the conclusion ten or twelve years ago that the only way to correlate was to correlate, and I can see no way of doing that except by making all philosophy, technic, principles — in fact, the whole professional equipment a teacher should have — a direct outgrowth of classroom experiences. * * * * I am afraid we do not have very much to contribute in the manner of faculty cooperation and participation in the training school. It is pretty much as Mark Twain said about the weather, “Everybody talks about it but nobody does any¬ thing.” * * * * We would hesitate to give our instructors in theory blanket permission to use the training school but we do encourage the critics and instructors in methods and educational theory to work in close cooperation. * * * * I say to our faculty if they are not wedded to the training school, we want them to fall in love with it forthwith. & * * . -He Our college departments, except education, do not use the training school for experimental purposes. As a matter of fact, mathematics, history, the languages, and the sciences are taught on our campus in the college, just as you would find them taught in any liberal arts college. The instructors in these general subjects have no part in any conscious effort to teach method. * * * * I have included these quotations for the purpose of showing the wide range of opinion that exists today with reference to the implications of this subject. And now to give you one further quotation. The 1933 yearbook of this Association represents President Frank E. Baker as saying: I attended my first conference as president of a teachers college in 1911, almost exactly twenty-two years ago. A large part of the program of that meeting was devoted to a discussion of various ways for the integration of theory and practise. I have seldom attended a meeting on teacher-training in the twenty years that have intervened that this same topic has not been discussed at greater or less length. So far as I can see, we are no nearer its solution now than then. After various attempts to integrate theory and practise, I came to the conclusion that the only way to integrate them is to integrate them, which could only be done by making theory an outgrowth of practise. What President Baker said then seems to be quite true today. I am a newcomer to the field of teacher education and must therefore not make the mistake of being critical of what has been done or has not been done. 676 National Education Association When President Donovan assigned this task to me, he surely had in mind that to speak of adventures in this field I would need to do some adven¬ turing. This I did with very satisfying results to myself but, I fear, with very meager returns to those who collaborated with me. If I may judge from the returns I received from my inquiry, there is quite universal tho not quite unanimous consent to the proposition that this cooperation and participation should exist. I have concluded too that the basic factor involved is the need of a closer relationship, a closer tie-up of theory, practise, and professional courses. The cooperation we seek is but a means to an end. It may be that the reason we have seemingly experienced so much difficulty in securing this cooperation is that we have tried to secure it under impossible conditions. We seem to insist upon retaining duality in these matters when, after all, a dual organization may be not at all necessary or desirable. I had hoped to marshal the various plans of securing this cooperation which came to me, in response to my inquiry, into some order for inclusion in this paper. I found this to be impossible because any attempt of the kind would involve far too much space and time. Independent of this paper I shall make a digest of the returns and make it available to the members of this organization. I am, therefore, going to do the thing I suspect President Donovan thought from the beginning I would do. Others have been kind enough and wise enough in recent years to give us their experiences. I am ready now to throw mine into the pool for what it is worth. At Fredonia Normal School we are now in the third year of a serious attempt to reorganize our professional program. Dr. Robert S. Thompson, head of our education department, has been the moving spirit of the under¬ taking. He has been ably assisted by Mrs. Simmons of the same department and loyally supported by the staff of the training school. Fredonia Normal School enrols slightly over six hundred students. The campus training school enrols slightly over four hundred. Only two courses are offered — the general elementary teacher-training course and the public school music supervisor’s course. What is said here will not apply to the music course. Three years are required to complete the course of study. Shorter courses have all been eliminated. One very large building houses both the normal school and the training school. The organization of the training school includes a kindergarten and the first eight grades. All grades except the eighth are divided into two divisions, one division forming the school for practise and the other the demonstration school. During the school year of 1931-32, faculty members began to consider seriously the shortcomings of the then existing program. This program pro¬ vided for a large number of special methods courses. In the first year stu¬ dents were required to complete a course in psychology and a course in introduction to teaching. In the second year of their attendance the students enrolled in methods courses in reading, arithmetic, geography, history, art, music, penmanship, library, and, in some instances, others. Of course the membership was sectioned in order that there might be reading methods courses as well as other methods courses in each of the primary, inter- Department of Teachers Colleges 677 mediate, and grammar grade levels. Excepting the classes in art and music these classes were taught by teachers in active charge of rooms in the train¬ ing school. Each class met two or three times each week for lectures, dis¬ cussions, and demonstrations. We had every reason to believe that instruction in these classes was well done. The teachers, however, became increasingly dissatisfied with the re¬ sults in terms of teaching performance. It was the persistent complaint of the critic teacher that the students did not carry over and apply in their practise teaching in a satisfactory manner that which they had learned in methods courses the preceding j^ear. In September 1932, some changes in organization were effected. We began by decreasing the number of methods courses. Geography and history were combined and one course in social science resulted. Then all formal classroom work in reading and arithmetic methods was discontinued. A form of laboratory instruction took the place of the methods courses. We were looking for an effective presentation of technic. For local administrative purposes we named the new arrangement “ functional methods.” We are now wanting to free ourselves of that terminology and of the primary ob¬ jective that motivated us then. Under this new arrangement the responsibility of the training-school teacher ceased to be that of teaching courses in method and became that of preparing students to become teachers in the primary, intermediate, or grammar grades. The training-school teacher became the personal guardian of the professional welfare of the students assigned to her. Each training-school teacher was assigned six or eight students enrolled in the second year. These students had their programs so arranged that they could spend the entire morning observing in the grade rooms. This they actually did during the first few weeks of the semester. They became ac¬ quainted with the children. Each was encouraged to know one child in particular. They sometimes participated in some of the simpler room duties, altho not to any great extent during the first few weeks. While the obser¬ vation was going on, the students were carefully guided in their reading which was related to teaching procedures. The training-school teachers and the education department collaborated in developing a workbook in arith¬ metic methods and objective checks and tests in reading methods. These were used to stimulate and check reading in arithmetic and reading methods subjectmatter. Each training teacher held frequent conferences each week with the group assigned to her. These conferences were concerned with the direc¬ tion of observation and the discussion of teaching, learning, and behavior problems as the background of observation provided the stimulus. Once each week the faculty member of the education department, the training-school teachers, and the “ observers ” met in general conference for the develop¬ ment of more general problems of education arising from the students’ read¬ ing, observation, and thinking. In 1932-33 only one general conference each week was held because the new program was confined to the primary divi- 678 National Education Association sion. In 1933-34 the program was extended to include the intermediate division. As the students profited by the observations and conferences, they were led to take a more active part. They began to assist in preparing materials for instruction ; for example, the selection of materials necessary in the development of an extended unit. Under encouragement they began to exercise some initiative in the selection of their own professional reading. They were given opportunities to tell stories, teach simple lessons, direct certain activities in connection with units. Toward the end of the semester the students were given further opportunities to teach altho these oppor¬ tunities were strictly controlled and restricted, the reason for this being that we did not want to have this phase of the program develop into just an¬ other practise teaching course. We wanted to reserve this time for observa¬ tion, participation, the individual study of individual children, the study of and investigation of problems that the students themselves have seen emerge. I think I should stop here to explain that we are adventuring. We have not completed anything. We have not returned to our original base and we have not reached our objective. We are now in the third year of the new program. We have gone far enough to witness the almost complete extermination of formal methods courses excepting two — music and art — and to see the education department of the normal school virtually swal¬ lowed by the training school. This does not mean a reduction of staff. It does mean that the education department is fast becoming an integral part of the training school. We believe we are to see the education department and the training school as one division of our school working at the pro¬ fessional task of providing others with professional equipment. I suppose someone will raise the question of cooperation and participation as it applies to this professional unit and the academic or subjectmatter division of the school. This matter is not giving us any concern. We are quite willing to take the position that teachers, even, are entitled to become educated human beings and that they have the right to come into possession of some of the cultural possessions of the world which, it may be, have no direct connection with the professional task of teaching. We are content therefore to see some courses taught in our school which are quite free of professional slant and reference. We are not anticipating any civil war between the so-called academic group and the professional group because we are unable to see any occasion for it. New York state has recently formulated and adopted a new curriculum for its teacher-educating institutions. Just how much this curriculum will change the direction of our program I am unable to say, altho I believe it will hasten its expansion and its development. We did not start our adventure with any preconceived notions as to final outcomes. We proceeded step by step to effect changes and as changes occurred, we watched our philosophy change and saw many of our convic¬ tions shattered. Our faculty members agree that the strength of what we Department of Teachers Colleges 679 are doing rests in the close and intimate contact with children which is provided. Not only is the contact close and intimate but it continues over a long period of time. The student gets the feel of teaching while securing the technic of teaching. A feeling of security and confidence emerges. There is undoubtedly a loss in the amount of “ technical knowledge ” acquired by the student but the ability to apply that which is acquired is more than adequate compensation for this loss. To use the phraseology of H. C. Morrison, he has acquired a teacher adaptation. We are coming to know that everything cannot be expected of the normal school student who has but three short years for preparation. It takes several years to make a highly successful teacher. Too much in the way of technical knowledge has been thrust upon the undergraduate student. A revision of some of our textbooks on theory, psychology, and methods now found in our undergraduate schools may well contemplate radical elimination of content, witness an introduction to educational psychology in textbook form of eight hundred pages. The way to learn to do a thing is to observe its being done, then to help do it, and then to do it. I fear we in the normal schools often violate in practise the theory we would have others practise. In an earlier statement we referred to our change in presenting theory as “ functional methods.” We used this terminology in the beginning but soon came to see our error. We were giving emphasis to the doing of a thing in an integrated way which we had condemned for being done in an isolated way. The emphasis was wrong as you will see. This emphasis was still technic conceived of in terms of methods of subjectmatter, whereas we later came to be governed by the notion that our students are learning to guide and direct children in learning activities. Of course methods subjectmatter becomes incidental and we abandoned the term “ functional methods.” We have taken note of certain difficulties. We have the task of finding a better word than observation and of further defining its scope. This obser¬ vation must not be allowed to become just another practise period and it must not be allowed to become a period for listlessness. Formerly a student had opportunity to observe from ten to twenty lessons per week; now he may observe two or three hours each day for one full semester. It is now agreed that observation must include both intra- and extra-class activities. Our program now includes observation in different types of schools — rural, village, city, training school, special rooms, etc. It also includes browsing in the children’s library, family visitation, playground activities, etc. Another difficulty which we recognized from the beginning and which 1 know you recognized was the increased responsibility and load placed on the training-class teacher. We were not quick to remove this difficulty, but we believe we have now succeeded in equalizing the load, and that we have thereby secured completely that integration of department of education and training school efforts which cannot fail to bring about the complete co¬ operation of the faculty members of these two departments. Each group of observers is now placed under the direction of a staff member of the department of education. This staff member will be respon- 680 National Education Association sible for directing certain uniform and minimum essentials of reading and for carrying on discussions of this material. This member will also arrange all outside visitations and observations and discussions of the same; to arrange for family visitation ; to carry on studies of the state syllabi ; to study and discuss the results of testing programs in the laboratory schools ; to carry on studies of room equipment, materials, etc.; and to bring to the training- class teacher the full resources of the department including the facilities of clinical service; new research; classified readings, etc. The demonstration teacher will, however, remain the most important factor of the entire program. The excellence of his teaching and his ability to explain it to the observers will be the measures of his success. The next step in the program will probably be the elimination of all prac¬ tise from the campus school and to conduct it in nearby rural and city schools. We suffer no delusions as to some of the objections that will be offered. We are typically rural. Most of our students come to us from rural schools. We have suffered in the past under the delusion that we could take these young people, train them along the lines of the most effective and progressive methods of teaching, and then have them go into rural schools and practise what they had been taught. They did not do it. When they had secured a position and begun to teach, their technic reverted to that which was used by the teacher who taught them when they were students of the elementary school. We believe now that our students should see the best in teaching, that they should understand it. It is our business in the training school to provide them with these necessary facilities. After this we believe that the student should get his practise in an actual teaching situation. We think our little excursion has profited us in the following respects: 1. We have secured full cooperation among the staff members of the educa¬ tion department and the training school by causing the education department to become completely identified with the training school. 2. The students have the opportunity of living in close and intimate contact with school children and classrooms over a long period of time. 3. This opportunity, now wholly utilized for observation, provides a back¬ ground for making all sorts of studies and investigations of learning and of teaching methods. 4. Without the necessity of formal appointments, our students have access to a certain group of children and, as their studies are carried on, can continually return to these children. 5. The subjectmatter of technic has been diminished to the amount that can be assimilated. 6. The training school is given full opportunity for demonstrating good teach¬ ing and practise is permitted in actual situations. 7. The child and his learning now occupy first place in the program of students, and technic occupies second place. 8. The prospective teacher thru long periods of close contact sees, recognizes, and understands the complete teaching act, not merely fragments of it. There may be little that is new and little that is useful in our plan of operating. I have not been in the field long enough to really know. We are not offering it for use anywhere else, for under other conditions than ours it may not be workable. We do know this: The technic our students secure Department of Teachers Colleges 681 grows directly out of practise. They have become interested in teaching to a degree we were unable to recognize formerly. We believe they will be stronger teachers in a shorter period because they have been actively identi¬ fied with teaching during the period of preparation. CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL COLLEGE TEACHING ZENOS E. SCOTT, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, .BRIDGEWATER, MASS. It is neither my purpose in this discussion to present a statistical report of studies made with respect to the characteristics of college teaching, nor to give a summary of the books and materials read which deal in either a definite or a general way with the theme. From the articles and books read, it would not be possible to come to conclusions which would be both repre¬ sentative and forward looking. The general theme of excellence in college teaching is not treated extensively in magazine articles, research studies, or books on education. Significant contributions have been made, but the range of these contributions is definitely limited. Until more time and attention are given to this important educational theme, one must deal with it rather superficially. As a part of the study of materials on successful college teaching and plans for improvement in college teaching, I sought the judgment and ripened experience of approximately forty men and women in the college and university field for a point of view on this problem. Each individual asked to express judgment would rate a “ distinguished teacher.” Each person was asked to name two or three of the significant characteristics of successful college teaching. Each person wrote with a spirit of earnestness and penetration which was most challenging. I am greatly indebted to this group of distinguished college and university teachers for help and stimu¬ lation. No complete survey of judgments is presented. The point of view was felt to be the thing of value. It is important, however, to list certain characteristics of successful college teaching on which there was agreement. These are mentioned without any significance attached to the order in which they are named : “ enthusiasm for, and broad scholarship in, one or more fields of knowledge ” ; “ ability to deal with the principles in, and under¬ lying, subjectmatter, rather than mere facts within the subjectmatter ” ; “ an appreciation of what richness in learning means to the progress of civilization ” ; “ openmindedness toward all aspects of learning, toward life problems and life attitudes”; “ability to arouse and stimulate the majority of students to self-activity along wholesome lines.” One might with profit discuss each characteristic in relation to the theme of this paper. I prefer, however, to follow another plan. For the shortcomings of this article the author takes the full responsibility; for the best there is in it, he gives credit to those who cooperated so graciously in giving judgments which furnished a stimulating point of view for the speaker. 682 National Education Association In preparing this paper I have thought about the characteristics of suc¬ cessful college teaching with respect to the ways in which these charac¬ teristics would be shown, first, in the learner; second, in the college teacher. May I consider first the problem : Successful college teaching produces what changes in the learner ? Successful college teaching strengthens the native interest which one has in a given field of learning; it creates a new interest or widens a latent interest to the extent that it may be felt as something new. If this statement is valid, good college teaching discovers native interest in the learner, adds to the urge, gives further incentive, shows scope in which the interest may range. Furthermore, it gives to the new interest both a practical value and an ideal value. Successful college teaching modifies to an observable or a measurable degree both the way of thinking with respect to matters presented and dis¬ cussed, and the way of behaving toward matters presented or discussed. It is this phase of college teaching which constantly puts the premium upon how to think, not what to think ; which gives the emphasis to that breadth, that scope, that range of real vision which truly prevents crass indoctrina¬ tion, because thought penetrates thru and beyond the situations in which indoctrination is necessary. Note that it is this characteristic which is the key to the stimulation of the student to think. Less successful college teach¬ ing often may result in the stimulation of but one person to think, namely, the college instructor. He is then lost in his own stimulation. The students have another name for it. Successful college teaching opens up to the student the conception of rela¬ tionships which obtain between the subjectmatter studied and other fields of learning. It is because of this opening up to the student of fields of rela¬ tionships that he is able to reach out in parallel fields of learning for new meaning; that he may be able even to reach ahead in the field to new conceptions and relationships. When one follows this idea to its logical conclusion, he discovers that the older saying, “ the college teacher must have scholarship in his field,” does not tell the complete story. It is not only scholarship in one’s own field which is essential, but broader understandings sufficient to see the way in which the so-called fields of learning are related. It is with the matter of relation¬ ships that one would want scholarship to grapple. These relationships cut across what we have organized as subjectmatter fields. In 1935 it is too trite to talk about a scholarship for college teaching unless that scholarship is broad enough to connect fields of learning with fields of experience, with aspects of life of the individual and society. The college student of today wants to grapple with the real problems of life and society; he wants to grapple with matters of real importance. Successful college teaching opens up these matters of real importance and makes possible the understanding of vital relationships. Successful college teaching makes the student keenly conscious of the limitations of human knowledge, and his own limitations in learning, in Department of Teachers Colleges 683 attitude ; it makes the student realize the potency of attitudes as a means to a high end in behavior ; it makes the student appreciative of the unselfish attempts of mankind to add to knowledge, experience, science, and art. This characteristic rates high in its contribution to tolerance in thinking, toler¬ ance in living. It encourages a thoughtful attitude toward the great men and women who have been intellectual and social benefactors to civilization. It points to a deeper meaning in the term “ scientific thinking and learning.” When excellent college teaching shows to the learner the range of his own limitations, prejudices, and peculiarities — the range of his ability to learn — it loads situations so that the student becomes a more seasoned learner. The potency of this characteristic lies in the fact that thru a knowledge of limita¬ tions, prejudices, etc., the learner is to receive strength. He is to make progress in further learning, not because he has limitations, but because of the fact that thru superior guidance, superior stimulation, he knows how to make use of his own limitations and peculiarities (and these peculiarities may be rich gifts) . Successful college teaching stimulates in the learner objectives of high order, or sets the stage for learning objectives of a high order, and provides the reasonable means by which to realize these objectives. This characteristic of successful college teaching may be shown by the way in which the college teacher uses objective tests to establish an under¬ standing of the levels upon which the students are found. It may also be shown by the intellectual standards set by the instructors in lecture, assign¬ ments, researches. In this instance the instructor is the scholar who, by his thinking and acting, is setting a pace for his students to follow. It may be shown by the way in which the student directs his own study and thinking in keeping with the high standard set by the successful teacher whose schol¬ arship supplements (not repeats) the texts, supplements and enlivens the collateral reading, supplements and corrects the researches and related studies. Any learner needs to set high standards of accomplishments for himself. Excellence in college teaching is the safest guarantee that the student will set these standards as goals which he must reach, which he must realize by his own serious efforts. Successful college teaching broadens the outlook and starts the firm foundation for those appreciations of learning, those relationships and emo¬ tionalized understandings which give to the learner the highest compensa¬ tions in life. It is in this aspect of successful college teaching that one may really talk about the “ attuning ” of the individual to eve^thing around him, including himself, his fellowmen, and organized society. The non-thinker touches life, is touched by life. It is he who is swayed by the mere touch, regardless of the source of the touch, or the direction in which it leads. This man thinks, sees, and feels but little relationship existing among the affairs of life which touch him ; therefore he attunes not, neither does he need to appreciate. He has not met the excellencies of successful college teaching. On the other hand the student who has met with the great teacher who sees, thinks about, and feels relationship not only in what he teaches, but in other 684 National Education Association fields as well, in the life of the past, in the ever-absorbing life of the new, that student broadens his thinking, starts his foundation toward apprecia¬ tions, grasps firm hold upon more subjectmatter because he sees and feels the relationship existing between and among fields of learning. Successful college teaching produces in the learner faith in himself — the feeling that by hard work, over a long period of time, one will be able to make a contribution in the field of his own interest. In business we say that certain men have learned how to make almost any concern a “ going ” con¬ cern ; in baseball we often say that the team has been taught to play “ heads up ” baseball. In football we often remark that the team is great because it knows how to make the “ breaks.” In all such instances either students (players), leaders, circumstances, or combinations have produced in the learners the feeling that they could accomplish things. In the case of the students in college under successful college teaching, they have learned the “ heads up ” idea, the success of the “ going ” concern, the knowledge of what are the “ breaks ” in the game. In short, these students have received from their guide the real dynamics of encouragement, high faith in self under difficult circumstances. Successful college teaching stimulates, guides, and in many cases drives the specific and general intellectual activities of the student far beyond the “ mere intellectual ” to that “ performance ” aspect of thinking and living. This is one of the most difficult aspects of high teaching to live up to. In reality it means that superior learning on college levels signifies perform¬ ance — thought into skills, thought into understandings, thought into action. In short, it means that the learning is on such a high level that the learner acts with wisdom because he balances the deep and abiding emotionalized attitudes of life by means of intellectual aspects of life. If one looks at certain aspects of our political life he may see the results of the opposite kind of teaching which goes on outside the college halls ; he may also see the results of the same kind of high teaching, without the college halls. The one result shows the hand of the demagog ; the other, the hand of the statesman. In the case of the demagog, action is secured, prompt and sure. The citizen who does not think, whose thinking is neither seasoned nor dis¬ ciplined, performs as he is told to perform; when he uses emotionalized attitudes they are uninfluenced by judgment. This citizen acts not for the good of the whole, and often not for his own good. When this citizen is joined by thousands, all under the direction and drive of the demagog, society is the loser, and at what great cost. The statesman, the highly intellectual and seasoned citizen asks for per¬ formance, too. In order to secure the right performance, for the time being, he takes the place of the superior college teacher. He stimulates the indi¬ vidual citizen, he reasons out the case with him; he guides, he “ drives,” not to get his own bidding done, but to get the citizen to examine all the facts, to see both sides of the question, to consider the results of promised action ; he teaches to secure performance thru disciplined intellectual behavior and reasoned emotionalized attitudes. When this citizen is joined by thousands Department of Teachers Colleges 685 who think and act on these high citizenship levels, society has made another step forward. These citizens have acted in ways which set standards for others to follow. The statesman in this case has been an excellent teacher. But to return to the characteristics of successful college teaching on the “ performance ” level. When this is thought of in terms of the individual, it shows the potency of what we call sheer character value. The distinguished college teacher in this instance has gained the right, thru native ability, training, and life disciplines to stand revealed as one worthy to trust, to imitate, to follow. The characteristics just presented do not cover or account for all the desirable changes that are brought about in the learner, in the best kind of teaching situations. It is hoped that this selected list does give sufficient scope to present a wholesome and a challenging point of view for all who believe so thoroly in the importance of and necessity for excellencies in college teaching. May I turn now to the second part of my presentation and discuss the problem, “ Successful college teaching produces what changes in the college teacher? ” One of the important changes produced is that of a shift in values with respect to what is meant by scholarship in the excellent teacher. Successful college teaching will give to the growing teacher a new sense of his own responsibility for broadening and maturing scholarship. However brilliant the young teacher may be there is room for a scholarship which does not come by brilliancy alone. The college student who is so busy making adjust¬ ments to the routine of college life, the plans of study that are presented to him, the many aspects of social life within and surrounding the college — this student is always ready to appreciate and often admire sheer brilliancy. On the other hand he soon realizes that the brilliant ability in the college teacher does not take the place of serious effort on his own part, that the example of scholarship which relies too much upon past performances does not motivate successfully. The average college student gets his greatest help from that superior college teacher who adds to his scholarship constantly not only new knowledges, but new understandings of learning difficulties in others, new experiences outside the range of his own specialty. When this scholarly college teacher adds maturity of judgment and purpose in keeping with his responsibilities as a teacher, he is then the scholar whose lectures stimulate to self-activity; it is he who does not need to do the thinking for the student. Two of the college teachers who wrote in answer to my letter stated that in their judgment there is now overemphasis placed upon the Ph. D. degree as a necessary requirement for college teaching; that this tendency gives many teachers holding such degree the feeling that their conquests in the learning field are over ; that with the degree have come, by some “ hocus pocus,” the insight into teaching and the right to continue to teach others from such a point of view. There are many evidences to support this view. While the teaching profession rightly must set high requirements in scholar- 686 National Education Association ship for college teachers, yet there is a way to defeat the very end sought. The teachers who have earned the highest degrees ought to be as willing and as persistent to advance to new learnings and understandings as they were in the first instances to add to and advance the field of knowledge. It may often happen that in earning the Ph. D. degree as a requirement for teaching, one is left so exhausted educationally that one feels little urge to renew the pursuit of knowledge. There is a more wholesome point of view for the one who desires to be “ a master teacher ” — namely, to realize that within a period of ten to twenty years following the acceptance of his thesis he may deal with problems of much greater importance than the one studied ; that he may add to his own understanding three or four times over, and in the “ adding to ” this understanding he will be required to perform on more difficult grounds and in more scholarly ways. Successful college teaching demands of the college teacher that he bal¬ ance his “ flair for research,” his “ questive energy,” with equal courage and zeal to inspire others with a genuine love for research as one avenue or aspect of learning and teaching. In one instance the college teacher makes a fetish of research — the student often mistakes the mere technic of research as the end, not the means to an end. The student leaves the course with the “ tricks of the trade up his sleeve,” and “ all aquiver ” to show others how to do the trick. In this instance the college teacher has done little teaching, the student little learning. In the situation in which the college teacher tempers his flair for research with courage to cause others to use the scientific atti¬ tude as a means to an end, that is learning on a high level ; this college teacher permits no one to leave his laboratory, classroom, or study with the “ tricks of the trade idea.” He really teaches to prevent this result. In its place he shows the importance of the facts found by means of research, the truth made clear thru research. He uses research as a significant scientific tool. He looks for a real change in scholarship as a result. Successful college teaching produces in the maturing college teacher an affirmative and aggressive outlook upon life and its many problems. This outlook is one of the ideals realized often thru great effort and faith on the part of the teacher. Thru it the student may get his best interpretation of personal integrity and social improvement. One can readily judge by this standard that one cynic “ goes a long way.” College teaching on a high level implies attitudes about life on high levels. Successful college teaching proves to the growing teacher the utter futility of lecturing, teaching, assigning, directing study, from the day to day, recita¬ tion to recitation idea, or from within the pages of text idea. This point might seem too trite to mention, if it were not for the fact that too much effort is now wasted by capable students attending recitations from the day to day idea, or attending classes where textbook lecturing is going on. A student friend of mine gave a perfect name for such teaching, when he re¬ marked that he was trying to select his courses and teachers so that he would have no “ just sit and listen courses.” He was a wise young man. He really wanted to earn an education. Better college teaching will make use of the so-called recitation as a means for discussion, conference, individual and Department of Teachers Colleges 687 group guidance ; the lecture as a device to explore in fields outside the text, as an educational lure to increase the use of the library, etc. Lecturing, teaching, assigning material may be done from high points of view, and with the richest of results only when one applies the real test — Who are learning in this course, and at what levels? On a certain morning last August I had a thrilling experience in learning. I was on the campus of one of our great Eastern universities. A student raced up the walk and turned the corner near me on his way from one class to another. He was striding along at such a magnificent pace that his example made me call to him — “ Good morning, young man. What a won¬ derful stride you have ; how excited you must be ; how I wish I were young enough to pace you ! ” He stopped, turned to me with a broad smile, and said, “ Why should I not run with a great stride ? Why should I not look happy? I have just come from a great lecture — a great lecture. The instructor certainly led us in broad fields. It was a great lecture, sir.” I saluted him ; he smiled back and, mounting the entrance two steps at one stride, went to his next learning period — I trust, to hear another great man lecture in “ broad fields.” Successful college teaching compels the college teacher to have and to keep sincere respect for the student, to see the student as a learner at different stages of a long journey, which journey is to be fruitful according to the degree to which the teacher makes learning (used in its broadest sense) exciting, exacting, attractive, valuable to the learner. Life will seldom be completely exciting, completely exacting, completely attractive or valuable to the learner. It will, however, present all these aspects at different times and in different degrees. Superior college teaching will continually demand of the teacher that his own presentation and interpretation of knowledge, of institutions, of society, of life must consider the learner as a person, as an individual who makes progress by degrees, and in keeping with his individ¬ ual gifts, aptitudes, urges, and disciplines. The distinguished college teacher will be a potent factor in making learning exciting, exacting, attractive, valuable to this learner. This discussion has been presented from the point of view that college teaching, or teaching on any level, is a science and an art of high order ; that college teachers may grow to great stature if they practise seriously and persistently the high art ; that college teaching has a great responsibility to direct its energies more toward stimulating and guiding students to the end that they will sense more keenly their own intellectual, moral, and social responsibilities ; that thru the fruitful years in college they learn how to do their own thinking upon problems of great economic and social significance to them and to society. 688 National Education Association TEACHING IS A SOCIAL GRACE ERNEST W. BUTTERFIELD, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, HARTFORD, CONN. Harry L. Hopkins has frequently said before presenting education a dole, “ The only thing that is necessary is to bring together the one who knows the subject and the one who wants to learn it.” Supply and need are the essentials. The middle man is superfluous. I doubt that he would go so far as to say, “All that is necessary is a full milk bottle and a hungry baby. Put them together and you have peace and prosperity.” For he was speaking of education and of it alone. The assumption is a common one. Teachers are chosen because of their psychological intelligence. If they know perfectly they can teach simply. So we believe when we declare, teaching is an intellectual pursuit. Before Gregory Mendel all theologians asserted, and, since Mendel, all those who intellectually believe in the stork as humanity’s great biological aid have continued to assert pontifically “ Teachers are born and not made.” Horace Mann and Henry Barnard believed this too, but they became impatient when they had waited thirty years and had seen no busy stork engaged in shuttle duty passing overhead with an infant pedagog. So they proceeded to make synthetic teachers. The assumption remains. In awed voices we still speak of a born teacher and in laboratories we, by instruction, try to create and then to develop the great professional skills of the schoolroom. We still believe that teaching is a profession based upon mysteries and revealed only by psychology — which is a modern astrology — in medieval crypts on Morningside Heights. In our federal colleges where thousands seek for education the most popular subject is not economics, or sociology, or one of the physical sciences. It is psychology. All want psychology. It is mysterious. It may be slightly erotic. It is filled with magic words and incantations. It is magic and by it one can sell goods to unwilling customers and exhibit a dominant personality in dealing with burglars or one’s employers. To this position we give assent when we declare our belief that teaching is a professional art. The popular author of “ when to teach and where and what and how ” and the professional producers of diagnostic tests have a different emphasis. They believe that every child is composed of defects. For each defect there is a test. For each test there is an interpretation. For each interpretation there is a simple. In the hands of those who follow these the teacher becomes a skilled artificer. She is proficient in technics and in method — special method, gen¬ eral method, Palmer method, classroom technic, schoolroom standards, skills, norms, modes, medians ; and the real teacher is like my Great-Uncle Charles — now with God for fifty years — a master carpenter, who left me his im¬ mense carpenter’s chest filled with tools each one of which had one skilled application in his unbounded craftsmanship. Department of Teachers Colleges 689 When I declare the teacher is a skilled workman and when I hold that teaching consists of establishing technics, methods, and crafty resourceful¬ ness, I am imitating my Great-Uncle Charles with his chest full of tools and his head and hands full of skills. Now actually I do all of these things. I believe that ( 1 ) teaching is an intellectual pursuit; (2) teaching is a professional art; and (3) teaching is a mastered skill. I have made many speeches with each of these as a chapter head. Occasionally as Amos walked about among his scented goats a new idea, in picturesque phrase, came to him and in his surprise at unforced cerebra¬ tion he rushed out and shouted in a minor prophet key, “ Thus saith the Lord.” Now recently in my state, Connecticut, devoted to steady habits, as I walked about engaged in educational pursuits I had a similar experience and now, Amos-like, in this market place, I declare the revelation, “ Thus saith the Lord, ‘ Teaching is a social grace.’ ” I defy you to find this thought expressed in all professional literature. It is absolutely a new revelation. Teachers have been known to be wise, to be filled with professional lore, to be skilled in their work, but never before has it been said that teachers are human. Teaching is a social grace ! Our generation is in a perplexity, caught as Cicero would have said, “ loco ille motus est.” Science has added ten years to human life. Statis¬ tically each of us is to live ten years longer than he expected to live and we do not know what to do with it. We are even restless that these ten years all are to be at the latter end of our lives. We think they should have been added to our teens. In teacher training we face a similar situation. For 100 years two years has been the allotted span of normal school life and when we were still rather comfortably fussing about our crowded curriculums and breathless students, society dropped the two years and gave us four. Just as we now are troubled about our sunset years, so we do not know what to do with two additional years for teacher preparation and we are repeating the scenes of the opening of government reservations to settlers when peasants and professors rushed in to occupy. The normal school group gave a sigh of relief and each department said, “ We never have had quite time enough to do what we have planned. Now we will be leisurely but not adventurous.” They proposed the teachers- college curriculum should be a normal school curriculum of four years. Like Oliver Optic they proffered their request for more of the same. They did not propose to go higher than before, or to add two years of cultural development until then not possible. They wished to take up the slack, and the curriculums of most of our teachers colleges show that this group has been successful. At the same time the college advocates rejoiced with the thought that now true culture and a bachelor’s degree could adorn teachers. Their pro¬ posal was a replica of a liberal college course — traditional culture in strata, oil laden, metal bearing, and then on top a thin layer of humus in which 690 National Education Association seeds of genius would rapidly sprout. They would have a college course of subjects which broadened ancient minds but which are unrelated to modern life. After knowledge and wisdom were safely stored they would add a short period of observation and classroom opportunity and a few short weeks or days of practise. Teachers colleges of this type also dot our landscape. We know, however, that teacher training is not carried out in these ways. The course is an integrated one from beginning to end with the growing and teachable child the center about which all instruction is gathered with orientation courses in the great fields of modern life, with content courses that go beyond the subjectmatter of classroom instruction, and with the arts, the crafts, and the skills of our profession carefully presented and developed. A curriculum with these emphases again declares that teaching is an intellectual pursuit, a professional art, a mastered skill, and adds that teaching also is a social grace. A teacher of Latin may be versed in all Latin that is extant and can be read with propriety. His name may be followed by degrees in series. He may be familiar with all the intricacies of college board examinations, he may be the master of mnemonic devices that permit Latin to be mastered without tears, but to secure happiness in his personal and professional life he must have many hobbies and life interests. He must have kindly affection and gracious manners. Let us begin with the selection of students for the teachers college. Our usual criteria are these. We have required academic scholarship, native intelligence, and physical fitness. The doctor must find no physical defect ; the principal must report full academic preparation in English, mathematics, foreign languages, with some history, and in all a scholastic record in the first quartile of the class. The psychologist must report an intelligence quotient of 110 or more and a corresponding rating in a test of general information. To this I would add or more greatly emphasize ranks in social qualities and in cultural skills. Since it is an expenditure of valued time in a teachers-college course to include the skills of the classroom I should hesitate to admit to preparation one who did not habitually rate above a 70 on the Ayers handwriting scale ; who did not spell regular words with precision ; who did not or could not sing; who did not play on (I use the words deliberately) the typewriter; who could not read orally the newspaper with expression or tell a story as children wish it told. Since the high-school and teacher-training courses constitute one course of instruction I shall care little whether the high-school course has included foreign languages, advanced mathematics, the nomenclature of rhetoric and grammar, or has had for its basal subjects home economics or commercial courses as long as general science and biology are included, music and art, social science, and a mild love for literature. Department of Teachers Colleges 691 I shall wish to know what interest the candidate has in children and I shall ask if he has younger brothers and sisters, is a Scout leader, or has a Sunday School class. Also what interest he has in life. Have the English courses led him to newspapers and magazines and to the movies and litera¬ ture and entertainment ? Also what interest he has developed in nature. Does he drive an automobile and where? Does he know football as a spec¬ tator and tennis as a participant? Have a disciplined mind and an ordered body made school attendance an almost unbroken rule? These are some of the traits that employers seek. When teachers are to be engaged, Mr. John Lund, organizer of the new and forthlooking Ham¬ den, Connecticut, high school, is using a questionnaire to help in teacher selection. Besides the traditional questions he craves information on broad¬ ening experiences: i. e., (1) travel and others equally significant; (2) edu¬ cation and occupation of father; and, (3) health including illnesses, oper¬ ations, and immunizations with approximate dates. He asks for recent community activities and fraternal affiliations ; for the names of newspapers regularly read and features enjoyed ; for the names of books lately read and movies enjoyed. He asks for a brief discussion of pertinent economic ques¬ tions as American adherence to the World Court and a longer school day. He invites the candidate to write on professional and non-professional sub¬ jects such as cultured people regularly study and discuss. Now all of this is not a proctored examination. The candidate in his own home at his leisure tells his own story. Isn’t it strange that all of these years we have been selecting teachers of English on their ranks in college courses in the English classics and in philology. The result is that many teachers in this subject can compose flawless essays but by models of the period of Queen Anne. Yet the same teachers have never had an article in a magazine and are unable to write a news item for the afternoon paper without the humiliation of finding that the space editor has amputated introduction and conclusion and in¬ verted the order of the story. Some years ago in a magazine article I compared the English of the writers for the Classical Journal with that of contributors to the Industrial Arts Magazine and my detailed study was all in favor of the latter. The Latinists used in English a turgid artificial style of the Ciceronian type. They wrote as did he to exhibit words. The industrialists wrote to express a thought and I was intrigued to follow them with plane, paint brush, or drawing board. I shall wish never to employ a teacher of English until he has shown me his skill to write common thought so that common people will wish to read the story. In the fourth-year teachers-college curriculum I shall wish to set aside generous time and attention for the element which I will call “ Student Life ” and this element would be as carefully organized and presented as the traditional subject fields. It would not be incidental. It would not be left to atmosphere. Student life is in two forms — subjective and objective — and by subjec¬ tive I mean the modification and development of the personality and habits 692 National Education Association of the student so that he knows how to dress, to behave, and to enjoy his own life. Our students as teachers will in most cases be in a social position superior to that of their parental homes and many have had but limited cultural opportunities. For full educational success they must meet new social situa¬ tions with ease and the developed life of our institutions should regard this as a clearly defined assignment and element in the preparation of teachers. In a period of changing society and in schools filled with children of cosmopolitan origins, teachers have extensive social responsibilities. I should require all students to live in the school dormitory both school days and week-ends for at least one year of their training. Specifically we wish these young people to whom we give the degree, bachelor of education, to have certain characteristics which the teachers college and its dormitories as an institution have caused to be developed. It is to be recalled that teaching is a most drab and monotonous occupa¬ tion for teachers who are highly competent in classroom control and in the subjects of instruction but whose knowledge of subjects not intimately related to professional specialization is but a college memory and whose interest in personal skills and activities is not an intriguing one. The eight accomplishments which follow represent liberal education and personal culture and should be used among others as objectives in the devel¬ opment of student life : 1. To play on some musical instrument to the point of personal satisfaction and to sing to the point of constant school participation 2. To produce beauty and enjoy it in raiment, personal adornment, room care and decoration, and the culture of plants of beauty 3. To enjoy humor as expressed by the masters — Dickens, Twain, Carroll — and in modern forms by Cantor, Rogers, the movies, and the artists of newspaper wit 4. To participate vicariously in the life of the world by discriminating reading of the daily papers and the weekly news magazines 5. To associate with machinery as it guides and directs household interests and as it is used in the creation of social friendships 6. To play, not to punish the flesh but to enjoy life, as thru the muscular satis¬ faction of tennis and golf 7. To be able to entertain oneself by the satisfaction of high accomplishment in some personal skills, hobbies, and interests carried to the point of acknowledged mastery 8. To love one’s neighbors and show it by club interest, by social leadership, and by social welfare participation. It is not too much to expect each graduate before receiving his degree: to sing and to play something ; to read from the library and from the current press ; to use with discrimination the radio and the movies ; to use the type¬ writer and to write a clear hand ; to swim, climb hills, play tennis and golf, and to drive an automobile; and to acquire social amenities thru club activities and school organizations. As has been said, student life is also objective. The student must not only improve himself, he must enter as a citizen into the inheritance of the race and the cultural wealth of state and city. Department of Teachers Colleges 693 In teacher training the social and civic laboratories of the institution are not found within its walls, or under its control. For every well-located teachers college they are in the same or adjacent cities. They consist of our hospitals, our parks, our art galleries and historical museums, our libraries, our state government with legislative halls, executive offices, and courts of justice. Very frequently students with a teacher have visited these institutions but almost always as tourists with a guide. This is entertainment. It is not training. I propose that in such state institutions work should be organized and carried on to the point that students do not merely see the institution but come to feel its organized spirit and as they do this focalize attention with the thought, “ How can I use this part of my training to give me a citizen’s feeling of participation in a civic development and to aid me to present to children our part in our social and civic structure? ” I will give two illustrations. We have the senior classes from the Teachers College of Connecticut in regular groups at the New Britain City Hospital and similarly student nurses in special classes at the college. The students are at the hospital not to see a spotless and efficient institution but to know what service a city hospital renders in our complex social life ; to know for the benefit of future rooms full of children from immigrant homes that the hospital is not an institution of miracles, nor of horrors; but to understand the general technic of hospital operations; to understand the maternity service which hospitals provide and appreciate the work of their sisters, the trained nurses. Seniors also spend ten days in the civic laboratories. A classroom in the state office building is assigned to them. Their instructor presents a plan for the day. The class visits a legislative session and a committee hearing and again in the classroom the instructor organizes the experience. Then an executive office or department may be inspected, the work explained by some officer and again later analyzed and summarized by the instructor. On another day the art museum or the state library or the superior court receives the same attention. This work does not supplement the course in social science. The social science courses do not supplement trips of inspection. Instead by these trips the student has a prolonged citizen’s experience in his own governmental or social organization and the experience aids to professionalize all of the more formal subjectmatter of the college classroom. Student life has two fields : ( 1 ) the development of the individual ; (2) the entrance into breadth of culture, and the creation of years of social and civic growth. We should require the student in training: to know his state in history, art, and beauty as the automobile reveals it; to be at home in our civic structure — as a citizen to have a first-hand knowledge of our state institu¬ tions, our museums of art and history, our hospitals, and our historic heritage; and to live with historic beauty and artistic expressions and in humility to imitate in personal expression. 694 National Education Association In 1928 when Seattle entertained the teachers of the nation the Post- Intelligence ?r said : You are the best dressed women we’ve seen. In symphony and ensemble, you seem expressive of high thinking and that matured culture which young America is achieving. Delicate and mannered, restrained but not inhibited, artistic but not bizarre, color toned to taste, utility but not severity — discrimination. You fit into the lounge of the Olympic like units in a well-toned canvas. In addition to professional knowledge and technical skills we wish our teachers to express these characteristics. PRESENTDAY REASONS FOR REQUIRING A LONGER PERIOD OF PRE-SERVICE PREPARATION FOR TEACHERS GEORGE S. COUNTS, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. It is one of the commonplaces of history and sociology that all educational philosophies and programs are relative and changing. However blindly they may be accepted at a given moment in a given society, they possess no abso¬ lute validity. Tho they may contain certain elements which are comparatively universal and abiding, when taken in their entirety they always manifest patterns and configurations which constitute adaptation to special sets of circumstances — societal, cultural, geographic. In a word, education is an integral part of culture and evolves with culture, deriving its responsibili¬ ties, practises, and purposes thru a process of interaction with its total material and spiritual surroundings. All of this applies to the preparation of teachers, as well as to the extension of educational opportunities, the making of the curriculum, the conduct of instruction, and the devising of administrative arrangements. The impression should not be given, however, that the adjustment of education to the culture is an automatic process which goes on in some mysterious way independent of the thought, the labors, and the desires of individual men and women. In fact it is no more automatic than the paint¬ ing of a picture ; it is essentially a creative process. As the artist must have pigment, brush, and canvas, so the educator must have knowledge of men and society. But an educational policy or program flows inexorably from such knowledge no more than the picture forms itself out of color, oil, and fabric. The character of the product depends not only upon the excellence of the mtaerials but also upon the skill, the industry, the imagination, the powers, the genius, even the sweat and the tears of the creator. To be sure, as between the work of the educator and that of the artist, the standards of appraisal are somewhat different. But in either case final judgment will not be rendered in a day but in the long course of history. The point of all this is that the question of the length of pre-service preparation of teachers cannot be answered in purely objective and quanti- Department of Teachers Colleges 695 tative terms. While we might all accept the fundamental principle that different times call for different answers, the present may not speak the same language to each of us. Indeed our ears may be variously attuned; so that one of us will hear one thing, another something else. As a matter of fact we know that the world of nature and of man does present a somewhat unique facet to every one of us. As Egon Friedell, in A Cultural History of the Modern Age , has said in poetic vein : Even a photographic camera, reputed the deadest of apparatus, which appar¬ ently registers with perfectly mechanical passivity, is affected by our subjec¬ tivity. Even the “ objective ” is not objective. For it is an inexplicable but unde¬ niable fact that, just like a painter, a photographer photographs only himself. If he has the taste of an uneducated, suburban mind, his camera will produce nothing but coarse, vulgar figures; if he has a cultivated mind and an artistic point of view, his pictures will have the superior look of delicate engravings. And that being so, our photographs, like our paintings, will appear to future ages, not as naturalistic reproductions of our outward appearance, but as'monstrous caricatures. Friedell is doubtless guilty of considerable exaggeration here, yet his thought contains a large element of truth and has direct implications for our discussion. Even a simple account of the great social trends of our time is far from simple. This was demonstrated by the difficulties encountered by the members of the President’s Research Committee on Social Trends when they faced the task of handing in a common report. Altho they were a remarkably like-minded group, as the world goes, having been selected largely because of their community of outlook, American society certainly did not present the same aspect to all of them. The final report, in spite of efforts to avoid sweeping generalizations and to stick to what are called “ facts,” was full of contradictions, inconsistencies, and ambiguities. If the investigators had been asked to derive social policies from their findings, a responsibility which no educator can evade, one can only imagine the extent of the discord. We should remember that even a census, which to us may appear to be merely a matter of routine, tells quite as much about the census-takers as about the society brought under inspection. Now, this question of the preparation of teachers involves not only the selection, organization, and interpretation of data with reference to Ameri¬ can society — its history, its trends, its problems, and its potentialities — but also the performance of a number of other operations of almost equal diffi¬ culty. It involves the acceptance of some conception of the role of the teacher in the educative process, and some conception of the relation of the profession to society and the state. After outlining the social situation and giving an interpretation of American history for this age, I shall proceed to set forth my position with reference to each of these crucial matters. Then I shall endeavor to bring the entire analysis to bear upon the question raised in the subject assigned to me. With regard to the social situation it may be said that American society today is passing thru a period of profound transition. The term “ today,” however, must not be taken too literally. It does not mean the present 696 National Education Association twenty-four hours, or this month, or this year, or the period of the great depression, or even that interval in world history beginning in August 1914, and marked by the most devastating of wars between the nations and by a succession of social convulsions and revolutions thruout the earth. Rather is the term used to designate an age that for America reaches well back into the eighteen-hundreds and may be expected to extend far into the twentieth century — an age that is striving to come to terms with the products, the implications, and all the conditioning influences of science and technology. At present we appear to be entering the more acute phases of this transition. To say that the present is an age of transition may seem to repeat a com¬ monplace. For in a rapidly changing world, is not every age an age of tran¬ sition ? In a superficial sense this is true, but only in the sense that any age, being the child of the past and the parent of the future, is transitional between what has gone before and what is to come after; it is false in the sense that it assumes change to be purely quantitative and unidirectional. Change, even rapid change, may proceed for a period without seriously disturbing the bases of social life. Thus within the limits of a hunting economy numerous inventions and requirements may be introduced which merely tend to individualize, elaborate, and perfect the traditional modes of living. But there comes a time in such an economy when changes appear that herald the emergence of a radically new order — an order based upon agriculture, animal-breeding, and settled life. A society in which changes of this second type are dominant is obviously in a period of transition. The American people are living today in such a society. The very foundations of the social order are being transformed and long-cherished doctrines are being frankly questioned and even repudiated. This transition was clearly recognized by the Commission on Social Studies of the American Historical Association in its recent report. Accord¬ ing to the Commission, “ evidence is accumulating that the age of indi¬ vidualism and laissez faire in economy and government is closing and an age of collectivism is emerging.” Here is the central trend of the present epoch, a trend that is affecting every institution and placing its stamp on every department of life, a trend that must be taken into account by every educator who pretends to deal with reality. It is one of the ironies of the age that those individuals and classes, such as the members of the American Liberty League, who are most vociferous in their defense of individualism represent those very forces in history which have been instrumental in destroying the earlier economy. They represent the forces of industrialism, of far-flung enterprise, even of mass regimentation. Under the sweet guise of liberty they would fasten yet more firmly on the backs of the people the dictatorship of property and business. In order that we may understand the issues involved it is well to note that the individualistic tradition has two roots which tho often confused are widely different in origin and in social implication. One was the indi¬ vidualism of the pioneer and the farmer, the other the individualism of capitalistic enterprise. Department of Teachers Colleges 697 The first form of individualism was a product of the settlement of the land, of the march of the pioneer across the continent, of a peculiar set of conditions that prevailed in American agriculture for generations. The country was peopled very largely by men and women of lowly social posi¬ tion seeking to improve their lot in this world, and not by the representa¬ tives or members of any organized society. The crossing of the Atlantic, itself an exercise of personal initiative of no mean proportions, involved the breaking of innumerable ties with the past and a kind of emancipation of the individual from the accustomed social restraints. Also, after the settlers had mastered the more elementary problems of sustaining life in the new environment, the power of the community or of any ruling caste to coerce the individual was greatly weakened. If the demands of society became irksome, he could move to the frontier and there find an abundance of free or cheap land on which he might proclaim the independence of him¬ self and family. The fact should be noted, however, that this was in reality familism rather than individualism. As a rule the family, and not the individual, was the unit. Owing to the low level of technology, the reliance upon human energy, and the primitive character of the productive process, the household could be fairly self-contained on a low level of consumption. A single cash crop would provide the family with all the money required for the purchase of articles of trade; and within the home there were solidarity, division of labor, and a rational sharing of goods and services. The great age of individualism in American history therefore was marked by integration on the scale demanded by the status of the practical arts and the general conditions attending the gaining of a livelihood. That fine inde¬ pendence of spirit, which is one of the most precious spiritual possessions of the American people, was nurtured on the economic security provided by the family. And we may assume that it will quickly pass away, as it is passing away today, if some other equally secure material foundation is not forthcoming. The second factor contributing to the development of the individualistic tradition, but which provided quite a different emphasis and represented a different set of values, was the rise of the so-called middle classes. The age of the discovery and settlement of America was an age of profound change and unrest thruout the Western world. Among other things the age witnessed the rapid disintegration of the collective economy of feudal society and the liberation of the individual from many restraints in the sphere of commerce and industry. The assault upon the traditional order was led by merchants and tradesmen who had established themselves in the me¬ dieval towns and whose power resided in property accumulation. These elements in the population, demanding freedom for economic enterprise, whether in the realm of commerce, finance, or manufacture, gradually overcame the feudal aristocracy, assumed control of the state, and formu¬ lated a social philosophy congenial to their temper and aspirations, and in general well suited to release the creative and productive power of the age. John Locke, their ablest spokesman in the seventeenth century, contended 698 National Education Association that “ the great and chief end ... of men uniting into commonwealths and putting themselves under government, is the preservation of their property. ” To them the essential functions of the state were to protect private property, enforce contracts, and thus set the stage for the free play of economic forces. The natural laws supposed to govern the operation of these forces were expounded in a great classic of economic thought — the Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith. It was the rising middle classes, moreover, that dominated the early settlement of America, led the colonies in the War of Inde¬ pendence, wrote the federal Constitution, and except for the brief period of dominance by' the western farmers and the southern planters, set the tone of economic and political thought in the United States during the nineteenth century. These two roots of American individualism must of course be clearly distinguished, even tho they have often reenforced and tempered each other. The individualism of the independent freeholder of Jeffersonian democ¬ racy is not to be confused with the individualism of business enterprise bent on profits and operating in a complex society. The one is essentially self- contained, while the other is essentially predatory in its social outlook. There is something splendid in the individualism of the pioneering farmer who with wife and children strikes out into the wilderness and single- handed, except for the occasional assistance of neighbors, wages battle with the raw forces of nature, asking no favors from organized society and engaging in no attempt to exploit his fellowmen. The individualism of business enterprise, whatever its services in pro¬ moting economic advance, is of quite a different order. Its celebrated maxim of caveat emptor reveals its innermost spirit and expresses an attitude of indifference and irresponsibility toward the general welfare. The individu¬ alistic farmer asserted his independence of society; the individualistic mer¬ chant made society the scene of operations. To be sure, the moral sense of the small community and the craft morality of the pre-industrial era, built up thru centuries of social experience, held this doctrine of calculated selfish¬ ness in check and doubtless softened its expression. Yet in time the small community disintegrated, the earlier ethica weakened, the artisan tended to become content with shabby, if profitable, work, the spirit of the racketeer spread thru the economy, employed labor resorted to sabotage and malinger¬ ing, and private enterprise itself repudiated the underlying principles of individualism, sought escape from the rigors of competition thru various forms of combination and collusion, and turned to government for fran¬ chises, tariffs, subventions, and innumerable special privileges. The passing of the age of individualism in economy is apparent on every hand. Under the impact of technology the relatively simple society of the early nineteenth century, in which it flourished, has all but vanished. The comparatively self-sufficient family or small community has practically dis¬ appeared. The rise of a closely interdependent economy, embracing the entire country and binding together in one comprehensive integration all branches of industry and agriculture, is recorded in the most common facts of daily life and intercourse. It is recorded in 250,000 miles of railroad, Department of Teachers Colleges 699 in 26,000,000 motor vehicles, in 700,000 miles of surfaced highways, in 46,000 miles of air routes, in 257,000 miles of telegraph lines, in 20,000,000 telephones, in 23,000 motion picture houses all served from Hollywood, in the growth of great newspaper chains and news-gathering agencies, in the 600 broadcasting stations sending out their programs to 16,000,000 radio receiving sets. It is also recorded in the division of labor among regions, districts, plants, departments, and workmen that has rendered unthinkable the economic independence of individual, family, or neighbor¬ hood ; in the integration of countless specialties in mass production that makes necessary the nationwide organization of consumption ; in the vast and intricate structure of finance and credit that provides the vehicle for the exchange of goods and services; in the conquest of mechanical power that has solved the problem of production, inaugurated an era of potential plenty, and united all men and occupations in a common dependence on the machine. The very concepts of the individualistic economics, as Berle and Means have shown, are no longer in harmony with the facts of life. The great trend of the century from household to nation, from a loosely organized to a closely integrated society, from individualism to collectivism in economy, which appears to be reaching its critical phases in the epoch now opening, has created chaos, confusion, and bewilderment. It has introduced innumerable conflicts, contradictions, and inconsistencies into American life and culture. It has destroyed the material foundation of inherited modes of living and economic and political conceptions. The family seems unable to bear its traditional responsibilities ; the economy refuses to perform its natural functions; great instruments of communication and enlightenment are turned to antisocial ends; medical knowledge and facilities remain idle in the presence of widespread illness and defect; leisure for millions, in good times as well as in bad, takes the form of unemployment ; scientific research is harnessed to profit making and technological advances are sup¬ pressed ; art is divorced from the daily life of the people and is widely regarded as an esoteric interest; justice in the courts is often denied the poor, cultural and racial minorities, and political non-conformists; govern¬ ment is made to express the will of a plutocracy in the name and thru the instrumentalities of democracy; nations rush headlong into war loudly pro¬ claiming their devotion to peace ; and today, even in our own country, dictatorship lifts its ruthless head above the none too distant horizon. These conflicts and contradictions which pervade the entire social struc¬ ture presumably can be resolved only by bringing institutional forms and popular ideas into harmony with the underlying technological reality. This means that the interdependent, collective character of industrialized econ¬ omy must be recognized. But within the limits set by fact, there are many and diverse possibilities. The problem the American people face therefore is not the simple one of ushering in a new social order whose precise form is foreseen. They face the necessity of making great historic choices. They must soon make up their minds regarding two broad possibilities which lie ahead. 700 National Education Association Thus the collective economy, involving, as it does, the close integration and coordination of the productive energies of the entire population, might be organized primarily in the interests of some ruling caste or privileged minority, possibly composed of those holding title to property. To the masses of the people would go a fixed quantity of goods and services, a kind of balanced ration for the human animal, perhaps scientifically deter¬ mined so as to sustain him at the optimum level of working efficiency and to inoculate him against harboring revolutionary ideas. Given the premises of such a society to do more would be a form of economic waste. The re¬ mainder of the social income, increasing with the advance of science and technology, would accrue to the members of the aristocracy and be em¬ ployed to protect them in the enjoyment of their privileges and to enrich their lives in every way that human ingenuity could contrive — to support a police and military force of sufficient strength to intimidate the populace and quell occasional uprisings, to convert the more beautiful and pleasant portions of the country into extensive parks and playgrounds for their exclusive use, to maintain vast and numerous estates and menages as forms of display, to transfer to the domain of personal service the surplus labor occasioned by the increased use of automatic machinery, to provide oppor¬ tunities for luxurious travel over the continent and the world in search of comfort or some new sensation, and generally to maintain a life of leisure and extravagance far surpassing anything of its kind in history. The fact that membership in this caste might shift gradually from generation to gen¬ eration thru the operation of some sifting process, sanctified by the name of individualism, freedom, or democracy would not greatly alter the situa¬ tion. Indeed such an arrangement would merely increase the stability of the social order and serve as an insurance against popular revolt. It is of course entirely patent that the American people, without being aware of it, have been drifting toward a collectivist society of this kind for several generations. The social situation, however, undoubtedly contains a second possibility of broad dimensions which is far more in harmony with the deepest loyalties and aspirations of the American people. Conceivably, a closely integrated economy might be managed in the interests of the great masses of the popu¬ lation. Under such an arrangement no class or group would be regarded as a means for the elevation of another, no aristocracy of either birth or prop¬ erty would be allowed, no great concentration of wealth or income in private hands would be permitted, no grinding poverty, or degrading slums, placing their indelible stamp on the generations, would be tolerated. On the contrary, the moral equality of all men, as proclaimed in the Declara¬ tion of Independence, would be recognized as a controlling ideal and would be accepted as a guiding principle in the reconstruction of social life and institutions. The productive energies of the nation would be devoted first to laying the foundations of material security for all. Thereafter they would be dedicated to raising the cultural level and enriching the lives of the people, to making the entire country a pleasant and beautiful place in which Department of Teachers Colleges 701 to live. The natural endowment and the resources of technology would be scientifically administered in the name of society as a whole. If the foregoing analysis of the epoch be accepted, what are the implica¬ tions for the extension of the period of teacher preparation? As already pointed out the answer to this question does not flow automatically from the facts. It depends on how education and the teacher are conceived. I assume that a period of transition like the present demands large changes in the knowledge, the ideas, and the attitudes of the people. Such changes will certainly come sooner or later. The only problem is one of method. Shall they come thru suffering and misery, or shall they come thru education? And if they come thru education, shall they come thru the school? My emphatic answer is that they come thru education and the school as much as possible. How much that is, I do not know. Nor does anybody else know, because there is no historical precedent capable of guiding us in the matter. Only in our day has the school emerged into the position of a major social institution. But we might all agree to the above and yet maintain that the teacher is involved but little. It might be argued that the need is for carefully worked out programs to be administered by a small staff of highly qualified experts working thru teachers trained to routine and docility. I take a con¬ trary position. In my judgment the educational task before the nation requires in every classroom a far more highly qualified teacher than the average teacher of today. The teacher must be informed and intelligent about industrial society — its history, its trends, its problems, its strains and tensions, its inner character, and its magnificent possibilities. Moreover, since teachers will have to take a hand increasingly in the formulation of broad educational policies for community, state, and nation, all teachers regardless of subject taught, should possess a considerable measure of social knowledge and intelligence. A final consideration bearing upon the problem is that of man’s conquest of power. It has been reliably estimated that during the past one hundred years in the United States the per capita consumption of mechanical power has increased fortyfold. Here is the basis for material abundance and the release of an ever larger proportion of the population for the service func¬ tions — medicine, education, recreation, science, and art. Our society, as no other society in history, is in a position today to give to teachers extended and thoro preparation. And rarely has any society been in greater need of teachers of high qualifications. Perhaps the school, staffed by such teachers, might make somewhat easier the truly difficult road to the future. Who knows? It might be worth trying. 702 National Education Association INTER-INSTITUTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS IN DEVELOP¬ ING A STATE PROGRAM FOR THE EDUCATION OF TEACHERS HENRY KLONOWER, CHIEF, TEACHER DIVISION, DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, HARRISBURG, PA. Inter-institutional relationships are essential in the development of a state program for the education of teachers, but these relationships must follow a program of selection in order that the institutions best equipped to carry on a state program according to acceptable standards be selected. When once the standards for accrediting teacher-education institutions have been translated into enforceable regulations, it requires but steadfast¬ ness of purpose to establish the inter-relationships essential to carry on a worthwhile teacher-education program. Conditions may differ in degree in the different states, but the picture is always the same. There are state- owned institutions, quasi-state institutions, liberal arts colleges, denomina¬ tional colleges, and municipal teacher-training institutions — five agencies, all of which, in a greater or less measure play a part in a state’s teacher- education program. Some provide a rich academic background while others provide an equally important background for the development of profes¬ sional ideals. The establishment of inter-relationships is essential if the schools are to be provided with the leadership which they must have to make American education worthwhile. The development of satisfactory inter-relationships is primarily one of state concern. This is axiomatic and must be agreed to if in any state the desirable results are to be obtained. Departments of public instruction must be given authority to approve specific institutions for the preparation of teachers. This follows the general philosophy that preparation of teachers for the public schools is a state function and that the states delegate this authority to such institutions as have adequate instructional staffs, proper equipment, buildings, grounds, cooperative teacher-training situations and the like, to carry on a worthwhile piece of work. The state reserves the right to withdraw the privilege when abuse or incompetency develops. Departments of public instruction should not issue certificates to teachers merely because they have completed courses of preparation, but should, thru supervisory responsibilities, maintain standards generally recognized as proper for teacher-education programs. The states must have honest, com¬ petent officials who can intelligently guide the approved institutions in a coordinated program which prevents ruthless competition and, at the same time, avoids as tactfully as possible a “ cornering of the market.” But to carry out a guidance program and to maintain a coordinated controlled situation so that the supply, with a reasonable surplus, may be maintained, it is essential that the state departments of education be recognized as the responsible agencies of government for both the certification of teachers and the maintenance of proper teacher-education standards. The approved institutions must be cooperative and must contribute to the state depart- Department of Teachers Colleges 703 ment from their experience, the necessary assistance in the development of curriculums, student teaching facilities, and the intimate knowledge of the prospective teaching group ; they must assume some responsibility for the necessary relationships between the colleges and the secondary schools from which the students come. Without such cooperation, there can never be anything but a competitive situation, in which each institution strives not to supply the best teachers for the public schools, but for the greatest number of teachers. Institutions must recognize limitations to their enrolments and accept, in the spirit of cooperation, the suggestion that an increased enrolment inconsistent with a reasonable demand for teachers results only in flooding the market with teachers, measurable in terms of quantity rather than quality. But it must be remembered further that school superintendents and administrative officers are agents not only of the local school district but of the state department of education and that they play a very important part in the inter-institutional relationships. There must be the very closest coordination between those responsible for maintaining an adequate supply of prepared teachers and those responsible for maintaining an adequate school system. Accurate figures indicating both replacements and additions to present teaching corps can easily be developed in all the school districts of any state. As the information accumulates in the several school districts, a superintendent can determine with a surprising degree of accuracy the number of teachers that will be needed each school term. When these figures are brought together in one central office in the state department of educa¬ tion, the probable demand for teachers may be made known to the colleges engaged in teacher education. Where abnormal conditions arise, the pre¬ dictions are upset but, on the whole, it is a simple matter to accumulate the necessary data that will keep state department officials advised as to the proper number of teachers required for replacements and for increments in teacher personnel. The institutions participating in the teacher-prepara¬ tion program must abide by the figures and not persist in an overwhelming production of young teachers who subsequently cannot find teaching posi¬ tions. This is unfair to the prospective teacher and also destructive to the development of standards for teachers. But one of the greatest difficulties, which in the past has interfered with the development of a satisfactory inter-institutional relationship in develop¬ ing a state program for the education of teachers, is an almost complete unwillingness to define the unit involved. There is no generally recognized definition for the American public school teacher in terms of preparation. There are as many levels of education as there are institutions engaged in the education of teachers and the differences vary from high-school educa¬ tion with six weeks of professional preparation to a year or more of graduate work based on four years of professional education in an accredited insti¬ tution. The teacher is generally recognized as one who can secure a position irrespective of the degree of professional preparation. If the several states could agree at once to an acceptable definition in terms of preparation of 23 704 National Education Association the several types of teachers and then measure in terms of this acceptable definition, there would remain to complete the problem of supplying the public schools with prepared teachers, merely the assignment of programs to the institutions best equipped to carry out the teacher-education program. When once it is agreed that the state must assume the responsibility for maintaining the flow of adequately prepared teachers, the inter-institutional relationship becomes a matter of guided evolution. As an excellent illustration of inter-institutional relationship on the basis of which there can be developed a coordinated plan for teacher education, the plan of the state teachers colleges in the Commonwealth of Pennsyl¬ vania is briefly described. Similar relationships exist in other states, but this plan is described because the speaker has been, for a period of ten years, secretary of the Board of Presidents of the colleges and responsible for the administration of the program. These institutions are the creatures of the legislature ; they are the people’s colleges in which every worthy young man and young woman who aspires to teach in the public schools has the opportunity so to prepare. The colleges are owned and controlled by the state and have only one function, namely, the preparation of teachers for the public schools ; they are part of the public school system. The commonwealth, thru legislative appropriation, partially supports them. Fees paid by students for board, room, and lodging entirely maintain the housing side, and, unlike the situation found in some states where the entire cost of maintenance of the teacher-education institutions is assumed by the state, Pennsylvania has in its coordinated plan a situation where the students themselves contribute in a very large measure toward the maintenance of the program. Prior to 1919 when these institutions, then known as normal schools, were quasi-state in character, competition in the solicitation of students was carried on with little credit to the institutions. In 1919 the presidents sug¬ gested that a study be prepared for the purpose of mapping out professional service areas. The chief of the teacher division was authorized to present a plan for the development of areas immediately surrounding the state institutions thruout which each institution was to make its professional influence felt. After a careful study of the number of first class high schools found in each area, means of accessibility, population, number of schools, and annual demand for teachers, a professional service area map was pre¬ sented to the Board of Presidents. In 1920 the service area plan was unanimously adopted by the Board of Presidents, and since that time each institution has confined its major professional activities to its service area. Solicitation of students in the area of another institution was abandoned ; professional status of teachers in the school districts within the service area was to become the direct responsibility of the college located therein. It does not mean that students from one county must necessarily attend the insti¬ tution located within its professional area, but it does mean that each insti¬ tution may not develop its program in the professional service area of another institution. This was one of the serious problems that had to be solved in the development of the teacher-education program and it has been Department of Teachers Colleges 705 solved very satisfactorily for the state-owned institutions. The professional service area map as developed and approved by the presidents is shown on page 707. There is a Board of the Presidents of the state teachers colleges; this Board meets every other month. A docket is prepared to which each member contributes such items which either affect teacher education in the state as a whole or involve the area immediately surrounding his institution. Curriculum changes are referred to a special committee consisting of three presidents and the chief of the teacher division of the Department of Public Instruction. Suggested changes are referred to the entire Board with such recommendations as may be suitable. When adopted by the Board, and approved by the Superintendent of Public Instruction, actions become binding on each of the state teachers colleges, all contributing to the devel¬ opment of an adequate and well-coordinated state program of teacher education. The state Superintendent of Public Instruction is the presiding officer of the Board of Presidents. He appoints committees of the Board; these committees recommend policies. When it is borne in mind that the president of each institution is in constant touch with teacher-education policies in the country at large, and, at the same time, is familiar with the needs of the public schools within his service area, it is fair to assume that the state Superintendent of Public Instruction is in a position to have at his disposal proper counselors for the development of a worthwhile program. During the past few years, committees have been appointed to study and report on the following topics: (1) revision of entrance requirements; (2) ex¬ amination of marking schemes; (3) reciprocal relations with other teacher- education institutions; (4) fees paid by students; (5) establishment of uniform calendar; (6) legislation affecting teacher-education institutions; (7) uniform publications; and (8) salary qualification schedule. In order to develop a common understanding of the purposes in the teacher-education program, all the faculties of the state institutions are called together once each year for a three-day session. The programs for these meetings are prepared by a committee of the Board of Presidents, members of the faculties of the state teachers colleges, and the chief of the teacher division. At these sessions, problems immediately affecting the sev¬ eral groups are discussed. Content of syllabi are developed and common objectives agreed to. Outstanding national figures in the field of teacher education give a broader scope to the conference. The Superintendent of Public Instruction has opportunity to orient the teacher-education program in light of the needs of the commonwealth. The plan of cooperation in these institutions is an illustration of the solution of one of the problems which confronts any state attempting to develop a well-coordinated state program of teacher education. One needs but to review the official minutes of the meetings of the Board of Presi¬ dents to be convinced that in this state a closely coordinated system of teacher education is operative. 706 National Education Association To maintain a proper balance between supply and demand those institu¬ tions directly under the control of the state have been required to cooperate in the matter of offering approved curriculums. For illustration, the prepa¬ ration of teachers and supervisors of public school music is a specific program aside from that of the preparation of teachers for the general school service. One institution in the east, one in the north central, and one in the west central part of Pennsylvania have been approved for the preparation of such teachers. The number of entrants is limited, the students are selected with care, and the instructional procedure is under the imme¬ diate control of the responsible officials of the institution. In like manner, rather than train an oversupply of young men and young women in the field of physical education, the training facilities are kept within bounds. Three state institutions represent the teacher-supply source of state-owned institutions. Here are found uniform curriculums, limited classes, acceptable equipment, and a completely controlled situation. What is true in the field of music and health is equally true for the preparation of teachers in the field of art. These curriculums are under constant observation and of necessity must provide the right type of teachers for the educational service. In commercial education, the program is controlled in an identical manner. Two teachers colleges offer baccalaureate degree courses in the commercial field, and here again, those fitted by attitude and aptitude are selected for admission. The need for high pressure salesmanship in the matter of aug¬ menting enrolments is eliminated. The question of adequately supplying a recognized need is kept constantly in view. There developed over a period of years a shortage of properly prepared industrial arts teachers. In response to this demand there was established a four-year curriculum for the preparation of industrial arts teachers in two teachers colleges. Under no pressure to recruit large classes to balance the cost of maintaining instruction, the institutions may make such choice in the selection of their students with the sole thought that each shall become a master teacher. The curriculum is the product of a cooperative enterprise toward which leaders in the industrial arts field have contributed, the administrative officers have reviewed, the Curricular Revision Committee has adjusted, the Board of Presidents agreed to, and the Superintendent of Public Instruction has approved. This cooperative enterprise has been equally successful in the development of all other curriculums. It will ulti¬ mately bring to the public schools a product competent to carry on a worthwhile educational program satisfactory to the taxpayer. The manner of coordinating forty-nine liberal arts colleges along lines indicated in the development of the program for state teachers colleges still remains a problem for solution but a step in this direction has been made with gratifying progress. Committees representing these institutions have been working on problems similar to those considered by the Board of Presidents of the state teachers colleges and substantial contributions have been made by these committees in suggesting revisions of the certification regulations. There is in our own state a very vigorous organization known as the Association of Liberal Arts Colleges for the Advancement of Teach- Department of Teachers Colleges 707 STATE TEACHERS COLLEGES Commonwealth of Pennsylvania A four-year curriculum preparing for teaching in the elementary field, baccalau¬ reate degree curriculum, provides preparation for State Standard Limited Certificate. Two years of advanced work in elementary education to which those who have completed any one of the two-year elementary curriculums may be admitted, baccalaureate degree curriculum. A four-year curriculum preparing for teaching in the junior high or senior high- school fields, baccalaureate degree curriculum. Degree curriculums in special fields: Art, Commerce, Health, Home Economics, Industrial Arts, Music, and Kindergarten. College Bloomsburg . . California .... Cheyney . Clarion . E. Stroudsburg Edinboro .... Indiana . Kutztown .... Lock Haven . Mansfield Millersville . . Shippensburg . Slippery Rock West Chester Special Curriculums President Commerce . Francis B. Haas Industrial Arts . Robert M. Steele Industrial Arts and Home Economics ... Leslie Pinckney Hill . G. C. L. Riemer Health Education . T. T. Allen Art Education . Carmon Ross Art, Commerce, Home Economics & Music. Charles R. Foster Library and Art Education . Q. A. W. Rohrbach Kindergarten Education . Dallas W. Armstrong Home Economics and Music . William R. Straughn Library — Industrial Arts . Landis Tanger Cooperative Education . Albert Lindsay Rowland Health Education . Charles S. Miller Health Education and Music . Norman W. Cameron 708 National Education Association ing. This Association has been extremely helpful in raising the standards of teacher education within the liberal arts colleges. Their subcommittees have attacked the problems of developing suggestive uniform syllabi with the same vigor as is observable in a state-aided and state-owned institution. This organization meets annually and discusses with the members of the department responsible for the development of inter-relationship, problems of mutual concern. The two groups are growing closer together. The first step in this direction was taken over a year ago when representatives of the liberal arts colleges met in joint session with representatives of the state teachers colleges. A combined program was presented. As another illustration in the development of this inter-institutional relationship, a joint conference of the Association of Liberal Arts Colleges for the Advancement of Teaching and Directors and Supervisors of Student Teaching in Accredited Teacher Preparation Institutions in Pennsylvania was held. The theme of the conference was on the general problem of student teaching. The purposes of the meeting were: 1. To express points of view by means of a round table discussion as to present student teaching situations in accredited teacher-preparation institutions 2. To determine the basis for acceptable principles and practises with regard to student teaching in these institutions. Seventy-five representatives from all the various types of institutions in the commonwealth were present and the conference concluded with a reso¬ lution unanimously urging an annual meeting at which similar problems might be discussed. As the economic situation made itself felt, the question of students arose, and still more important, the question whether certain types of institutions should be designated to prepare secondary or elementary teachers. Out of the deliberations of a representative group of presidents of liberal arts col¬ leges, state teachers colleges, and denominational institutions, a program was tentatively suggested. The arguments for or against the suggested plan need not be developed here, but it is merely illustrative of the effort which one state is making to develop an inter-institutional relationship with an eye to preserving the best in all the institutions capable of assisting in the development of a state program for the education of teachers. The significant result of these joint meetings was the development of a “ consciousness of kind ” and the willingness to agree on well-defined prin¬ ciples. There still remains the difficult problem which grows out of the present economic situation and it is purely a temporary one, namely, which institutions should train which particular type of teacher. But on the funda¬ mental principle of standards for teacher education all agencies have come to a common understanding. But in this connection there will be found on one side, the group that advocates a complete monopoly of teacher education in private colleges and universities; on the other, there will be found equally forceful pro¬ ponents of the theory that all teacher preparation should be in state-owned or state-controlled institutions. The middle road is the safe road; it is the most helpful one to follow where all the equities must be considered. We Department of Teachers Colleges 709 are now in the midst of clashing forces but out of the experience will develop an inter-relationship which will advance the teacher-education program. The greatest benefit from the proper inter-institutional relationships will come when all the factors concerned in the matter of supply and demand of adequately prepared teachers are completely coordinated. It is the re¬ sponsibility of the state to indicate the needs of each branch of the teaching service, and cooperative measures must be adopted which will coordinate in the most economical manner all existing teacher-education agencies so that they will serve one common and definite purpose, namely, the main¬ tenance of a proper balance between supply and demand. Thus it naturally follows that when sufficient teachers are available in any one field to meet the demands of the schools allowing a proper margin for safety, additional agencies for the preparation of such teachers must not be approved, and the simple process involved in this controlled situation, applied all along the line. THE TEACHERS COLLEGE IN THE SERVICE OF THE STATE AND NATION (Radio Address) H. L. DONOVAN, PRESIDENT, EASTERN KENTUCKY STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, RICHMOND, KY. The American Association of Teachers Colleges meeting here in Atlantic City sends greetings to the more than 200 .teachers colleges with their faculties of 15,000 instructors and their 275,000 students, and all other friends of education. It is a little less than a hundred years since Horace Mann, secretary of the state Board of Education of Massachusetts, Principal Cyrus Peirce, and three students met in Lexington, Massachusetts, on July 3, 1839, and opened the first public normal school in America. The influence that led to the establishment of the normal school, first, in Massachusetts, then gradually thruout the nation, was a folk movement. Slowly, but posi¬ tively, it dawned upon the people that the teachers of their children were poorly educated ; in fact, many of them were grossly ignorant. It was observed that the colleges and academies of that day, tho some of them had been in existence two centuries, had not greatly concerned themselves with the education of teachers. Thoughtful people who wished to see the children of the masses given a better chance to secure a common school education concluded that the only way of obtaining better teachers was to establish a school for the education of teachers. As the result of this senti¬ ment, the normal school was created. Springing from a folk movement, it is still a folk movement. The teachers college today is maintained because of public opinion which emanates from that great body of middle class Americans who desire a well-educated teacher in the public schools for their children. There is no institution of any kind in the service of the 710 National Education Association American people that is more truly democratic in its origin, in its purpose, and in its practises. Who are those who attend the teachers colleges ? An examination of the roster of students will reveal that they are predominantly the sons and daughters of farmers, with a sizable group from the homes of the small merchant, the artisan, and the skilled laborer. These are substantial folk whose contribution to American life and institutions has always been rec¬ ognized. The children of these people have usually been reared in simple homes. They are not unacquainted with hard, honest work. Their economic status has forced them to be frugal and thrifty. They possess a sense of values born of an acquaintance with the practical necessities of life. They enter the teachers college with but little money which they have often earned or borrowed. As a result, they are eager to learn and to make the most of their opportunities. It is from such splendid human material that teachers are fashioned. The nation is fortunate that the teachers of its children come from such wholesome homes and out of an environment that enables them to understand and appreciate the problems of the masses of society. The limited finances of the students in the teachers college force this institution to keep down the cost of living. It is possible to attend many teachers colleges today at a total cost for the academic year of approxi¬ mately $250 for a student. The campus life of these colleges is somewhat more conducive to scholarly habits because of the curtailment of expensive social activities. The students have more time to spend in the library and laboratories because they do pot own automobiles and are not able to afford expensive week-end trips. There is, however, maintained in all teachers colleges a social program wholesome and simple in character and more in line with the type of social life which the student will live after leaving academic halls. If the cost of attending these colleges could not be kept at a very low figure, many, many thousands of worthy, ambitious, and capable young men and women of genius would be denied a chance at higher education. The door of the college would forever be closed to them. Their genius would be lost and the nation would be poorer as a result. This interest in the sons and daughters of families whose incomes are modest has resulted in the teachers college being frequently referred to as the people’s college. The people’s college it surely is for this, and for still another reason. In his farewell address to his countrymen, George Washington uttered many words of wisdom which we as a people have often followed with profit. May I call your attention to one bit of his counsel about which but little has been said. I quote: “ Promote, then, as an object of primary im¬ portance, institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened.” If ever an institution literally carried out this mandate, the teachers college is that institution. The teachers colleges are not only interested in the education of the students who attend them, but they look beyond their students to the children these students of Department of Teachers Colleges 711 theirs will eventually teach. At the teachers college, we educate young men and women not wholly for what education may mean to them, but that they may return to the regions from whence they came and share with the chil¬ dren of all the people the culture which they have attained in college. No institution can do so much to promote the general culture and diffuse knowledge among the people of the land, as the teachers college, because its students while preparing for a vocation are imbued with a passion for service rather than motivated for personal gain. The graduates of these colleges usually go directly back to their communities and teach the on¬ coming generation whatsoever it is to acquire in the way of formal educa¬ tion. This instruction is constantly raising the intellectual level of the aver¬ age citizen of the nation. Just as a stream never rises above its source, like¬ wise the intellectual level of the great common people of our country can never rise above the level of the teachers of the nation’s children. As is the teacher, so will be the school. As is the school, so will be the culture of the people. The graduate of the teachers college literally follows the Biblical injunction: “ Go into all the world and teach all people.” This is the con¬ tribution of the teachers college. This is the method by which it serves the people of the state and nation. This is the additional reason why it is called the people’s college. The general public today understands the necessity of a young man’s at¬ tending a medical school to prepare to become a doctor. In most states, it is now impossible to engage in the practise of law before completing legal training in some college of law. These standards of preparation, however, are of but recent origin. Less than fifty years ago, a young man with a little general education could become the apprentice of a physician, ride with him to see his patients, assist him about his office, read a few medical books and after two or three j^ears of this sort of apprenticeship, become a practising physician. Admission to the bar was usually thru the office of some well- established lawyer. The candidate would attach himself to the office of a prominent lawyer as his protege. He would clean up the office, dust off the books, run errands, perform clerical duties, attend court and observe its processes, read law, prepare briefs, and finally handle minor cases, and if he succeeded, later he was usually taken into the firm as a junior member. But the day of the homemade doctor and lawyer has passed. It has been more difficult to lead the general public to understand and appreciate that the technical preparation of a teacher is quite as difficult to obtain and just as essential as the technical preparation of the doctor and the lawyer. Most people believe that all the preparation that is neces¬ sary to teach is general education. This is a prime requisite. No teacher can succeed without a liberal education. Liberal education, also, is a most valu¬ able asset to the doctor and to the lawyer, but liberal education never made either a doctor or a lawyer. And the same can be said of the teacher. Liberal or general education never made a teacher. The well-educated individual who becomes a teacher without any technical training may in time become a good teacher; but his success will always be achieved at the expense of those whom he teaches during the first years of his experience. 712 National Education Association I ask my audience for a better understanding of the function or purpose of the teachers college. This institution stands midway between the old liberal arts college and the highly technical school. It provides for its stu¬ dents both a liberal education and professional training. For the liberal education of its students, it offers courses in mathematics, history, govern¬ ment, sociology, languages, literature, science, art, music, et cetera; and for the technical preparation of teachers, it offers courses in psychology, prin¬ ciples of teaching, educational measurements, methods of teaching, and practise teaching. For the purpose of making the professional courses prac¬ tical, there is to be found on every teachers-college campus a training school or laboratory school, where children are taught by expert teachers who demonstrate to the teachers-college students correct methods and technics of teaching. This laboratory school stands in the same relation to the teachers college as the hospital does to the medical college. No other group of colleges is today educating its students at so low a cost per student to the taxpayers. It may be suggested that the low student cost means a poor quality of education. But this is not true. No class of colleges has made greater progress in recent years than the teachers colleges. This is the verdict of every impartial observer of college administration. These colleges operate under standards of the American Association of Teachers Colleges which are as rigid as the standards of any accrediting agency for colleges in this country. The teachers colleges are each year in¬ spected by a competent committee. Their delinquencies are pointed out and each institution is charged to correct its shortcomings. Under such a disci¬ pline they have learned to travel the upper road of usefulness. Education in the teachers college may be financially cheap, but not cheap in quality. Another reason for their progress is their youth. The teachers colleges are relatively young. They constitute the last vocational school to come into existence. Youth is always enthusiastic, vigorous, and dynamic. These in¬ stitutions possess the qualities of youth. There is to be found in them, both on the part of their faculties and student bodies, a consecration of purpose that enhances the quality of work they do. There is often an atmosphere of the missionary spirit to be discovered on the campus of this type of college. The student of the teachers college generally realizes that he is obtaining an education that he may use learning in the upgrading of the social order. This high purpose motivates his work and leads him to give a good account of the time he spends in college. Moses, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Alexander the Great, Virgil, Caesar, Saint Paul, Justinian, Charlemagne, Dante, Leonardo, and many others of ancient and medieval times were probably as able leaders and as wise men as the most intelligent men in any country of the world today. The funda¬ mental difference between the civilization of other times and the civilization of today is to be discovered in the average man. In earlier civilizations, the masses were densely ignorant. Men’s actions were determined largely by the prevailing superstitions. Usually, those who possessed intelligence re¬ garded the common man as little better than swine. The barriers between the intellectual and the ignorant were almost impassable. The leaders of Department of Teachers Colleges 713 society were not interested in dispelling ignorance and improving the in¬ tellectual life of the masses. Only occasionally did a great and wise leader look with compassion and pity upon the weak and humble folk. All the finer things of earlier civilizations were established, promoted, and preserved for a very small group of especially favored members of the social order. Nearly always the culture for the few was built upon the slavery of the many. The goal of our American civilization is to improve the lot of the average man. To our leaders the standard of living and the intellectual life of the masses are problems of grave concern. About a century ago, universal public education was initiated in this nation for the benefit of all the people. Almost simultaneously with the establishing of schools for universal public education, normal schools were created in which to educate teachers for these schools. Slowly, gradually, steadily the intellectual level of the average man has risen. Intelligence has been diffused among our people. Today, the masses can and do read. Where ancient civilizations had one who could think, we have thousands. The intellectual level of the masses of our country is probably higher than that of the people of any civilization in all history. This fact is in a very large measure the result of a public school system ; and the effectiveness of our school system is in a large measure due to thou¬ sands of teachers who have been educated in teachers colleges. We have arrived at a period in our social evolution when the cultural development of every man is a matter of deep concern to the society in which we live. This is one of the noblest achievements of man. It is a far cry from the Stone Age up thru the cultures of Egypt, Syria, Babylonia, Greece, Rome, and the Middle Ages to the Century of Progress. But the distance which man has traversed in search of the good life is prob¬ ably not as great as the road ahead if we expect to achieve the noblest aspiration of the world’s best thinkers. It will take centuries of instruction to “ teach out ” greed, hate, envy, jealousy, crime, and ignorance, and to “ teach in ” love, truth, honesty, charity, righteousness, fidelity, an appreciation of beauty and goodwill among men. But this is the task to which we who are at work in the teachers colleges have dedicated our lives. It is the work of the profession of teaching. We who are teachers are not dismayed because of its enormity. We cannot hope completely to reshape the world in our generation and certainly to do so would not be best if we could. But we can help the cause along. Every time we teach a child to read, to figure, to sing, to draw, to appreciate beauty, to discover truth, to love righteousness, and to think straight, we have made our contribution to the enlightenment of the world. What greater work can man do ? We believe this is a good world but our business is to make it better. We are charged with the responsibility of bringing more light into the world. Teachers are workers on the highways which we hope lead to Utopia. 714 National Education Association LIST OF ACCREDITED INSTITUTIONS— 1935-36 Longest curriculum which has been approved indicated in number of years before each institution. The Association does not attempt to accredit graduate work. The Roman numerals refer to Standards not fully met by the institution. Location Institution Alabama Florence . 4/State Teachers College . Jacksonville ... 4/State Teachers College . Livingston . 4/State Teachers College, IV . Troy . '. 4/State Teachers College, V . Arizona Flagstaff . 4/Arizona State Teachers College.. Tempe . 4/Arizona State Teachers College, V Arkansas Arkadelphia ... 4/Henderson State Teachers College. Conway . 4/Arkansas State Teachers College. . California Fresno . 4/State Teachers College . San Diego .... 4/State Teachers College, VI, VIII.. San Francisco . 4/State Teachers College, IV, VIII.. Santa Barbara. . 4/State Teachers College . Colorado Greeley . 4/Colorado State Teachers College, VI Gunnison . 4/Western State College of Colorado. . District of Columbia Washington .... 4/Miner Teachers College. Washington .... 4/Wilson Teachers College Georgia Milledgeville . . 4/Georgia State College for Women, IV . Statesboro . 4/South Georgia Teachers College, IX Illinois Carbondale Charleston Chicago . DeKalb . Macomb . Normal . 4/Southern Illinois State Normal Uni¬ versity, VI, VIII . 4/Eastern Illinois State Teachers Col¬ lege, IV . 3/ Chicago Normal College, IV . 4/Northern Illinois State Teachers College, VIII . 4/Western Illinois State Teachers College, VI . 4/Illinois State Normal University, VIII . Indiana Indianapolis ... 4/College of Education, Butler Uni¬ versity, IV . Muncie . 4/Ball State Teachers College, VIII. Terre Haute .. 4/Indiana State Teachers College... President H. J. Willingham C. W. Daugette G. W. Brock E. M. Shackelford T. J. Tormey Grady Gammage J. P. Womack H. L. McAlister Frank W. Thomas Edward L. Hardy A. C. Roberts C. L. Phelps George W. Frasier C. C. Casey E. A. Clark E. C. Higbie Guy H. Wells Marvin S. Pittman H. W. Shryock R. G. Buzzard Butler Laughlin Karl L. Adams W. P. Morgan R. W. Fairchild W. L. Richardson, Dean L. A. Pittenger Ralph N. Tirey Department of Teachers Colleges 715 Location Institution President Iowa Cedar Falls . . . // Iowa State Teachers College . 0. R. Latham Kansas Emporia . •//Kansas State Teachers College, VI Thomas W. Butcher Hays . 41 Fort Hays Kansas State College, VI C. E. Rarick Pittsburg . -//Kansas State Teachers College. . . . W. A Brandenburg Wichita . “//College of Education, University of Wichita, VIII . Leslie B. Sipple, Dean Kentucky Bowling Green. “//Bowling Green College of Com- merce, XI . J. L. Harman Bowling Green. “//Western Kentucky State Teachers College . H. H. Cherry Morehead . “//Morehead State Teachers College, IX . J. Howard Payne Murray . “//Murray State Teachers College. . . . J. W. Carr Richmond . •//Eastern Kentucky State Teachers College . H. L. Donovan Louisiana Lafayette . //College of Education, Southwestern Louisiana Institute . W. S. Dearmont, Dean Natchitoches . . . ■//Louisiana State Normal College. . . . A. A. Fredericks Maryland Towson . 5/Maryland State Normal School, IV Lida Lee Tall, Principal Michigan Detroit . “//Teachers College, Wayne University W. E. Lessenger, Dean Kalamazoo .... “//Western State Teachers College... D. B. Waldo Marquette . “//Northern State Teachers College, IV, VIII . W. H. Pearce Mt. Pleasant . . “//Central State Teachers College, VIII E. C. Warriner Ypsilanti . “//Michigan State Normal College. . J. M. Munson Minnesota Bemidji . //State Teachers College, IX . M. W. Deputy Duluth . //State Teachers College, VIII . E. W. Bohannon Mankato . //State Teachers College . Frank D. McElroy Moorhead . //State Teachers College, IV . R. B. MacLean St. Cloud . //State Teachers College . Geo. A. Selke Winona . //State Teachers College, IV . G. E. Maxwell Mississippi » Cleveland . //Delta State Teachers College . W. M. Kethley Hattiesburg .... //State Teachers College . J. B. George Missouri Cape Girardeau. //Southeast Missouri State Teachers College . W. W. Parker Kansas City . . . //Teachers College of Kansas City, IV G. W. Diemer Kirksville . //Northeast Missouri State Teachers College . Eugene Fair Maryville . //Northwest Missouri State Teachers College . Uel W. Lamkin St. Louis . //Harris Teachers College . C. G. Vannest 716 National Education Association Location St. Louis . Springfield . . . . Warrensburg . . Montana Dillon . Nebraska Chadron . Kearney . Peru . Wayne . New Hampshire Keene . Plymouth . New Jersey Jersey City .... Newark . Trenton . Upper Montclair New Mexico *Las Vegas .... Silver City .... New York Albany . Buffalo . Fredonia . Geneseo . New Paltz .... New York .... Oneonta . Potsdam . North Carolina Asheville . Cullowhee . Greenville . Institution 4/ Stowe Teachers College, IV . 4/Southwest Missouri State Teachers. College, VIII . 4/Central Missouri State Teachers College, VI, VIII . 4/State Normal College, VIII . 4/Nebraska State Normal College, V. 4/Nebraska State Teachers College, IV 4/Nebraska State Teachers College.. 4/Nebraska State Teachers College, IV, VIII . 4/State Normal School, IV 4/State Normal School, IV 3/State Normal School . 3/State Normal School, IV . 4/State Teachers College, IV . 4/State Teachers College . 4/New Mexico Normal University, II, III . 4/New Mexico State Teachers College, VIII, IX . 4/ State College for Teachers . 4/State Teachers College, IV . .?/State Normal School, IV, VIII . 3/State Normal School, IV, VIII . 3/State Normal School, IV, VIII . 4/School of Education, College of the City of New York . 3/State Normal School, IV . 3/State Normal School, IV . 4/Asheville Normal and Teachers College, VI, XI . 4/Western Carolina Teachers College, IV, IX . 4/East Carolina Teachers College... President Ruth M. Harris Roy Ellis E. L. Hendricks Sheldon E. Davis Robert I. Elliott George E. Martin W. R. Pate U. S. Conn Wallace E. Mason Ernest L. Silver Roy L. Shaffer, Principal M. Ernest Townsend, Principal Roscoe L. West H. A. Sprague H. C. Gossard Hoyt C. Graham A. R. Brubacher Harry W. Rockwell L. R. Gregory, Principal James B. Welles, Principal L. H. van den Berg, Principal Paul Klapper, Dean Charles W. Hunt, Principal R. T. Congdon Principal John E. Calfee H. T. Hunter Leon R. Meadows * Subject to reinspection. Department of Teachers Colleges 717 Location North Dakota Dickinson . Ellendale . Mayville . Minot . Valley City Ohio Athens . . Bowling Green. Cleveland . Cleveland . Kent . Oxford . Oklahoma Ada . *Alva . *Durant . Edmond . Tahlequah .... Weatherford . . . Oregon Monmouth .... Pennsylvania Bloomsburg .... California . Clarion . East Stroudsburg Edinboro . Indiana . Kutztown . Lock Haven . . . Mansfield . Millersville . . . Shippensburg . . Slippery Rock . . West Chester . . South Dakota Aberdeen . Madison . Spearfish . Springfield .... Institution 4/State Teachers College, VIII . 4/State Normal and Industrial School, VIII, IX . 4/State Teachers College, IV, VIII. 4/State Teachers College, IX . 4/State Teachers College . 4/College of Education, Ohio Univer¬ sity . 4/Bowling Green State College . 4/School of Education, Western Re¬ serve University, IV . 2/Sisters’ College, VII, IX . 4/Kent State College, V . 4/School of Education, Miami Univer¬ sity . #- 4/East Central State Teachers College 4/Northwestern State Teachers College 4/Southeastern State Teachers Col¬ lege, VIII . 4/Central State Teachers College... 4/Northeastern State Teachers Col¬ lege . 4/Southwestern State Teachers Col¬ lege, IV . 2/Oregon Normal School, IV 4/State Teachers College, V . 4/State Teachers College . 4/State Teachers College, IV, V . 4/ State Teachers College, IX . 4/State Teachers College, IX . 4/State Teachers College . 4/State Teachers College, V, IX.... 4/State Teachers College . 4/State Teachers College . 4/State Teachers College . 4/State Teachers College, IX . 4/State Teachers College . 4/State Teachers College . 4/Northern Normal and Industrial School, IV . 2/Eastern State Normal School, IV... 2/State Normal School, IV . 2/Southern State Normal School . President C. L. Kjerstad R. M. Black C. C. Swain George A. McFarland C. E. Allen T. C. McCracken, Dean H. B. Williams H. N. Irwin, Dean John R. Hagan, Director J. O. Engleman E. J. Ashbaugh, Dean A. Linscheid O. E. Hatcher W. H. Shumate M. A. Beeson M. P. Hammond C. W. Richards J. A. Churchill Francis B. Haas Robert M. Steele G. C. L. Riemer T. T. Allen Carmon Ross C. R. Foster Q. A. W. Rohrbach Dallas W. Armstrong W. R. Straughn Landis Tanger A. L. Rowland Charles S. Miller Norman W. Cameron C. G. Lawrence V. A. Lowry E. C. Woodburn Mrs. T. A. Harmon, Acting * Subject to reinspection. 718 National Education Association Location Tennessee Johnson City . . Memphis . Murfreesboro . . Nashville . Texas Alpine . Canyon . Commerce . . . * . Denton . Huntsville . Nacogdoches . . . San Marcos . . . Utah Salt Lake City. . Virginia East Radford . . Farmville . Fredericksburg . Harrisonburg . . Washington Bellingham Cheney . Ellensburg . . . . West Virginia Athens . Fairmont . Huntington Shepherdstown . Wisconsin Eau Claire La Crosse . Menomonie Milwaukee Oshkosh . Platteville . River Falls Stevens Point . . Superior . Whitewater . . . Institution President 4/State Teachers College . C. C. Sherrod 4/State Teachers College . J. W. Brister 4/State Teachers College . P. A. Lyon 4/Tennessee Agricultural & Industrial State College, IV . W. J. Hale 4/Sul Ross State Teachers College... H. W. Morelock 4/West Texas State Teachers College . J. A. Hill 4/East Texas State Teachers College. S. H. Whitley 4/North Texas State Teachers Col¬ lege, V . W. J. McConnell 4/Sam Houston State Teachers Col¬ lege, IV, VIII . H. F. Estill 4/Stephen F. Austin State Teachers College, IV, VIII . A. W. Birdwell 4/Southwest Texas State Teachers College, VIII . C. E. Evans • 4/School of Education, University of Utah, VIII . Milton Bennion, Dean 4/State Teachers College . J. P. McConnell 4/State Teachers College . J. L. Jarman 4/State Teachers College . M. L. Combs 4/State Teachers College . S. P. Duke 4/State Normal School, IV . C. H. Fisher 4/ State Normal School, IV, V . R. T. Hargreaves 4/State Normal School, IV . R. E. McConnell 4/Concord State Teachers College, V, VIII . J. F. Marsh 4/Fairmont State Teachers College. . . Joseph Rosier 4/Marshall College, IV, VIII . M. P. Shawkey 4/Shepherd State Teachers College,. . 4/State Teachers College, IV . H. A. Schofield 4/State Teachers College, VIII . G. M. Snodgrass 4/The Stout Institute, IV . B. E. Nelson 4/State Teachers College, IV . Frank E. Baker 4/State Teachers College, IV, VIII.. Forrest R. Polk 4/State Teachers College, IV . A. M. Royce 4/State Teachers College, IV . J. H. Ames 4/Central State Teachers College, IV. F. S. Hyer 4/State Teachers College, IV, VIII. J. D. Hill 4/State Teachers College, IV, VIII... C. M. Yoder DEPARTMENT OF Visual Instruction HISTORICAL NOTE The department of visual instruction was organized at the Oakland- San Francisco meeting in July 1923. The officers of the Department for the year 1935-36 are: president, Nelson L. Greene, Editor, Educational Screen, 64 East Lake Street, Chicago, III.; first vicepresident, Wilber Emmert, Director, Visual Education, State Teachers College, Indiana, Pa.; second vicepresident, Annette Glick, Director of Visual Education, Board of Education, Los Angeles, Calif.; secretary-treasurer, Ellsworth C. Dent, 5863 Chevy Chase Parkway, N. W ., Chevy Chase, D. C.; executive committee: Daniel C. Knowlton, Associate Professor of Education, New York Uni¬ versity, New York, N. Y. ( term expires 1936) ; John A. Hollinger, Di¬ rector of Nature Study and Visualization, Board of Education, Pitts¬ burgh, Pa. ( term expires 1937) ; William H. Dudley, Director, Dudley Visual Education Service, 746 South Wabash Avenue, Chicago, III. ( term expires 1938) ; Mrs. Grace Fisher Ramsey, Assistant Curator of Educa¬ tion, American Museum of Natural History, 77th Street and Central Park, West, New York, N. Y. ( term expires 1939); Robert F. Col¬ lier, Jr., South High School, Denver, Colo. ( term expires 1940) ; Cline M. Koon, Senior Specialist in Education by Radio, United States Office of Education, Washington, D. C. ( term expires 1941). This Department meets once each year, in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows : 1923: 85- A 1924 -.963-985 1925:864-871 1926:949-963 19 27:951-970 1928:949-970 1929:937-944 1930 -.911-930 1931:947-963 19 32:787-800 19 33:779-795 1934:777-788 THE NOON-DAY MOVIES, EDUCATION’S NEW TOOL L. K. MEOLA, CHAIRMAN, VISUAL EDUCATION, JOHN HAY HIGH SCHOOL, CLEVELAND, OHIO Noon-day movies are the motion pictures shown during the lunch periods in the school auditorium for recreational and educational purposes. They form a definite part of the curriculum because they solve administrative and housing problems, are a source of economy for the board of education, and are a worthwhile educational tool. Noon movie films are directly and indirectly connected with classroom instruction. Direct application is in 1 1 A English course or motion picture appreciation course, in which case noon movies are the laboratory for the class discussion. Indirect connection with the classroom is the integration of the motion picture film in English, social science, natural science, oral English, dramatics, and skill subjects. Detailed analysis of two representa¬ tive educational films House of Rothschild and the Barretts of Wimpole Street is used to show how the films present as true a picture as possible of the historical and economic conditions of the period with which the film is concerned. Thru the motion pictures shown in the noon movies, students see for a nominal charge the leading pictures available. Thru these pictures the school children see true life experiences. Because the film is shown in two- reel instalments students may try in advance to solve the problems pre¬ sented. At the end of the motion picture they see how the director has found a desirable solution. These noon movies which, by careful selection, were shown in the auditorium will teach students to appreciate good films and to arouse in them the desire to see only good motion pictures when they attend the motion picture theater. In conclusion the wealth of material in classical and historical films furnishes sufficient reasons why this new educational tool, thru the media of the noon movies, should find a more definite place in the curriculum of the schools. VISUALIZED EDUCATION IN APPRECIATION OF THE ARTS MERRILL BISHOP, DIRECTOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS It is believed that the stimulus to appreciation thru the emotion is best received in large numbers. Emotions must be taught indirectly and not directly. The arts help the pupil to realize the emotion. Cultural leader¬ ship comes thru imitation mostly and not thru the learning process. [721] 722 National Education Association If the pupil is given an experience thru a definite emotion, he will realize how the artist, the composer, the author attacks a given emotion. So far as most people are objective minded the place of the picture in art is first. Yet the objective in a picture may be only a means to an end and the feeling of the artist may be found in the composition or color design. Colors in life have much to do with feeling. Rhythm plays as great a part in pictures as it does in music. The rhythm of a piece of music may express the feeling of the song. The words may only supplement the composer, yet most people believe the opposite. The word slide is only an agency to help, but the fact that it can be removed at will is an essential. A book cannot be removed. The opportunity to develop or discover the rhythm is greatly enhanced by the slide method. The author also has a rhythm, for no thought progresses without rhythm. The story may contain many interesting facts but the rhythm of the telling, altho unconscious, carries with it the feeling of the author. A course that uses all three of the arts to develop the appreciation of the pupil must of necessity fill the mind of the pupil with things of beauty and must by reason of its nature tend to increase the imagination of the pupil, which in turn will help to produce a feeling of the “ life abundant.” HOW TO PREPARE AND PRESENT A SCIENCE NIGHT PROGRAM ROBERT F. COLLIER, JR., DIRECTOR OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION, SOUTH HIGH SCHOOL, DENVER, COLO. One of the most effective ways in which criticism of modern education can be met is by the all-inclusive, open-house program of “ science night.” There is no department in the school today which cannot take part in such an entertainment. To be successful, such an undertaking demands the cooperation of all teachers and students. It requires definite organization and definite news¬ paper publicity. Traffic-control — the definite routing of visitors thru all displays is important. Guides should be furnished, and tickets of admission are of value in controlling the number of people in attendance. As many students as possible should participate, for a “ science night ” develops confidence, increases a desire for knowledge, and fosters a feeling of importance in the eyes of classmates in school that is difficult to measure. Special features obtained from outside the school furnish interest to the exhibit. A hobby show takes an important place in such an exhibit. The de¬ velopment of consumer education can be well displayed. A “ science night,” therefore, requires organization, cooperation, and lots of hard work. It has a definite educational value for the students par¬ ticipating and has the additional value of selling our school to the tax¬ payers. With proper determination, any school can put on a “ science night.” Department of Visual Instruction 723 CHARACTERISTICS IN STILL PICTURES FOR INSTRUC¬ TIONAL USE IN THE CLASSROOM LELIA TROLINGER, BUREAU OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION, UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO, BOULDER, COLO. Training teachers in the use of visual and other sensory aids is greatly needed in most sections of the United States. We can expect no great progress in this field until the teachers know why the aids are needed, have certain standards by which such aids are judged, and know something of the best methods — so far as they have been determined — for the use of the aids. The study under discussion deals with the making of a scale against which teachers may check pictures for use in the classroom. Standards for judging pictures for educational purposes are very vague and yet pictures are probably more used in the daily routine of the classroom than any other visual-sensory aid except perhaps the blackboard. By means of a questionnaire, opinions were gathered from state and city officials of visual instruction departments. Qualities or characteristics were classified into two groups, technical and instructional , and a distribution of points with a total of 100 was made according to the estimated value of each quality. The study is only partly completed at present. The next part is to be an experiment to determine if possible whether or not the scale will actually enable teachers to approach more nearly the estimate made by experts in the field of visual instruction, for a group of selected pictures in their re¬ lation to a given unit of study. When the study is completed, it will prob¬ ably be published so that those interested may see the results of the experiment. THE USE OF CARTOONS AND THE CHALK TALK IN THE CLASSROOM 1 GLEN O. REAM, PRINCIPAL, ALBUQUERQUE HIGH SCHOOL, ALBUQUERQUE, N. MEX. A talk on this subject leads the speaker into uncharted areas. There is little to be had in printed form that can be of use to the teacher in the classroom. Two good magazines, the School Arts and The Instructor, offer many helpful suggestions. The latter particularly is good. A series of articles by Jessie Todd, which make drawing easy, have been appearing in The Instructor. The cartoon has long been used as an effective teaching device. The secret hiding places of the early Christians contained varied examples of this medium of propagating early religion. Histories of early man every¬ where are traced thru this method of setting down a picture record of a race on rocks, walls of caves, or cliffs. 1 Printed in full in the October 1935 Journal of the National Education Association. 724 National Education Association Newspapers and magazines have long realized the importance of the cartoon as a means of imparting news as well as perpetuating sentiments and philosophies to the reading public. Recently I encountered a news¬ paper article which claimed that the sale of spinach in the United States has trebled during the past year. There seems to be remote relationship between the professional cartoonist and the classroom teacher trying to function in this capacity. However, it is my opinion that teachers are overlooking one of instruction’s most valuable aids when chalk illustration on the blackboard is neglected. White chalk and a blackboard should never become too old-fashioned for the new- fashioned school. No subject in the curriculum is void of opportunities for point clinching by way of chalk illustration. Nor should the illustrating be delegated to talented pupils. Each teacher should draw; the teacher need not be a professional artist. The simpler the picture, the more effective it is. Let your white chalk talk on the blackboard for you. Save your voice. A little practise, some patience, a dash of ingenuity and originality, and you can get a lot of fun out of old-fashioned equipment. THE ADAPTATION OF ART TO CLASSROOM WORK EDNA HELLSTERN, CENTRAL GRADE SCHOOL, PUEBLO, COLO. School methods have improved rapidly during the past few years. How¬ ever, public attitude is not always in sympathy with these changes. No subject in the curriculum is more misunderstood than art education. Public attitude toward art in general is static. The old European atti¬ tude of “ art for art’s sake ” still clings. To the majority of people, if they are interested at all, art means collecting pictures and perusing art galleries. To such a biased public it has been hard to explain the aims of art in the school — to produce richer living, to offer a means of self-expression and appreciation. In spite of lack of understanding from the outside, art courses have been developed that are logical, systematic, comparable to courses in any basis subject, placing in the hands of the child a tool for creativeness and self-expression, and giving art a place in the general edu¬ cational system. To give art a chance to function properly the classroom teacher must assume some responsibility. He, as well as the art teacher, must be “ art conscious.” He must realize the child has the ability to express himself in other ways than by writing or speech. The art vocabulary which the art teacher is attempting to develop in the child can be put to advantage in any class — geography, history, nature study. Any subject can be made clearer with a graphic explanation than with an oral explanation. Not all investments in art for the classroom need be expensive. There are many ways of making a room attractive other than by pictures. Often “ homemade ” devices are more effective and create more lasting results. Department of Visual Instruction 725 No schoolroom, no matter how well equipped with pictures or sculpturing, is complete until the teacher himself adds a personal touch. No one thoroly understands the effect of color upon our lives. If we could observe its effect upon individuals, and put our observation into practise in the classroom, other of our schoolroom problems could be eliminated. CULMINATING ACTIVITY IN VISUAL EDUCATION USING THE OPAQUE PROJECTOR INEZ C. LARSON, ALCOTT SCHOOL, DENVER, COLO. The opaque projector is only one of the many visual aids available. The advantages of the opaque projector are that colors may be easily repro¬ duced on the screen, small children can themselves do the work, and much subjectmatter can be presented in a short period of time. Mr. Herrington, principal of the Alcott School in Denver, devised the unique arrangement of holders for the film which are used as attachments to the opaque projector. They are made of cast-aluminum and are fitted into the regular holder carriage of the machine. A paper film of this type can be thumb-tacked to these roller attachments and projected with ease. The use of the film in the opaque projector may be applied to various types of subjectmatter and in different forms. The making of the film is a culminating activity which may be used for an auditorium program. The children always enjoy the showing of a film. It permits them to share their work with others. The other children in the school are better able to see what has been done, by the use of the opaque projector. These pictures are amusing as well as educational to other children. A WIDE AREA OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION SERVICE F. WILCKEN FOX, SECRETARY, BUREAU OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION, BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY, PROVO, UTAH During the 1933-34 school year we had eighty-three service enrolments in the Bureau of Visual Instruction — sixty-one for motion pictures and twenty-two for film strips. It became necessary for us to employ seven college students to assist part-time in carrying on the routine work of the bureau. In the school year just passed we increased the number of motion picture reels in our library to two hundred and forty-three, brought our film strip collection up to five hundred and fifteen, and added twenty sets of glass slides. Our service enrolments increased to one hundred and six — sixty- seven for motion pictures, thirty-two for film strips, and seven for glass slides. These figures indicate a gain of nearly 50 percent in film strip usage, while our number of motion picture services increased only 9 percent. The use of motion pictures has kept pace with that of the film strip. Our 726 National Education Association apparent failure to grow proportionately in the use of the motion picture is attributable to a rather interesting circumstance. In the 1933-34 school year twenty-three of the sixty-one schools using motion picture service were jointly using six projectors. Five schools in one district were served by three projectors. A package of films would arrive at the first school on Monday and during the week they would be used one day in each of the five schools. Therefore, each school in the district had films only one day in the week and had to take whatever films were sent to it by the preceding school. In another district there were eight schools being served by one projector. One of the district supervisors would receive a shipment of films on Mon¬ day, and then for the next consecutive eight school days take films and projector to eight different schools. Two other groups of five schools, were being served by one motion picture projector for each group. Such sketchy application of the educational motion picture scarcely could be expected to produce a great deal of enthusiasm among the teachers. In the 1934-35 school year only two of the twenty-three schools in these groups returned to our service. Five of the schools decided to use entertainment films almost exclusively and for that reason had to transfer their connections to another bureau. We do not distribute entertainment films. The rest of the schools, so far as we know, received no service whatever save for an occasional sponsored film shipped direct from some advertising distributor. Despite the loss of twenty-three of our sixty-one motion picture patrons, we had enough new enrolments in 1934-35 to bring our total up to sixty- seven motion picture services; and each of these newly enrolled schools owned a projector. Because motion pictures represent the bulk of our investment and most of our patrons are users of motion pictures only, we keep a careful record of the activities of our motion pictures. For purposes of study and compari¬ son we have adopted as a measuring unit the “ film-day.” The film-day represents one day’s use of any motion picture, regardless of the number of reels it includes. The total film days for 1933-34 was 3328 and for 1934-35, 3871. While the gain of 543 film days shows an increase of only 16 percent in film use, our attendance reports indicate that the average pupil audience per film day increased from 170 in 1933-34 to 250 in 1934-35 — a growth of 47 percent. Such, briefly, is the history of our Bureau of Visual Instruction. Today we have regular patrons in Utah, Idaho, Montana, and Nevada, and make occasional shipments even farther afield. DEPARTMENT OF Vocational Education HISTORICAL NOTE The department of vocational education was organized as the in¬ dustrial section at Minneapolis , Minnesota , 1875. See proceedings, 1875 : 100. The name was changed in 1890 to the Department of Indus¬ trial and Manual Training. See proceedings, 1890 : 758. In 1899 the name was changed to the Department of Manual Training. See proceed¬ ings, 1899: 556. In 1914 the name was changed to the Department of Vocational Training and Practical Arts. Since 1919 it has been known as the Department of Vocational Education. This Department cooperates with the National Vocational Guidance Association and with the National Society for Vocational Education. The officers of the Department for the year 1935-36 are: president, Forest E. Moore , Director of Vocational Education , State Department of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa; secretary, B. H. Van Oot, Supervisor of Trade and Industrial Education, State Department of Public Instruction, Richmond, Va. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are to be found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1914:565-624 1915:815-846 191 6:461-516 191 7:431-473 1918:249-269 1919 .271-279 1920:269-270 1921: 851- 858 1922 -.1465-1483 19 23:1025-1043 1924: 987-1015 1925: 872- 912 1926: 964- 996 1927: 971-1006 1928 -.971-1003 1929:945- 972 1930:931- 954 1931:965- 994 1932:801- 815 1933:797- 806 1934:789- 798 [ 728 ] VOCATIONAL TRAINING IN THE CCC C. S. MARSH, EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR, CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS, WASHINGTON, D. C. The general aims of the CCC educational program are stated as fol¬ lows in the Handbook for Camp Educational Advisers: 1. To develop in each man his powers of self-expression, self-entertainment, and self-culture 2. To develop pride and satisfaction in cooperative endeavor 3. To develop as far as practicable an understanding of the prevailing social and economic conditions, to the end that each man may cooperate intelligently in improving these conditions 4. To preserve and strengthen good habits of health and of mental development 5. By such vocational training as is feasible, but particularly by vocational counseling and adjustment activities, to assist each man better to meet his employ¬ ment problems when he leaves camp 6. To develop an appreciation of nature and of country life. You will note that in the fifth of these aims we have a mandate to give such vocational training as is feasible, and particularly to attempt vocational counseling and adjustment. A conscientious effort is being made on the part of camp advisers to accomplish this aim. It is an established part of our procedure that the camp educational adviser shall interview every enrollee in his camp of approximately two hundred men, and in talking with each man shall examine into his vocational experience, his aptitudes, and his vocational ambitions, and shall as a result assist him by formal or informal study to enhance his competence in the line of his interest. That is a large order. The total number of enrollees in the camps in which the educational pro¬ gram is functioning number about a quarter of a million young men, eighteen to twenty-five, called juniors, and approximately 50,000 war veterans and other older men. When you reflect for a half moment on the economic plight of the en¬ rollees in CCC camps you see how quick and vivid is their interest in voca¬ tional training. These men want jobs. They want to do something that will bolster up their assurance that they will be able to find jobs when their CCC enrolment is done, and so they ask for classes or for training in all manner of subjects. Thousands of them are willing to spend long hours in the late afternoon and evening to enhance their vocational competence. We try to do for them in camp all that can be done. Fortunately for them, sympathetic and generous-minded school superintendents and principals in numerous cities and towns, near which camps are located, have opened up their classrooms, laboratories, and shops at night to CCC enrollees. Tonight literally thousands of enrollees will roll out of camps in trucks bound for school and college buildings near and far. [ 729 ] 730 National Education Association Perhaps the most striking feature of vocational training in CCC camps is teaching that is done on the job in connection with the day’s work. In such subjects as explosives, road building, bridge construction, forestry, and soil erosion the CCC foremen, who for the most part are technically-trained men, are doing some admirable teaching every day and in some cases all day. It is one thing to put an enrollee on a truck or a bull dozer, or a road grading machine day after day to do merely what he is told. It is another thing to rotate the jobs among the members of a particular gang or crew so that each one gets practise in the several kinds of work, with constant explanation from the foreman of the reasons back of what is being done. This educational program is a voluntary matter for enrollees. Those who participate in it do so because they want to learn something. Our effort is to enable the enrollees to study anything in which they may be interested. In that spirit, the enrollee who does want to learn something about carpentry, or electricity, or plumbing, for instance, can be helped to gain a better attitude of mind toward his work, and to enhance his voca¬ tional competence after he leaves the Camp. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND THE TVA FLOYD W. REEVES, DIRECTOR OF PERSONNEL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT DIVISIONS, TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY, NORRIS, TENN. In an effort to spread employment the Tennessee Valley Authority set up its program for the construction of dams on a five-day week, five and one-half hours a day. This left the men in the construction camps with considerable leisure time, and much thought has been given to its profitable utilization. It seemed desirable to provide facilities whereby these men during their leisure time, can learn some skill or trade which will assist them in earning their living when their work on the dams has ended. In a number of instances training courses have been set up to train men for specific jobs on our own construction activities. In this way the men, some working as common and semi-skilled laborers, can learn a trade, and as jobs become available be transferred to them. Also, many of those now classified as skilled workmen enrol for training in order to make themselves more proficient. Participation in the program is entirely voluntary and no tuition fee is charged. Except in the few extension classes that are offered in cooperation with certain colleges, the training program is administered without use of the artificial awards of grades, credits, and degrees employed almost universally by colleges and secondary schools. The only rewards that the participants receive are those resulting from increased skill, greater effi¬ ciency, and intellectual stimulation. At the present time there are two main training centers, one at Norris in East Tennessee, and the other at Muscle Shoals in Alabama. The Muscle Shoals center includes workers at the fertilizer and power plants at Wilson Department of Vocational Education 731 Dam and the workers constructing Wheeler Dam, fifteen and one-half miles up the river from Wilson Dam. A third training center will be established shortly at Pickwick in West Tennessee. Many of the classes have been organized at the request of employees. For this reason the classes offered at each location differ considerably. This arrangement seems desirable, since it offers an opportunity to experi¬ ment somewhat in the organization of the training programs at different locations, and makes possible a comparison of the effectiveness of different curriculums and methods. Another factor in determining the organization of the training program in each area is the type of. opportunity which will be available to trainees following their employment with the Authority. At Norris, where a construction camp and a permanent town have been built, there will no doubt be more opportunity for various trades to der velop than is true in the Pickwick area, which is largely rural. One reason for this is the location of Norris, which is near Knoxville, an industrial center in Tennessee. A much more diversified program will be found at Norris, therefore, than in the other two centers. In addition, while the new community at Norris was being planned it was possible to construct the operating units in such a way that they could also be used for specific training projects. The training program in the Muscle Shoals area was started consider¬ ably later than the one at Norris, and much of it is still in the organization stage. The problem of developing a training program in the Muscle Shoals area was more difficult because the employees there are much more scattered, many of them living in nearby towns and driving to and from work daily. In addition, much of the instruction is carried on by volunteer teachers. In some courses it has seemed desirable to organize the work on a home-study basis, using correspondence school material. In this way it is not necessary to have class meetings as often as otherwise, altho the groups do meet together for discussion purposes occasionally and the in¬ structor is available for advisory purposes. One especially interesting phase of the work in the Muscle Shoals area is the negro training program. At the present time over five hundred negroes are participating. The training program for this group is considerably different from that for the white group, inasmuch as many of the negroes are illiterate and it is necessary to start from the very beginning and teach them the three R’s. For the same reason the training is largely of a practical nature and the men are taught to do many of the things which they might otherwise have to pay to have done for them, or do without. It is not possible in the brief time available, to set forth in detail the training program. The most important feature is the approach and the group receiving the training. The program is in no wise static, but con¬ stantly changing as experience teaches that there is a better way to achieve the objectives. Response to this type of vocational education by both white and negro groups is indeed very encouraging. 732 National Education Association TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES IN INDUSTRY AND THE NEW APPRENTICE O. D. ADAMS, DIRECTOR OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, SALEM, ORE. Every one of us who knows anything about employment conditions can visualize the fact that “ technological changes and progress tend to put the worker out of date.” In a recent publication of the federal Office of Education, V ocational Education and Changing Conditions , among other things listed in the find¬ ings of the committee who developed the report are the following: Difficulties and needs common to all workers — A summary of these as revealed by a study of the trends common to all occupations includes the following: 1. It is more difficult for the worker to keep up with what he has to know re¬ garding his work 2. It is more difficult for him to keep up with what he has to do in his work 3. It is becoming more necessary for him to use his head more and his hands less 4. It is becoming more necessary that he shall also have other assets in addition to specific knowledge and skill 5. It is more necessary for him to keep in good physical condition 6. It is more difficult to learn skilled occupations on the job. Since these trends are common to all workers, they of necessity mark and affect the apprentice. The absolute separation of technological changes and their interlocking connections with social and economic forces is practically impossible — especially is this true in connection with the apprentice. The breadth of technological changes is illustrated by a quotation from the December 1932, Fortune: That machinery developed in the single decade, 1914 to 1925, enabled one man employed in industry in 1925 to do the work of 3 men in 1914. . . . That one man operating a new electric light bulb-making machine replaced 10,000 electric light bulb-makers. That one man in 1930 could make as many needles in a day as 17,000 men in 1830. In addition to those indicated above are the manufactures of synthetic dye stuffs, drugs, resins, rayon, and cellophane, as well as the perfection of alloys, which have changed procedures in certain metal-working trades. All these have taken their toll of jobs. Thousands have been misplaced and it would appear from casual observance that there is no place for skilled workers. There are other conditions interlocked, of a social and economic nature, affecting the apprentice. Industrialists point out the need for trained work¬ ers and the need for apprentice training. The advent of the codes has stamped industry with newer conditions of age limitations, has wiped out certain juvenile occupations, and has increased the entrance age. The ap¬ prentice is an older boy, who has a better base of general education. The recognition of the need for trained workers and the inability of industry to meet this need has given the apprentice the greatest oppor¬ tunity for worthwhile training in history. While it is true that technological changes have affected the worker, it is not true that the skilled craftsman is a thing of the past. There is a greater Department of Vocational Education 733 need for skilled workers today of the type that requires training under condi¬ tions much improved over those of any previous generation. While technological changes have affected the apprentice, and as a result of these changes have brought about social and economic conditions different than heretofore experienced by him, there is no indication that these changes have made his position any more insecure. It is believed that the advance¬ ment of industry has gradually advanced and improved the conditions necessary to modern apprenticeship and that the apprentice is entitled to and will receive at the hands of industry and the school a training sufficient to meet modern requirements, a wage equitable enough for respectable living and working conditions suitable for enjoyment and recreation. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND THE NRA WILLIAM F. PATTERSON, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, FEDERAL COMMITTEE ON APPRENTICE TRAINING, WASHINGTON, D. C. The potentialities of the NRA as an instrumentality of vocational educa¬ tion have been emphasized by national leaders in the field of industrial education. President Roosevelt made a significant step in the direction of translating these possibilities into actualities when he issued an Executive Order on June 27, 1934, which fosters apprentice training under NRA codes. It is common knowledge that the United States has lagged behind European nations in fostering and conducting a nationwide program of ap¬ prentice training. The lack of competence and technical ability of American trained work¬ men is glaringly revealed in the disastrous collapse of the Macon and other American-built dirigibles. Bona fide apprentice training, as now established and operated by the Federal Committee on Apprentice 'Braining, should. go a long way toward removing the chaos which has existed in occupational distribution and toward the development of a corps of thoroly trained workmen in all skilled occupations. The program provides for checks and safeguards which insure that the employer will give the young man or young woman training and experience in every aspect of the occupation and will make him or her a thoroly competent worker. While the compulsory at¬ tendance at a public school will stress instruction in related and technical subjects, special emphasis will be placed upon the citizenship, character, per¬ sonal, and cultural development of the individual. Leaders in the field of social welfare, child labor, and education pronounce the program as being one of great social significance. Education in general, and vocational education in particular, must occupy a major role in the new federal-state program. Before entering apprentice¬ ship, youth must have counsel, guidance, and occupational information which public education is best equipped to give. To prevent young people from spending several of the best years of their lives learning occupations for which there will be no demand, it is essential that knowledge of occupa¬ tional trends be made widely available. 734 National Education Association Contacts with educators, state and government officials, employers, and labor leaders in every state in the country have shown a surprising evidence of the need of a national program of apprentice training and the belief that the program of apprentice training under NRA codes is a practical one. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Denver, Colorado Business Session, Tuesday Afternoon, July 2, 1935 Moved by Mr. McIntosh of Oklahoma and seconded by Herb Heilig of Appleton, Wisconsin, that the American Vocational Association executive secretary and the officers of this section communicate with Howard Briggs of Columbia University regarding his study of objectives in secondary education, and request specifically that those engaged in vocational education be invited to participate in this study. This motion was made after Mr. McIntosh related his experience with this study as it was carried on in the state of Oklahoma. Naturally if high-school principals and other academic teachers are the only teachers of the school system who are expressing opinions regarding secondary education it is likely that the vocational objective will be overlooked. Mr. Hammil of Portland, Oregon, called attention to the fact that a number of research studies should be conducted in the field of vocational education, and he believed that the officers of the Vocational Section of the N. E. A. and of the A. V. A. should cooperate in such studies. Accordingly O. D. Adams of Salem, Oregon, offered a motion which was seconded by Mr. Heilig, that the officers of the N. E. A. Department of Vocational Education and the officers of the A. V. A. cooperate in setting up and carrying out a program of research, the results of which should be reported in the annual meetings of the organizations and should be of a character that will add to professional improvement in vocational education and contribute to the professional literature of the vocational education service. The Nominating Committee consisting of Z. M. Smith, chairman, Walter H. Cooper, and O. D. Adams, made its report. (See Historical Note, p. 728.) In brief discussion which followed the election of officers, Miss Baylor specifically requested that the new officers be asked to plan a program for the next N. E. A. con¬ vention which would bring in all phases of vocational education, including homemaking, agriculture, trade and industrial education, and possible vocational rehabilitation. Luncheon Meeting, Wednesday Noon, July 3, 1935 At our section on junior high-school guidance, the meaning of guidance and its relationship to the field of education was discussed, with special emphasis on the work in the junior high school. The discussion wras in the nature of a round table and each contributed out of his experience in the guidance field. It was felt that in some instances there was a confusion of terms in the field of guidance and that in some way this should be clarified so that a common terminology, relative to guidance, would be generally understood. Ways and means, both administrative and supervisory, in the field of guidance were discussed. It was felt that, with the heavy teaching load of the teachers, and the part-teaching load of the administrators, very little guidance could take place except in the classroom as such. There was a general consensus that teachers needed a broader training and a more sympathetic understanding in order to carry on this work of guidance. The group also felt that guidance, in the larger sense, should take place during the entire school day of the student. This, of course, would mean that every teacher must be alert to the immediate problems of child conservation and act accordingly in the light of modern information about the boy and girl. World Federation of 6 du cation Associations 24 HISTORICAL NOTE The world federation of education associations was the outgrowth of a World Conference on Education which was called by the Committee on Foreign Relations of the National Education Association to meet at San Francisco in July 1923. The first biennial meeting of the World Federation of Education Associations was held in Edinburgh , Scotland , in July 1925. The second biennial conference was held in Toronto, Canada, in August 1927. The third conference was held in Geneva, Szvitzerland, August 1929 ; the fourth conference took place in August 1931, at Denver, Colorado ; the fifth conference took place in August 1933, in Dublin, Ireland ; and the sixth conference took place in August 1935, at Oxford, England. The officers for the years 1935-37 are: president, Paul Monroe, Teachers College, Columbia University, Nezv York, N. Y .; secretary- general, Uel W. Lamkin, President Northwest Missouri State Teachers College, Maryville, Mo. Facts relating to the establishment of the World Federation of Edu¬ cation Associations and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1925: 913- 927 1929:975-988 1926: 996-1003 1931:985-994 1 92 7:1007-101 6 1 933 : 807-814 1928 -.1005-1012 1934:799-800 1921 -.176-182 1922:312-317 192 3:106, 402-424 1924:272-274 [ 736 ] BIENNIAL REPORT J. W. CRABTREE, ACTING SECRETARY-GENERAL, WASHINGTON, D. C. The day that Augustus O. Thomas passed away, January 30, 1935, he talked with me concerning the future of the World Federation. I never saw him in better spirits. He came to talk over a suggestion which I had made a few weeks earlier — that of having an editorial board under the direc¬ tion of the secretary-general to prepare material for the various types of magazines, school periodicals, and daily and weekly papers, the purpose being to give information which would give nations a better understanding of each other. He was interested, and believed that officials would approve. He saw how to do this at slight cost. I promised to assist him in working out a plan and in putting it into operation. We thought of featuring a few of the big vital issues on which there is general agreement among leaders, taking up other items after gaining the confidence of the public in the various nations. He saw large things ahead for the World Federation. He saw a slight upturn in business which had already reflected itself in an increase in income from associate and goodwill members. He had reason to believe that he would soon receive contributions from wealthy men and from founda¬ tions for carrying forward important committee work. He had been talk¬ ing this way for sometime, but on January 30 he was unusually hopeful. It was' a great shock to me within thirty or forty minutes after seeing him in such a hopeful frame of mind, looking ahead and planning for larger things for the World federation, to learn of his sudden death. I had become secretary emeritus of the National Education Association a few weeks before this. Observing the condition of uncertainty in which his passing left the headquarters office, and realizing that the directors who would fill the vacancy were distributed widely among the nations, I at once offered my assistance. I wrote to President Mander telling him that I was helping out temporarily, and volunteered to continue without compensation until the board could fill the vacancy. He at once authorized me to continue as acting secretary-general up to the time of the Oxford meeting. I have served in this capacity because of my friendship for Dr. Thomas and because of my interest in the World Federation. I was perhaps responsible more than anyone else for the meeting which was called at San Francisco when the World Federation was organ¬ ized. I have from the first had confidence in its achievements. It is even now doing more than any other agency in giving the youth of each nation a better appreciation of the youth of other nations. The records of the office show a more extensive correspondence with leaders in the various nations during the biennium than you would think possible. Dr. Thomas’ letters that went out show bits of philosophy and give the thrill of hope that can come only from a great builder. And the replies received are inspirational and many of them real contributions to [ 737 ] 738 National Education Association the cause. These must have helped to keep up Dr. Thomas’ courage during the years of a terrible depression. These must have helped him to get ready for the upturn in business and in social life. Just this correspondence was a most important phase of the work of the last biennium. The Dublin report published and distributed by the Irish authorities, without cost to the Federation, was an outstanding report. The editor, T. J. O’Connell, selected material from the addresses and committee meet¬ ings that is of interest alike to members and the public. This organization owes appreciation to Dr. O’Connell, the editor, and to the authorities of Ireland who paid the bills. This was just another evidence of the devotion of the Irish people to the cause of education, and of the sacrifices they would make for a cause. The committee reports to be presented at this meeting will show what was done in that field — not much research work, not even a great deal from conferences, but a lot of thinking and planning by committee chair¬ men and members — all looking forward to the more important work just ahead. As you hear these reports you will be surprised that so much could be accomplished without funds. You will observe that the work and the planning under way prepares for the more intensive program which will be carried out as soon as funds are available. Action was taken by the Federation to pay a certain amount to Dr. Thomas in case donations were received to make it possible. Owing to the depression the donations did not materialize. It has been suggested that at least two thousand dollars be given to Mrs. Thomas, in instalments of fifty dollars a month until paid. I join in this recommendation and urge that she be paid in instalments because we are not able to pay the full amount at once and because we believe this plan will mean fully as much to her. Let this go to her not so much as something due Dr. Thomas, but as a mark of appreciation for her own help during the past decade. She shared loyally with her husband the sacrifices made in the interest of a great cause. This would be one way of showing appreciation of the services of Dr. Thomas, the great builder of the World Federation. Altho I have been acting secretary-general for less than six months I am fully convinced that the headquarters office can support itself, especially if conditions continue to improve. It has during this time more than made ends meet. The income from associate and goodwill members has paid the salaries of Miss George and Mrs. Early, besides caring for the general expenses of the office. I have seen other possible sources of income which I could not in this short time open up. I am of the opinion that the office can secure income from present sources to care for the salaries of the secretary-general and two or three assistants, so that contributions can be used exclusively for committee and research work. The collections would not likely pay the secretary-general much of a salary at the beginning, but if wisely handled collections ought to be much larger within a year or two. First of all the salaries of Miss George and Mrs. Early should be increased. They are carrying a tremendous load with heavy responsibilities. World Federation of Education Associations 739 Let me mention just a few of the things I have seen going on during the last few months in addition to correspondence regarding the Oxford meeting and to the regular office work: 1. Preparation of material — in many cases the preparation of full addresses — for those who write in for help for radio addresses 2. Suggestions for speeches to be delivered on Goodwill Day 3. Material for Kiwanis and Rotary addresses 4. Material to help out both sides in debates 5. Preparation of articles and announcements for papers as requested. The secretary, Mr. Williams, turned all his duties over to Dr. Thomas soon after the Dublin meeting. He later asked not to be reelected as sec¬ retary. He takes the view that since we have the secretary-general, the secretaryship would only be a duplication of the work done at the head¬ quarters office. I wish to join in recommending that the office of the sec¬ retary be discontinued at the Oxford meeting. How appropriate for the broadcasting of the Goodwill Day program over an international hookup to be in charge of the World Federation. All other agencies, tho some of them would be glad for this honor themselves, are pleased to let the Federation continue its leadership. The program for 1934, broadcast from our headquarters in Washington with Dr. Thomas in charge, was highly satisfactory to Goodwill advocates in all nations. All leading embassies participated. The program for May 18, 1935, was in charge of Thomas W. Gosling, national director of the American Junior Red Cross, who is one of the leaders in the Federation. He did it in the name of the Federation, but in a way to show world cooperation on the part of the Junior Red Cross. The high quality of these broadcasts will doubtless be maintained. And the Federation will be expected to go ahead with these programs. This move¬ ment is worthy of the best plans that the president and other officials can work out. There are now nineteen national education associations holding full mem¬ bership in the World Federation. Two of these have enlisted since the Dublin meeting: (1) National Council of Teachers of English (U. S. A.) and (2) Council of Principals of Training Colleges (England). There are more than one hundred and fifty state and regional associations that have enlisted as associate members. Eleven of these have enlisted since the Dublin meeting. Several additional national associations plan to become full mem¬ bers very soon. Hundreds of higher institutions and regional groups that have been invited to become members promise to accept soon. There is little hesitation on the part of institutions that are invited to become members. In my judgment membership from these sources can be doubled next year. At the first meeting of the World Federation a resolution was passed asking each of the embassies of the different nations to appoint an educa¬ tional attache who shall be a recognized expert in education. Some head¬ way has been made. During the past year Dr. Thomas took the matter up with each embassy in Washington and found everyone in sympathy with the request. Each has taken the matter up with his own government. While it 740 National Education Association will take time to get official action from the various nations, it is now certain that we will have the cooperation of the embassies and that if prop¬ erly handled by the Federation in due time most of the embassies will have their educational attache. I hope the incoming president and secretary- general may follow up this beginning made by Dr. Thomas. The National Education Association of the United States shows an increasing interest in the work of the World Federation. It is already ask¬ ing what it can do to be of greater service next year. It will gladly carry out programs recommended by this organization. Besides paying $1000 a year as membership dues it provides free office space which would sell for more than $1000 a year. It accommodates the World Federation in many ways. Its members over the nation help out in goodwill membership drives. I find the same spirit in other leading national associations. It will pay to call on membership organizations for help. They are anxious to cooperate. They will do gratis for us what would cost us many thousands of dollars to do without them. AUGUSTUS O. THOMAS 1 REVEREND RAPHAEL H. MILLER, THE NATIONAL CITY CHRISTIAN CHURCH, WASHINGTON, D. C. The life of Dr. Thomas covered an eventful and significant epoch in the development of education in America. First of all he was self-educated in the sense that his was an earned edu¬ cation. He paid the full price in effort, in self-denial, in hardness, and in patience. His zeal for education for himself and others was innate and unwearying. He had a quenchless thirst for knowledge. He inquired over many fields and brought back precious store for a long and abundant life. For him there was no tension in learning between mind and heart. His sympathies were as broad as his wisdom. Dr. Thomas was no pedant. Al¬ ways for him education had a directive aim toward character patterns for the individual and for society. Self-culture was inseparable from self- discipline. Dr. Thomas played am important role in establishing and developing American education under frontier conditions, a decisive period. In the state of Nebraska he laid foundations for the whole structure of public instruction from the rural schoolhouse up to the teachers college. As state superintendent of education he made creative and enduring contributions to the school system. The courage and energy, the patience and foresight which characterized the pioneer were the qualities which he brought to the task of laying educational foundations upon which to build a great com¬ monwealth. And, like the pioneer, he had a just reverence for the seasoned wisdom of the past but at the same time he had that spirit of daring and adventure which blazes new trails and founds new settlements for advancing civilization. 1 Address delivered at Dr. Thomas’ funeral. World Federation of Education Associations 741 He was both a teacher and a prophet ; a pathfinder of the mind and spirit. He did his work for the time and for the time to come. From Nebraska he was called to be commissioner of education for the state of Maine. Maine was rich in traditions and old in culture. Great educational institutions were the sources of noble patriotism and generous social movements. Dr. Thomas brought the qualities and experiences of the pioneer to his task there. He ventured into new territories beyond the known. His restless spirit stirred by new dreams moved forward to fresh realizations of his ideals. He touched nearly every department of educa¬ tion and left upon all the mark of his creative genius. But alwaj^s he was moving toward the realization of a definite goal. Notable accomplishments were held as secondary to his supreme achieve¬ ment in the organization and promotion of the World Federation of Educa¬ tion Association. Here again he displayed the vision and zeal of the prophet. Education was to create a world mind and foster a world heart. Dr. Thomas envisioned a world civilization informed with universal knowledge and refined by universal culture. Before the world can be a neighborhood edu¬ cation must make neighborliness. The Parliament of Nations waits upon the School of Nations. He promoted goodwill among the best minds of every country. He cultivated appreciation of the best in all cultures. The World Federation of Education Associations is to create the world public opinion and build the character upon which alone political and eco¬ nomic internationalism can be erected. As public education is indispensable to the well-being and security of each nation so education is indispensable to the federation of nations. School teachers with world minds and world hearts can do more for enduring peace and true prosperity than can all the statesmen and captains of industry. Education is worth more than all the armies and navies that ring the world with fear. That was his dream ! The teachers of the world and thru them the children of the world are to learn appreciation of one another, gain the best of the culture of each nation, build a common character, develop toward a common ideal. The essential solidarity of mankind is to be revealed as education draws the minds and hearts of men together. Dr. Thomas’ work is done. It can never be undone. He was a dreamer who carved his dream into the enduring structure of the world. . . 1 1 ■; ■ /I ' * ’ | . - Association al ‘I(ecords and Information Associational Records and Information 1857—1870 The National Teachers Association Organized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Purpose — To elevate the character and advance the interests of the pro¬ fession of teaching and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States. The name of the Association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August 15, 1870, to the “ National Educational Association.” 1870—1907 National Educational Association Incorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24, 1886, under the name, “ National Education Association,” which was changed to “ National Educational Association,” by certificate filed November 6, 1886. 1907- National Education Association of the United States Incorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906, to succeed the “ National Educational Association.” The charter was accepted and bylaws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Conven¬ tion held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California. ACT OF INCORPORATION AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled: Section 1. That the following-named persons, who are now officers and direc¬ tors and trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the year eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorpora¬ tion of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz: Nathan C. Schaeffer, Eliphalet Oram Lyte, John W. Lansinger, of List of Pennsylvania; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur J. Matthews, Incorporators of Arizona; John H. Hinemon, George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph O’Connor, Josiah L. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; Aaron Gove, Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis C. Greenlee, of Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut; George W. Twitmyer, of Delaware; J. Ormond Wilson, William T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the District of Columbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida; William M. Slaton, of Georgia; Frances Mann, of Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, Albert G. Lane, Charles I. Parker, John W. Cook, Joshua Pike, Albert R. Taylor, Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois; Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A. Mott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory; John F. Riggs, Ashley V. Storm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, A. V. Jewett, Luther D. Whitte- more, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; Warren Easton, of [ 745 ] 746 National Education Association Louisiana; John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W-. Eliot, Mary H. Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G. White, William H. Elson, of Michigan; William F. Phelps, Irwin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of Minnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; F. Louis Soldan, James M. Greenwood, William J. Hawkins, of Missouri; Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of Nebraska; Joseph E. Stubbs, of Ne¬ vada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; James M. Green, John Enright, of New Jersey; Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; James H. Canfield, Nicholas Murray Butler, William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, Albert P. Marble, James C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina; Pitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L. Griswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hickham, of Oklahoma; Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs, of Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina; Moritz Adelbert Langer, of South Dakota; Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolf, of Texas; David H. Christensen, of Utah; Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont; Joseph L. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington; T. Marcellus Marshall, Lucy Robinson, of West Virginia; Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; Thomas T. Tynan, of Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F. Griffiths, of Hawaii; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands; and such other persons as now are or may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Co¬ lumbia by the name of the “ National Education Association of the United States,” and by that name shall be known and have a perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and restrictions herein contained. Sec. 2. That the purpose and objects of the said corporation shall be to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to pro¬ mote the cause of education in the United States. This corporation shall include the National Council of Education and the following depart- Purpose and ments, and such others as may hereafter be created by organi- Departments zation or consolidation, to wit: The Departments, first, of Su¬ perintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elemen¬ tary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education; eleventh, of Child Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science Instruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department; sixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties and the numbers and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education may be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its bylaws. Sec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a common seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be sued in any court of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make bylaws not inconsistent with the provisions of this act Powers of or of the Constitution of the United States; to take or receive, Corporation whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal estate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purpose of its incorporation; and to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational purpose within the objects of the corporation. Sec. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia which shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corporation as aforesaid other than the purposes of producing income, and all per- Associational Records and Information 747 sonal property and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes aforesaid, or to produce Property to be income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from Tax-Exempt taxation; provided, However, that this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation which shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational purposes of the corpora¬ tion; and, provided further, That the corporation shall annually file, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating in detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure or other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year. Sec. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of members — viz., active, associate, and Members corresponding — 'whose qualifications, terms of membership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the bylaws of the corporation. Sec. 6. That the officers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve Vicepresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, Officers a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and a Board of Trustees. The Board of .Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vicepresident, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all Life Directors of the National Educational Association. Board of The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former Directors Presidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association hereby incorporated, at the close of their respec¬ tive terms of office, shall be members of the Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess such other powers as shall be conferred upon them by the bylaws of the corporation. The Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows: the President of the Association, the First Vicepresident, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors, to serve one year. Executive The said committee shall have authority to represent and to Committee act for the Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent of carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions as may be giveji by said board. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members elected by the Board of Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member ex officio during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held during the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they shall elect one Board of trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in Trustees said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his membership. Sec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the “ Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association,” when transferred to the corporation hereby -created, shall be held by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in 748 National Education Association charge of the Board of Trustees, who shall provide for the Permanent safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other Fund funds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the principal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a two-thirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, upon the recommenda¬ tion of the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been approved by vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed expendi¬ ture has been mailed to all active members of the Association. The income of the Permanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organi¬ zation of the Association and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the donation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall otherwise order. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment Duties of of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the Trustees President and Secretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. When practicable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus funds exceeding $500 that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed expenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Asso¬ ciation, who shall be Secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his office for a period not to exceed four years. Election of Secretary Sec. 8. That the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, D. C. ; provided, That the meeting of the corpora- Membership tion, its officers, committees, and departments, may be held, and Obligations that its business may be transacted, and an office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be determined by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the bylaws. Sec. 9. That the charter, constitution, and bylaws of the National Educational Association shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall be accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until new bylaws shall be adopted; and Acceptance of that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said Associa- This Charter tion shall continue to hold office and perform their respective duties as such until the expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and until their successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the National Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the charter granted by this act and adopt bylaws, to elect officers to succeed those whose terms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the “National Education Associa¬ tion of the United States”; and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation hereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this act be accepted, receive, take over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and personal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association incorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, and all its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and the several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other person having charge of any of the securities, funds, books, or property thereof, real or personal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees of the corporation hereby created. Pro - vidcd, That a verified certificate executed by fhe presiding officer and secretary of Associational Records and Information 749 such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the charter granted by this act by the National Educational Association, shall be legal evidence of the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia; and, provided further, That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted by this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Asso¬ ciation and its incorporate existence shall be and are hereby extended until the thirty-first day of July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be extended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation of the District of Columbia. Sec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the National Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or obligation, or payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand, in any manner, or for Rights of any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be Creditors released or impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of its debts, liabilities, and contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debts or damages, and no action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason of this act. Sec. 11. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired. Amendments to Charter Sec. 12. That said corporation may provide, by amendment the powers of the active members exercised at the annual meet¬ ing in the election of officers and the transaction of business shall be vested in and exercised by a representative assembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and governed in accordance with the provisions of the bylaws adopted by said corporation. to its bylaws, that Creation of Representative Assembly Sections 1-11 were passed by Congress and approved by the President, June 30, 1906. They were accepted and adopted as the constitution of the National Educa¬ tion Association of the United States by the active members of the National Educa¬ tional Association in annual session at Los Angeles, California, July 10, 1907. Section 12 was passed by Congress and approved by the President of the United States, May 13, 1920, as an amendment to the original act of incorporation. It was accepted and adopted as an amendment to the constitution of the National Education Association of the United States by the active members thereof in annual session at Salt Lake City, Utah, July 9, 1920. 750 National Education Association BYLAWS AS AMENDED AT THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEET¬ ING OF THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY, DENVER, COLORADO, JULY 1935 ARTICLE I— MEMBERSHIP Wherever the word “ State ” appears in the proposed amendments to these bylaws it will be understood that State, Territory, or District of the United States is meant. Section 1. The membership of the National Education Asso- Membership ciation of the United States shall consist of three classes: Active, Defined Associate, and Corresponding, whose qualifications, rights, and obligations shall be as hereinafter prescribed. Sec. 2. Active members of the Association shall be those actively engaged in the profession of teaching or other educational work. Sec. 3. The annual dues of an active member shall be $2, which shall entitle him to attend all meetings of the Association and its several Departments; to receive the Journal free and on application, to secure all publications of the As¬ sociation at a price fixed by the Executive Committee, which shall be the approximate cost. By the payment of annual dues of $5 an active member shall receive in addition to the Jour¬ nal, without application or other condition, the volume of Pro¬ ceedings and all other regular publications of the Association, of committees and all special bulletins and announcements Sec. 4. All Life Members and Life Directors shall have all the rights and privileges of active members without the pay¬ ment of annual dues, and shall receive free without applica¬ tion or condition the publications of the Association. Sec. 5. Associate members of the Association shall be persons who are not ac¬ tively engaged in the profession of teaching or other educa- Associate tional work, but who are otherwise interested in the promotion Members of education. The annual dues of an associate member shall be the same as the dues of an active member and he shall have the same rights and privileges, except the right to vote, to serve as a delegate in the Representative Assembly, and to hold office. Sec. 6. Eminent educators not residing in America may be Corresponding elected by the Board of Directors as corresponding members. Members The number of corresponding members shall not at any time exceed fifty. They shall pay no dues and may receive free the publications of the Association. Sec. 7. The membership year shall be from September 1 to August 31. All membership dues paid during the mem¬ bership year shall be credited to that year unless otherwise requested. Sec. 8. The annual dues of members shall be sent to the Execu¬ tive Secretary on or before November 1. An active member fail¬ ing to pay his dues as herein provided shall forfeit the privi¬ leges of membership and after being in arrears one half year be dropped from the list of members. Membership Year Payment of Dues Obligations and Privileges including reports when issued. Life Members and Life Directors Associational Records and Information 751 Sec. 9. The Executive Secretary of the Association shall fur¬ nish each member of the Association a Membership Card, declar- Membership ing him to be a member of the National Education Association Card for the year for which his dues are paid, and as such entitled to all the rights and privileges granted by the charter and bylaws of the Association. Sec. 10. The right to vote, to serve as a delegate in the Representative As¬ sembly, and to hold office in the Association or in any Depart¬ ment thereof, shall be limited to active members whose dues Right to Vote are paid. The right to vote and to hold office in the Council shall be limited to members of the Council whose dues are paid. Sec. 11. The Representative Assembly shall be composed of the President, Twelve Vicepresidents, the Executive Secretary, and Treasurer of the National Education Association, the United States Commissioner Representative of Education, and the delegates elected from the various affiliated Assembly state and local associations as provided in the bylaws. ARTICLE II— OFFICERS, REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY, AND AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS Section 1. (a) The officers of said corporation shall be a President, Twelve Vice- presidents, an Executive Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and a Board of Trustees. (See Act of Incorporation, section 6, first paragraph.) Officers, (b) The Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the Directors, First Vicepresident, the Executive Secretary, the Treasurer, the Trustees, Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member and Committees from each state, territory, or district to be elected by the active members for the term of one year or until their successors are chosen, and of all Life Directors of the National Educational Association. (See Act of Incorporation, section 6, second paragraph.) (c) The Executive Committee shall consist of five members as follows: The President of the Association, the First Vicepresident, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the Association to be chosen annually by the Board of Trustees to serve one year. (See Act of Incorporation, section 6, third paragraph, first sentence.) (d) The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members elected by the Board of Directors for a term of four years and the President of the Association who shall be a member ex officio during his term of office. (See Act of Incorporation, section 6, fourth paragraph, first sentence.) (e) The election of officers and transaction of business at the annual business meeting shall be by a Representative Assembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and governed as hereinafter provided. Sec. 2. At the first business meeting of the Representative Assembly on the second day of the annual meeting of the Association, nominations for the follow¬ ing offices shall be made: President, Vicepresident, and Treasurer. Candidates for said offices shall be nominated from the floor upon roll call of the states. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association the delegates of each state, territory, and district of the United States shall nominate one person for member of the Board of Directors and the name of such person shall be reported to the Representative Assembly at the first business meeting upon roll call of the states. Any person to qualify to serve as Director shall have been an active member with dues paid in the National Education Asso¬ ciation and in a State, or District, or Territory, and a Local Association, if organized, for a five-year period immediately pre¬ ceding the election. Only delegates who are active members of the N. E. A. and whose dues have been paid in a State, or District, Election of Officers and Qualifications of Directors 752 National Education Association or Territory, and a Local Association, if organized, respectively, shall have the right to vote for such directors. On the fourth day of the annual meeting officers shall be elected from the candidates by the delegates to the Representative Assembly by ballot. Said ballots shall be printed and shall contain the names of all nominees as provided above. Polls for voting shall be open from 8 a. m. to 6 p. m., at such place or places as the President of the Association shall designate. The candidates for President, Treasurer, member of Board of Directors from each state, territory, or district, respectively, and the eleven candidates for the office of Vicepresident receiv¬ ing the highest number of votes shall be declared elected. The President of the Association shall appoint tellers and complete all arrangements for carrying out the election. The results of the election herein provided shall be announced at the final business session of the Representative Assembly. The officers thus chosen shall continue in office until the close of the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as herein provided. The Executive Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their duties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall not be later than the first of October and shall continue in office during the term for which they are separately chosen a'nd until their successors are duly elected. Sec. 3. The State Teachers Association or Educational Association of a state, territory, or district, may become affiliated with the National Education Associa¬ tion and shall be designated an Affiliated State Association. Each Affiliated State Association shall be a state unit in the organization of the Affiliated State National Education Association and as such shall be entitled Associations to representation in the Representative Assembly as herein¬ after provided. The annual dues of an Affiliated State Asso¬ ciation shall be $10 for each delegate to which said state shall be entitled, with a maximum of $100. Said Association shall receive without application, or other condition, all regular publications of the National Education Association, includ¬ ing the volume of Proceedings, reports of committees, and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. Sec. 4. A Local Educational Association or Teachers Organization within a state, territory, or district, may affiliate with the National Education Association and shall be designated an Affiliated Local Association. Each Affiliated Local Asso¬ ciation shall be a local unit in the organization of the National Affiliated Local Education Association and as such shall be entitled to rep- Associations resentation in the Representative Assembly as hereinafter pro¬ vided. The annual dues of an Affiliated Local Association shall be $5, which shall entitle said Association to receive without application, or other condition, all regular publications of the National Education Association, including the volume of Proceedings, reports of committees, and all bulletins and announce¬ ments when issued. Sec. 5. Each Affiliated Association, both state and local, shall be furnished a certificate of membership and shall be entitled to the active assistance and sup¬ port of the National Education Association in promoting the interest of such Affiliated Association and its members insofar as such interest Relationship: comes within the purpose and object of the National Educa- National, State, tion Association as set forth in its charter. The Executive Secre- and Local tary of the National Education Association shall, -with the advice and approval of the Executive Committee, make such arrange¬ ments for mutual cooperation between the National Education Association and the State and Local Affiliated Associations as will promote the welfare of all and advance the interests of the teaching profession. Sec. 6. Each Affiliated State Association shall be entitled to elect one delegate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one hundred of its Associational Records and Information 753 members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Edu¬ cation Association, up to five hundred such active members, and thereafter one delegate and one alternate for each five hundred State Delegates of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active mem¬ bers of the National Education Association. Such delegates shall be designated State Delegates. Sec. 7. Each Affiliated Local Association shall be entitled to elect one dele¬ gate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, Local who are active members of the National Education Association. Delegates Such delegates shall be designated Local Delegates. Sec. 8. Only active members of the National Education Association shall be eligible to be delegates to the Representative Assembly, and to vote in the elec¬ tion of delegates in a State or Local Affiliated Association. An active member shall be permitted to vote for the election of delegates in but one Affiliated Local Association. For determining the appor- Selection of tionment of delegates, an active member may be counted in two Delegates Affiliated Associations, and no more; and that one of these shall be the State Association. Sec. 9. The President, the Twelve Vicepresidents, the Executive Secretary, and Treasurer of the National Education Association, and the United Ex-Officio States Commissioner of Education, shall be ex-officio delegates to Delegates the Representative Assembly. Sec. 10. Delegates shall file their credentials with the Executive Secretary of the Association on blanks furnished by him for that purpose not later than ten days be¬ fore the beginning of the annual meeting. The Executive Secretary shall turn over such credentials to the Credentials Committee, when appointed, with such information thereon as may be obtained from the records of the Association. The Representative Assembly shall be the final judge of the qualifications of delegates. The delegates shall have equal rights and each shall have one vote. Meet¬ ings of the Representative Assembly shall be open to the active members of the Association who shall be privileged to address the Assembly on subjects pertaining to the Association. The Representative As¬ sembly shall adopt rules of procedure which shall not conflict with the charter and bylaws of the Association. It shall recommend an equitable plan for pay¬ ing the expenses of delegates to the annual business meeting of the Association. Delegates ; Credentials ; Voting; Freedom of Floor ARTICLE III— DUTIES OF OFFICERS Section 1. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and shall perform the duties prescribed by the Act of Incorporation and these bylaws, and in addition such duties as usually devolve upon the Chief Executive of such an Association. In the absence of the President, the ranking Vicepresident, who is present, shall preside and in the absence Duties of the of the President and all Vicepresidents a Chairman pro tempore President shall be elected under the direction of the Executive Secretary of the Association. The President shall prepare the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the Association and shall have power to confer with the President of the Council and the heads of the several Departments and to make such recommendations in regard to the program of the Council and the several Departments as will, in his opinion, promote the interest of the annual meeting. The President shall be a member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and Chairman of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee. He shall 754 National Education Association sign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors and all bills ap¬ proved or authorized by the Executive Committee acting for and under the in¬ struction of the Board of Directors. On the expiration of his term of office as President, he shall become First Vicepresident for the ensuing year. Sec. 2. The Executive Secretary shall keep a full and accurate record of the pro¬ ceedings of the general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the As¬ sociation as provided in the Act of Incorporation and these Duties of the bylaws and, in all matters not definitely prescribed therein, Executive shall be under the direction of the Board of Directors or of the Secretary Executive Committee acting for the Board of Directors, and, in the absence of instructions from the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee, shall be under the direction of the President. He shall receive or collect all moneys due the Association and pay the same each month to the Treasurer. He shall countersign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, or by the Executive Committee acting under the authority of the Board of Directors or by the President acting under authority of the Board of Directors or of the Executive Committee. The Executive Secretary shall have his records present at all meetings of the Association, of the Board of Directors, and of the Executive Committee. He shall keep a list of members and shall revise said list annually. He shall be Secretary of the Board of Directors. He shall be the custodian of all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and the Board of Trustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. He shall submit his annual report to the Executive Committee not later than fifteen days before the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at its annual meeting. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all money, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association. The Executive Secretary shall not print, publish, or distribute any official report or other document without the approval of the Board of Direc¬ tors or of the Executive Committee acting under the general instruction of the Board of Directors. Sec. 3. The Treasurer shall perform the duties prescribed by the Act of In¬ corporation and these bylaws. He shall receive from the Executive Secretary and, under the direction of the Board of Trustees, shall hold in safekeeping all moneys paid to the Association; shall pay the same only upon the Duties of the order of the Board of Trustees; shall notify the President of Treasurer the Association and the Chairman of the Board of Trustees whenever the surplus funds in his possession exceed $500; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures with vouchers for the latter, and said accounts, ending on the thirty-first day of May each year, he shall render to the Executive Committee not later than ten days before the annual meeting of the Association, and when approved by said Committee, these ac¬ counts shall be transmitted by this Committee to the Board of Directors at its meeting held in connection with the annual meeting of the Association and a copy of the report shall be transmitted to. the Representative Assembly for its informa¬ tion. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association. Sec. 4. (a) The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own body and shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, except¬ ing those entrusted to the Board of Trustees. (See paragraph (e) of this section.) (b) At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held during the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they shall elect one Trustee Associational Records and Information 755 for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a Trustee from two successive annual meet¬ ings of the Board shall forfeit his membership. (See Act of Incorporation, section 6, fourth paragraph, last two sentences.) (c) The Board of Directors shall take such action with respect to the Per¬ manent Fund of the Association, its accretions and income, as is authorized by the Act of Incorporation or these bylaws. (See Act of Incorporation, section 7, first para¬ graph, part of second sentence.) (d) The Board of Directors may determine what office or offices of the Associa¬ tion may be maintained in the United States other than its principal place of business in Washington, D. C., and where the meetings of the corporation, its officers, committees, and departments may be held, and what business other than provided by the Act of Incorporation and these bylaws may be transacted at such office or offices and meetings. (See Act of Incorporation, section 8.) (e) The Board of Directors shall have such powers and perform such duties as are prescribed by the Act of Incorporation and by these bylaws; shall elect correspond¬ ing members as prescribed in Section 6 of Article I of these bylaws; shall elect members of the National Council of Education as provided in Duties of the Section 3 of Article IV of these bylaws. The Board of Directors Board of shall approve all bills incurred by itself or by the Executive Directors Committee, or the President or the Executive Secretary acting under the authority of the Board of Directors; shall appropriate from the current funds of the year the amounts of money ordered by the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting of the same for the work of all special committees of research and investigation authorized and provided for at the annual business meeting, and for all other needs of the Association; shall make a full report of the financial condition of the Association including the reports of the Executive Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees to the Representative As¬ sembly at its annual business meeting, and shall do all in its power to make the Association a useful and honorable institution. (f) The Board of Directors shall appoint at its annual meeting a Budget Com¬ mittee for the ensuing year, whose duty it shall be to prepare and present a budget to the Board of Directors at its next meeting. The Budget Committee shall have authority to secure the support of the Auditing Committee in preparing this budget. (g) The Board of Directors shall meet in connection with the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly, and may meet in connection with the annual meet¬ ing of the Department of Superintendence and at such other times and places as may be determined by the President or requested in writing by a majority of the elective members of the Board of Directors. Sec. 5. (a) The Executive Committee shall have authority to represent and to act for the Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent of carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions as may be given by said Board. (See Act of Incorporation, section 6, third paragraph, last sentence.) (b) The Executive Committee may recommend to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting the appointment of special committees for investi¬ gation or research, the subjects for which may have been suggested by the National Council or by the active members of the National Education Duties of Association or by any of its Departments; it shall recommend Executive the amount of money to be appropriated for such investigations. Committee When such special committees are provided for and duly au¬ thorized by the Representative Assembly and appropriations for them have been authorized by the Board of Directors, the Executive Committee shall, under the instructions of the Board of Directors, have general supervision of them. The Ex¬ ecutive Committee shall receive and consider all reports made by the special committees and shall print these reports and present them, together with the 756 National Education Association reports of the Executive Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and the recommendations of the Executive Committee thereon, to the Board of Direc¬ tors, which shall transmit the same with recommendations to the Representative As¬ sembly at its annual business meeting. All such special committees shall be ap¬ pointed by the President of the Association. (c) The Executive Committee shall fill all vacancies occurring in the body of officers of the Association, except as otherwise provided for in the Act of Incorpora¬ tion or in these bylaws. Sec. 6. (a) The Board of Trustees shall have such powers and perform such duties as are prescribed by the Act of Incorporation; shall require of the Executive Secretary and Treasurer bonds in such amounts as may be determined by said Board for the faithful performance of their duties; shall make a full Further Duties report of the finances of the Association to the Executive Com- of Trustees mittee not later than ten days prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted by the Executive Committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the Board held in connection with the annual meeting of the Association. It shall annually choose its own chairman and secretary. (b) The Board of Trustees shall have charge of the Permanent Fund and shall provide for the safekeeping and investing of such Fund and of all other funds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the pay¬ ment of *all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Executive Secretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. When practicable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus funds exceeding $500 that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed expenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year. (See Act of Incorporation, section 7.) (c) The Board of Trustees shall elect the Executive Secretary of the Association, who shall be Secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his office for a period not to exceed four years. (See Act of Incorporation, section 7.) ARTICLE IV— THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Section. 1. The National Council of Education shall discuss educational ques¬ tions of public and professional interest; propose to the Executive Committee, Function of National Council Membership Time of Meeting from time to time, suitable subjects for investigation and re¬ search; have a report made at its annual meeting on “Edu¬ cational Progress during the Past Year”; and in other ways use its best efforts to further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education in general. Sec. 2. The National Council of Education shall consist of not less than 120, nor more than 200, members to be selected as pro¬ vided by its bylaws. Sec. 3. The annual meeting of the Council shall be held dur¬ ing the week of the annual meeting of the Association. Sec. 4. The absence of a regular member from two successive annual meetings of the Council shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership. Persons whose regular membership in the Council has expired shall be denomi¬ nated honorary members of the Council during the time of Loss of their active membership in the Association with the privilege Membership of attending the regular sessions of the Council and partici¬ pating in its discussions. A member who discontinues or forfeits his active membership in the Association forfeits his membership in the Council. Associational Records and Information 757 Sec. 5. The officers of the Council shall consist of a President, a Vicepresident, a Secretary, and such standing committees as may be prescribed by its bylaws, all of whom shall be regular members of the Council. The Secre¬ tary of the Council shall, in addition to performing the duties Council pertaining to his office, furnish the Executive Secretary of the Officers Association a copy of the proceedings of the Council for publication. Sec. 6. The National Council of Education is hereby authorized to adopt by¬ laws for its government not inconsistent with the act of incor- Bylaws and poration or the bylaws of the Association; provided , That such Powers of bylaws be submitted to, and approved by, the Board of Directors Council of the Association before they shall become operative. Sec. 7. The powers and duties of the Council may be changed or the Council abolished upon a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly taken at the annual meeting of the Association; provided, That notice of the proposed action has been given at the preceding annual business meeting of the Association. ARTICLE V— DEPARTMENTS Section 1. The following Departments are now (1935) in existence, to wit: The Departments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Vocational Education; third, of Kindergarten-Primary Education; fourth, of Music Education; fifth, of Secondary Education; sixth, of Business Education; seventh, of School Health and Physical Edu¬ cation; eighth, of Science Instruction; ninth, of Rural Education; tenth, of Classroom Teachers; eleventh, of Deans of Women; twelfth, of Adult Education; thirteenth, of Elementary School Principals; fourteenth, of Visual Instruction; fifteenth, of Social Studies; sixteenth, of Teachers Colleges; seventeenth, of Lip Reading; eighteenth, of Secondary School Principals; nineteenth, of Supervisors and Directors of Instruc¬ tion; twentieth, of Educational Research; twenty-first, of Special Education; twenty- second, of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics; twenty-third, of Admin¬ istrative Women in Education; twenty-fourth, of Art Education. There is also the National Council of Education. Sec. 2. Each Department shall have the right to fix the qualifications of its members for the purpose of electing officers and transacting the other business of the Department; provided, Active members of the Associa¬ tion, and no others, shall be eligible to such Department mem¬ bership; and provided also, That all active members of the Association shall be permitted to attend the professional pro¬ grams and discussions of any Department. Sec. 3. Each Department shall hold an annual meeting at the of the meeting of the Association except as otherwise provided in these bylaws or as directed by the Board of Directors, or by the Executive Committee acting under the general instruc¬ tions of the Board of Directors. Sec. 4. The object of the meetings of the Departments shall be the discussion of questions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The pro¬ grams of these meetings shall be prepared by the respective presidents in conference with, and under the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each Department shall be Object of limited to two sessions, with formal programs, unless otherwise Department ordered by the President of the Association, except that a third Meetings session of business or informal round table conference may be held at the discretion of the Department officers. Members of Departments time and place Department Meetings 758 National Education Association Sec. 5. The officers of each Department shall consist of a President, a Vice- president, a Secretary, and such other officers as may be deemed necessary by the Department, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the Department to serve one year and until their successors are duly elected; Officers of and who shall at the time of their election, be active mem- Departments bers of the Association. Each Department shall provide for the creation of an Executive Committee, and assign to it any duties consistent with the purposes of the Department and the Act of Incorpora¬ tion and bylaws of the Association. In case there is a vacancy in the office of President of any Department, it shall be filled by appointment made by the Execu¬ tive Committee of the Department. Any other Departmental vacancy shall be filled by appointment made by the President of the Department. Sec. 6. The Secretary of each Department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, furnish to the Executive Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the meetings of the Department Department for publication. No Department shall establish an Headquarters office outside of the general headquarters of the Association with¬ out the consent of the Board of Directors. Sec. 7. All Departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the ex¬ ception stated in section 3 of this Article. They shall be named in section 1 of this Article in the order of their establishment and shall be Rights of dropped from the list when discontinued. Each Department Departments may be governed by its own regulations insofar as they are not inconsistent with the Act of Incorporation or these bylaws. Sec. 8. Upon the recommendation of the Board of Directors a new Department may be established by vote of two-thirds of the delegates to the Representative Assembly present at any annual meeting; provided , That a written application for said Department with title and purpose of the same shall have How been made at the regular meeting of the Assembly next pre- Established ceding the one at which action is taken by at least 250 mem¬ bers engaged or interested in the field in the interest of which the Department is proposed to be established; provided , That no group shall be admitted to Departmental status until it shall have held constructive meetings for at least three successive years. A Department already established may be discontinued upon a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly at any business meeting; provided, That announce¬ ment of the purpose to discontinue has been made at the preceding annual busi¬ ness meeting. The Board of Directors may recommend to the Representative As¬ sembly the discontinuance of any Department. Upon the recommendation of the Board of Directors a Department which has failed to hold a regular meeting for two successive years may be discontinued by a vote of two-thirds of the delegates to the Representative Assembly present at any annual meeting. Sec. 9. Any Department, by a two-thirds vote of those voting at any regular business meeting, may levy a membership fee to supplement its allowance from Such membership fees shall be paid to the Secretary of the De¬ partment who shall transmit them monthly to the Executive Sec¬ retary of the Association. Such funds shall be added to the De¬ partment’s allowance from the Association and shall be used for the work of said Department only, and shall be disbursed upon the recommendation of the executive officers of the Department in the same manner as other funds of the Association are the Association. Fees for Department Members disbursed. Associational Records and Information 759 ARTICLE VI— COMMITTEES Section 1. Not later than five months before the end of the fiscal year, the Presi¬ dent shall appoint an Auditing Committee, consisting of three active members of the Association, no one of whom shall be either a Trustee or a Director; to this Committee shall be referred the report and audit of the expert accountant or accountants, together with the communication of Auditing the President transmitting the same as provided in section 5 of Committee this Article; and the Committee shall report its findings to the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at such time and place as shall be designated on the annual program by the President of the Association, the accredited delegates to the Representative Assembly from each state shall elect one member and one alternate who are active members of the Association for each of the following commit- Delegates Meet tees, to serve for the ensuing year: Credentials, Resolutions, and by States Necrology. The Committee on Credentials shall receive the official list of delegates from the Executive Secretary and report thereon to the Repre¬ sentative Assembly. Sec. 3. The Committee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meeting of the Representative Assembly, and except by unanimous consent, all resolutions shall be referred to said Committee without discussion. This Committee shall receive and consider all resolutions proposed by active members, or re¬ ferred to it by the President; some time during the second day of Resolutions the annual meeting of the Association the Committee shall hold a meeting, at a place and time to be announced in the printed program, for the pur¬ pose of receiving proposed resolutions and hearing those who may wish to advo¬ cate them. Sec. 4. The Committee on Necrology may prepare for the published Proceedings brief memorial tributes to members who Necrology have died during the year. Sec. 5. Within thirty (30) days prior to the time of the annual meeting of the Association, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm, or corporation, licensed to do business as expert accountants; the accountant or accountants so appointed shall examine the accounts, papers, and vouchers of the Executive Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trus- Examination tees, and compare the same; shall also examine the securities of of Accounts the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees. The report of said accountant or accountants shall be filed with the President not less than ten days before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by him submitted to the Auditing Committee with such comments as he may think proper. Sec. 6. There shall be a Committee on Bylaws and Rules which shall serve as an advisory and interpreting committee. The Committee shall consist of five mem¬ bers appointed by the President as follows: In July 1935, the retiring president shall appoint two members, one to serve for three years and one to serve for four years. The incoming president shall appoint three members of this Committee: one to serve for one year; one to serve for two years; and one to serve for five years. In July 1936, and in each July thereafter, Bylaws and the President shall appoint one member to serve for five years Rules All proposed amendments to the charter and to the bylaws shall be referred to this Committee for comment. This Committee shall be responsible for recommending and presenting rules of procedure to the Representative Assembly from year to year. This Committee may render decisions on any points referred 760 National Education Association to it by the Executive Committee, the Executive Secretary, or the President of the Association. Additional Sec. 7. The Representative Assembly may provide such addi- Committees tional committees as it may deem wise. ARTICLE VII— MEETINGS Meetings to be Held Annually Section 1. Stated meeting of the Association, of the National Council of Education, and of all Departments, except as other¬ wise provided, shall be held at such time and place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors or by the Executive Com¬ mittee acting under the instructions of the Board of Directors. Meetings of Assembly, Directors, and Trustees Sec. 2. The annual business meeting of the Representative Assembly shall begin at 9 a. m., on the second day of the annual meeting of the Association. A regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held in connection with the annual meeting of the Association. The time and place of such meeting shall be designated in the program. The Executive Secretary shall notify the members of the Board of Directors of the time and place of meeting, not less than thirty (30) days before the meeting. The first regular meeting of the new Board of Directors shall be held as soon as practicable and within twenty-four hours after the close of the last session of the annual meeting. The place and time of this meeting shall be announced in the printed program. The Board of Trustees shall hold its annual meeting at some convenient time and immediately following the meeting of the new Board of Directors. Special meetings of the Trustees may be called by the Chairman and shall be called on request of a majority of the Board of Trustees. Due notice of all meetings of the Board of Trustees shall be given to every member of the Board by the Secretary thereof. ARTICLE VIII— PROCEEDINGS Section 1. The Proceedings of the Association, of the Council, of the Depart¬ ments, and of all commissions and committees, shall be published Publication of at the discretion of and under the direction of the Executive Proceedings Committee; provided, That such publication has been approved and the money therefor appropriated by the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any of the Departments in the absence of the author, without the approval of the President of the Association, or of the President of the Depart- Absence of ment interested; nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be Author published in the Proceedings without the approval of the Execu¬ tive Committee. ARTICLE IX— QUORUM AND RULES OF ORDER Section 1. Elected directors from twenty-five states shall con¬ stitute a quorum of the Board of Directors. A majority of all the accredited delegates, representatives of not less than twenty- five states, shall constitute a quorum of the Representative Assembly. Formation of Quorum Sec. 2. Robert’s Rules of Order Revised shall be the authority governing all matters of procedure not otherwise covered in the Act of Incorporation and in these bylaws and in the rules of procedure adopted by the Representative Assembly. Associational Records and Information 761 ARTICLE X— AMENDMENTS Section 1. These bylaws may be altered or amended at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly by unanimous vote, or by a two-thirds vote of the Rep¬ resentative Assembly if the alteration or amendment shall have been proposed in writing at the annual business meeting next Amendment* preceding the one at which action is taken, and due announce- Bylaws ment of the proposed action shall have been made in the official publication of the Association. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION NOW KNOWN AS THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES CERTIFICATE of Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of Bylaws under the Act of Congress approved June 30, 1906. We, the undersigned, Nathan C. Schaeffer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shepard, the Secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles, California, on the 10th day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Association held next after the passage of an act of Congress entitled “An Act To Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States,” Do hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being present, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached, and accepted the charter of the National Education Association of the United States, granted by said act of Congress, and adopted bylaws as provided in said act and selected officers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions, Do hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has duly accepted said charter granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by¬ laws, and is the lawful successor to the National Educational Association. In witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907 Nathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding Officer Irwin Shepard, Secretary verification RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE ACTIVE MEMBERS, JULY 10, 1907 1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the char¬ ter granted by an act of Congress entitled “An Act To Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States,” passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and Secretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certifi¬ cate showing the acceptance by the Association of the charter granted by said act. 2. Resolved, That the proposed bylaws of which notice was given at the annual meeting of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the Journal of said meeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect im¬ mediately. 3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the title “ National Education Association of the United States,” and the dates “ 1857-1907.” 4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to or¬ ganize under the charter granted by the act of Congress. Filed in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, Septem¬ ber 4, 1907. 762 National Education Association CALENDAR OF MEETINGS NATIONAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, 1857-1870 1857— -PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized) James L. Enos, Chairman W. E. Sheldon, Secretary 1858— CINCINNATI, OHIO Z. Richards, President J. W. Buckley, Secretary A. T. Rickoff, Treasurer 1859— WASHINGTON, D. C. A. J. Rickoff, President J. W. Buckley, Secretary C. S. Pennell, Treasurer 1860— BUFFALO, N. Y. J. W. Buckley, President Z. Richards, Secretary O. C. Wight, Treasurer 1861, 1862 — No session 1863— CHICAGO, ILL. John D. Philbrick, President James Cruickshank, Secretary O. C. Wight, Treasurer 1864— OGDENSBURG, N. Y. W. H. Wells, President David N. Camp, Secretary Z. Richards, Treasurer 1865— HARRISBURG, PA. S. S. Greene, President W. E. Sheldon, Secretary Z. Richards, Treasurer 1866— INDIANAPOLIS, IND. J. P. Wickersham, President S. H. White, Secretary S. P. Bates, Treasurer 1867 — No session 1868— NASHVILLE, TENN. J. M. Gregory, President L. Van Bokkelen, Secretary James Cruickshank, Treasurer 1869— TRENTON, N. J. L. Van Bokkelen, President W. E. Crosby, Secretary A. L. Barber, Treasurer 1870— CLEVELAND, OHIO Daniel B. Hagar, President A. P. Marble, Secretary W. E. Crosby, Treasurer NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, 1871-1907 1871— ST. LOUIS, MO. J. L. Pickard, President W. E. Crosby, Secretary Tohn Hancock, Treasurer 1872— BOSTON. MASS. E. E. White, President S. H. White, Secretary John Hancock, Treasurer 1873— ELMIRA, N. Y. B. G. Northrup, President S. H. White, Secretary John Hancock, Treasurer 1874— DETROIT, MICH. S. H. White, President A. P. Marble, Secretary John Hancock, Treasurer 1875 — MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. W. T. Harris, President M. R. Abbott, Secretary A. P. Marble, Treasurer 1876— BALTIMORE, MD. W. F. Phelps, President W. D. Henkle, Secretary A. P. Marble, Treasurer 1877— LOUISVILLE, KY. M. A. Newall, President W. D. Henkle, Secretary J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer 1878 — No session 1879— PHILADELPHIA, PA. John Hancock, President W. D. Henkle, Secretary J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer 1880— CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y. J. Ormond Wilson, President W. D. Henkle, Secretary E. T. Tappan, Treasurer 1881— ATLANTA, GA. James H. Smart, President W. D. Henkle, Secretary E. T. Tappan, Treasurer 1882— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. G. J. Orr, President W. E. Sheldon, Secretary H. S. Tarbell, Treasurer 1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. T. Tappan, President W, E. Sheldon, Secretary N. A. Calkins, Treasurer 1884— MADISON, WIS. Thomas W. Bicknell, President H. S. Tarbell, Secretary N. A. Calkins, Treasurer 1885— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. F. Louis Soldan, President W. E. Sheldon, Secretary N. A. Calkins, Treasurer 1886— TOPEKA, KANS. N. A. Calkins, President W. E. Sheldon. Secretary E. C. Hewett, Treasurer 1887— CHICAGO, ILL. W. E. Sheldon, President J. H. Canfield, Secretary E. C. Hewett, Treasurer 1888— SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Aaron Gove, President J. H. Canfield, Secretary E. C. Hewett, Treasurer 1889— NASHVILLE, TENN. Albert P. Marble, President J. H. Canfield, Secretary E. C. Hewett, Treasurer 1890— ST. PAUL, MINN. J. H. Canfield, President W. R. Garrett, Secretary E. C. Hewett, Treasurer 1891— TORONTO, ONT. W. R. Garrett, President E. H. Cook, Secretary J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer 1892— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. H. Cook, President R. W. Stevenson, Secretary J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer 1893— CHICAGO, ILL. (International Congress of Education) Albert G. Lane, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary T. M. Greenwood, Treasurer 1S94— ASBURY PARK, N. J. Albert G. Lane, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary T. M. Greenwood, Treasurer 1895— DENVER, COLO. Nicholas Murray Butler, Pres. Irwin Shepard, Secretary I. C. McNeill, Treasurer 1896— BUFFALO, N. Y. Newton C. Dougherty, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary I. C. McNeill, Treasurer 1897— MILWAUKEE, WIS. Charles R. Skinner, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary I. C. McNeill, Treasurer Associational Records and Information 763 1898— WASHINGTON, D. C. . M. Greenwood, President rwin Shepard, Secretary I. C. McNeill, Treasurer 1899— LOS ANGELES, CALIF. E. Oram Lyte, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary I. C. McNeill, Treasurer 1900— CPIARLESTON, S. C. Oscar T. Corson, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary Carroll G. Pearse, Treasurer 1901— DETROIT, MICH. Tames M. Green, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary L. C. Greenlee, Treasurer 1902— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. William M. Beardshear, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary Charles H. Keyes, Treasurer 1903— BOSTON, MASS. Charles W. Eliot, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary W. M. Davidson, Treasurer 1904— ST. LOUIS, MO. John W. Cook, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary McHenry Rhodes, Treasurer 1905— ASBURY PARK and OCEAN GROVE, N. J. William H. Maxwell, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary James W. Crabtree, Treasurer 1906 — No session 1907— LOS ANGELES, CALIF. Nathan C. Schaeffer, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary J. N. Wilkinson, Treasurer NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 1908 — 1 908 — CLEVELAND, OHIO Edwin G. Cooley, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treas. 1909— DENVER, COLO. Lorenzo D. Harvey, President . Irwin Shepard, Secretary Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treas. 1910— BOSTON, MASS. Tames Y. Joyner, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treas. 1911— SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Ella Flagg Young, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary Durand W. Springer, Treasurer 1912— CHICAGO, ILL. Carroll G. Pearse, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary Katherine D. Blake, Treasurer 1913— SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH Edward T. Fairchild, President Durand W. Springer, Secretary Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer 1914— ST. PAUL, MINN. Joseph Swain, President Durand W. Springer, Secretary Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer 1915— OAKLAND, CALIF. David Starr Jordan, President Durand W. Springer, Secretary Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer 1916— NEW YORK, N. Y. David B. Johnson, President Durand W. Springer, Secretary Grace M. Shepherd, Secretary 1917— PORTLAND, ORE. Robert J. Aley, President Durand W. Springer, Secretary Thomas E. Finegan, Treasurer 1918— PITTSBURGH, PA. Mary C. C. Bradford, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary A. J. Matthews, Treasurer 1919— MILWAUKEE, WIS. George D. Strayer, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary A. J. Matthews, Treasurer 1920— SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH Josephine Corliss Preston, Pres. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary A. J. Matthews, Treasurer 1921— DES MOINES, IOWA Fred M. Hunter, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer 1922— BOSTON, MASS. Charl Ormond Williams, Pres. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer 1923— OAKLAND-SAN FRANCISCO William B. Owen, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer 1924— WASHINGTON, D. C. Olive M. Jones, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer 1925— INDIANAPOLIS, IND. Jesse H. Newlon, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer 1926— PHILADELPHIA, PA. Mary McSkimmon, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer 1927— SEATTLE, WASH. Francis G. Blair, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer 1928— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Cornelia S. Adair, President T. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer 1929— ATLANTA, GA. Uel W. Lamkin, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer 1930— COLUMBUS, OHIO E. Ruth Pyrtle, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith. Treasurer 1931— LOS ANGELES, CALIF. Willis A. Sutton, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer 1932— ATLANTIC CITY, N. J. Florence Hale, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer 1933— CHICAGO, ILL. Joseph Rosier, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer 1934— WASHINGTON, D. C. Jessie Gray, President J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer 1935— DENVER, COLO. Henry Lester Smith, President Willard E. Givens, Secretary W. Crabtree, Secretary Emeritus E. Offenhauer, Treasurer k 764 National Education Association NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OFFICERS— 1934-35 Henry Lester Smith . President.. . Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Willard E. Givens . Secretary. v . 1201 Sixteenth St., Washington, D. C. J. W. Crabtree . Secretary Emeritus . 1201 Sixteenth St., Washington, D. C. R. E. Offenhauer . Treasurer . Superintendent, Lima Public Schools, Lima, Ohio Honorary John Dewey . Honorary President and Associate Chairman of Committee on , Social Economic Goals, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Susan M. Dorsey . Honorary President and Associate Chairman of Committee on Resolutions, 1506 Arapahoe St., Los Angeles, Calif. Executive Committee Henry Lester Smith . President.. . Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Jessie Gray . First Vicepresident . 1210 Fillmore St., Philadelphia, Pa. Joseph H. Saunders . Chairman, Board of Trustees, Superintendent, Newport News Pub¬ lic Schools, Newport News, Va. R. E. Offenhauer . Treasurer . Superintendent, Lima Public Schools, Lima, Ohio Agnes Samuelson . Member by Election. ....... State Superintendent of Public In¬ struction, Des Moines, Iowa Board of Trustees Joseph H. Saunders . Chairman . Superintendent, Newport News Public Schools, Newport News, Va. Edgar G. Doudna . Secretary . Secretary, Board of Normal School Regents, Madison, Wis. J. M. Gwinn . 144 Paloma Avenue, San Francisco, Calif. A. L. Whittenberg . Secretary, Illinois State Examining Board for Teachers Certifi¬ cates, Room 403, Centennial Bldg., Springfield, Ill. Henry Lester Smith . President . Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Vicepresidents L. Frazer Banks . Ernest W. Butterfield Charles Carroll . Mattie S. Doremus.... Hattie H. Gordon . Rae Kemp . W. D. Nixon . C. K. Reiff . C. A. Rice . Caroline S. Woodruff. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Board of Education, Box 114, Birmingham, Ala. . Commissioner of Education, Hartford, Conn. ...Director, Rhode Island State Board for Vocational Education, 122 State House, Providence, R. I. . 614 East Twenty-ninth St., Paterson, N. J. . 5616 Wyandotte St., Kansas City, Mo. . .Riverview School, Seventh and Pacific Ave., Kansas City, Kans. . 51 Main St., Tucapau, S. C. . Superintendent of Schools, Oklahoma City, Okla. . ....1656 South East Twenty-fifth St., Portland, Ore. . Principal, Castleton State Normal School, Castleton, Vt. Board of Directors Henry Lester Smith, President— Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Jessie Gray, Vicepresident . . . . 1210 Fillmore St., Philadelphia, Pa. R. E. Offenhauer, Treasurer — Superintendent, Lima Public Schools . Lima, Ohio Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman, Board of Trustees Superintendent, Newport News Public Schools, Newport News, Va. Willard E. Givens, Secretary . 1201 Sixteenth St., Washington, D. C. Life Directors Cornelia S. Adair, 3208 Hawthorne St . Richmond, Va. Robert J. Aley", 423 East Eighty-sixth St . New York, N. Y. Francis G. Blair, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . . Springfield, Ill. Board of Education . Nashville, Tenn. Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, 917 East Eleventh Ave . • . Denver, Colo. Elmer Ellsworth Brown, Gramercy Park Hotel, 52 Gramercy Park . New York, N. Y. Nicholas Murray Butler, President, Columbia University . New York, N. Y. Associational Records and Information 765 P. P. Claxton, President, Austin Peay Normal School . Clarksville, Tenn. William John Cooper, 6504 Maple Ave . Chevy Chase, Md. Hugh A. Graham, South Main St . Mount Pleasant, Mich. Jessie Gray, 1210 Fillmore St . Philadelphia, Pa. Florence Hale, Editor, The Grade Teacher, 425 Fourth Ave . New York, N. Y. Frederick M. Hunter, Chancellor, University of Denver . Denver, Colo. Illinois State Teachers Association, Robert C. Moore, Secretary . Carlinville, Ill. Olive M. Jones, Director, Calvary House, 61 Gramercy Park, N . New York, N. Y. Tames Y. Joyner . La Grange, N. C. Uel W. Lamkin, President, Northwest Missouri State Teachers College . Maryville, Mo. Mary McSkimmon, 205 Tappan St . Brookline, Mass. Jesse H. Newlon, Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia University. .. .New York, N. Y. Carroll G. Pearse, 1721 Ludington Ave., Wauwatosa Branch . ..Milwaukee, Wis. Mrs. Josephine Corliss Preston, Burton, Vashon Island . King County, Wash. E. Ruth Pyrtle, Principal, Bancroft School . .Lincoln, Nebr. Joseph Rosier, President, Fairmont State Teachers College . Fairmont, W. Va. George D. StrAyer, Teachers College, Columbia University . New_ York, N. Y. J. W. Studebaker, United States Commissioner of Education . Washington, D. C. Willis A. Sutton, Superintendent, Atlanta Public Schools . Atlanta, Ga. Teachers Institute . Philadelphia, Pa. John J. Tigert, President, University of Florida.. . Gainesville, Fla. Charl Williams, Director, Division of Field Service, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W . Washington, D. C. George F. Zook, Director, American Council on Education, 744 Jackson Place, N. W . Washington, D. C. State Directors Alabama . Alaska . Arizona . Arkansas . California . Colorado . Connecticut . Delaware . District of Columbia Florida . Georgia . Hawaii . Idaho . Illinois . Indiana . Iowa . Kansas . Kentucky . Louisiana . Maine . Maryland . Massachusetts . Michigan . Minnesota . . . . Mississippi . . . . Missouri . Montana . Nebraska . Nevada . New Hampshire New Jersey . . . New Mexico . . New York . . . . North Carolina North Dakota . J. D. Williams, Principal, Avondale School . Birmingham C. H. Bowman, Superintendent, Douglas City Schools. .. .Douglas J. W. Clarson, Jr., Dean, College of Education, University of Arizona . Tucson W. E. Phipps. State Commissioner of Education . Little Rock J. R. Croad, Principal, Sierra School . Sacramento W. B. Mooney, Executive Secretary, Colorado Education Association, 530 Commonwealth Bldg . Denver Helen T. Collins, Principal, Ezekiel Cheever School.. New Haven H. V. Holloway, State Superintendent of Public Instruc¬ tion . Dover Edith Louise Grosvenor, 73 The Iowa Apartments. . .Washington James S. Rickards, Executive Secretary, Florida Educa¬ tion Association, 33 Centennial Bldg . Tallahassee M. D. Collins, Superintendent of Schools and State Director of Vocational Education, State Capitol . Atlanta Oren E. Long, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Box 2360 Honolulu Raymond H. Snyder, President, Albion State Normal School . . .. . Albion John W. Thalman, Principal, Waukegan Township High School . Waukegan Charles O. Williams, Secretary, Indiana State Teachers Association, 205 Hotel Lincoln. . Indianapolis Fred D. Cram, Professor of Education, Iowa State Teachers College . . . Cedar Falls F. L. Schlagle, Superintendent, Kansas City Public Schools . . . Kansas City William S. Taylor, Dean, College of Education, University of Kentucky . . . .. . Lexington P. H. Griffith, Director of Extension, Louisiana State Uni¬ versity . .. . Baton Rouge William B. Jack, Superintendent, Portland Public Schools . Portland William Burdick, State Supervisor of Physical Education, 7 East Mulberry St . Baltimore Annie C. Woodward, 100 School St . . . . Somerville E. T. Cameron, Executive Secretary, Michigan Education Association, Michigan Education Bldg., North Washing¬ ton Ave . Lansing Harry Wahlstrand, 824 Third St., East . Willmar H. V. Cooper, Superintendent, Vicksburg Public Schools . Vicksburg Thomas J. Walker, Editor, School and Community. .. .Columbia Martin P. Moe, Executive Secretary, Montana Education Association, 7 Kohrs Block . Helena George F. Knipprath, Omaha Technical High School .... Omaha Maude Frazier, Superintendent, Las Vegas Public Schools, . Las Vegas Lyle Wilson Ewing, Bible Hill . Claremont Raymond B. Gurley, Principal, Barringer High School .. Newark Vernon O. Tolle, Executive Secretary, New Mexico Edu¬ cational Association, 18 Sena Plaza . Santa Fe H. Claude Hardy, Superintendent, White Plains Public Schools . White Plains T. Wingate Andrews, Superintendent, High Point Public Schools, . > . High Point L. A. White, Superintendent, Minot Public Schools . Minot 766 National Education Association Ohio . Oklahoma . Oregon . Pennsylvania . . . . Philippine Islands Puerto Rico . Rhode Island . . . . South Carolina . . South Dakota . . . Tennessee . Texas . Utah . f V ermont . Virginia Virgin Islands Washington . . West Virginia Wisconsin . . . Wyoming . . . . . William A. Evans, Rothenberg Junior High School. .. .Cincinnati . M. E. Hurst, President, Tulsa Education Association, 209 East Thirteenth Place . Tulsa . Birdine Merrill, Shattuck School . ..Portland . J. Herbert Kelley, Executive Secretary, Pennsylvania State Education Association, 400 North Third St. .. Harrisburg . Camilo Osias, Resident Commissioner from P. I., House Office Bldg . Washington, D. C. . F. Rodriguez Lopez, Department of Education . San Juan . Charles Carroll, Director State Board for Vocational Education, 122 State House . Providence . A. C. Flora, Superintendent, Columbia Public Schools. . .Columbia . S. B. Nissen, Editor, South Dakota Education Association Journal, Perry Bldg . . . . Sioux Falls . S. L. Ragsdale, Principal, L. C. Humes High School ... .Memphis . Rush M. Caldwell, 2527 Ross Ave . Dallas . James T. Worlton, Assistant Superintendent, Salt Lake City Public Schools . Salt Lake City . Caroline S. Woodruff, Principal, Castleton State Normal School . '. . Castleton . Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Principal, George Washington and Robert Gatewood Schools, Berkley . Norfolk . George H. Ivins, Director of Education . St. Thomas . S. E. Fleming, Assistant Superintendent. Seattle Public Schools . Seattle . W. W. Trent, State Superintendent of Free Schools ... Charleston . Blanche M. McCarthy, 716 Insurance Bldg . Madison . H. H. Moyer, Principal, High School . Rawlins HEADQUARTERS STAFF 1201 Sixteenth Street, Northwest, Washington, D. C. Willard E. Givens, Secretary J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Emeritus Directors c Harold A. Allan, Business William G. Carr, Research Harriett M. Chase, Secretary’s Office Gwladys W. Jones, Secretary, Deans of Women T. D. Martin, Records and Membership S. D. Si Administration Service, and Secretary f Divisions Joy Elmer Morgan, Publications Eva G. Pinkston, Executive Secretary, Elementary School Principals Charl Williams, Field Service Mary J. Winfree, Accounts Agnes Winn, Classroom Service :ankland of the Department of Superintendence NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION President — William C. Bagley, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. (Term expires 1937). Vicepresident — Lida Lee Tall, Principal, State Normal School, Towson, Md. (Term expires 1936). Secretary — Adelaide S. Baylor, Chief Home Economics Education Division, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. (Term expires 1935). Executive Committee — David A. Ward, 701 East Fourteenth St., Chester, Pa. (Term expires 1935); Anna Laura Force, Principal, Lake Junior High School, Denver, Colo. (Term expires 1936); Agnes Samuelson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa (Term expires 1937). OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS Department of Administrative Women in Education President — Mary Elizabeth O’Connor, Supervisor, Elementary Schools, Natick, Mass. Vicepresident — Mrs. Inez Johnson Lewis, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo. Secretary — Mrs. Margaret Mendenhall Smith, Principal, Ebert School, Denver, Colo. Treasurer — Elizabeth Wells Robertson, Supervisor of Art, Public Schools, Chicago, Ill. Directors — Kate Bell, Head, Department of Mathematics, The Lewis and Clark High School, Spokane, Wash.; Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Principal, George Washington and Robert Gate- wood Schools, Norfolk, Va. ; Sue M. Powers, Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn. ; Agnes Samuelson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa; Annie C. Woodward, Teacher, Somerville High School, Somerville, Mass. Associational Records and Information 767 Department of Adult Education President — Marguerite H. Burnett, State Director of Adult Education, Eleventh and Wash¬ ington Sts., Wilmington, Del. Vicepresident — Maude Aiton, Administrative Principal, Webster School, Tenth and H Sts., Washington, D. C. Secretary — Robert C. Deming, Supervisor, Division of Field Service, State Board of Education, Hartford, Conn. Treasurer — Agnes Winn, Director, Division of Classroom Service, National Education Asso¬ ciation, Washington, D. C. Executive Committee — L. R. Alderman, Chief, Service Division, Office of Education, Wash¬ ington, D. C. ; Mary L. Guyton, State Supervisor of Adult Alien Education, 217 State House, Boston. Mass. American Association of Teachers Colleges (A Department of the N. E. A.) President — H. A. Sprague, President, State Teachers College, Montclair, N. J. Vicepresident — Eugene Fair, President, Northeast Missouri State Teachers College, Kirks- ville. Mo. Secretary-Treasurer— Charles W. Hunt, Principal, State Normal School, Oneonta, N. Y. Executive Committee — Clarence L. Phelps, President, State Teachers College, Santa Barbara, Calif. (Term expires 1936); Norman W. Cameron, President, State Teachers College, West Chester, Pa. (Term expires 1937) ; L. A. Pittenger, President, Ball State Teachers College, Muncie, Ind. (Term expires 1938). Department of Art Education President — Elizabeth Wells Robertson, Supervisor of Art, Public Schools, Chicago, Ill. Secretary — Edna E. Hood, Supervisor of Art, Public Schools, School Administration Building, Kenosha, Wis. Treasurer — Mrs. Eugenie Saugstad, Art Teacher, McKinley Technical High School, Wash¬ ington, D. C. American Educational Research Association (A Department of the N. E. A.) President — Philip A. Boyer, Director, Division of Educational Research, Board of Education, Philadelphia, Pa. Vicepresident — Hollis L. Caswell, Director, Division of Surveys and Field Studies, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. Secretary-Treasurer — William G. Carr, Director, Research Division, National Education Asso¬ ciation, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Executive Committee — Philip A. Boyer, Director, Division of Educational Research, Board of Education, Philadelphia, Pa.; Hollis L. Caswell, Director, Division of Surveys and Field Studies, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn..; William G. Carr, Direc¬ tor, Research Division, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Wash¬ ington, D. C.; T. C. Holy, Professor of Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio; Paul T. Rankin, Supervising Director of Instruction, Board of Education, Detroit, Mich. Department of Business Education President — M. E. Studebaker, Director of Commercial Teacher Training, Ball State Teachers College, Muncie, Ind. First Vicepresident — Jessie Graham, Associate Professor of Commerce, State Teachers College San Jose, Calif. Second Vicepresident — Ernest A. Zelliot, Professor of Commercial Education, University of Denver, Denver, Colo. Secretary-Treasurer— Raymond C. Goodfellow, Director of Commercial Education, Board of Education Building, Newark, N. J. Editor — Herbert A. Tonne, School of Education, New York University, Washington Square East, New York, N. Y. ' Executive Committee — Annie C. Woodward, Teacher, Somerville High School, Somerville, Mass. (Term expires 1935); B. Frank Kyker, North Carolina College for Women, Greens¬ boro, N. C. (Term expires 1935); Ernest A. Zelliot, Professor of Commercial Education, University of Denver, Denver, Colo. (Term expires 1935); E. G. Blackstone, Head of Commercial Teacher Training, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa (Term expires 1936); G. F. Cadish, Director, School of Business Administration, State Teachers College of Washington, Pullman, Wash. (Term expires 1936); Mary Stuart, Roxbury Memorial High School for Girls, Roxbury, Mass. (Term expires 1937); Joseph L. Kochka. Eastern High School, Washington, D. C. (Term expires 1937); Benjamin R. Haynes, Professor of Business Education, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif. (Term expires 1937). 25 768 National Education Association Department of Classroom Teachers President — Daisy Lord, 1027 West Main St., Waterbury, Conn. Viceprcsidcnt — Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Daiil, 312 South Eighth St., Minneapolis, Minn. Secretary — Mrs. Mary D. Barnes, 223 Summit Road, Elizabeth, N. J. Director Ex Officio — Faye Read, 131 Vernon Place, Pueblo, Colo. Regional Directors— Middle Section, Mary Ralls, 6529 Jefferson St., Kansas City, Mo. (Term expires 1935); Western Section, Albert M. Shaw, 2833 Estara Ave., Los Angeles, Calif. (Term expires 1936); Eastern Section, Emily Tarbell, 235 Glenwood Ave., Syracuse, N. Y. (Term expires 1937). Department of Deans of Women President — Irma E. Voigt, Dean of Women, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. First Vicepresident — Harriett M. Allyn, Dean of Women, Mt. Holyoke College, South Hadley, Mass. _ < Second Vicepresident — Ruth V. Pope, Academic Dean, Hood College, Frederick, Md. Treasurer — Agnes Helmreich, Girls’ Adviser, East Des Moines High School, Des Moines, Iowa. Secretary — Evelyn W. Jones, Dean of Women, University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. Headquarters Secretary — Gwladys W. Jones, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Department of Elementary School Principals President — M. Emma Brookes, Principal, Miles-Cranwood Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. First Vicepresidcnt — -Aaron Kline, Principal, Pullman-Poe Schools, Chicago, Ill. Second Vicepresident — Edythe J. Brown, Principal, Kaley and Marquette Schools, South Bend, Ind. Third Vicepresidcnt — Ira M. Kline, Principal, Greenburgh Number 8 Schools, White Plains, N. Y. Fourth Vicepresident — Sarah L. Young, Principal, Parker School, Oakland, Calif. Fifth Vicepresident — Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Principal, George Washington and Robert Gate- wood Schools, Norfolk, Va. * Executive Secretary — Eva G. Pinkston, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Executive Committee — Herbert C. Hansen, Principal, Talcott School, Chicago, Ill. (Term expires 1935); Cassie F. Roys, Principal, Walnut Hill School, Omaha, Nebr. (Term expires 1936); Earl R. Laing, Principal, Burt School, Detroit, Mich. (Term expires 1937); Mason A. Stratton, Principal, Brighton Avenue School, Atlantic City, N. J (Term expires 1938). Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education President — Mrs. Eugenia West Jones. 318 South Benton Way, Los Angeles, Calif. Vicc^resident— Mrs. Daisy Carnall, Columbian School, Denver, Colo. Secretary — Mrs. Florence Hampton, 1210 Granada Ave., San Marino, Calif. Executive Committee — Norma Smith, State Department of Education, Montgomery, Ala. (Term expires 1935); Geraldine McEnerny, 137 Mason Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Term expires 1936); Dodie Hooe, Board of Education, Dallas, Texas (Term expires 1937); Helen Johnson, Central State Teachers College, Mt. Pleasant, Mich. (Term expires 1938). Department of Lip Reading President — Estelle E. Samuelson, Supervisor, Educational and Vocational Work, New York League for the Hard of Hearing, 480 Lexington Ave., New York, N. Y. Vicepresident — Eliza C. Hannegan, Teacher of Speech Reading, Portland Evening School, 25 Washburn Ave., Portland, Maine. Secretary-Treasurer — Jane Cronholm, 1213 Seventh Ave., Rock Island, Ill. Department of Music Education President — Edith M. Keller, State Director of Music Education, State Department of Educa¬ tion, Columbus, Ohio. Secretary — Marguerite V. Hood, State Director of Music Education, State Department of Public Instruction, Helena, Mont. Department of Rural Education President — Sue M. Powers, Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn. Vicepresident — James B. Palmer, Professor of Education, New York State College for Teachers, Albany, N. Y. Secretary — Mrs. Katherine M. Cook, Chief, Division of Special Problems, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. Executive Committee — O. H. Plenzke, Secretary, Wisconsin Teachers Association, 716 Insur¬ ance Bldg., Madison, Wis. (Term expires 1936); Fannie W. Dunn, Professor of Rural Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. (Term expires 1937); Sue M. Powers, Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis. Tenn. (Term expires 1938); Fred C. Fischer, Deputy Commissioner, Wayne County Schools, 2615 Barium Tower, Detroit, Mich. (Term expires 1939) ; Chloe Baldridge, Director of Rural Educa¬ tion, State Department of Public Instruction, Lincoln, Nebr. (Term expires 1940). Associational Records and Information 769 Department of School Health and Physical Education President — A. W. Thompson, Director of Health, Physical Education, and City Recreation, Board of Education, Grand Rapids, Mich. Vicepresident— Edna W. Bailey, Associate Professor of Education, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. Secretary-Treasurer — -James E. Rogers, Director, National Physical Education Service, 315 Fourth Ave., New York, N. Y. Executive Committee — William E. Burdick, State Director of Physical Education, 7 East Mul¬ berry St., Baltimore, Md. (Term expires 1935); Ethel Perrin, American Child Health Association, 450 Seventh Ave., New York, N. Y. (Term expires 1936); F. W. Maroney, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. (Term expires 1937); A. G. Ireland, State Director of Health and Physical Education, 1208 Trenton Trust Bldg.. Trenton, N. J. (Term ex¬ pires 1938). Department of Science Instruction President — Ira C. Davis, Instructor, University High School, Madison, Wis. Vicepresident — -Mildred M. Fahy, Principal, Amundsen-Von Steuben Schools, Chicago, Ill. Secretary — Esther Scott, School Administration Annex No. 1, Washington, D. C. Treasurer— Ralph Bedell, Instructor, Northeast Missouri State Teachers College, Kirksville, Mo. Department of Secondary Education President — Ernest D. Lewis, Room 1901, 130 West Forty-second St.. New York, N. Y. Vice president— George R. Rankin, Boys’ Technical High School, Milwaukee, Wis. Secretary — Ann E. Ryder, Dickinson High School, Jersey City. N. J. Treasurer — George M. Strong, East High School, Columbus, Ohio. Regional Directors — Eastern Section, Augustus Ludwig, Pershing Junior High School, Brook¬ lyn, N. Y. ; Southern Section, Robert W. House, Salem High School, Salem, Va. ; Mid¬ western Section, S. O. Severson, Principal, South High School, Minneapolis, Minn.; Intermountain Section, Grace Kenehan, Chester S_. Morey Junior High School, Denver, Colo.; Pacific Section, Grace M. Davis, Modesto High School, Modesto, Calif. Department of Secondary School Principals President — Harrison C. Lysetii, State Supervisor of Secondary Education, Augusta, Maine. First Vicepresident — Willard N. Van Slyck, Principal, High School, Topeka, Kans. Second Vicepresident — M. G. Jones, Principal, High School, Huntington Beach, Calif. Executive Secretary— H. V. Church, 5835 Kimbark Ave., Chicago, Ill. Executive Committee — Charles F. Allen, Supervisor of Secondary Education, Public Schools, Little Rock, Ark.; K. J. Clark, Principal, Murphy High School, Mobile, Ala.; Oscar Granger, Principal, Haverford Township High School, Upper Darby, Pa. Department of Social Studies President — Edgar B. Wesley, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. First Vicepresident — Roy O. Hughes, Director, Department of Curriculum Research, Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. Second Viccpresident — Elmer Ellis, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. Secretary-Treasurer — Bessie L. Pierce, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Advisory Council — Mary G. Christie, Department of Social Studies, North High School, Denver, Colo.; Harley S. Graston, Department of History, Woodlawn High School, Birmingham, Ala. ; the ex-presidents and officers. Department of Special Education President— a A. Ward, Supervisor of Special Classes, State Department of Public In¬ struction, Madison, Wis. Vicepresident — F. B. Smith, 2717 Ninth Ave., Sacramento, Calif. Secretary-Treasurer — Mrs. Ruby Coutu, Guidance and Speech Correction, Board of Education, Madison, Wis. Department of Superintendence President — A. J. Stoddard, Superintendent of Schools, Providence, R. I. First Vicepresident — E. E. Oberiioltzer, Superintendent of Schools, Houston, Texas. Second Vicepresident — A. L. Threlkeld, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo. Executive Secretary — Sherwood D. Shankland, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Executive Committee — Carroll R. Reed, Superintendent of Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. (Term expires 1936); Frank G. Pickell, Superintendent of Schools, Montclair, N. T. (Term expires 1937); George C. Bush, Superintendent of Schools, South Pasadena, Calif. (Term expires 1938); Ben G. Graham, Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. (Term expires 1939); the president, first vicepresident, and second vicepresident, ex officio. 770 National Education Association Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction President — Rudolph D. Lindquist, Director, University School, Ohio State University, Colum¬ bus, Ohio. First Vicepresident — Mary Browning, Supervisor, Early Elementary Education, Public Schools, Administration Bldg., Louisville. Ky. Second Vicepresident— Robert H. Lane, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary-Treasurer — James F. Hosic, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Executive Committee — Mildred English, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Raleigh, N. C. ; Ernest Horn, Professor of Education, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; Paul T. Rankin, Supervising Director of Instruction, Board of Education, Detroit, Mich.; the officers of the department, ex officio. Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics President — Mrs. Leila Bunce Smith, 424 West Peachtree St., Atlanta, Ga. Vicepresident — Ada Kennedy, Head, Home Economics Department, John Muir Technical High School, Pasadena, Calif. Secretary — Alice L. Currier, Supervisor of Home Economics, Public Schools, Pawtucket, R. I. Treasurer — Miriam A. Weikert, 12.03 South Queen St., York, Pa. Department of Visual Instruction President — Wilber Emmert, Director of Visual Education, State Teachers College, Indiana^ Pa. Secretary-Treasurer — -Ellsworth C. Dent, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. First Vicepresident — Mrs. Grace Fisher Ramsey, Acting Curator of Education, American Museum of Natural History, Seventy-seventh St. and Central Park, West, New York, N. Y. Second Vicepresident— Rupert Peters, Director of Visual Instruction, Public Schools, Kansas City, Mo. Executive Committee — Daniel C. Ivnowlton, Associate Professor of Education, New York University, New York, N. Y. (Term expires 1935); John A. Hollinger, Director of Nature Study and Visualization, Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. (Term expires 1936); William H. Dudley, 736 South Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Term expires 1937) ;_ Mrs. Grace Fisher Ramsey, Acting Curator of Education, American Museum of Natural History, Seventy-seventh St. and Central Park, West, New. York, N. Y. (Term expires 1938); Robert F. Collier, Jr., Director of Visual Instruction, South High School, Denver, Colo. (Term expires 1939); Cline M. Koon, Senior Specialist in Education by Radio, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. (Term expires 1940). Department of Vocational Education President — Howard L. Briggs, Director of Vocational Education, Commission for the Study of the Educational Problems of Penal Institutions for Youth, State of New York, Wallkill, N. Y. Secretary — Charles W. Sylvester, Director, Vocational Education, Public Schools, Baltimore, Md. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OFFICERS— 1935-36 Agnes Samuelson . President . State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa Willard E. Givens . Executive Secretary . 1201 Sixteenth St., Washington, D. C. J. W. Crabtree . Secretary Emeritus . 1201 Sixteenth St., Washington, D. C. R. E. Offen hauer . Treasurer . Superintendent of Schools, Lima, Ohio Honorary John Dewey . Professor Emeritus of Philosophy . Columbia University. New York, N. Y. Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey . 1506 Arapahoe St., Los Angeles, Calif. Executive Committee Agnes Samuelson . President . State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa Henry Lester Smith . First Vicepresident . Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Joseph H. Saunders . Chairman, Board of Trustees, Superintendent of Schools, Newport News, Va. R. E. Offen hauer . Treasurer . Superintendent of Schools, Lima, Ohio Caroline S. Woodruff . Member by Election . Principal, State Normal School, Castleton, Vt. Associational Records and Information 771 Board of Trustees Joseph H. Saunders . Chairman . Superintendent of Schools, Newport News, Va. Agnes Samuelson . President . State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa Edgar G. Doudna . Secretary . Board of Normal School Regents, Madison, Wis. Joseph Marr Gwinn . 4021£ Park Blvd., San Diego, Calif. A. L. Whittenberg . Secretary, Illinois State Examining • Board for Teachers’ Certificates, Springfield, Ill. Vicepresidents Henry Lester Smith . First Vicepresident . Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Paul Munro . Superintendent of Schools, Selma, Ala. Norman Hamilton . Principal . Carbon High School, Price, Utah Bertha C. Knemeyer . Principal . Elko County High School, Elko, Nev. Vierling Kersey . State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Sacramento, Calif. E. W. Butterfield . State Commissioner of Education, Hartford, Conn. Raymond H. Snyder . President . . Albion State Normal School, Albion, Idaho George T. Avery . .....Professor of Psychology and Education, Colorado State College, Fort Collins, Colo. L. P. Terrebonne . Superintendent of Schools, Plaquemines, La. Charles Carroll . Chief . Division of Promotion and Supervision, State De¬ partment of Education, Providence, R. I. Mary Eva Hite . Supervisor of Elementary Instruction, State Department of Edu¬ cation, Columbia, S. C. John Callahan . State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis. Board of Directors Agnes Samuelson, President — State Superintendent of Public Instruction .... Des Moines, Iowa Henry Lester Smith, Vicepresident — Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Tnd. R. E. Offenhauer, Treasurer — -Superintendent, Lima Public Schools . Lima, Ohio Joseph FI. Saunders, Chairman, Board of Trustees Superintendent, Newport News Public Schools, Newport News, Va. Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary . 1201 Sixteenth St., Washington, D. C. Life Directors Cornelia S. Adair, 3208 Hawthorne St . Richmond, Va. Robert J. Aley, 423 East Eighty-sixth St . New York, N. Y. Francis G. Blair, 440 Canedy St . Springfield, Ill. Board of Education . Nashville, Tenn. Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, 1201 East Sixteenth Ave . Denver, Colo. Nicholas Murray Butler, President, Columbia University . New York, N. Y. P. P. Claxton, President, Austin Peay Normal School . Clarksville, Tenn. Hugh A. Graham, South Main St . . . Mount Pleasant, Mich. Jessie Gray, Stevens .School of Practice, 13th and Spring Garden Sts . Philadelphia, Pa. Florence Hale, Editor, The Grade Teacher, Prince George Hotel . New York, N. Y. Frederick M. Hunter, Chancellor, University of Denver . Denver, Colo. Illinois State Teachers’ Association, Robert C. Moore, Secretary . Carlinville, Ill. Olive M. Tones, Director, Calvary House, 61 Gramercy Park, N . New York, N. Y. James Y. Joyner . . . . La Grange. N. C. Uel W. Lamkin, President, Northwest Missouri State Teachers College . Maryville, Mo. Mary McSkimmon, 205 Tappan St . . .••••; . Brookline, Mass. Jesse H. Newlon, Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia University .... New York, N. Y. Carroll G. Pearse, 1721 Ludington Ave., Wauwatosa Branch . ; . . Milwaukee, Wis. Mrs. Josephine Corliss Preston, Burton, Vashon Island . King County, Wash. E. Ruth Pyrtle, Principal^ Bancroft School . .Lincoln, Nebr. Joseph Rosier, President, Fairmont State Teachers College . Fairmont, W. Va. Henry Lester Smith, Dean, School of Education, Indiana University . Bloomington, Ind. George D. Strayer, Teachers College, Columbia University . New York, N. Y. J. W. Studebaker, United States Commissioner of Education . Washington, D. C. Willis A. Sutton, Superintendent, Atlanta Public Schools . ..Atlanta, Ga. Teachers’ Institute . . . . . . . : . Philadelphia, Pa. John J. Tigert, President, University of Florida.. . . . . Gainesville, Fla. Charl Williams, Director, Division of Field Service, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth St . # . ; . Washington, D. C. George F. Zook. Director, American Council on Education, 744 Jackson Place, N. W . Washington, D. C. State Directors Alabama Alaska Arizona J. D. Williams, Principal, Avondale School C. H. Bowman, Superintendent of Schools. Emil L. Larson, University of Arizona. . . . Birmingham . . . . Douglas . Tucson 772 National Education Association Arkansas . California . Colorado . Connecticut . Delaware . District of. Columbia Florida . Georgia . Hawaii . Idaho . Illinois . Indiana . ( Iowa . Kansas . Kentucky . Louisiana . Maine . Maryland . Massachusetts . Michigan . Minnesota . Mississippi . Missouri . Montana . Nebraska . Nevada . New Hampshire . . . New Jersey . New Mexico . New York . North Carolina .... North Dakota . Ohio . Oklahoma . Oregon . Pennsylvania . Rhode Island . South Carolina .... South Dakota . Tennessee . Texas . Utah . Vermont . Virginia . Washington . West Virginia . Wisconsin . Wyoming . . W. E. Phipps, State Commissioner of Education . Little Rock .Frank A. Henderson, Superintendent of Schools . Santa Ana . W. B. Mooney, Executive Secretary, Colorado Education Association . Denver .Helen T. Collins, Principal, Ezekiel Cheever School.. New Haven . H. V. Holloway, State Superintendent of Public Instruc¬ tion . Dover .Edith Louise Grosvenor, 73 The Iowa Apartments. .Washington .James S. Rickards, Executive Secretary, Florida Education Association . Tallahassee . M. D. Collins, State Superintendent of Schools..... . Atlanta . J. W. Garrett, Secretary, Hawaii Education Association. .Honolulu . W. D. Vincent, Superintendent of Schools . Boise .John W. Thalman, Superintendent of Schools . Waukegan .Charles O. Williams, Secretary, Indiana State Teachers Association . Indianapolis , Fred D. Cram, Associate Professor of Education, Iowa State Teachers College . Cedar Falls , F. L. Schlagle, Superintendent of Schools . Kansas City .William S. Taylor, Dean, College of Education, University . of Kentucky . ..Lexington , P. H. Griffith, Director of General Extension, Louisiana State University . Baton Rouge .William B. Jack, Superintendent of Schools . Portland .William Burdick, State Supervisor of Physical Educa¬ tion . Baltimore .Annie C. Woodward, Teacher, High School . Somerville .Edith A. Bader, Assistant Superintendent of Schools.. Ann Arbor • Harry Wahlstrand, 824 Third St., East . Willmar • H. V. Cooper, Superintendent of Schools . Vicksburg .Thomas J. Walker, Associate State Secretary, Missouri State Teachers Association . Columbia .Martin P. Moe, Executive Secretary, Montana Education Association . Helena , G. F. Knipprath, Omaha Technical High School . Omaha • Mrs. Hazel B. Denton, Teacher, Public Schools . Caliente .Lyle Wilson Ewing, Bible Hill . Claremont Raymond B. Gurley, Principal, Barringer High School. . .Newark Vernon O. Tolle, Executive Secretary, New Mexico Edu¬ cational Association 18 Sena Plaza . Santa Fe H. Claude Hardy, Superintendent of Schools . White Plains . T. Wingate Andrews, Superintendent of Schools . High Point , L. A. White, Superintendent of Schools . Minot William A. Evans, Rothenberg Junior High School .... Cincinnati , M. E. Hurst, Central High School . Tulsa • Austin Landreth, Superintendent of Schools . Pendleton , J. Herbert Kelley, Executive Secretary, Pennsylvania State Education Association . Harrisburg . Charles Carroll, Chief, Division of Promotion and Super- vision, State Department of Education . Providence , A. C. Flora, Superintendent of Schools . Columbia , S. B. Nissen, Editor, South Dakota Education Association Journal . Sioux Falls . S. L. Ragsdale, Principal, L. C. Humes High School. .. .Memphis Rush M. Caldwell, Woodrow Wilson High School . Dallas James T. Worlton, Assistant Superintendent of Schools. . Salt Lake City Joseph A. Wiggin, Principal, Brattleboro High School . Brattleboro Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Principal, Washington-Gatewood Schools, Berkley . Norfolk • Samuel E. Fleming, Assistant Superintendent of Schools .. Seattle , W. W. Trent, State Superintendent of Free Schools. . .Charleston Amanda Schuette, 220 S. Van Buren St . Green Bay • Henry PI. Moyer, Principal, High School . Rawlins NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION President — William C. Bagley, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia Uni¬ versity, New York, N. Y. (1937). Vicepresident — Lida Lee Tall, Principal, State Normal School, Towson, Md. (1936). Secretary — Adelaide S. Baylor, Chief, Home Economics Education Service, U. S. Office of Education, 1800 H St., N. W., Washington, D. C. (1938). Executive Committee — Anna Laura Force, Principal, Lake Junior High School, Denver, Colo. (1936); Margaret Kiely, Principal, Bridgeport City Normal School, Bridgeport, Conn. (1937); A. L. Threlkeld, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo. (1938). Associational Records and Information 773 OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS Department of Administrative Women in Education President- — -Mary Elizabeth O’Connor, Supervisor of Elementary Schools, Board of Educa¬ tion, Natick, Mass. Vicepresident — Mrs. Inez Johnson Lewis, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo. Secretary — Mrs. Margaret Mendenhall Smith, Principal, Ebert School, Denver, Colo. Treasurer — Elizabeth Wells Robertson, Director of Art, Board of Education, 228 N. LaSalle St., Chicago, Ill. Directors — 'Kate Bell, Head, Department of Mathematics, Lewis and Clark High School, Spokane, Wash.; Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Principal, Washington-Gatewood Schools, Norfolk, Va. ; Sue M. Powers, Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn. ; Agnes Samuelson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa; Annie C. Woodward, Somerville High School, Somerville, Mass. Department of Adult Education President — Marguerite H. Burnett, State Director of Adult Education, 11th and Washington Streets, Wilmington, Del. (1936). Vicepresident — Maude Aiton, Administrative Principal, Webster School, 10th and H Streets, Washington, D. C. (1936). Secretary — Robert C. Deming, Supervisor, Division of Field Service, State Board of Educa¬ tion, Hartford, Conn. (1936). Treasurer — Agnes. Winn, Director, Division of Classroom Service, National Education Asso¬ ciation, Washington, D. C. Executive ' Committee — L. R. Alderman, Chief, Service Division, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. (1936); Mary L. Guyton, State Supervisor of Adult Alien Education, 217 State House, Boston, Mass. (1936). American Association of Teachers Colleges (A Department of the N. E. A.) President — H. A. Sprague, President, State Teachers College. Montclair, N. J. I’icepresident — Eugene Fair, President, Northeast Missouri State Teachers College, Kirks- ville, Mo. Secretary-Treasurer — Charles W. Hunt, Principal. State Normal School, Oneonta, N. Y. Executive Committee — Clarence L. Phelps, President, State Teachers College, Santa Barbara, Calif. (1936); Norman W. Cameron, President, State Teachers College, West Chester, Pa. (1937); L. A. Pittenger, President, Ball State Teachers College, Muncie, Ind. (1938). Department of Art Education President — Elizabeth Wells Robertson, Director of Art, Board of Education, 228 N. LaSalle St., Chicago, Ill. Secretary — Dora Hatfield, John C. Hill High School, Akron, Ohio. Treasurer — Marcela Jackson, Head of Art Department, State Normal College, Castleton, Vt. American Educational Research Association (A Department of the N. E. A.) President — Philip A. Boyer, Director, Division of Educational Research, Board of Education, Philadelphia, Pa. Vicepresident — Hollis L. Caswell, Director, Division of Surveys and Field Studies, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. Secretary-Treasurer — William G. Carr, Director, Research Division, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. Executiz>e Committee — Philip A. Boyer, Director, Division of Educational Research, Board of Education, Philadelphia, Pa.; Hollis L. Caswell, Director, Division of Surveys and Field Studies, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn.; William G. Carr, Director, Research Division, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. : T. C. Holy, Professor of Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio; Paul T. Rankin, Supervising Director of Instruction, Board of Education, Detroit, Mich. Department of Business Education President — Raymond C. Goodfellow, Director of Commercial Education, Board of Education, Newark, N. J. First Vicepresident — Ernest A. Zelliot, Associate Professor of Education, University of Denver, Denver, Colo. Second Vicepresident — Lola Maclean, Detroit Commercial College, Detroit, Mich. Secretary-Treasurer — Frances D. North, Western High School, Baltimore, Md. Editor — Herbert A. Tonne, Assistant Professor of Education, New York University, Washing¬ ton Square East, New York, N. Y. 774 National Education Association Executive Committee — M. E. Studebaker, Head, Department of Business Education, Ball State Teachers College, Muncie, Ind. (1936); E. G. Blackstone, Associate Professor of Commerce, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa (1936); Gordon F. Cadish, Director, School of Business Administration, State College of Washington, Pullman, Wash. (1936); Joseph L. Kochka, Eastern High School, Washington, D. C. (1937); Mary Stuart, Roxbury Memorial High School for Girls, Roxbury, Mass. (1937); Jessie Graham, Associate, Professor of Commerce, State Teachers College, San Jose, Calif. (1938); C. D. Cocanower, Head, Department of Commerce, Phoenix Junior College, Phoenix, Ariz. (1938). Department of Classroom Teachers President — Mary Ralls, 6529 Jefferson S't., Kansas City. Mo. (Elementary Teacher). Vicepresident — Mrs. Mary D. Barnes, 223 Summit Road, Elizabeth, N. J. (Elementary Teacher). Secretary — Frances Jelinek, Room 150, Hotel Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wis. (Elementary Teacher). Director ex officio — Daisy Lord, 1027 West Main St., Waterbury, Conn. (High-School Teacher). Regional Directors — Midwestern Region, Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl, 312 South Eighth St.. Minneapolis, Minn. (Elementary Teacher); Western Region, Albert M. Shaw, 2833 Estara Ave., Los Angeles, Calif. (Hiah-School Teacher) ; Eastern Region, Emily A. Tarbell, 235 Glenwood Ave., Syracuse, N. Y. (High-School Teacher). Department of Deans of Women President — Irma E. Voigt, Dean of Women, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. First Vicepresident — Harriett M. Allyn, Dean of Women, Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Mass. Second Vicepresident — Ruth V. Pope, Dean of Women, Hood College, Frederick, Md. Treasurer — Agnes Helmreich, Girls’ Adviser, East High School, Des Moines, Iowa. Secretary — Evelyn W. Jones, Dean of Women, University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. Headquarters Secretary — Gwladys W. Jones, 1201 Sixteenth St., Washington, D. C. Department of Elementary School Principals President — Harley W. Lyon, Principal, Longfellow-Cleveland Schools, Pasadena, Calif. First Vicepresident — M. Emma Brookes, Principal, Miles-Cranwood Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. Second Vicepresident — Ira M. Kline, Principal, Greenburgh No. 8 Schools, White Plains, N. Y. Third Vicepresident — Edythe J. Brown, Principal, Kaley-Marquette Schools, South Bend, Ind. Fourth Vicepresident — Irvin A. Wilson, 437 South Stone Ave., La Grange, Ill. Fifth Vicepresident — Mrs. Margaret Mendenhall Smith, Principal, Ebert School, Denver, Colo. Executive Secretary — Eva G. Pinkston, 1201 Sixteenth St., Washington, D. C. Executive Committee- — Cassie F. Roys, 2609 Bristol St., Omaha, Nebr. (1936); Earl R. Laing, Principal, Burt School, Detroit, Mich. (1937); Mason A. Stratton, Principal, Brighton Avenue School, Atlantic City, N. J. (1938); Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Washington-Gatewood Schools, Norfolk, Va. (1939). Life Membership Division — Herbert C. Hansen, Director, 1045 N. Lockwood Ave., Chicago, Ill. Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education President — Mrs. Eugenia West Jones, 318 S. Benton Way, Los Angeles, Calif. Vicepresident — Mrs. Daisy Carnall, 26 S. Sherman St., Denver, Colo.. Secretary — Mrs. Florence K. Hampton, 1210 Granada Ave., San Marino, Calif. Executive Committee — Geraldine McEnerny, 137 North Mason Ave., Chicago, Ill. (1936); Dodie Hooe, Kindergarten-Primary Supervisor, Board of Education, Dallas, Texas (1937); Helen Johnson, 206 South College St., Mt. Pleasant, Mich. (1938); Ethel Massengale, Kindergarten-Primary Supervisor, Board of 'Education, Atlanta, Ga. (1939). Department of Lip Reading President — Estelle E. Samuelson, Supervisor of Educational Work, New York League for the Hard of Hearing, Inc., 480 Lexington Ave., New York, N. Y. Vicepresident — Eliza Hannegan, Teacher of Lip Reading, Portland Evening School, Port¬ land, Maine. Secretary-Treasurer — Marie K. Mason, Instructor and Lecturer in Visual Hearing, Phonetics Laboratories, Derby Hall, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Department of Music Education President — John C. Kendel, Director of Music, Board of Education, Denver, Colo. Secretary — Samuel T. Burns, Director of Music, State Department of Public Instruction, Baton Rouge, La. Associational Records and Information 775 Department of Rural Education President — Sue M. Powers, Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn. Vicepresident — James B. Palmer, Professor of Education, New York State College for Teach ers, Albany, N. Y. Secretary — Mrs. Katherine M. Cook, Chief, Division of Special Problems, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. Executive Committee — O. H. Plenzke, Secretary, Wisconsin Teachers Association, 716 Insur¬ ance Bldg., Madison, Wis. (1936); Fannie W. Dunn, Professor of Rural Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. (1937); O. H. Bennett, 532 Court House, Cincinnati, Ohio (1938); Fred C. Fischer, Deputy Commissioner, Wayne County Schools, 2615 Barium Tower, Detroit, Mich. (1939); Chloe Baldridge, Director of Rural Education, State Department of Public Instruction, Lincoln, Nebr. (1940); R. E. Jaggers, Director of Teacher Training, State Department of Public Instruction, Frankfort, Ky. (1941). Department of School Health and Physical Education President — A. W. Thompson, Director of Health Education and City Recreation, Board of Education, Grand Rapids, Mich. Vicepresident — Edna Bailey, Associate Professor of Education, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. Secretary-Treasurer— James E. Rogers, Director, National Physical Education Service, 315 Fourth Ave., New York, N. Y. Executive Committee — Ethel Perrin, Associate Director of Education Service, American Child Health Association, New York. N. Y. (1936); F. W. Maroney, Professor of Physical Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. (1937); A. G. Ireland, Director of Health and Physical Education, State Department of Education, Trenton, N. J. (1938); William Burdick, State Director of Physical Education, 7 East Mulberry St., Baltimore, Md. (1939). Department of Science Instruction President — Ira C. Davis, President, University High School, Madison, Wis. Eastern Vicepresident — Mildred M. Faiiy, Principal, Amundsen-Von Steuben Schools, Chi¬ cago, Ill. Western Vicepresident — Charles L. Hampton, Instructor, Piedmont High School, Piedmont, Calif. Secretary — Vesta Hicks, Supervisor of Elementary Science, Board of Education, Austin, Texas. Treasurer — Esther W. Scott, James F. Oyster School, Washington, D. C. Department of Secondary Education President — Ernest D. Lewis, Chairman, Department of Social Studies, Evander Childs High School, New York, N. Y. Vicepresident — George R. Rankin, Boys’ Technical High School, Milwaukee, Wis. Secretary — Ann E. Ryder, Snyder High School, Jersey. City, N. J. Treasurer — L. Denzil Keigley, Chester S. Morey Junior High School, Denver, Colo. Regional Directors — Eastern Region, Augustus Ludwig, Pershing Junior High School, Brook¬ lyn, N. Y. ; Southern Region, Robert W. House, Salem High School, Salem, Va.; Mid¬ western Region, Alvin H. Hanson, Rufus Kind High School, Milwaukee, Wis.; Inter¬ mountain Region, Grace Kenehan, Chester S. Morey Junior High School, Denver, Colo.; Pacific Region, Grace M. Davis, Modesto High School, Modesto, Calif. Department of Secondary School Principals President — Harrison C. Lyseth, Supervisor of Secondary Education, State Department of Education, Augusta, Maine. First Vicepresident — Willard N. Van Slyck, Principal, Boswell Junior High School, Topeka, Kans. Second Vicepresident — M. G. Jones, Principal, Union High School, Huntington Beach, Calif. Executive Secretary — H. V. Church, 5835 Kimbark Ave., Chicago, Ill. Executive Committee — Charles F. Allen, Supervisor of Secondary Education, Board of Edu¬ cation, Little Rock, Ark.; K. J. Clark, Principal, Murphy High School, Mobile, Ala.; Oscar Granger, Principal, Haverford Township High School, Upper Darby, Pa. Department of Social Studies President — Edgar B. Wesley, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. First Vicepresident — Roy O. Hughes, Director, Department of Curriculum Research, Board of Education, Pittsburgh, Pa. Second Vicepresident — Elmer Ellis, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. Secretary-Treasurer — Bessie L. Pierce, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Advisory Council — Mary G. Christie, Department of Social Studies, North High School, Denver, Colo.; Harley S. Graston, Department of History, Woodlawn High School, Birmingham, Ala. 776 National Education Association Department of Special Education President — Mks. Mabel A. Harms, Boys’ Vocational School, Minneapolis, Minn. Vicepresident — Catherine Nutterville, School Psychologist, Boat'd of Education, Butte, Mont. Secretary-Treasurer — Lattsche Henderson, John Marshall High School, St. Paul, Minn. Department of Superintendence President— A. J. Stoddard, Superintendent of Schools, Providence, R. I. First Vicepresident — E. E. Oberholtzer, Superintendent of Schools, Houston, Texas. Second Vicepresident — A. L. Threlkeld, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo. Executive Secretary — -Sherwood D. Shankland, 1201 Sixteenth St., Washington, D. C. Executive Committee — Carroll R. Reed, Superintendent of Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. (1936); Frank G. Pickell, Superintendent of Schools, Montclair, N. J. (1937); George C. Bush, Superintendent of Schools, South Pasadena, Calif. (1938); Ben G. Graham, Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. (1939). Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction President — Rudolph D. Lindquist, Director, University School, Columbus, Ohio. First Vicepresident — -Mary Browning, Supervisor, Early Elementary Education, Board of Education, Louisville, Ky. Second Vicepresident — Robert H. Lane, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary-Treasurer — James F. Hosic, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Executive Committee — Mildred English, Director of Training School, Georgia State College for Women, Milledgeville, Ga. ; Ernest Horn, Professor of Education, State University . of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; Paul T. Rankin, Supervising Director of Instruction, Board of Education, Detroit, Mich. Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics President — Mrs. Leila Bunce Smith, 424 West Peachtree St., Atlanta, Ga. Vicepresident — Mrs. Dorothea Marlow, Shaker Heights High School, Shaker Heights, Ohio. Secretary — Mrs. Erma Christie, Supervisor of Home Economics, Board of Education, Muncie, Ind. Treasurer — Miriam A. Weikert, 1203 South Queen St., York, Pa. Department of Visual Instruction President— Nelson L. Greene, Editor, Educational Screen, 64 East Lake St., Chicago, Ill. First Vicepresident — Wilber Emmert, Director, Visual Education, State Teachers College, Indiana, Pa. Second Vicepresident — Annette Glick, Director of Visual Education, Board of Education, Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary-Treasurer — Ellsworth C. Dent, 5863 Chevy Chase Parkway, N. W., Chevy Chase, D. C. . . Executive Committee — Daniel C. Knowlton, Associate Professor of Education, New York University, New York, N. Y. (1936); John A. Hollinger, Director of Nature Study and Visualization, Board of Education, Pittsburgh, Pa. (1937); William H. Dudley, Director, Dudley Visual Education Service, 746 South Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill. (1938); Mrs. Grace Fisher Ramsey, Assistant Curator of Education, American Museum of Natural History, 77th St. and Central Park, W., New York, N. Y. (1939); Robert F. Collier, Jr., South High School, Denver, Colo. (1940); Cline M. Koon, Senior Specialist in Education by Radio, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. (1941). Department of Vocational Education President— Forest E. Moore, Director of Vocational Education, State Department of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa. Secretary — B. H. Van Oot,^ Supervisor of Trade and Industrial Education, State Department of Public Instruction, Richmond, Va. Associational Records and Information 777 COMMITTEES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, 1934-35 COMMITTEE ON AMENDING CHARTER (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Shaw, Reuben T., Chairman; 1327 Real Estate Trust Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa. Banks, L. Frazer, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Board of Education, Box 114, Birmingham, Ala. Brookes, M. Emma, Principal Miles-Cran- wood Schools, 111918 Miles Ave., Cleve¬ land, Ohio. A COMMITTEE ON Pittenger, L. A., Chairman; President, Ball State Teachers College, Muncie, Ind. Alexander, W. B., Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Texas. Allen, J. G., Soldiers’ Orphan School, Scot¬ land, Pa. Batchelder, Carl J., Deputy Commissioner of Education, St. Johnsbury, Vt. Bertram, Anna, Superintendent of County Schools, Vanceburg, Ky. Birch, C. E., Superintendent of Schools, Lawrence, Kans. Bruce, John C., Supervising Principal, Whitelaw Hotel, Washington, D. C. Bruner, T. A., Superintendent of Schools, Harlem, Mont. Bugg, J. J., County Superintendent, Flor¬ ence, Ariz. Campbell, Erma, DeLand, Fla. Clark, Ethel, Grant High School, Portland, Ore. Davis, Homes, Kalamazoo, Mich. Disher, L. L., Principal, 2364 Glenwood, Toledo, Ohio. Durepo, Levi G., High School, Rumford, Maine. Dyson, Clarence, Principal, Aiea Elemen¬ tary School, Aiea, Oahu, Hawaii. Eliif, Miles, A., Superintendent of Schools, Lebanon, Mo. Fisher, E. C., Superintendent of Schools, Peoria, Ill. Fitzgerald, J. E., Principal, Hopkins School, Sioux City, Iowa. Fowler, B. A., Secretary, Utah Education Association, Salt Lake City, Utah. Heidleburg, H. B., Superintendent of Schools, Clarksdale, Miss. Howell, C. M., Secretary, Oklahoma Edu¬ cation Association, Oklahoma City, Okla. Keenan, Mary, 1226 N. Wisconsin Ave., Milwaukee, Wis. Lively, Mrs. E., Sophie Wright High School, New Orleans, La. Lujan, Manuel, Superintendent of County Schools, Santa Fe, N. Mex. Martin, John E., Superintendent of Schools, Suffolk, Va. Cram, Fred D., Professor of Education, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. Dahl, Mrs. Myrtle Hooper, 312 S. 8th St., Minneapolis, Minn. Ewing, Sara C., 5461 Pleasant Run Park¬ way, Indianapolis, Ind. Hardy, H. Claude, State Director, Superin¬ tendent of Schools, White Plains, N. Y. CREDENTIALS Meldahl, Andrew, Principal, East Junior High School, Duluth, Minn. Moyer, H. H., Principal, High School, Rawlins, Wyo. Palmer, John H., Principal, Union High School, Placerville, Calif. Parker, William, Superintendent of Schools, Danielson, Conn. Pipkin, John G., Business Manager City Schools, Little Rock, Ark. Power, F. Ray, Assistant State Superin¬ tendent of Schools, Charleston, W. Va. Quinn, Maisie E., Assistant Superintendent of Schools, West Warwick, R. I. Rhodes, Maude, 185 Westminster, N. E., Atlanta, Ga. Rodewald, Anne, 205 5th St., Bismarck, N. D. Schar, Mrs. Francena, Superintendent of County Schools, Bison, S. D. Simpson, Mabel E., 74 Marlborough Road, Rochester, N. Y'. Smith, Chauncey W., State Superintendent Public Instruction, Carson City, Nev. Smith, Edgar B., Principal, Greenfield High School, Greenfield, Mass. Stearn, Bessie, State Department of Edu¬ cation, Baltimore, Md. Steel, Charles L., Jr., Principal, High School, Teaneck, N. J. Thompson, Elizabeth M., Elementary Princi¬ pal, Colebrook, N. H. Vaughan, J. T., Principal Bush School, Birmingham, Ala. Vincent, W. D., Superintendent of Schools, Boise, Idaho. Wagner, M. Channing, Assistant Superin¬ tendent of Schools, Wilmington, Del. Wardrobe, Mary, Longfellow School, Spo¬ kane, Wash. Warren, Jule B., Secretary, North Carolina Education Association, Raleigh, N. C. Williams, Elizabeth, Loudon, Tenn. Wilson, Claude, Boulder Public Schools, Boulder, Colo. Young, Dorris, High School, York, S. C. Young, Joseph, Superintendent of Schools, David City, Nebr. COMMITTEE TO COOPERATE WITH THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS IN COLORED SCHOOLS (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Newbold, N. C., Chairman; State Director of Negro Education, State Department of Education, Raleigh, N. C. Archer, Frederick, Superintendent, Louis¬ ville Public Schools, Louisville, Ky. Banks, W. R., Principal, Prairie View State Normal and Industrial College, Prairie View, Texas. Bond, W. F., State Superintendent of Edu¬ cation, Jackson, Miss. 778 National Education Association Brown, Charles D., Principal, Marshall School, 4342 Aldine St., St. Louis, Mo. Carney, Mabel, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Cook, Mrs. Katherine M., Chief, Special Problems Division, U. S. Office of Educa¬ tion, Washington, D. C. Davis, Jackson, Associate Director of Edu¬ cation, General Education Board, 804 Grace-American Bldg., Richmond, Va. Duckrey, Tanner G., Principal, Paul Lau¬ rence Dunbar Public School, 12th St. above Columbia Ave., Philadelphia, Pa. Duke, E. A., Rural School Supervisor, State Department of Public Instruction, Okla¬ homa City, Okla. Edwards, Margaret M., Director, Depart¬ ment of Home Economics, Woman’s Col¬ lege of the University of North Carolina, Greensboro, N. C. Eleazer, R. B., Secretary, Conference on Education and Race Relations, 703 Stand¬ ard Bldg., Atlanta, Ga. Favrot, Leo M., General Field Agent, Gen¬ eral Education Board, 916 Louisiana Na¬ tional Bank Bldg., Baton Rouge, La. Finney, John Morton, Crispus Attuck High School, Indianapolis, Ind. Grossley, R. S., President, State College for Colored Students, Dover, Del. Hale, W. J., President, Tennessee Agricul¬ tural and Industrial State College, Nash¬ ville, Tenn. Hall, Sidney B., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Richmond, Va. Hope, James H., State Superintendent of Education, Columbia, S. C. Hufftngton, J. Walter, Supervisor of Col¬ ored Schools, Department of Education, Lexington and Liberty Sts., Baltimore, Md. Johnson, Charles S., Director, Department of Social Science, Fisk University, Nash¬ ville, Tenn. Klein, Arthur J., Department of Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Lee, J. R. E., President, Florida Agricul¬ tural and Mechanical College, Tallahas- S66 Pig,, Lucas, M. Grant, 1738 15th St., N. W., Washington, D. C. McAlister, H. L., President, Arkansas State Teachers College, Normal Station, Con¬ way, Ark. Oberholtzer, E. E., Superintendent of Schools, Houston, Texas. Payne, A. C., Head, Department of Educa¬ tion, Indiana State Teachers College. Terre Haute, Ind. Pyrtle, E. Ruth, Principal, Bancroft School, Lincoln, Nebr. Read, Florence M., President, Spelman Col¬ lege, Atlanta, Ga. Sanders, W. W., State Supervisor of Negro Schools, State Department of Education, Charleston, W. Va. Seabrook, J. W., President, State Normal School, Fayetteville, N. C. Smith, S. L., Director for Southern Office, Julius Rosenwald Fund, Cotton States Bldg., Nashville, Tenn. Wilkinson, Garnet, First Assistant Super¬ intendent of Public Schools, Washington, D. C. Williams, Fannie C., 1922 Louisiana Ave., New Orleans, La. Williams, W. T. B., Dean, Tuskegee Nor¬ mal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala. Wright, Arthur D., President, John D. Slater Fund, 726 Jackson Place, Washing¬ ton, D. C. COMMITTEE ON THE ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE TEACHER (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Buckingham, B. R., Chairman, 15 Ashbur¬ ton Place, Boston, Mass. Ballou, Frank W., Superintendent, District of Columbia Public Schools, Franklin School Bldg., Washington, D. C. Barnard, Florence, Educational Director, American Association for Economic Edu¬ cation, 9 Park St., Boston, Mass. Coxe, W. W., Director, Educational Re¬ search Division, University of the State of New York, Albany, N. Y. McGaughy, J. R., Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. JOINT COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Wood, Thomas D., Chairman; Teachers Col¬ lege, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Burdick, William D., Director, Playground Athletic League, Inc., 7 E. Mulberry St., Baltimore, Md. Black, George H., Delta Kappa Epsilon Club, 5 E. 51st St., New York, N. Y. Brownell, Clifford L., Columbia University, New York. N. Y. Burnham, Wi’liam H., Bancroft Hotel, Worcester, Mass. Burns, H. B., Director of Hygiene, Pitts¬ burgh Public Schools, Administration Bldg., Pittsburgh, Pa. Chayer, Ella, Department of Nursing Edu¬ cation, Teachers College, Columoia Uni¬ versity, New York, N. Y. Clark, Giles D., Principal, School No. 20, Albany, N. Y. Cody, Frank, Superintendent, Detroit Pub¬ lic Schools, Detroit, Mich. Cornell, Walter S., Director, Medical In¬ spection, Philadelphia Public Schools, Parkway at 21st St., Philadelphia, Pa. Gillis, Helen R., Edinburgh, Pa. Graves, Frank Pierrepont, State Commis¬ sioner of Education, Albany, N. Y. Hale, Florence, Editor, The Grade Teacher, 425 4th Ave., New York, N. Y. Harris, Cara L., Associate Professor of Health Education, University of Tennes¬ see, Knoxville, Tenn. Langworthy, Mrs. B. F., President, National Congress of Parents and Teachers, 6 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill. McWilliams, Mrs. Marion Lerrigo, 99 Wil¬ low Ave., Larchmont, N. Y. Murphy, Mary E., Director, Elizabeth Mc¬ Cormick Memorial Fund, 848 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, Ill. Patey, Henry C., National Committee for Mental Hygiene, 450 7th Ave., New York, N. Y. Phelan, Anette, Staff Associate, National Society for Prevention of Blindness, 50 W. 50th St., New York, N. Y. Reeve, Mrs. A. H., Vicepresident, Interna¬ tional Federation of Home and School, 1520 Spruce St., Philadelphia, Pa. Association'.'1, i. Records and Information 779 Stoddard, A. J., Superintendent, Providence Public Schools, Providence, R. I. Sutton, Willis A., Superintendent, Atlanta Public Schoo’s, Atlanta, Ga. Symonds, Percival M., Teachers College. Columbia University, New York, N, Y. Tall, Lida Lee, Principal, Maryland State Normal School, Towson, Md. Whitney, Anne, Director of Educational Service, American Child Health Associa¬ tion, 50 W. 50th St., New York, N. Y. Wilson, Charles C., Director, Department of Health and Physical Education, Hart¬ ford Public Schoo’s, Hartford, Conn. COMMITTEE ON HIGHER EDUCATION (Special Committee) Gage, H. M., Chairman; President, Iowa College Presidents, Coe College, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Crane, A. G., President, University of Wyo¬ ming, Laramie, Wyo. Elliott, Edward C., President, Purdue Uni¬ versity, Lafayette, Ind. Kelly, Fred J., Chief, Division of Higher Education, Office of Education, Washing¬ ton, D. C. McClelland, George William, Vice Provost, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. McCracken, T. C., Dean, College of Educa¬ tion, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. McVey, Frank L., President, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. Maphis, Charles G., Dean, University of Virginia Summer Quarter, University, Va. von Kleinschmidt, Rufus B., President, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif. Zook, George F., Director, American Coun¬ cil on Education, 744 Jackson Place, Washington, D. C. COMMITTEE ON HORACE MANN CENTENNIAL CELEBRATION (Special Committee) Smith, Payson, Chairman; Commissioner of Education, Boston, Mass. Coltrane, Eugene J., President, Brevard College, Brevard, N. C. Dorsey, Mrs. Susan M., 1506 Arapahoe St., Los Angeles, Calif. Eldred, Arvie, Secretary, New York State Teachers Association, 240 State St., Al¬ bany, N. Y. Hall, E’izabeth, South Ryegate, Vt. Morgan, Arthur. Chairman, Board of Direc¬ tors, Tennessee Valley Authority, Tempo¬ rary Bldg. F., Washington, D. C. Rule, James N., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. Skidmore, Charles H., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Salt Lake City, Utah. COMMITTEE ON INCREASE OF REVENUE (Special Committee) Pearse, Carroll G., Chairman; 1721 Lud- ington Ave., Wauwatosa Branch, Mil¬ waukee, Wis. Adair, Cornelia, 3208 Hawthorne St., Rich¬ mond, Va. Jack, William B., Superintendent of Schools, Portland, Maine. Merrill, Birdine, Shattuck School, Portland, Ore. Woodruff-, Caroline, Principal, State Normal School, Castleton, Vt. COMMITTEE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS (Authorized by Representative Assemb’y) Woodward, Annie Carleton, Chairman; 78 Highland Ave., Somerville, Mass. Abercrombie, John W., Assistant State Superintendent of Education, Montgom¬ ery, Ala. Adair, Cornelia S., 3208 Hawthorne St., Richmond, Va. Aiken, Georgia Whelan, Hotel Alms, Wal¬ nut Hills, Cincinnati, Ohio. Alexander, Thomas, Teachers College, Co¬ lumbia University, New York, N. Y. Allen, J. Edward, Superintendent, Warren County Schools, Warrenton, N. C. Andrews, Mrs. Fannie Fern, 295 Common¬ wealth Ave., Boston, Mass. Burns, Ralph A., Dartmouth College, Han¬ over, N. H. Barnum, Mrs. Mary G., Director, Seventh Region, National League of Women Voters, 535 Ladera St., Pasadena, Calif. Bell, Helen L., 2104 N. 8th St., Springfield, Ill. Bell, Maude R., 4147 Starr St., Lincoln, Nebr. Bennion, Milton, Dean, School of Educa¬ tion, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. Berman, Samuel, Principal, James R. Lud¬ low School, Philadelphia, Pa. Black, E. H., Superintendent, Bristow Pub¬ lic Schools, Bristow, Okla. Blair, Francis G., Abraham Lincoln Hotel, Springfield, Ill. Blake, Katherine Devereux, A. W. A. Club¬ house, 353 W. 57th St., New York, N. Y. Boehm, Charles H., Assistant Superinten¬ dent, Bucks County Schools, Morrisville, Pa. Bradford, Mrs. Mary D., 6101 5th Ave., Kenosha, Wis. Bradley, Helen, 2349 Ash’and Ave., Cincin¬ nati, Ohio. Bradshaw, Roy, 1628 S. Victor St., Tulsa, Okla. Brooks, L. W., Principal. Wichita High School North, Wichita, Kan*. Brown, Eugenie, Doanbrooke Hotel, Cleve¬ land, Ohio. 780 National Education Association Burdick, William D., Director, Playground Athletic League, Inc., 7 E. Mulberry St., Baltimore, Md. Burkholder, E. Paul, Supervisor of Schools, Sussex County Court House, Georgetown, Del. Bush, George C., Superintendent of Schools, S. Pasadena, Calif. Cadman, Bernice, High School, Janesville, Wis. Casey, William V., Superintendent Emer¬ itus, Boulder Public Schools, Boulder, Colo. Chamberlain, Arthur H., 609 Mission St., San Francisco, Calif. Clark, Mrs. Frances E., Manager, Educa¬ tional Activities, RCA-Victor Company, Inc., Camden, N.J. Clark, Harry, Superintendent, Knoxville Public Schools, Knoxville, Tenn. Claxton, P. P., President, Austin Peay Nor¬ mal School, Clarksville, Tenn. Clemons, Clarice, Head, Normal Training Department, Campbell County High School, Gillette, Wyo. Coyne, Marie, S. 210 Adams St., Spokane, Wash. Crawford, Mary Maior, Nebraska State Teachers College, Kearney, Nebr. Crawford, Mary Sinclair, Dean of Women, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif. Daniel, Roland B., Superintendent, Colum¬ bus Public Schools, Columbus, Ga. de Francesco, Italo L., 1603 N. 11th St., Reading, Pa. Donovan, H. L., President, Eastern Ken¬ tucky State Teachers College, Richmond, Ky. Dorsey, Martha W., Head, Denartment of English, George Washington High School, Indianapolis, Ind. Dowling, Evaline, Chairman, World Friend¬ ship Committee of Los Angeles, 717 Chamber of Commerce Bldg., Los Angeles, Calif. Dowling, H. G., 1426 Brown St., Tuscaloosa, Duke, Florence E., 2224 W. Grace St., Rich¬ mond, Va. Edward, Elbert, 215 Bonnerville St., Las Vegas, Nev. Eisner, Miriam D., 3098 California St., San Francisco, Calif. Eldred, Arvie, Secretary, New York State Teachers Association, 240 State St., Al¬ bany, N. Y. Ellis, Mabel R., 805 Shrader St., San Fran¬ cisco, Calif. Fahey, Sara, 185 Berkeley Place, Brooklyn, N. Y. Fair, Jessie Frances, Supervisor, Upper Elementary Department, Dayton Public Schools, Dayton, Ohio. Farrin, Leon M., Superintendent, Athol Public Schools, Athol, Mass. Fell, E. E., Superintendent of Schools, Hol¬ land, Mich. Ficke, Alice, Roosevelt High School, Hono¬ lulu, Hawaii. Field, E. C., Central High School, Omaha, Nebr. Finley, John H., New York Times, New York, N. Y'. Foster, Blanche, 178 Franklin St., Wood¬ bury, N. J. Full, George D., President, Dudley Lock Corporation, 26 N. Franklin St., Chicago, Ill. Futrall, Alma, 237 Pearl St., Marianna, Ark. Gardner, Ethel M., Andrew Jackson School, 420 N. Jackson St., Milwaukee, Wis. Glenn, C. B., Superintendent, Birmingham Public Schools, Birmingham, Ala. Goodrich, Bessie Bacon, Director, Curricu¬ lum Revision, Des Moines Public Schools, Garfield Bldg., Des Moines, Iowa. Gosling, Thomas W., 3311 Cathedral Ave., N. W., Washington, D. C. Grassmuck, Erna, Head, Geography Depart¬ ment, State Teachers College, Indiana, Pa. Gray, Clifton D., President, Bates College, Lewiston, Maine. Guhin, M. M., Professor of Rural Educa¬ tion, Northern Normal and Industrial School, Aberdeen, S. D. Gyger, John T., Superintendent, Falmouth Public Schools, Portland, Maine. Haggard, Patience, Dean of Women, State Normal School, Potsdam, N. Y. Hall, Royal G., Chairman, Social Science Division, Albion College, Albion, Mich. Haller, Helene, Superintendent, Benewah County Schools, St. Marie’s, Idaho. Hammond, Vida, 331 Chamber of Commerce Bldg., Portland, Ore. Heacock, A. B., Principal, Los Feliz School, Los Angeles, Calif. Heatwole, Cornelius J., Secretary, Virginia Education Association, 401 N. 9th St., Richmond, Va, Hendrie, William E., Principal, Public School #109, Queens Village, N. Y. Hobson, Louise B., 166 Arnold Ave., Edge- wood Station, Providence, R. I. Holler, J. C., Superintendent, Anderson County Schools, Anderson, S. C. Hood, Edna E., Supervisor, Household and Fine Arts, Kenosha Public Schools, Ad¬ ministration Bldg., Kenosha, Wis. Hood, Elisabeth, Supervisor, Department of Household Arts, Racine Public Schools, Racine, Wis. Howard, Daniel, Superintendent Emeritus, Windsor Public Schools, Windsor, Conn. Howard, Margarette E., Principal, Lincoln School, Summit, N. J, Hunter, Frederick Maurice, Chancellor, Uni¬ versity of Denver, Denver, Colo. Jacobsen, Christine A., 1320 W. 41st Place, Los Angeles, Calif. James, William Alonzo, Principal, Ball High School, Galveston, Texas. Jamison, Jeanette, Senior High School, Reading, Pa. Jean, Sally Lucas, Supervisor of Health Education, Office of Indian Affairs, Post Office Bldg., Washington, D. C. Johnson, M. Irene, Director, Student Teach¬ ing, Manchester College, North Manches¬ ter, Ind. Jones, Olive M., Director, Calvary House, 61 Gramercy Park North, New York, N. Y. Keegan, Mary E., 679 12th Ave., San Fran¬ cisco, Calif. Kinsey, Juanita, Junior College, Wichita Falls, Texas. Laing, Earl R., Principal, Burt School, Detroit, Mich. Lake, Charles, Superintendent. Cleveland Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. Lamkin, Uel W., President, Northwest Mis¬ souri State Teachers College, Maryville, Mo. Lane, C. H., Chief, Agricultural Education Service, Federal Board for Vocational Education, 1800 H St., N. W,, Washing¬ ton, D. C., Lewis, Mrs. Inez Johnson, State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo. Lichtenberger, James F., Principal, Morris Park School, Minneapolis, Minn. Lobben, Clara H., 902 8th St., N., Fargo, N. D. Lommen, Georgina, Director, Training School, State Teachers College, Moor¬ head, Minn. Longshore, W. T., Principal, Greenwood School, Kansas City, Mo. Lord, Daisy, Wilby High School, Water- bury, Conn. Associational Records and Information 781 MacCracken, John H., American Council on Education, 744 Jackson Place, N. W., Washington, D. C. MacKay, Donald W., President, Eastern New Mexico Junior College, Portales, N. M. McCollum, It. E., Washington Public School, 2nd and Rockford, Tulsa, Okla. McCormick, Elizabeth, Principal, Timothy O. Howe School, Superior, Wis. Mansfield, Mrs. Katharine M., Principal, Cedar School, Canton, Ohio. Marsh, Daniel L., President, Boston Univer¬ sity, 688 Boylston St., Boston, Mass. Matthews, A. J., President Emeritus, Ari¬ zona State Teachers College, Tempe, Ariz. Monroe, Paul, Director, International Insti¬ tute, Teachers College, Columbia Univer¬ sity, New York, N. Y. Mull Cora E., 5543 Kimbark Ave., Chicago, Ill. Neer, Robert, Selina, Ohio. Nielson, Minnie J., 901 5th Ave., Valley City, N. D. Nisbett, Mary Leila, 804 W. 8th St., Dallas, Texas. Norman, J. W., Dean of Education, Uni¬ versity of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. O’Connor, Mary Elizabeth, Supervisor, Ele¬ mentary Schools, Natick School Depart¬ ment, Natick, Mass. Patt, Hermann G., Principal, John Clarke School, Newport, R. I. Peterson, Mrs. Francis, 3034 Manoa Road, Honolulu, Hawaii. Pitman, J. Asbury, Principal, Salem State Teachers College, Salem, Mass. Puckett, E. F., Superintendent, Crystal Springs Consolidated School, Crystal Springs, Miss. Pyrtle, E. Ruth, Principal, Bancroft School, Lincoln, Nebr. Ralls, Mary Calvert, 6529 Jefferson St., Kansas City, Mo. Reed, Carroll R., Superintendent, Minne¬ apolis Public Schools, MinneapoUs, Minn. Rhodes, Maude A., Principal, Whitefoord School, Atlanta, Ga. Richter, Lailet, George W. Brackenridge High School, San Antonio, Texas. Riddle, Anna, 2 Summit Place, St. Joseph, Mo. Roach, Mary Margaret, Principal, Roach School, 439 W. Wood St., Decatur, Ill. Roberts, Edward D., Superintendent Cin¬ cinnati Public Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio. Rorvik, Gladys, Box 869, Miles City, Mont. Ryan, W. Carson, Jr., Director of Educa¬ tion, Office of Indian Affairs, U. S. De¬ partment of the Interior, Washington, D. C. Samuelson, Agnes, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa. Saunders, Joseph H., Superintendent, New¬ port News Public Schools, Newport News, Va. Sexton, J. W., Superintendent, Lansing Public Schools, Lansing, Mich. Shepherd, Grace M., 803 N. Mulberry St., Maryville, Mo. Shibles, Marietta, 5 N. 9th Ave., Mount Vernon, N. Y. Shinn, Alida Visscher, Mills College, Mills College, Calif. Showalter, N. D., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Olympia, Wash. Sigler, Mrs. Lou I., Assistant Principal, Ottowa Hills High School, Grand Rapids, Mich. Simpson, Janet C., State Teachers College, Florence, Ala. Smith, Esther M., 1020 Bessemer Bldg., Pittsburgh, Pa. Smith, Jessica, Head, Social Studies Depart¬ ment, Wichita High School North, Wich¬ ita, Kans. Smith, Mrs. Margaret Mendenhall, Princi¬ pal, Ebert School, 23rd and Glenarm Place, Denver, Colo. Spaulding, Frederick H., President, Uni¬ versity of Tampa, Tampa, Fla. Steele, N. E., Secretary, South Dakota Edu¬ cation Association, Room 3, Perry Bldg., Sioux Falls, S. D. Stephens, E. L., President, Southwestern Louisiana Institute of Liberal and Tech¬ nical Learning, Lafayette, La. Stewart, Mrs. Cora Wilson, Director, Na¬ tional Illiteracy Crusade, Inc., Washing¬ ton Bldg., Washington, D. C. Stratton, Mason A., Principal, Brighton Avenue School, Atlantic City, N. J. Strong, Vera, Board of Education, Houston, Texas. Sykes, Mrs. Dorothy Eidson, Superinten¬ dent, Gila County Schools, Globe, Ariz. Taylor, William S., Dean, College of Edu¬ cation, University of Kentucky, Lexing¬ ton, Ky. Thompson, Anna M., Carlton Hotel, Kansas City, Mo. Toner, Caroline E., 1814 Ingleside Terrace, Washington, D. C. Trent, Adelaide R., 519 Larson Lane, Lee Heights, Cherrydale, Va. Trusheim, Eva, Principal, Congress Heights School, Washington, D. C. Vaughan, J. P., Superintendent, Indepen¬ dent School District Number Forty, Chis¬ holm, Minn. Vogel, Ella King, 7 Oakland Square, Pitts¬ burgh, Pa. von Kleinsmid, Rufus B., President, Uni¬ versity of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif. Walton, George A., Principal, George School, George School, Pa. Ward, David A., Superintendent, Chester Public Schools, Chester, Pa. Webber, George Harris, Head Department of Education and Psychology, Georgia State College for Women, Milledgeville, Ga. Wellemeyer, J. Fletcher, Dean, Junior Col¬ lege, 9th and Minnesota Ave., Kansas City, Kans. West, Ruth, West 2020 Pacific, Spokane, Wash. White, W. H. S., President, Shepherd State Teachers College, Shepherdstown, W. Va. Wilson, Mrs. Alice, Director, World League of International Education Associations, Room 521, Phelan Bldg., San Francisco, Calif. Wirt, Lula E., Nebraska State Teachers College, Kearney, Nebr. Withers, John W., Dean, School of Educa¬ tion, New York University, New York, N. Y. Woodruff, Caroline S., Principal, State Nor¬ mal School, Castleton, Vt. Wynn, W. T., Department of English, Milledgeville, Ga. 782 National Education Association JOINT COMMISSION ON THE EMERGENCY IN EDUCATION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND THE DEPARTMENT C (Special Norton, John K., Chairman; Professor of Education, Teachers Co.lege, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Coffman, Lotus D., President, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. Edmonson, J. B., Dean of Education, Uni¬ versity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Hall, Sidney B., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Richmond, Va. Preble, Mrs. F. Blanche, 10855 Vernon Ave., Chicago, Ill. )F SUPERINTENDENCE Committee) Stoddard, A. J., Superintendent, Providence Public Schools, Providence, R. I. Threlkeld, A. L., Superintendent, Denver Public Schools, Denver, Colo. Weet, Herbert S., Education Bldg., Roch¬ ester, N. Y. Weglein, David E., Superintendent Balti¬ more Public Schools, Baltimore, Md. White, Mrs. Blanche McCarthy, 116 N. Charter St., Madison, Wis. JOINT COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND THE AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION (Special Committee) Kennedy, Anna Clarke, Chairman; Super¬ visor of School Libraries, Education De¬ partment, University of the State of New York, Albany, N. Y. Batchelder, Mildred, Haven School Library, Evanston, Ill. Blanchard, M. Gertrude, Dean of Women, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, Pa. Bristow, W. H., Director, Educational Bu¬ reau, Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. Cutter, Annie Spencer, Director, School Department, Public Library, Cleveland, 0. Lathrop, Edith A., Associate Specialist in School Libraries, U. S. Office of Educa¬ tion, Washington, D. C. Ross, Mrs. Margaret, Supervisor, Depart¬ ment of School Libraries and Visual Edu¬ cation, 11th and Washington Sts., Wil¬ mington, Del. Schmidt, Irwin H., Superintendent of Schools, Sac City, Iowa. Vought, Sabra W., Chief, Library Division, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D, C. Witmer, Eleanor M., Librarian, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, JOINT COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND THE NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Langworthy, Mrs. B. F., Chairman; Presi¬ dent, National Congress of Parents and Teachers, 6 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill. Beatty, Mrs William F., 1914 Spring St., Parkersburg, W. Va. Clark, Mrs. Mabel, 428 S. Broadway, Has¬ tings, Mich. Cleveland, Jessie, Grade Supervisor, Mc¬ Cook, Nebr. Cooley, Mrs. Charles H., 14 Eglantine Ave.. Pennington, N. J. Coope, Jessie, Assistant Principal, Mc¬ Kinley School, 2nd and T Sts., N. E., Washington, D. C. Dick, Mrs. Florence, Museum Bldg., Denver, Colo. Higgins, Reyburn, Weequahic High School, Newark, N. J. Johnson, Genevieve, Dean of Girls, San Jacinto High School, Houston, Texas. Joynes, Mrs. Edith B., Principal, George Washington and Robert Gatewood Schools, Berkley, Norfolk, Va. Langworthy, Harry W., Superintendent of Schools, Gloversville, N. Y. McMillan, E. E. Principal, North High School, Omaha, Nebr. Marble, Margaret M., Hotel Alms, Cin¬ cinnati, Ohio. Miller, Mrs. Ruth Pell, 1056 Euclid Place, Huntington, W. Va. Minor, Lillian, Supervisor, Norfolk County, 1112 Matooka St., Norfolk, Va. Pettengill, Mrs. J. K., 426 W. Saginaw St., Lansing, Mich. Pilcher, Mrs. Mary, Dean of Girls, High School, Montclair, N. J. Porter, Myrta, North High School, Denver, Colo. Pye, Mrs. Charles, 415 Shops Bldg., Des Moines, Iowa. Read, Faye, 131 Vernon Place, Pueblo, Colo. Saylor, Clyde T., Superintendent, Chester County Schools, West Chester, Pa. Shuttleworth, Mrs. A. B., 3281 Lowell Blvd., Denver, Colo. Steinhausen, Mrs. Meta, Dean of Girls, Washington Junior High School, Roch¬ ester, N. Y. Sterk, Clara K., Room 150, Wisconsin Hotel, Milwaukee, Wis. Stopher, Mrs. E. C., 132 A. End Ave., Kent, Ohio. Associational Records and Information 783 LEGISLATIVE COMMISSION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Executive Committee Hall, Sidney B., Chairman; State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Richmond, Va. Cocking, Walter D., Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Nashville, Tenn. Graham, Ben G., Superintendent, Pitts¬ burgh Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. Gray, Jessie, Stevens School of Practice, 13th and Spring Garden Sts., Phila¬ delphia, Pa. . . , „ Joynes, Mrs. Edith B., Principal, George Washington and Robert Gatewood Schools, Berkley, Norfolk, Va. Kirkpatrick, Lee, Superintendent, Pans Public Schools, Paris, Ky. Norton, John K., Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. York y, Richmond, James H., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Frankfort, Ky. Weglein, David, Superintendent, Baltimore Public Schools, Baltimore, Md. Aiken, Georgia Whelan, Alms Hotel, Wal¬ nut Hills, Cincinnati, Ohio. Allman, H. B., School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Anderson, Walter W., Carson City, Nev. Bailey, Francis L., Commissioner of Educa¬ tion, Montpelier, Vt. . Barton, 0. Lillian, Dean of Women, Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Ill. Benner, Thomas E., Dean, School of Educa¬ tion, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. Bennison, Olive, Field Director, Washing¬ ton Education Association, 707 Lowman Bldg., Seattle, Wash. . Blair, Francis G., 440 E. Canedy, Spring- field, II. x . Bogan, William J., Superintendent, Chicago Public Schools, Chicago, Ill. Bond, W. F., State Superintendent of Edu¬ cation, Jackson, Miss. Bowers, Charles A., Secretary, Nebraska State Teachers Association, 605 S. 14th St., Lincoln, Nebr. Boyce, Thomas W., Principal, Cass Street Rotary School, Milwaukee, Wis. Bracken, W. D., 2902 Arlington, St. Joseph, Mo. Bradford, Mrs. Mary C. C., 917 E. 11th Ave., Denver, Colo. Bright, Orville T., Jr., Superintendent of Schools, Dolton, Ill. Broderick, Lillian, 216 Park Ave., Yonkers, N. Y. Bryan, J. E., Superintendent, Bessemer Public Schools, Bessemer, Ala. Burleson, D. S., Dean, East Tennessee State Teachers College, Johnson City, Tenn. Butler, Leslie A., Superintendent of Schools, Grand Rapids, Mich. Butterfield, Ernest W., Commissioner of Education, Hartford, Conn. Byrnes, Mary R., 922 W. 38th St., Minne¬ apolis, Minn. Callahan, John, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis. Carroll, Charles, Director, Rhode Island State Board for Vocational Education, 122 State House, Providence, R. I. Chase, Ethel W. B., Adviser to Women, Wayne University, Detroit, Mich. Church, E. E., Principal, Central Junior- Senior High School, Parkersburg, W. Va. Collins, M. D., State Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta, Ga. Connor, William L., Chief, Bureau of Edu¬ cational Research, Board of Education, Cleveland, Ohio. Davis, Charles S., Superintendent, Steelton Public Schools, Steeiton, Pa. Deneen, Florence, 457 West 61st St., Chi¬ cago, Ill. Dyer, George, Royal Oak High School, Royal Oak, Mich. Dyke, Charles Bartlett, Superintendent, Short Hills Public Schools, Short Hills, N. J. Eckles, Isabel Lancaster, Superintendent, Santa Fe Public Schools, Santa Fe, N. M. Elliott, Charles H., Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Trenton, N. J. Ely, Selden M., Supervising Principal, Fifth Division Public Schools, Emery School, Washington, D. C. Fife, Ray, Supervisor, Agricultural Educa¬ tion Service, State Department of Educa¬ tion, Columbus, Ohio. Fisher, Charles M., Superintendent, Dade County Schools, Miami, Fla. Fisher, E. C., Superintendent of Schools, Peoria, Ill. Fraser, Anna Graeme, Principal, Woodrow Wilson Junior High School, Oakland, Calif. French, Will C., Superintendent, Public Schools, Tulsa, Okla. Fulp, J. D., President, Bailey Military In¬ stitute, Box 532, Greenwood, S. C. Galpin, Lloy, 2354 Addison Way, Los Angeles, Calif. Gibson, Joseph E., Superintendent, McComb Public Schools, McComb, Miss. Gordon, Adelbert W., Secretary, Maine Teachers Association, 185 State St., Au¬ gusta, Maine. Graves, Frank P., Commissioner of Educa¬ tion, Albany, N. Y'. Gray, Margaret 0., 188 Four Mile Road, Hartford, Conn. Gries, Walter, Commissioner of Schools, Marquette, Mich. Griffey, Annie G., 2110 Battery, Little Rock, Ark. Grove, Frank L., Secretary, Alabama Edu¬ cation Association, 21 Adams Ave., Mont¬ gomery, Ala. Hammond, Vida, 331 Chamber of Commerce Bldg., Portland, Ore. Harman, A. F., 517 Woodley Road, Mont¬ gomery, Ala. Harris, T. H., State Superintendent of Pub¬ lic Education, Baton Rouge, La. Hendrix, H. E., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Phoenix, Ariz. Hickey, P. J., Madison School, St. Louis, Mo. Holler, J. C., County-City Superintendent, Anderson, S. C. Holloway, H. V., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Dover, Del. Hope, James H., State Superintendent of Education, Columbia, S. C. Howard, C. A., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Salem, Ore. Howell, C. M., Secretary, Oklahoma Educa¬ tion Association, 326 Key Bldg., Okla¬ homa City, Okla. Ireland, Elizabeth, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Helena, Mont. Irion, Theo. W. H., Dean, School of Edu¬ cation, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. Jacob, Walter, Jr., Principal, Emerson School, Plainfield, N. J. Jahnke, Clara L., 1930 8th Ave., Spokane, Wash. James, William Alonzo, Principal, Ball High School, Galveston, Texas. Jeffords, H. Morton, Superintendent of Schools, Wallingford, Conn. 784 National Education Association Jensen, George, President, Minneapolis Teachers League, 425 Palace Bldg., Min¬ neapolis, Minn. Judd, Charles H., Dean, School of Educa¬ tion, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Keating, J. F., Superintendent Public Schools, District Number Twenty, Pueblo, Colo. Keller, J. A., State Superintendent of Edu¬ cation, Montgomery, Ala. Kersey, Yierling, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Sacramento, Calif. Key worth, M. R., Superintendent, Ham- tramck Public Schools, Hamtramck, Mich. Lamkin, Uel W., President, Northwest Mis¬ souri State Teachers College, Maryville, Mo. Lasher, William R., 3177 Bedford Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. Lee, Charles A., 106 Morningside Drive, Apt. 77, Seth Low Hall, New York. N. Y. Lefler, Millard C., Superintendent, Lincoln Public Schools, Lincoln, Nebr. Lewis, Charles E., Principal, Alameda School Portland, Ore. Lewis, Mrs. Inez Johnson, State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo. Libbee, Freda, 1117 26th Ave., Seattle, Wash. Lindsey, John C., Superintendent, Mitchell Public Schools, Mitchell, S. D, Logan, Jack, East Waterloo Public Schools, Waterloo, Iowa. Long, Oren, Superintendent of Public In¬ struction, Honolulu, Hawaii. Longshore, W. T., Principal, Greenwood School, Kansas City, Mo. Loper, John D., Superintendent, Phoenix Public Schools, Phoenix, Ariz. Lord, Charles E., Superintendent, School Union Number Sixty-nine, Camden, Maine. MacDonald, A. A., Superintendent, Sioux Falls Public Schools, Sioux Falls, S. D. MacGregor, Effie, Principal, John Burroughs School, 2003 Aldrich Ave., S., Minneapolis, Minn. McClure, Worth, Superintendent, Seattle Public Schools, Seattle, Wash. McFarland, E. W., College of Education, Wayne University, Detroit, Mich. McIntosh, B. H., Commissioner of Educa¬ tion, Cheyenne, Wyo. McMurray, Floyd I., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Indianapolis, Ind. Mallory, Gertrude, President, High School Teachers Association, 305 Trinity Audi¬ torium Bldg., 847 S. Grand Ave., Los Angeles, Calif. Manning, C. G., Superintendent, School Dis¬ trict Number One, Junior High Bldg., Lewistown, Mont. Markham, W. T., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Topeka, Kans. Metcalf, J. L., Superintendent of Schools, McCammon, Idaho. Milne, John, Superintendent, Albuquerque Public Schools, Albuquerque, N. M. Nielson, Minnie J., 901 5th Ave., Valley City, N. D. Novotny, E. L., Superintendent of Schools, Beatrice, Nebr. Ott, Eva, 61 Agnes Ave., Oakland, Calif. Packard, Bertram E., Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Augusta, Maine. Patrick, W. Burton, Superintendent of Schools, Orange, N. J. Peixotto, Mrs. B. C., 55 John St., New York, N. Y. Pesta, Rose, Principal, Kelvyn Park High School, Chicago, Ill. Peters, Frieda, 109 Adams Ave., Evansville, Ind. Petty, W. C., County Superintendent of Schools, Waukegan, Ill. Pfaff, Caroline S., District Superintendent, New Orleans Public Schools, Public School Administration Bldg., 703 Caron- delet St., New Orleans, La. Phipps, W. E., State Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Little Rock, Ark. Pinet, F. L., Secretary, Kansas State Teach¬ ers Association, 315 W. 10th St., Topeka, Kans. Potts, D. Walter, Superintendent, East St. Louis 'Public Schools, East St. Louis, Ill. Powers, Sue M., Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn. Priest, Charles H., Superintendent, Carson City Public Schools, Carson City, Nev. Pringle, James N., Commissioner of Educa¬ tion, Concord, N. H. Prunty, Merle, Director of Personnel and the Extra-Curricular Division, Stephens College, Columbia, Mo. Pye, Charles F,, Secretary, Iowa State Teachers Association, 415 Shops Bldg., Des Moines, Iowa. Ranger, Walter E., Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Providence, R. I. Ranson, Mrs. R. E., Principal, Junior High School, High Point, N. C. Reiff, C. K., Superintendent of Schools, Oklahoma City, Okla. Rickards, James S., Secretary, Florida Edu¬ cation Association, 33 Centennial Bldg., Tallahassee, Fla. Riddle, Anna, 2 Summit Place, St. Joseph, Mo. Robertson, Elizabeth Wells, Director of Art, Chicago Public Schools, 228 N. La¬ Salle St., Chicago, Ill. Rockwell, John G., Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Secretary and Executive Officer of State Board of Education, St. Paul, Minn. Roe, Warren A., Principal, Alexander Street School, Newark, N. J. Rosier, Joseph, President, Fairmont State Teachers College, Fairmont, W. Va. Rowell, Virginia, Roosevelt High School, 450 S. Pickett, Los Angeles, Calif. Rule, James N., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. Russell, Charlotte, 448 W. 62nd St., Chi¬ cago, Ill. Samuelson, Agnes, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa Saunders, Joseph H., Superintendent, New¬ port News Public Schools, Newport News, Va. Saxvik, H. O., Superintendent of Schools, Bismarck, N. D. Scully, John F., Superintendent, Brockton Public Schools, Brockton, Mass. Showalter, N. D., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Olympia, Wash. Skidmore, Charles H., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Salt Lake City, Utah. Skinner, B. O., Director of Education, Columbus, Ohio. Smith, Harry P., Professor of Education, Teachers College, Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y. Smith, Payson, Commissioner of Education, Boston, Mass. Smith, W. B., Superintendent, Twin Falls Public Schools, Twin Falls, Idaho. Snodgrass, G. M., President, State Teachers College, LaCrosse, Wis. Stahl, H. E., Suoerintendent, Claymont Public Schools, Claymont, Del. Staley, George R., Superintendent of Schools, Rome, N. Y. Stamp, Adele H., Dean of Women, Univer¬ sity of Maryland, College Park, Md. Stanton, B. F., Superintendent, Alliance Public Schools, Alliance, Ohio. Stetson, Paul, Superintendent, Indianapolis Public Schools, Indianapolis, Ind. Stilwell. H. W., 410 E. Weatherford St., Fort Worth, Texas. Strayer, George D., Director, Institute of Educational Research, Division of Field Studies, Teachers College, Columbia Uni¬ versity, New York, N. Y. Sutton, Willis A., Superintendent, Atlanta Public Schools, Atlanta, Ga. Associational Records and Information 785 Taylor, Annie Kate, 4807 Gaston Ave., Dal¬ las, Texas. Taylor, Charles W., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lincoln, Nebr. Thompson, A. E., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Bismarck, N. D. Townsend, W. B., Forest Ave., Tempe, Ariz. Trent, W. W., State Superintendent of Free Schools, Charleston, W. Va. Troy, Ann A., Principal, Washington School, Nutley, N. J. Turnbull, L. W. , Superintendent, North Bend Public Schools, North Bend, Ore. Underwood, Frank M., Board of Education, St. Louis, Mo. Upham, Mrs. Margaret S., 211 Washington St., Cumberland, Md. Vaughan, John, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Oklahoma City, Okla. Vincent, Wilbur D., Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Boise, Idaho. Voelker, Paul F., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lansing, Mich. Wahlstrand, Harry L., 823 3rd St., E., Will- mar, Minn. Waldo, D. B., President, Western State Teachers College, Kalamazoo, Mich. Watson, Bruce M., Managing Director, Pub¬ lic Education and Child Labor Association of Pennsylvania, 1505 Race St., Phila¬ delphia, Pa. Weeks, I. D., State Superintendent of Pub¬ lic Instruction, Pierre, S. D. White, L. A., Superintendent, Minot Public Schools, Minot, N. D. Williams, Chari 0., Director, Division of Field Service, National Education Asso¬ ciation, Washington, D. C. Wilson, S. Cl, Director, Division of Teacher- Training in Vocational Agriculture, Sam Houston State Teachers' College, Hunts¬ ville, Texas. Woods, L. A., State Superintendent, State Department of Education, Austin, Texas. Wright, L. K., Bloomington Federation of Teachers #276, Bloomington, Ill. York, Ada, Superintendent, San Diego County Schools, Room 2, Court House, San Diego, Calif. Young, Leonard, Superintendent of Schools, Administration Bldg., Duluth, Minn. Zeigler, Donald, Isaac E. Young Junior High School, New Rochelle, N. Y. NATIONAL COMMISSION ON THE ENRICHMENT OF ADULT LIFE (Special Committee) Moyer, James A., President; State Director of University Extension, State House, Boston, Mass. Reeve, Mrs. A. H., First Vicepresident; First Vicepresident, International Fed¬ eration of Home and School, 1520 Spruce St., Philadelphia, Pa. Russell, James E., Second Vicepresident, R. F. D. No. 4, Trenton, N. J. Dorsey, Mrs. Susan M., Third Vicepresident, 1506 Arapahoe St., Los Angeles, Calif. Rogers, James E., Secretary, 315 4th Ave., New York, N. Y. Cartwright, Morse A., Director, American Association for Adult Education, 60 E. 42nd St., New York, N. Y’. Pyrtle, E. Ruth, Principal, Bancroft School. Lincoln, Nebr. Abbott, Grace, University of Chicago, Chi¬ cago, Ill. Adair, Cornelia, 3208 Hawthorne St., Rich¬ mond, Va. Alderman, L. R., Chief, Service Division, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. Bestor, Arthur E., President, Chautauqua Institution, 521 5th Ave., New York, N. Y. Bittner, W. S., Extension Division, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Bogan, William J., Superintendent, Chicago Public Schools, Chicago, Ill. Bradford, Mrs. Hugh, President, Child Wel¬ fare Company, Inc., 1215 39th St., Sacra¬ mento, Calif. Broome, Edwin C., Superintendent, Phila¬ delphia Public Schools, Philadelphia, Pa. Bumpus, H. C., Duxbury, Mass. Burnett, Marguerite H., Director of Adult Education, State Department of Public Instruction, 11th and Washington Sts., Wilmington, Del. Capper, Arthur, Senate Office Bldg., Wash¬ ington, D. C. Castle, A. W., Director, Extension Educa¬ tion Division, State Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. Chancellor, John, Assistant in Adult Educa¬ tion, American Library Association, 520 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill. Clark, E. Everett, 217 State House, Boston, Mass. Cody, Frank, Superintendent, Detroit Pub¬ lic Schools, Detroit, Mich. Coleman, Laurence Vail, Director, American Association of Museums, Smithsonian In¬ stitution, Washington, D. C. Cutten, George Barton, President, Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y. Deming, Robert C., State Supervisor of Adult Education, State Department of Education, Hartford, Conn. Finley, John H., New York Times, New York, N. Y. Folsom, Ernest C., President, Teachers Casualty Underwriters, 1407 O St., Lin¬ coln, Nebr. Fosdick, Harry E., Riverside Church, River¬ side Drive at 122nd St., New York, N. Y. Frank, Glenn, President, University of Wis¬ consin, Madison, Wis. Frysinger, Grace E., Senior Home Econo¬ mist, Central States Extension Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Wash¬ ington, D. C. Grace, Alonzo G., Assistant Professor of Education. University of Rochester, Roch¬ ester, N. Y. Groves, Ernest R., Institute for Research in Social Science, University of North Caro¬ lina, Chapel Hill, N. C. Grumman, R. M., Director, University Ex¬ tension Division, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. Gwinn, J. M., 4021^ Park Blvd., San Diego, Calif. Hale, Florence, Editor, The Grade Teacher, 425 4th Ave., New York, N. Y. Hunter, Frederick M., Chancellor, Denver University, Denver, Colo. Hurrell, Arthur S., Director, Teacher Train¬ ing Extension, Pennsylvania State Col¬ lege, State College, Pa. Jones, R. G., Director of Schools, Depart¬ ment of Instruction, Board of Education, Cleveland, Ohio. Kohler, Katherine, Director of Extension and Summer Schools, Board of Education, 305 City Hall, Minneapolis, Minn. Landis, Benson Y., 105 E. 22nd St., New York, N. Y. Langworthy, Mrs. B. F., 832 Bryant Ave., Winnetka, Ill. Mallery, Otto T., 1427 Spruce St., Philadel¬ phia, Pa. 786 National Education Association Marsh, Clarence, University of Bulfalo, Buf¬ falo, N. Y. Mengel, Levi W., Director, Visual Educa¬ tion and Museum, Reading Museum, Reading, Pa. Miller, N. C., Director, University Exten¬ sion Division, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N. J. Morse, Sidney, Vicepresident and General Manager, The Grade Teacher, 425 4th Ave., New York, N. Y. Odum, Howard W., Chief of Social Science Division, A Century of Progress Interna¬ tional Exposition, Administration Bldg., Burnham Park, Chicago, Ill. Packard, Bertram E., State Commissioner of Education, Augusta, Maine. Patterson, Mrs. Edith McClure, Home Eco¬ nomics Division of the General Federation of Women’s Clubs, 1019 N. Main St., Dayton, Ohio. Poole, Mrs. Grace Morrison, General Fed¬ eration of Women’s Clubs, 1734 N St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Robertson, Elizabeth Wells, 1250 Judson Ave., Ravinia, Ill. Smith, W. C., Chief, State Adult Education Bureau, Albany, N. Y'. Stoddard, A. J., Superintendent, Providence Public Schools, Providence, R. I. Stearns, William F., Director, Prospect Union Educational Exchange, 678 Massa¬ chusetts Ave., Cambridge, Mass. Studebaker, John W., U. S. Commissioner of Education, Office of Education, Wash¬ ington, D. C. Taft, Lorado, Midway Studios, 6016 Ingle- side Ave., Chicago, Ill. Wardlaw, J. C., Director of Adult Educa¬ tion, University System of Georgia, Di¬ vision of General Extension, Department of Adult Education, Atlanta, Ga. Weisiger, Kendall, 1740 Hurt Bldg., At¬ lanta, Ga. Woll, Matthew, Third Vicepresident, Amer¬ ican Federation of Labor, 901 Massachu¬ setts Ave., N. W., Washington, D. C. Zook, George F., Director, American Coun¬ cil on Education, 744 Jackson Place, N. W., Washington, D. C. COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY (Authorized by Bylaws) Brown, R. R., Chairman; 1274 Harrison St., Denver, Colo. Abercrombie, John W., Assistant State Su¬ perintendent of Education, Montgomery, Ala. Adams, Ethel, Principal, Elementary School, Moultrie, Ga. Adams, Roxie, Assistant Editor and Adver¬ tising Manager, The Oklahoma Teacher, 326 Key Bldg., Oklahoma City, Okla. Bacon, Theodore E., Headmaster, High School, Hanover, N. H. Bentz, M. S., Superintendent, Cambria County Schools, Ebensburg, Pa. Bertram, Anna L., Superintendent, Lewis County Schools, Vanceburg, Ky. Betagh, Raymond L., Woonsocket High School, Woonsocket, R. I. Caldwell, Mrs. Hazel K., Spencer, S. D. Carlton, Mrs. Ada Nash, 411 N. Blvd., Rich¬ mond, Va. Coates, J. P., Secretary, South Carolina Education Association, 1218 Senate St., Columbia, S. C. Dorsey, A. Archie, McKinley High School, Honolulu, Hawaii. Edwards, Elizabeth. Supervising Principal, Maywood Public Schools, Maywood, N. J. Eldredge, A. C., Principal, James Ford Rhodes Senior High School, Cleveland, Ohio. Funderburk. Ray, Superintendent of City Schools, Wilmington, N. C. Fowler, Lotta B., Lloyd Street School, Mil¬ waukee, Wis. Gibson, A. J,, State Supervisor of High Schools, State Department of Education, Charleston, W. Va. Gilson, Dan, Principal, Night School, San Leandro, Calif. Glover, W. B., Principal, Winnsboro High School, Winnsboro, La. Goodwin, E. H., Principal, Laveen School, Laveen, Arisi. Hall, Mrs. Helen, Little Rock Junior Col¬ lege, Little Rock, Ark. Harris, Luther B., Park Junior High School, Knoxville, Tenn. Hartsfleld, F. S., Sunerintendent, Leon County Schools, Tallahassee, Fla. Jenkins, Ralph C., Principal, Johnson Nor¬ mal School, Johnson, Vt. Karnes, A. E., Commissioner of Education, Juneau, Alaska Keeney, Albert, Superintendent, Superior Public Schools, Superior, Wyo. Keller, Jessie E., 2403 R St., Lincoln, Nebr. Kennedy, J. E., Superintendent, Jasper County Schools, Bay Springs, Miss. Levenson, Samuel M., Junior High School £40, 10920 Union Hall St., Jamaica, N. Y. Lucas, M. Grant, Principal, Wormley School, Washington, D. C. Lynam, Anna, President, Iowa State Teach¬ ers Association, Corning, Iowa McCrea, Mary Helen, 1023 W. 6th Ave., Spokane, Wash. McSkimmon, Mary, 205 Tappan St., Brook¬ line, Mass. Nelson, J. B., Principal, High School, Wil¬ son St. and Batavia Ave., Batavia, Ill. Nolan, Anna E., Principal, Lincoln School, Southington, Conn. Palmer, Lottie M., Superintendent, Lovell Public Schools, Lovell, Maine Paschal, R. L., Principal, Central High School, 1003 W. Cannon Ave., Fort Worth, Texas Rathfon, Clara, 720^ North St., Logansport, Ind. Riefling, B. Jeanette, 3907 Connecticut Ave., St. Louis, Mo. Rodgers, H. R., Superintendent, Eddy County Schools, Carlsbad, N. M. Rodriguez, Hortensia, 30 Vallejo St., Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico Scates, Ivan G., Superintendent, Hammett Public Schools, Hammett, Idaho Shepherd, Rulon T., Overton, Nev. Smith, Elphe K., R. R. £1, Box 22, Tigard, Ore. Sorenson, Vio, Principal, Edison School, Salt Lake City, Utah Stahl, H. E. Superintendent, Claymont Pub¬ lic Schools, Claymont, Del. Sutton, Mi’es D., Denfield High School, Duluth, Minn. Tobias, Edna M., Hardin, Mont. Walker, Mrs. Sadie A., Emerson H. Smith School, Fargo, N. D. Welch, E. J., Principal, W. K. Kellogg Junior High School, Battle Creek, Mich. Wickstrom, Jeanette, 622 S. Lincoln St., Chanute, Kans. Young, Dorothy O., Bethesda-Chevy Chase Junior High School, Bethesda, Md. Associational Records and Information 787 COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS (Authorized by Bylaws) Avery, George T., Chairman; Colorado State College, Fort Collins, Colo. Barnes, Mrs. Mary D., Continental School, Elizabeth, N, J. Bradner, J. W., Superintendent, Middles- boro Public Schools, Middlesboro, Ky. Branegan, Gladys, Dean, College of House¬ hold and Industrial Arts, Montana State College, Bozeman, Mont. Bowman, Conrad Henry, Superintendent, Douglas Public Schools, Douglas, Alaska Carter, A. Raymond, Superintendent, Gar¬ diner Public Schools, Gardiner, Maine Clark, Harry, Superintendent, Knoxville Public Schools, Knoxville, Tenn. Clarke, M. J., Superintendent, Ely Public Schools, Ely, Nev. Condie, J. W., State Superintendent of Pub¬ lic Instruction, Boise, Idaho Cox, Floyd, Superintendent, Monongalia County Schools, Morgantown, W. Va. Dahl, Mrs. Myrtle Hooper, 3527 Pillsbury Ave., Minneapolis, Minn. DuShane, Donald, Superintendent, Colum¬ bus Public Schools, Columbus, Ind. Early, J. J., Superintendent, Sheridan Pub¬ lic Schools, Sheridan, Wyo. Fuller, Robert J., Superintendent, Hanover Public Schools, Hanover, N. H. Grove, Frank L., Secretary, Alabama Edu¬ cation Association, 21 Adams Ave., Mont¬ gomery, Ala. Hall, W. F., State Elementary School Su¬ pervisor, State Department of Education, Little Rock, Ark. Hamilton, Norman, President, Utah Educa¬ tion Association, Price, Utah Harris, Arthur L., Principal, Maui High School, Hamakuapoko, Maui, Hawaii Hawley, James L., Principal, Bridgham Junior High School, Providence, R. I. Heatwole, Cornelius J., Executive Secre¬ tary, Virginia Education Association, 401 N. 9th St., Richmond, Va. Helbig, Esther, 1033 Melrose Terrace, Du¬ buque, Iowa Hinrichs, Amy H., 7336 Hurst St., New Or¬ leans, La. Jimerson, John A., Superintendent, Auburn Pub'ic Schools, Auburn, Nebr. Landreth, Austin, Superintendent, Pendle¬ ton Public Schools, Pendleton, Ore. Law, Frederick Houk, Department of Eng¬ lish, Stuyvesant High School, New York, N. Y. Lemon, Goldie M., 216£ Eastside Blvd.. Muskogee, Okla. Longstreet, R. J., Supervising Principal Daytona Beach Public Schools, Daytona Beach, Fla. Loper, John D., Superintendent, Phoenix Public Schools, Phoenix, Ariz. McCormick, Elizabeth R., Principal, Tim¬ othy 0. Howe School, Superior, Wis. Markham, W. T., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Topeka, Kans. Meistrik, Emma, Director, Elementary Edu¬ cation, State Department of Education, Pierre, S. D. Miller, Charles S., Superintendent, Lans- downe Public Schools, Lansdowne, Pa. Mock, Lula, 1921 Park Ave., Dallas, Texas Nixon, William D., 51 Main St., Tucapau, S. C. O’Connor, Martin F., Principal, Roberts School, Cambridge, Mass. O’Connor, Mary E., 203 Mansfield St., New Haven, Conn. Phillips, G. B., Superintendent of City Schools, Greensboro, N. C. Pope, D. N., Superintendent, Roswell Public Schools, Roswell, N. M. Preble, Mrs. F. Blanche, 10855 Vernon Ave., Chicago, Ill. Ralls, Mary Calvert, 6529 Jefferson St., Kansas City, Mo. Randall, May, 804 Summit St., Seattle, Wash. Robertson, Ina C., State Teachers College, Valley City, N. D. Rodriguez, Ana J., Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico Schantz, C. W., Superintendent, Smyrna Public Schools, Smyrna, Del. Smith, Mrs. Josephine Parker, 1533 Shatto St., Los Angeles, Calif. Stanton, B. F., Superintendent, Alliance Public Schools, Alliance, Ohio Stern, Bessie C., State Department of Edu¬ cation, 2000 Lexington Bldg., Baltimore, Md. Taylor, W. N., Secretary, Mississippi Edu¬ cation Association, 219 N. President St., Jackson, Miss. Voelker, Paul F., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lansing, Mich. Walker, Louise C., Fair Haven High School, Fair Haven, Vt. Warner, Harold E., Principal, Hine Junior High School, Washington, D. C. Whitfoorth, Mrs. R. B., Principal, Tenth Street School, Atlanta, Ga. COMMITTEE ON RETIREMENT ALLOWANCES (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Executive Committee Force, Anna Laura, Chairman; Principal, Lake Junior High School, Denver, Colo. Adair, Cornelia S., 3208 Hawthorne St., Richmond, Va. Brown, Daisy, 407 S. 6th St., Stillwater, Minn. Gridley, Earl G., Room One, 2163 Center St., Berkeley, Calif. Abbe, Mary M., Secretary, Board of Trus¬ tees of the Public School Teachers Pension and Retirement Fund, 188 W. Randolph St., Chicago, Ill. Abercrombie, John W., Assistant State Su¬ perintendent of Education, Montgomery, Ala. Aiken, Georgia Whelan, Hotel Alms, Wal¬ nut Hills, Cincinnati, Ohio Allen, T. T., State Teachers College, E. Stroudsburg, Pa. Allison, Laura L., 1807 East Ave., President, Texas Classroom Teachers Association, Austin, Texas Baish, H. H., Secretary, Public School Employees Retirement Board, State De¬ partment of Public Instruction, Harris¬ burg, Pa. Barkley, Margaret, Secretary, State Teach¬ ers Retirement Society of Maryland, 2004 Lexington Bldg., Baltimore, Md. Bennett, Mrs. Jennie, 851 N. 1st St., Raton, N. M. Berg, P. S., Secretary, Teachers Insurance and Retirement Fund, Dickinson, N. D. Bickford, Charles W., Superintendent of Schools, Lewiston, Maine 788 National Education Association Brookes, M. Emma, Commodore Hotel, Cleveland, Ohio Brown, Edythe J., Principal, Kaley School and Marquette School, South Bend, Ind. Brown, Elmer A., Principal, Kuhio School, Honolulu, Hawaii Bird, Annie Laurie, Nampa High School, Nampa, Idaho Carleton, E. F., Secretary-Treasurer, Oregon State Teachers Association, 602-603 Studio Bldg., Portland, Ore. Clarida, R. 0., Secretary, State of Illinois Teachers Pension and Retirement Fund, Springfield, Ill. Clifford, J. M., Secretary, Michigan Teach¬ ers Retirement Fund, Michigan Education Bldg., North Washington Ave., Lansing, Mich. Cole, Mrs. Elva E., Executive Secretary, Teachers Retirement Fund, Box 748, Olympia, Wash. Collins, M. D., State Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta, Ga. Davis, Jane, 1013 Horatio St., Tampa, Fla. Dille, G. E., Superintendent of Schools, Maplewood, Mo. Early, William I., Principal, Washington High School, Sioux Falls, S. D. Elliff, Miles A., Superintendent of Schools, Lebanon, Mo. Gilmore, W. Lee, Supervising Principal, Oakmont Public Schools, Oakmont, Pa. Griffith, P. H., Director, General Extension Division, Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Baton Rouge, La. Hall, Leigh S., President, Board of Educa¬ tion, Concord, N. H. Hall, Sidney B., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Richmond, Va. Hammond, Mrs. Gertrude Best, Principal, Hyde Park School, 3140 W. Gage St., Los Angeles, Calif. Hanson, Amy, Executive Secretary, Public School Teachers Retirement Salary Sys¬ tem, Department of Education, Carson City, Nev. Higbie, Edgar C., 4912 New Hampshire Ave., Washington, D. C. Hite, Mary E., Principal, Rockhill Public School, Rockhill, S. C. Hougham, Robert B., Secretary, Indiana State Teachers Retirement Fund, Indian¬ apolis, Ind. Howard, George J., Extension Division, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. Jensen, C. N., 1202 4th Ave., Salt Lake City, Utah Johnson, Lillian M., Principal, Patrick Henry School, Norfolk, Ya. Kershner, W. E., Secretary, Ohio State Teachers Retirement System, Ohio State Savings Bldg., Gay and 3rd Sts., Colum¬ bus, Ohio Ketcham, Marion H., Assistant Secretary, Public Schools Teachers Retirement Sal¬ ary Fund Board, State Department of Education, Box 615, Sacramento, Calif. Knutson, K. J., Secretary, Seattle Teachers Retirement Fund, 843 Central Bldg., Seattle, Wash. Kocher, Henry A., Assistant Secretary, New York State Teachers Retirement Board, Standard Bldg., Albany, N. Y'. Lantman, Edgar G., Executive Secretary, New York State Teachers Retirement Board, Standard Bldg., Albany, N. Y. Lent, Clayton L., Executive Secretary, Teachers Retirement Board, 100 Nashua St., Boston, Mass. McCormick, Elizabeth, Principal, Timothy O. Howe School, Sunerior, Wis. McCullough, Hazel, State Teachers College, Minot, N. D. McFarland, George A., President, State Teachers College, Minot, N. D. Marsh, Arthur L., Executive Secretary, Washington Education Association, 707 Lowman Bldg., Seattle, Wash. Marston, R. B., Assistant Superintendent, Cabell County, Huntington, W. Va. Merriman, Charlotte Lowe, Secretary, Teachers Retirement Board, Montpelier, Vt. Mooney, W. B., Secretary, Colorado Educa¬ tion Association, 530 Commonwealth Bldg., Denver, Colo. Naumann, A. I., Principal, Davenport High School, Davenport, Iowa O’Sullivan, Henry P., Secretary, Employees Retirement System of the Territory of Hawaii, Room 2, National Guard Armory, Honolulu, Hawaii Powers, Sue M., Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn. Pyrtle, E. Ruth, Principal, Bancroft School, Lincoln, Nebr. Roch, Jennie, Secretary-Treasurer, National Council of Teachers Retirement Systems. New Orleans, La. Sanberg, G. H., Superintendent, Rochester Public Schools, Rochester, Minn. Schimel, C. F., Accountant, State Retire¬ ment System, State Capitol, Madison, Wis. Shanley, Dorothy M., Secretary State Teach¬ ers Retirement Board, Hartford, Conn. Shaw, Reuben, 1327 Real Estate Trust Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa. Shepherd, Grace M., 803 N. Mulberry, Mary¬ ville, Mo. Shilling, John, Assistant in Charge of Sec¬ ondary Schools, State Department of Edu¬ cation, Dover, Del. Sifert, E. R., Principal, Central High School, Oklahoma City, Okla. Speer, Owen D., Chairman, Teachers Retire¬ ment Committee, Montana Education As¬ sociation, Deer Lodge, Mont. Smith, Mrs. Constance F., Superintendent, Pima County Schools, Tucson, Ariz. Thornburg, Mrs. Winnie, Principal, Wood¬ land School, Wichita, Kans. Turk, Genevieve, Scarritt School, Kansas City, Mo. Van Middlesworth, Edith, Department of Psychology, State Teachers College, Val¬ ley City, N. D. Walby, Mary A., Secretary, Board of Insur¬ ance and Annuity, 11 E. Maxwell St., Lexington, Ky. Wheeler, Henry, Secretary, Teachers Re¬ tirement Fund, Newport, R. I. White, H. E., Executive Secretary, State Teachers Retirement Fund, State Office Bldg., St. Paul, Minn. Womack, Mary B., 5716 Cates Ave., St. Louis, Mo. Wood, John A,, 3d, Teachers Pension and Annuity Fund, 1012 Trenton Trust Bldg., Trenton, N. J. Associational Records and Information 789 COMMITTEE ON RURAL EDUCATION (Special Sutton, Willis A., Chairman; Superin¬ tendent, Atlanta Public Schools, Atlanta, Ga. Archer, C. P., Head, Department of Educa¬ tion, State Teachers College, Moorhead, Minn. Avery, W. J., Assistant Professor of Educa¬ tion, State Normal College, Natchitoches, La. Baer, H. K., State Supervisor of Elementary Schools, State Department of Education, Charleston, W. Va. Baldridge, Chloe, Director of Rural Educa¬ tion, State Department of Public Instruc¬ tion, Lincoln, Nebr. Barr, W. W., Superintendent, Wells County Schools, Fessenden, N. D. Batchelder, Carl J., Deputy Commissioner, State Board of Education, Montpelier, Vt. Berger, Walter J., Superintendent, Sheboy¬ gan County Schools, Sheboygan Falls, Wis. Bertram, Anna L., Superintendent, Lewis County Schools, Vanceburg, Ky. Blanding, J. D., Supervising Principal, School District No. 1, Sumter, S. C. Blanton, Annie Webb, Department of Edu¬ cational Administration, University of Texas, Austin, Texas Bloom, W. C., Superintendent, Dawson County Schools, Lexington, Nebr. Boehringer, C. Louise, Director of Ele¬ mentary Education, State Department of Education, Phoenix, Ariz. Broome, Edwin W., Superintendent, Mont¬ gomery County Schools, Rockville, Md. Bruce, Robert, Superintendent, Santa Maria School District, 516 E. Orange St., Santa Maria, Calif. Burk, Cassie, Director, Rural School Super¬ vision, Department of Public Schools, Jefferson City, Mo. Burton, C. E., Rural School Inspector, Pied¬ mont, Mo. Burts, R. C., Superintendent of Schools, Rock Hill, S. C. Butterworth, J. E., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Chapman, Paul W., Dean of State College Agricultural and Mechanical Arts, Uni¬ versity of Georgia, Athens, Ga. Claxton, P. P., President, Austin Peay Nor¬ mal School, Clarkesville, Tenn. Clifton, A. R., County Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, Calif. Cobb, C. A., Editor, The Progressive Farmer and Southern Ruralist, At’anta, Ga. Colson, Ephriam, Superintendent of Schools, North Schituate, R. I. Dakin, W. S., Senior Supervisor of Rural Education, State Department of Educa¬ tion, Hartford, Conn. Dempsey, T. Jack, Jr., State High School Supervisor, State Department of Educa¬ tion, Atlanta, Ga. Dickey, Charles E., Superintendent, Alle¬ gheny County Schools, Room 345 County Office Bldg., Pittsburgh, Pa. Driver, Lee L., Chief of Rural Schools, State Department of Public Instruction, Harris¬ burg, Pa. Duke, E. A., Rural School Supervisor, State Department of Public Instruction, Okla¬ homa City, Okla. Early, Albert, Supervisor of Schools, State Department of Public Instruction, George¬ town, Del. Emmont, Mrs. Susie Bonner, Assistant Su¬ perintendent, Multnomah County Schools, 605 Court House, Portland, Ore. Committee) Engum, T. C., Director, Rural Education, State Capitol, State Department of Edu¬ cation, St. Paul, Minn. Erwin, Clyde A., Superintendent of Public Instruction, Raleigh, N. C. Erwin, Mrs. Della B., Primary Supervisor, Elementary Schools, Jefferson County Board of Education, Birmingham, Ala. Floyd, G. C., Director of School Law and Finance, State Department of Education, Little Rock, Ark. Foulk, Virginia, Marshall College, Hunting- ton, W. Va. Fox, Leslie, Rural Supervisor, Warren and Rappahannock Public School System, Front Royal, Va. Frisch, Ottilia M., Commissioner, Saginaw County Schools, Saginaw, Mich. Fuller, A. C., Associate Director, Extension Division, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa Futrall, Alma, Superintendent, Lee County Schools, Marianna, Ark. Gillis, William, Superintendent of Schools, East Haven, Conn. Goodall, Elizabeth, Superintendent, Ka¬ nawha County Schools, Charleston, W. Va. Goodell, M. R., Principal, Columbia County Normal School, Columbus, Wis. Hall, Lucy E., Superintendent, Jasper County Schools, Newton, Iowa Hare, May, Rural School Supervisor, De¬ partment of Education, Topeka, Kans. Harvey, Mrs. Marie Turner, Director Por¬ ter Demonstration School, 1201 S. Halli¬ burton St., Kirksville, Mo. Haver, Jennie M., Helping Teacher, Centre St., C’inton, N. J. Heck, Mrs. M. Phyllis, Rural Supervisor, New Castle County Schools, Wilmington, Del. Heyl, Helen Hay, Supervisor in Rural Edu¬ cation, State Department of Education, Albany, N. Y. Hibarger, L. Pearle, Superintendent, Ya¬ kima County Schools, Yakima, Wash. Horsley, A. G., Superintendent of Schools, Richland County, Sidney, Mont. Hughes, W. L., Professor, Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College Sta¬ tion, Texas Humphreys, L. R., State Instructor of Agri¬ cultural Education, Department of Public Instruction, Salt Lake City, Utah Jackson, Frank W., Superintendent, Madi¬ son Supervisory District, Madison, N. H. Jaggers, Richard E., Director of Teacher Training, Department of Education, Frankfort, Ky. Johnston, Mrs. Eula A., Supervisor of Ele¬ mentary Schools, Hamilton County Court House, Chattanooga, Tenn. Jones, Burr F. State Supervisor of Ele¬ mentary Education, State Department of Education, Boston, Mass. Kaiser, Paul L., Superintendent, Dodge County Schools, Juneau, Wis. Keller, J. A., State Superintendent of Edu¬ cation, Montgomery, Ala. KeHy, J. J., Jr., Division Superintendent, Wise County Schools, Wise, Va. Kind, Dan E., Superintendent, Richland County Schools, Sidney, Mont. King, Anne, Supervisor of Elementary Edu¬ cation, Ozark, Ala. Lacey, Ida B., Assistant Field Supervisor Rural Education, 203 Church St., Nauga¬ tuck, Conn. Landis, Benson Y., Executive Secretary, American Country Life Association, 105 E. 22nd St., New York, N. Y. 790 National Education Association Lee, Charles A., 106 Morningside Drive, Apt. 77, Seth Low Hall, New York, N. Y. Libby, R. J., State Agent for Rural Educa¬ tion, State Department of Education, Augusta, Maine Lloyd, W. H., Editor, The Ohio Farmer , 1011-1015 Rockwell Ave., Cleveland, Ohio Longfleld, Ra’ph H., Superintendent, St. Joseph County Schools, South Bend, Ind. MacKean, M. Helen, Superintendent, Grand Forks County Schools, Grand Forks, N. D. McGuire, A. E., Head, Department of Edu¬ cation, Concord State Teachers College, Athens, W. Va. Martin, Charles F., Superintendent, Jackson County Schools, Maquoketa, Iowa Mattison, Alice A., Supervisor, State De¬ partment of Public Instruction, Helena, Mont. Mayhoffer, Mrs. Isabella Duggan, Superin¬ tendent, Boulder County Schools, Boulder, Colo. Meistrik, Emma, Director of Rural Educa¬ tion, State Department of Education, Pierre, S. D. Mercer, W. L., County Superintendent of Schools, Rochester, Minn. Miller, George R., Jr., Supervisor, Depart¬ ment of Public Instruction, Dover, Del. Mims, Mary, Extension Sociologist, Louisi¬ ana State University, Baton Rouge, La. Morris, George M., 768 Sheridan Ave., Bex¬ ley, Ohio Mullins, R. J., Superintendent, Tucumcari Public Schools, Tucumcari, N. M. Neale, 0. W., Director, Rural State Graded Division, Central State Teachers College, Stevens Point, Wis. Nichols, Augusta M., Headmaster, Hamp¬ stead High School, Hampstead, N. H. Offerman, Kate M., Assistant Superin¬ tendent, Wood County Schools, Bowling Green, Ohio Palmer, Mrs. Bertha Rachel, Field Secy., National Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, 1730 Chicago Ave., Evanston, Ill. Parker, Jessie N., Hotel Victoria, Des Moines, Iowa Patterson, Mrs. S. C., Superintendent, Clinch County Schools, Homerville, Ga. Peterson, Fred, Superintendent, Klamath County Schools, Klamath Falls, Ore. Peterson, Mrs. Lilian, County Superinten¬ dent of Schools, Kalispell, Mont. Phillips, Homer T., Chairman, Department of Education, Northwest Missouri State Teachers College, Maryville, Mo. Pittinger, L. A., President, Ball State Teachers College, 620 N. Calvert St., Muncie, Ind. Powers, Sue M., Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn. Preston, Mrs. Josephine Corliss, Vashon Island, King County, Burton, Wash. Prior, Charles F., Superintendent of Schools, Fairhaven, Mass. Puckett, E. F., Superintendent, Crystal Surings Public Schools, Crystal Springs, Miss. Pugsley, C. W., Principal, State College, Brookings, S. D. Pulliam, N. D., Madison School, Phoenix, Ariz. Rarick, C. E., Fort Hays State Teachers College, Hays, Kans. Robinson, William McKinley, Director, De¬ partment of Rural Education, Western State Teachers College, Kalamazoo, Mich. Rother, Mrs. Anna M., Superintendent, Ramsey County Schools, Devils Lake, N. D. Samuelson, Agnes, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa Scotten, C. F., County Superintendent of Schools, Sedalia, Mo. Selke, George A., President, State Teachers College, St. Cloud, Minn. Sewell, Mrs. Charles W., Director, Home and Community Work, American Farm Bureau Federation, 58 E. Washington St., Chicago, Ill. Sheldon, Kenneth, Associate Professor of Agricultural Education, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt. Showalter, N. D., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Olympia, Wash. Simmons, Edna, Supervisor of Instruction, Hinds County, Jackson, Miss. Simpson, T. Arthur, Assistant Superinten¬ dent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Ill. Smith, William M., Superintendent, Mon¬ mouth County Schools, Freehold, N. J. Snyder, Ray P., Director, Rural Education Division, University of the State of New York, Albany, N. Y. Strickland, Etta, Superintendent, Nacogdo¬ ches County Schools, Nacogdoches, Texas Swain, C. C., President, State Teachers Col¬ lege, Mayville, N. D. Swenson, Anna, Director of Rural Educa¬ tion, State Department of Education, St. Paul, Minn. Thompson, Paul, Assistant Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lansing, Mich. Thorp, Luella, Rural Supervisor, State De¬ partment of Public Instruction, Oklahoma City, Okla. Trumper, May, Head, Department of Rural Education, State Normal School, Geneseo, N. Y’. Turner, Harvey L., Director, Division of Rural Education, Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. Vogltance, F. J., Superintendent, Colfax County Schools, Schuyler, Nebr. Walton, Mrs. Zera King, Columbiana, Ala. Ward, W. H., Superintendent of Schools, Walterboro, S. C. Werner, John C., Director of Training and Rural Education, State Normal School, Albion, Idaho White, Raymond, Superintendent of Schools, Douglas, Wyo. Wilson, (Miss) Edgar Ellen, Second Assis¬ tant State Superintendent, State Depart¬ ment of Education, Austin, Texas Wilson, S. C., Chairman, Texas Vocational Association, Huntsville, Texas Wooster, Earl, Principal, Humboldt County High School, Winnemucca, Nev. Yates, W. S., Principal, Titusville High School, Titusville, Fla. COMMITTEE ON SOCIAL-ECONOMIC GOALS OF AMERICA (Special Committee) Kelly, Fred J., Chairman; Chief, Division of Colleges and Professional Schools, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. Dewey, John, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Givens, Willard E., Secretary, National Edu¬ cation Association, 1201 16th St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Marshall, Leon C., Institute of Law, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Moore, Robert C., Secretary, Illinois State Teachers Association, Carlinville, Ill. Ross, A. E., University of Wisconsin, Madi¬ son, Wis. Associational Records and Information 791 COMMITTEE OF SEVEN ON REORGANIZATION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Oberholtzer, E. E., Chairman; Superinten¬ dent, Houston Public Schools, Houston, Texas Adair, Cornelia S., 3208 Hawthorne St., Richmond, Va. Lord, Daisy, 1027 W. Main St., Waterbury, Conn. Merrill, Birdine, Shattuck School, Portland, Ore. Moore, Robert C., Secretary, Illinois State Teachers Association, Carlinville, Ill. Shaw, Reuben T., 1327 Real Estate Trust Bldg;., Philadelphia, Pa. Taylor, William S., Dean, School of Educa¬ tion, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. COMMITTEE ON TENURE FOR TEACHERS (Authorized by Representative Assembly) DuShane, Donald, Chairman; Superinten¬ dent, Columbus Public Schools, Columbus, Ind. Adair, Cornelia, S., 3208 Hawthorne St., Richmond, Va. Applegate, Mrs. Stella S., 304 Stacy Trent Hotel, Trenton, N. J. Archer, C. H., Asst. Superintendent of Mer¬ cer County Schools, Bluefield, W. Va. Bailey, Francis L., Commissioner of Educa¬ tion, Montpelier, Vt. Baldwin, Hariette, Medford, Ore. Bal’iette, R. E., 683 Water St., Platteville, Wis. Banting, G. 0., Supt. Waukesha Public Schools, Waukesha, Wis. Bechtold, R. H., Longfellow Elementary and Junior High School, Flint, Mich. Booth, C. L., Superintendent, Pasco Public Schools, Pasco, Wash. Bowden, A. O., University of Southern Cali¬ fornia, University Park, Los Angeles, Calif. Bowman, C. O., Superintendent, Jackson County Schools, Medford, Ore. Boyum, Mrs. Louise, Principal, Puunene Schools, Puunene, Maui, Hawaii Brown, Mrs. Ann C., Superintendent, Bill¬ ings County Schools, Madora, N. D. Brown, Florence, E., 223 Second Ave., S., Mt. Vernon, N. Y. Brumby, Anne, Superintendent, Polk County Schools, Cedartown, Ga. Burkard, William E., Principal, Tilden Junior High School, 66th St. and Elm¬ wood Ave., Philadelphia, Pa. Cameron, Ernest T., Executive Secretary, Michigan Education Association, 935 N. Washington Ave., Lansing, Mich. Capps, A. G., University of Missouri, Colum¬ bia, Mo. Carmichael, H. F., Principal, Roosevelt Junior High School, Decatur, Ill. Carr, A. T., Principal, Nathan Hale Junior High School, Cleveland, Ohio Cocking, Floyd W., 3315 Belle Isle Drive, San Diego, Calif. Cody, Frank, Superintendent, Detroit Public Schools, Detroit, Mich. Conyers, Mrs. Katie Belle, 1528 Linden Ave., Memphis, Tenn. Cook, Katherine, 912 W. 23rd St., Austin, Texas Cooper, O. N., Superintendent of Schools, Hazelhurst, Miss. Couch, Edward B., Chairman, State Tenure Committee of California, 1133 N. Everett St., Los Angeles, Calif. Dahl, Mrs. Myrt’e Hooper, 312 S. 8th St., Minneapolis, Minn. Dann, George J., Superintendent, Oneonta Public Schools, Oneonta. N. Y. Davison, George Millard, Principal, Abra¬ ham Lincoln Junior High School, 530 Ridgewood Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. DeCamp, John A., Superintendent, Utica Public Schools, Utica, N. Y. Dick, L. C., Superintendent, Madison County Schools, London, Ohio Dickinson, Florence M., Assistant Principal, Bonsall School, Haddonfield, N. J. Drake, Flora E., 2230 Brookside Ave., In¬ dianapolis, Ind. Dunning, Mrs. Inice, Dean of Women, Peru State Teachers College, Peru, Nebr. Eakin, Myrl I., Chairman, Tenure Commit¬ tee, Pittsburgh Teachers Association, 518 Shady Ave., E. Liberty, Pittsburgh, Pa. Early, John J., Superintendent, Sheridan Public Schools, Sheridan, Wyo. Ernst, Viola, 1535 Holman St., Covington, Ky. Eubank, L. A., Dean, State Teachers Col¬ lege, Kirksville. Mo. Evans, C. Ray, Principal, North Summit High School, Coalville, Utah Evenden, E. S., Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Everett, Ralph W., Sacramento Junior Col¬ lege, Sacramento, Calif. Gates, C. Ray, Superintendent, Grand Is¬ land Public Schools, Grand Island, Nebr. Gayman, H. E., 400 N. 3rd St., Harrisburg, Pa. Gerber, R. A., Superintendent of Schools, Sidney, Mont. Gilligan, James R., Superintendent, Dun- more Public Schools, Dunmore, Pa. Grieder, Theodore G., Superintendent of Schoo’s, Winslow, Ariz. Hall, John W., Dean of School of Educa¬ tion, University of Nevada, Reno, Nev. Hart, Harry T., Principal, Stevens School, Stamford, Conn. Havens, Kathryn C., 129 Allen Place, Hart¬ ford, Conn. Heckman, Elsie M., 36 South St. Cloud St., Allentown, Pa. Hendricks, Lorene, 1245 Jefferson St., Boise, Idaho Hinman, Harriett L., Supervisor of Re¬ search and Instruction, Board of Educa¬ tion, Toledo, Ohio Holley, EDa J., Rural Supervisor for New Castle County Schools, Wilmington, Del. Howard, Homer, University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. Humphreys, Pauline A., State Teachers College, Warrensburg, Mo. Irizarry, Oscar B., Central High School, Tulsa, Okla. Jacobs, Clara M., Department of Educa¬ tional Research, District No. 1, Pueblo, Colo. Jelinek, Frances, Room 150, Wisconsin Hotel, Milwaukee, Wis. 792 National Education Association Jordan, Dana S., Superintendent of Schools, Littleton, N. H. Hall, John W., Dean of Education, Univer¬ sity of Nevada, Reno, Nev. Keenan, Robert C., 2465 E. 74th Place, Chi¬ cago, Ill. Kingan, Constance, 309 East University, Royal Oak, Mich. Kittrell, Charles A., Superintendent, West Waterloo Public Schools, West Waterloo, Iowa Kohn, Charlotte, Orthopaedic School, Wis¬ consin General Hospital, Madison, Wis. Lain, Nell E,, 4518 Montgall St., Kansas City, Mo. Lord, Mary A., North Junior High School, Sioux City, Iowa Loser, Paul, Superintendent of Schools, Trenton, N. J. Loughran, Loretto, 1642 Fairfax St., Den¬ ver, Colo. Lozo, John P., Principal, Senior High School, Reading, Pa. McConnell, John Preston, President, State Teachers College, East Radford, Va. McDonald, R., Salem College, Winston, Salem, N. C. Muller, Edgar, 3909 Linwood Ave., Oakland, Calif. Nicely, 0. W., Room 54, Young Men’s Christian Association, Indianapolis, Ind. Nissen, S. B., Editor, South Dakota Educa¬ tion Association Journal, Perry Bldg., Sioux Falls, S. D. O’Connor, Mary Elizabeth, Supervisor of Elementary Schools, Natick, Mass. O’Rourke, Catherine, 3057 W. Jackson Blvd., Chicago, Ill. Pitts, Gertrude, 915 Cumberland St., Little Rock, Ark. Schantz, C. W. W., Superintendent, Smyrna Special School District, Smyrna, Del. Schneider, Mrs. Fern D., School Board Office, Rockville, Md. Shawkey, M. P., President, Marshall Col¬ lege, Huntington, W. Va. Sheehan, Mary A., Assistant Principal, Washington Junior-Senior High School, 725 Clifford Ave., Rochester, N. Y. Shepherd, Grace M., 803 N. Mulberry St., Maryville, Mo. Small, Irving, Superintendent, Bangor Pub¬ lic Schools, Bangor, Maine Smith, C. O., 312 N. Hersey St., Beloit, Kans. Staley, A. H., Superintendent, Hastings Public Schools, Hastings, Nebr. Stemen, T. R., Central High School, Okla¬ homa City, Okla. Stevenson, Fred G., Superintendent, LaSalle- Peru Township High School and Junior College, LaSalle, Ill. Stiles, Chester D., Superintendent, West- field Public Schools, Westfield, Mass. Strickland, Rose, Principal, Powell School, Birmingham, Ala. Study, H. P., Superintendent of Schools, Springfield, Mo. Vance, Mrs. Nua, 2223 Routt St., Pueblo, Colo. Whitacre, Martha, Richmond, Ind. Wilson, Mrs. A. R., Principal, Lakewood School, Durham, N. C. Wilson, Josephine, 3221 Beverly Drive, Dal¬ las, Texas Wolaver, Florence E., 1734 Orrington Ave., Evanston, Ill. Associational Records and Information 793 MINUTES OF THE FIFTEENTH REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY Denver, Colorado, June 30-July 5, 1935 First Business Session, Tuesday Morning, July 2, 1935 The first business session of the Representative Assembly convened at 9 a. m. in the Municipal Auditorium. An organ recital was rendered by Clarence Reynolds. President Henry Lester Smith: The first business session of the Representative Assembly of the National Education Association will come to order. I shall ask Reverend Martin E. Anderson of the Central Presbyterian Church to deliver the invocation. ( Reverend And.erson led in prayer and the business session was opened.) President Smith : I shall call now for the report of the Committee on Credentials. The chairman of that Committee is L. A . Pittengcr, president of Ball State Teachers College, Muncie, Indiana. Mr. L. A. Pittenger (Indiana) : The Committee on Credentials met in this Audi¬ torium at 2 p. m. Monday, July 1, with twenty-eight members present. The Sec¬ retary’s Office of the Association reported that there were at that hour more than 1074 delegates registered. The Committee recommended that all delegates properly certified be seated, provided they satisfy the Secretary’s Office that the organizations they represent have paid or will pay their 1935 dues. The Committee further recom¬ mended that the registration of delegates close immediately preceding the convening of the business session at 8:45 a. m. Wednesday, July 3. The Committee further recommended that all delegates certified by state or local organizations must be members of the organizations they are certified to represent. The Committee ap¬ pointed a subcommittee to attend to any matters that might arise during subsequent sessions. The following were appointed: H. C. Davis — Michigan; J. E. Fitzgerald — Iowa; John Palmer — California; Frances Schar — South Dakota; and L. A. Pit¬ tenger — Indiana. Mr. President, I move this report be adopted. (The motion was seconded and carried unanimously.) President Smith: I shall call now for the report of the Committee on Rules, Joseph Rosier, president of Fairmont State Teachers College, Fairmont, West Virginia, and past president of the Association, is the chairman of that Committee. Mr. Joseph Rosier (West Virginia) : May I take just a few minutes to explain the purpose of the work of this Committee, the circumstances leading up to it, and the reasons for the report which is made here this morning. The problems confronting the Representative Assembly in the last two or three years have provoked con¬ siderable controversy in discussion and have involved parliamentary problems that at times have resulted in confusion. It was the thought of President Smith in ap¬ pointing this Committee and in the plans which are made for the parliamentary pro¬ cedure in this Representative Assembly this year to provide regulations that will result in orderly procedure in the discussion and consideration and voting upon every problem that comes before the Representative Assembly. May I say, as I have said before in presiding over this Assembly, that I consider it one of the greatest deliberative bodies that assembles in this country. Because it is a great representa¬ tive deliberative body, and because it is composed of educators who are supposed to know how to conduct the affairs, it is important not only for our own business but as an example to all other deliberative bodies to conduct our affairs in orderly fashion. May I read first the specific rules which have been proposed. I wish the delegates would make a careful note of all of these rules because each one pertains to some problem that has caused confusion in the past. 1. Each state delegation shall elect a chairman. In the absence of a dele¬ gate, only an alternate shall take his place, and when there is more than one alternate of a state or local affiliated association the delegates of that associa¬ tion shall select the alternate to act. (This pertains to the organization of each 794 National Education Association state delegation, the first step being that each delegation shall elect a chairman.) 2. There shall be not more than one nominating speech and two seconding speeches for any one candidate. Nominating speeches shall be limited to five minutes and seconding speeches to two minutes each. (The question has been raised about states and individual delegates seconding nominations. The officers have decided that individual delegates or states may second nomina¬ tions, but there must be nothing said in those seconding speeches concerning the candidate except to second the nomination.) 3. No member shall speak in debate more than twice during the same day to the same question, or longer than five minutes at one time, unless per¬ mission is granted by a majority vote. 4. All resolutions contained in the reports of officers, boards, or com¬ mittees, shall be in writing and shall be signed by the mover and seconder. 5. The rules contained in Robert’s Rules of Order Revised shall govern the Assembly in all cases to which they are applicable. 6. After the close of the general session on the evening of the fourth day there shall be a business session at which no business shall be transacted except the announcement of the result of the election and the introduction of the new president. In conclusion may I state that to carry out these rules and regulations the Asso¬ ciation has this year procured the services of a professional parliamentarian who will rule on all questions that may be raised concerning parliamentary procedure, r think it will be a matter of pride and gratification to the members of the Repre¬ sentative Assembly to know that the parliamentarian secured for this service is the son of the author of Robert’s Rules of Order Revised and that he has grown up in an atmosphere of parliamentary procedure and discussion. The Rules Committee realizes that it is not within its province to make rules in regard to the following topics, but it suggests the following to the Resolutions Committee : 1. That the printed copies of the report of the Resolutions Committee be in the hands of the delegates twenty-four hours before they are voted upon. 2. That all morning sessions of the Assembly be exclusively business meet¬ ings. (Transmitted to the Resolutions Committee by Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl and Mary C. Ralls.) Mr. President, I move the adoption of this report. (The motion was seconded and unanimously carried.) President Smith: The next order of business is the adoption of the order of busi¬ ness for these sessions. It has been customary in the past to adopt the order of business as it is printed in the program unless there is some special reason for a change, so if we should adopt the order of business that is now recommended by the officers, it would be this program as printed with the modifications suggested by the report of the Rules Committee, arranging for a very brief business session at the close of a regular session next Thursday evening. Is there a motion, there¬ fore, to adopt this order of business? (A motion was made, seconded, and carried unanimously.) President Smith: The next order of business is the reading of the minutes of the Washington meeting. Those minutes have been published in the Proceedings. It has been customary for us to approve them with any modifications which you think should be made without having them read. What is your pleasure this morning in regard to the minutes of the Washington meeting? (A motion was made, seconded, and unanimously carried that these minutes be approved as printed.) President Smith: The suggestion is made that we have a five minute recess in order that the states may organize now that the full delegations have come into the room, so we will be informal for a few minutes. (The Assembly stood in recess until 9: 55 o’clock, at which time President Smith called the meeting to order.) Associational Records and Information 795 President Smith: We will be in session for business. We are very anxious that everyone hear and we are very anxious to proceed slowly so that there is ample opportunity for expression of opinion on all questions that come up. I should like to make this request: When you do not hear will you kindly raise your hand. We will understand that signal and if in the midst of business that is overlooked, I think it would be proper for you to call out from the rear. That is a little confusing, I recognize, but that is less disturbing than the inability to hear what is going on. We regret, too, that some of the delegations are over here to the left. The micro¬ phone has been changed so that I think you should be able to hear now. It will take a little time to put up the runway here to my left so that those coming from those delegations to the platform to make comments will be inconvenienced some¬ what, but if they will go to the aisle about half-way back and across they can get to the platform, and more convenient arrangements will be made later. I will call on Richard R. Brown, president of the Denver Classroom Teachers, as chairman of the Committee on Necrology for the report of the Committee. (The report is printed on p. 941 of this volume.) (The Assembly arose and stood with bowed heads during the rendition of “ Meditation.”) Mr. Richard R. Brown (Colorado) : I move the adoption of the report of the Necrology Committee, that the names of those who have departed be listed in the volume of Proceedings and accumulated information be filed in the archives of the National Education Association. (Motion seconded and carried.) President Smith: We are to have next reports from two committees. The Repre¬ sentative Assembly last summer provided for the appointment of two committees which were designated: Committee on Amending Charter, and Committee on Re¬ organization of the National Education Association. The first of those reports will be from the Committee on Amending Charter; following that is the item of business on the amendments to the bylaws. That is the report of the Committee on Reorgani¬ zation of the National Education Association. I want to say that these two com¬ mittees have worked very hard for many months and have made strenuous efforts to get the suggestions of all members of the National Education Association. I ask you to give these reports careful consideration. I shall call first for the report of the Committee on Amending Charter. Reuben T. Shaw of the Northeast High School, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, is chairman of that Committee. (The report is printed on page 151 of this volume.) (Mr. Shaw reviewed some of the facts surrounding the duties of the Committee as contained in the two amendments proposed at the Washington meeting. One of the amendments dealt with the question of the removal of Life Directors from the Board of Directors and the other concerned the method of selecting a secretary. He pointed out that the Executive Committee had the feeling that the Committee on Amending Charter should concern itself only with the amendment dealing with the question of Life Directors. Since it did not seem wise to ask Congress at once for an amendment concerning the Life Director question alone, it seemed best both from the standpoint of the work of the Committee and the welfare of the N. E. A. for the Committee to work jointly with the Committee on Reorganization upon the general idea of simplification of the charter. A drafting committee representing the two committees prepared a plan of simplification which was presented to the Executive Committee and which was approved with the exception of certain ob¬ jections to the proposed changes concerning the Permanent Fund. Several later conferences were held and the provisions regarding the Permanent Fund were modified, and are presented as a part of the report of the Committee on Reorganiza¬ tion. Mr. Shaw called attention to the way in which his report was set up and called on several members of his Committee for explanations on certain points.) (Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl, in explaining the difference between a charter and bylaw, and a constitution and rules of procedure, stated that it was found that a 796 National Education Association charter is the fundamental instrument governing an association when that associa¬ tion is incorporated by Congress or some other legislative body. In a charter this legislative body always reserves the right to amend that charter. The charter may contain provisions as to how the association may proceed to recommend that the legislative body make changes in that body. Associations incorporated under a charter are in general subject to the general laws applicable to all corporations created by that legislative body and that legislative body may change the charter at any time.) (She stated further that a constitution is a body of fundamental rules accepted by an association for its government and should contain only rules or provisions that are to be exceedingly difficult to change. An association may determine whether or not the charter should take the place of a constitution. It may have both a charter and a constitution if it wishes. The bylaws should include all rules that are at all important. Since the N. E. A. is incorporated our charter may take the place of a constitution. In that case the bylaws should contain all the rules of the society except those that cannot be changed without previous notice. The bylaws should also provide for their own amendment. It was found that the Articles of Incorpora¬ tion granted by Congress were adopted by our members on July 10, 1907, as a charter. The Act of Incorporation contained a number of provisions that do not belong there and which might properly be transferred to the bylaws. In any way of simplification of the charter it will be proper to consider seriously the necessity of a separate crea¬ tion of the constitution. The thing to keep clearly in mind is that the charter should contain only the very necessary things and that our charter now contains many things which do not really belong either in a charter or a constitution.) (Fred D. Cram called attention to a questionnaire sent to all directors to ascertain the sentiment of the people concerning the Committee’s work. A tabulated report revealed almost unanimous consent for supporting the Committee in whatever action it decided was necessary. Advice from the Association’s attorney, from consulting attorneys, and from Parliamentarian Henry M. Robert, Jr., led the Committee to feel that they might proceed to take steps to amend the charter.) ( Sara C. Ewing brought out in her statement the fact that in all its steps the Committee had had the continuous advice of Mr. Robert, an expert parliamentarian. She further emphasized the fact that the charter contains many provisions that do not properly belong there and that it is necessary to go to Congress in order to have provisions of the charter changed.) (In conclusion Mr. Shaw called attention to the study made of the Congressional Record relative to the danger of losing a charter and charter provisions. It was found that charters granted in more recent years were relatively simple with probably no need for amendments. It was found that from 1926 to 1928 twenty-five new charters were granted, forty were amended. From 1928 to the present time fifteen new charters have been granted and twenty-five others amended. In only two cases have charters been repealed by Congress and these for very excellent reasons.) (Mr. Shaw then read the following Summary of Facts and Conclusions and Recom¬ mendations:) Summary of Facts and Conclusions 1. Congress alone has the power to amend the charter of the National Edu¬ cation Association. 2. No parliamentary action on the part of the Association or the lack of parliamentary action has any bearing whatever upon the legal status of what Congress may see fit to do in regard to any amendments. 3. Congressional action in reference to simplification of the charter can legally be taken without any further action on the part of the Association or the Representative Assembly. Associational Records and Information 797 4. The original charter was granted by Congress in 1906, subject to approval by the Association, and a year elapsed before it was finally accepted. Therefore, upon the basis of this precedent, the proposed revision can be granted by Congress subject to acceptance by the Association. 5. The old charter remained in force in 1906-1907 under a provision in section 9 until the new charter was accepted by the Association on July 10, 1907. Therefore, upon the basis of this precedent, the present charter can, under a similar provision, remain in force until our proposed simplification is accepted and the bylaws are amended to conform to the new charter. 6. The “ danger of loss of charter ” appears to be very remote indeed. 7. The charter contains, in the opinion of experts, many provisions which more properly belong in the bylaws. 8. The Committee is of the opinion that the Association should avoid annoying Congress with frequent requests for change of charter. 9. The Committee is of the opinion that Congress may be unwilling to grant an amendment to the charter which covers only one of the many items that properly belong in the bylaws. 10. The proposed plan of simplification does not in any way change the modus operandi of the Association. Recommendations 1. The Committee recommends that the Assembly approve the proposed plan of simplification of the charter. 2. The Committee recommends that the Representative Assembly make provision for a committee to take immediate steps to have the charter amended as provided for in the plan of simplification and that an adequate appropriation be made for the work of that committee. 3. The Committee recommends that the Life Director question be taken care of by the amendment to the bylaws as revised in connection with the simplification of the charter and as presented in the report of the Committee on Reorganizaion. President Smith: I shall next call upon Mr. Oberholtzer for the report of the Committee on Reorganization. (The report is printed on page 175 of this volume.) (Before calling upon Miss Adair to present the compensating bylaws, Mr. Ober¬ holtzer presented the scope of work of the Committee; its division into subcommittees for the purpose of studying certain phases of the work; and the splendid cooperation beween the Committee on Reorganization and the Committee on Amending Charter. Mr. Oberholtzer explained that a drafting committee was appointed to take out of the charter and put into the bylaws items that seemed to belong there, at the same time preserving all of the legal aspects that are necessary to keep the chain of title to our property and to our rights. Mr. Shaw and Miss Adair were the chief workers on this Committee. Therefore, in presenting the report Mr. Shaw will present chapter I, followed by Miss Adair who will first present the compensating bylaws and then certain other bylaws on which we hope to receive unanimous con¬ sent. He pointed out clearly that it was not the intention of the Committee to force the Representative Assembly into a decision, but that it was the feeling that it would be helpful to care for as many of these things as is possible after a deliberate consideration and full discussion. Since the Permanent Fund seems to be a question at issue we will take up first the matters of simplification and leave the Permanent Fund out of the discussion and take that up later. It is felt that before this Asso¬ ciation can go forward that our charter must be simplified by transferring certain provisions into the bylaws and then asking Congress for authority to make these changes.) {Mr. Oberholtzer called upon Mr. Shaw to report on the suggested phases of the simplification of the charter. Mr. Shaw explained the proposed changes in the charter, as set forth in chapter I in the report of the Committee on Reorgani- 798 National Education Association zation, and called attention to the material in brackets to be cut out of the charter and set up in the bylaws and the parts inclosed in parentheses, which are comments of the Committee and not a part of the charter or bylaws. Each section was taken up in detail. Mr. S/iaiv explained those sections where changes had been made and those sections which remained unchanged.) Miss Cornelia S. Adair (Virginia) : The proposed amendments and bylaws as set forth in chapter II are so drawn only for the purpose of placing in the bylaws provisions which now exist in the charter. The fact that they do not change the modus operandi of the Association should make them acceptable to everyone. It is hoped that they may be adopted by unanimous consent. It may be argued that these changes should be made effective only if and when simplification of the charter has been approved by Congress. The Committee points out, however, that placing these provisions in the bylaws now merely duplicates what is already in the charter and, therefore, does not make changes in the charter a prerequisite. In our study of the bylaws as printed in the 1934 Proceedings, it was discovered that article II, section 9, was not in conformity with the amendment as adopted at the Washington convention. We have, therefore, printed it as it should have ap¬ peared in the Proceedings. It was also found that article IV of the bylaws does not conform with the amendments as adopted by the Atlantic City meeting. We have, therefore, printed this article in the form in which it was adopted at that time. At the Washington meeting the Representative Assembly approved a certain change in section 6 of the charter. That particular sentence is omitted from the material transferred to the bylaws. I refer to the amendment adopted by ballot in regard to Life Directors. The following are the bylaws as amended at the annual business meeting of the Representative Assembly at Washington, D. C., July 5, 1934. We followed the same plan in the bylaws we did in the charter in regard to the new material being that in italics, and a concluding sentence stating its source in the charter. On the first page under “Membership ” and on the second page “Right to Vote” you will find no changes. Now under article II, “ Election of Officers, Representative Assembly, and Affiliated Associations,” you will note the omission of the two words, “ Election of.” We are placing some of the details of the method of election elsewhere. Now comes section 1 : (a) The officers of the said Corporation shall be a President, twelve Vicepresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Ex¬ ecutive Committee, and a Board of Trustees. (b) The Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vice- president, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all Life Directors of the National Education Association. You see the Life Directors remain until the charter is changed. (c) The Executive Committee shall consist of five members as follows: and that is exactly as it is now. Shall I read all this? Voices: No. No. Miss Adair: There are no differences there. I will tell you if there are any words changed. The next section (d) is in regard to the number and method of election of the Board of Trustees. The next paragraph contains no change. There are no changes in the following paragraphs: “The Election of Officers,” “Affiliated State Associations,” “Affiliated Local Associations,” “ Relationship, Na¬ tional, State, and Local,” “State Delegates,” “Local Delegates,” and “Selection Associational Records and Information 799 of Delegates.” The “Ex-Officio Delegates” paragraph was amended at the Wash¬ ington convention to read as follows: Sec. 9. The President, the twelve Vicepresidents, the Secretary, and Treasurer of the National Education Association, and the United States Com¬ missioner of Education, shall be ex-officio delegates to the Representative Assembly. There are no changes in section 10. In article III, “ Duties of Officers,” there are no changes in sections 1, 2, 3. Section 4 should be entitled, “ Duties of the Board of Directors.” Paragraphs (a), (b), (c), and (d) are in italics but there are no changes in the meaning. As you know, the italicized material is the material trans¬ ferred from the charter. The first paragraph of section 5, “(a) The Executive Committee shall have authority to represent and to act for the Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings,” etc., is transferred exactly from the charter to become paragraph (a) of the “ Duties of Executive Committee.” In section 6, “ Duties of the Trustees,” there is an omission. In paragraph (a) where the duties of Trustees are prescribed, there is no change but the first sentence of italicized (b) was omitted. It should read as follows : (b) The Board of Trustees shall have charge of the Permanent Fund and shall provide for the safekeeping of such Fund and all further funds which the Corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. This should come just ahead, should be the first sentence in (b) in italics. Of course (c) is new material. Paragraph (d) is transferred from the charter without change as follows: (d) The said Corporation may by its bylaws provide for the custody, control, management, sale, mortgage, investment, and reinvestment of the principal of said Permanent Fund. Article IV, “The National Council of Education,” is as adopted at the Atlantic City convention. There are no further additions or changes in the bylaws in chapter II. Chapter I was “The Simplified Charter,” chapter II, “The Compensating Bylaws,” chapter III has to do with amendments which we hope you will adopt by unanimous consent. We will present chapter III after you have disposed of I and II. Mr. E. E. Oberholtzer (Texas) : I wonder if it is clear now that chapter II, “ The Compensating Bylaws,” is merely a transfer of material from the charter to the bylaws. These paragraphs should go into the bylaws. No changes are made in the wording as in the charter except as mentioned by Miss Adair. I wonder, therefore, if you are ready to adopt the compensating bylaws at this time. If you are, then we can proceed to either chapter III or go back to chapter I on the charter. Is it clear that what we have put in the compensating bylaws is merely a duplication of what is in the charter now, which we believe to make the simplified charter should be removed into the bylaws? Mr. IV. H. Holmes (New York): May I ask a question there? It says in sec¬ tion 2 that the officers shall be composed of the President, twelve Vicepresidents — Miss Adair: That is my error. Mr. Holmes has called my attention to the fact that the requirement of twelve Vicepresidents is in the charter as it is now. If you will turn to the simplified charter, you will find provisions for one or more Vice- presidents. May I have your permission to make that explanation? When the simplified charter is adopted you may say “ one or more Vicepresidents.” Mr. Holmes: May I ask my question? My question is, Are the officers of this Association the Board of Directors, the President, and First Vicepresident, or do we still have a President and twelve Vicepresidents? Miss Adair: We still have them now. That is exactly the way it is in the charter. Mr. Holmes: Shouldn’t that be changed? Miss Adair: That will need to be changed if you adopt the simplified charter. That is why I answered the question as I did just a few minutes ago. 26 800 National Education Association Mr. W. A. Walls (Ohio) : On page 9 in the paragraph “ Duties of Trustees,” we have been informed that the parts in brackets have been removed to the bylaws. As I understand the charter would read as follows: “No part of the principal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except when approved by a three-fourths vote of the Representative Assembly in two successive years, and after all other requirements of the bylaws have been fulfilled.” Then it would seem, that according to this statement, that material between the brackets should come into the bylaws. I have been unable to find it. President Smith: Mr. Shaw, will you answer? Mr. Reuben T. Shaw (Pennsylvania) : The point just raised is that particular item, if you will note, the last part of the proposed portion in italics, “ and after all other requirements of the bylaws have been fulfilled.” The fact that it specifies a three-fourths vote of the Representative Assembly and provides that other require¬ ments, such as these, could be set up in the bylaws, that particular item, if my memory is correct, was left for your consideration here; that it was adequately covered; that by voting upon this you change from one to the other and that requirement as such was not necessary to be set up. I am inclined to think it should be set up in the light of some of the remarks I have heard. Mr. Walls : I want to know if it is in the bylaws or not. Mr. Shaw: Those particular provisions are not set up in the bylaws at the present time. They can be very easily added and included in this report. Miss Helen T. Collins (Connecticut) : Mr. Chairman — President Smith (Interrupting) : I want to make this announcement: All those who want to raise questions will please come to the platform and speak before the microphone so that everybody can hear the question and hear the explanation which is given by a member of the Committee. Miss Collins. Miss Collins: May I ask a question of the chairman of the Committee? In sec¬ tion 7, on page 9, under “ Duties of Trustees,” I note that in italics it says: “When approved by a three-fourths vote of the Representative Assembly in two successive years, and after all other requirements of the bylaws have been fulfilled.” Now in discussing this with many people who are interested in the matter it has occurred to us that there is something a little bit difficult about setting up the three-fourths vote, and I was going to ask the Committee if there is any reason why that cannot stand as a two-thirds vote. Heretofore, business of much importance has been transacted in this Assembly by a two-thirds vote and it seems to me it would simplify this whole matter if a two-thirds vote was still recognized as necessary. I feel, however, that the Committee’s work has been so carefully done I should like very much to have their reaction to this suggestion. Mr. Oberholtzer: My thought is that that will come before you to be acted upon and then it will be subject to your will if you want a change made. I have no authority as chairman of the Committee to change the Committee’s report; you do have the authority to change it, so that if it is agreeable, we will let that hold over until that particular provision comes up and you may take that matter into con¬ sideration. There is nothing sacred about two-thirds vote or three-fourths vote. We thought three-fourths required to amend the constitution, and it might require active support of a large majority, and that might be a safety measure for the Permanent Fund. You may have different feelings. President Smith: Mr. Saunders wishes to ask a question. Mr. Joseph H. Saunders (Virginia) : Do I understand that the motion just made to adopt the compensating bylaws carries with it these changes from the charter to the bylaws ? President Smith: There is no motion before the house. We are just getting reports made here now and giving an opportunity for some questions to clarify what the meaning of the report is. Mr. Saunders: Then I misunderstood. I understood there was a motion made to adopt the compensating bylaws, and I do not seem to be in order until after the Associational Records and Information 801 question of the amendments of the charter is decided, and I should like the privilege of discussing, when that discussion is in order, as to the whole question on page 9 regarding the Permanent Fund. President Smith: There is, as I say, no motion before the Assembly at the present time. What we are attempting to do now is to get the reports of these two committees before us and we haven’t the full report yet. So if there are no further questions now, we will proceed with the complete report of the Committee, after which opportunity will be given to raise questions, and then the whole thing will be presented to you for your action. Mr. IV. B. Mooney (Colorado) : Mr. President, just this question. What is the plan of decision? Is it to be on ballot or is it to be by vote here? President Smith: That would be a matter to be taken up as soon as the report is put into your hands and the Assembly would decide it. That would be my ruling- on that. Mrs. Johanna Lindlof (New York) : I want to ask a question and make a state¬ ment. As I understand it, the most important and most necessary thing for us to do today is to act upon the simplified charter in order that the Committee may proceed and get appropriate action by Congress, and I also understand that chapters I and II have had practically unanimous consent and approval by the two Committees. I, therefore, would like to ask if it is not possible for us at this time to act upon the simplification of the charter and later on chapter II. I think we would accomplish much more for the good of the organization if such a procedure could be followed and the other chapters, which I know will take up a great deal of time, be left for later consideration. President Smith: The Committee is making its reports. The one today is covering the points that they want action on today; the one to be given Thursday covers the points that they want to have action on Thursday. Am I correct in that statement? Mr. Oberholtzer: That is correct. President Smith: My opinion was asked as to what would be the procedure here and I stated I thought it would be best to have the complete report of the Committee made now, that is to include all things that they want action on today. Here is a suggestion that that procedure be departed from. That would be in the hands of the Assembly and if that is the wish of the Assembly, a motion to that effect could be made and then we could act upon that motion. Mrs. Lindlof: Mr. Chairman — President Smith (Interrupting and continuing) : I should say this before that is made, I had intended to say it after the complete report was made because I thought that was the proper place to make this comment, that these two reports, part of one of which has been made and part of another of which has been made, were pre¬ sented to the Executive Committee ; thev reported to the Executive Committee and were presented by the Executive Committee to the Board of Directors, and trans¬ mitted by the Board of Directors to the Representative Assembly with favorable recommendation. I had intended to make that statement at the completion of the report of the Committee, but if we are to have action and if it is the wish of the Assembly to have action on a part of this Committee’s report before receiving in toto what they want to ask for action upon today, I thought it would be well to make this explanation at this point. Mr. Oberholtzer: The parliamentarian informs me that I have the right of way so far as motions are concerned. I do not care to exercise that prerogative to take advantage of anyone, but it strikes me it would simplify our program if we would have action first on the simplified charter, following that with the compensating bylaws. Then we would take up Miss Adair’s report on chapters III and IV. If you are going into the consideration now and take a final vote upon the simplified charter, that is chapter I, and the compensating bylaws, chapter II, certainly if you adopt the simplified charter you have to adopt the compensating bylaws because you leave out of the charter some things that have to be put into the bylaws, so they really go together, and I would consider, according to my point of view, that 802 National Education Association the first action ought to be taken on the simplified charter, then on the compensating bylaws; then we will ask Miss Adair to present her report on certain amendments for which we will ask unanimous consent and then others that we want to lay over, but it may add to the confusion if you pile that all in at one time. If you agree with me, I will make a motion that we proceed to vote upon the approval or dis¬ approval of the Committee’s report and chapter I with such amendments as you introduce from the floor. Illinois: Second the motion. President Smith : The question is on the adoption of the recommendation of the Committee as that recommendation is embodied in chapter I. Are you ready for the question? Mr. Abraham Lefkoivitz (New York) : Everyone reading this report is fully aware of the admirable work done by the Committee. I feel I can take exception to but one part of this report and that is section 7 dealing with the Permanent Fund. While the Committee is well intentioned in its change, it nevertheless means that the National Education Association so stratifies its procedure that in times of urgency its hands would be so tied that it could not function. Moreover, the changing of the procedure that has been employed for many years, and which has never been found wanting, would need something stronger than has thus far been presented. I see no reason why the procedure that has functioned should not be retained. I think that when you get a two-thirds vote upon any proposition, that that proposition ought to be enacted and have the right of way. To make it a three-fourths vote is to so tie up this body that the very people who want to do something and who are responsible for this change would find themselves unable to function for the best interests of the teachers of the nation. Hence, I move that this article be ap¬ proved except for section 7, which is to be so amended as to substitute “ two-thirds ” for “ three-fourths ” and “ for one year ” instead of “ two successive years ” be¬ cause I can conceive of an emergency arising which could not wait two years. Mrs. Lindlof (New York) : Segond the motion. President Smith: There is a motion before the House. Was this intended as an amendment to that motion? Mr. Lefkoivitz: Correct. President Smith: I wish you would come again and state the amendment you are proposing. Mr. Lefko^witz: The motion as made by the chairman is that article I be ap¬ proved. Correct? Mr. Oberholtzer : With such amendments as might be suggested. President Smith: You have a motion to approve. That is right. Mr. Lefko^witz: Isn’t it better to make amendments and then approve the chapter as a whole ? Mr. Oberholtzer: I think so. Mr. Lefko^vitz: My motion is merely an amendment to section 7, changing the three-fourths to two-thirds and eliminating the words “ two successive years.” President Smith: You have heard this amendment, and it has been seconded. Will you pardon me for being a little irregular right at this point? There was an announcement that I should have made and it is a very important one, and I should like to break into the business here, with your permission, to make that announce¬ ment. (President Smith thereupon made an announcement of the meeting of the Committee on Credentials at the close of the business session of the Representative Assembly.) President Smith: Now back to the original business. We have one major motion before us, which is to adopt the recommendation of this Committee as embodied in chapter I of the report, and an amendment which has been moved and seconded, to change one item there from three-fourths vote to two-thirds vote and to strike out the provision “ for two successive years.” The question is on this amendment. Mrs. Lindlof: Mr. Chairman — Mr. Oberholtzer: Mr. Chairman — Associational Records and Information 803 President Smith: I recognize Mr. Oberholtzer. Mr. Oberholtzer: I think if this amendment could be held over until we determine first — as I understand it, the large issue is whether we are going to change in any way, or whether we are going to leave the Association as it is. If we could defer this amendment, my honest opinion is the difference between the two-thirds and the three-fourths is rather insignificant compared to the fundamental changes, and I wondered if I could not prevail upon the man who made the motion, and the second, to withdraw that with the assurance he would have an opportunity to pre¬ sent it again after we have determined this other issue as to whether or not we are going to make any change, or the change that might come with the suggestion made. Mr. Walls (Ohio) : In order to accomplish that, I will make an amendment to the original motion that we approve the simplified charter with the exception of sec¬ tion 7 and that we defer action on that. Mr. Lefkowitz: I would accept that, Mr. Chairman, as simplified procedure. President Smith: Does the second agree to that? Mrs. Lindlof: I will also accept it. President Smith: I think we have permission of the mover of this amendment and his second to withdraw that amendment and in its place we have a suggested amendment to adopt this report as embodied in chapter I with the exception of section 7, to be taken up later. I understand this motion then, or rather this amend¬ ment, has been seconded and the question is on the amendment to the original motion, and the substance of that amendment would be to strike out for the present the reference to section 7. This question is open for discussion. I will give this member of the Committee an opportunity to explain. Mr. Shaw: Please turn to page 9, top of page. It has been suggested that fol¬ lowing the words “Councils, Committees as shall be prescribed in the bylaws” there be inserted “and other officers” after the word “committees.” As you are now apparently voting upon a part including that, I feel certain the Committee has not the slightest objection to the addition of those words and it asks the unanimous consent for the insertion, thereof, before you come up to a vote now. Just after the words “ Boards, Councils, and Committees,” in the first paragraph of italics, last line, on page 9 add “ and other officers.” President Smith: Is there any objection to that substitution, which as you have been informed would be the recommendation of the Committee? Mrs. Lindlof: I believe it would be better to say “ and such other officers.” President Smith: The word “such” and “such other officers” would be ac¬ ceptable to the Committee. Now is there any objection whatever on the part of anyone to include those words in the place indicated, “and such other officers”? If not, we will consider that done. My attention has been called to the fact that the word “ such ” applies previously to that and it would not be necessary. Inasmuch as it makes no difference to the Committee, let us leave it and pass on as rapidly as we can. Let us see if we understand — the original motion then would include this first chapter with the insertion of these words “ and such other officers.” Now the amendment has reference to striking out for the present consideration of section 7. It includes the approval of all except section 7. Mr. Holmes: Do I understand if this motion prevails section 7 will stay as it is? President Smith: I understand it would stay as it is at the present but the Assembly could handle that afterward in any way it desired to do so. Mr. Lefkowitz: I withdrew my amendment on the assumption that after we carried the motion, that amendment is then the first order of business. That was my understanding. President S?nith: That is right. Are you ready for the question on the amendment? Mr. J. T. Worlton (Utah) : I raise the question as to the name of this Associa¬ tion in order that we may be consistent. I notice on page 10 in the first line of section 9 the name used is “ National Educational Association.” President Smith: I think I can explain that. Originally that was our name. We have changed the name three times, but we have to have these in here in sequence 804 National Education Association as far as the title of it is concerned. So that is not the name now. That is con¬ sistent. Am I right? Mr. Shaw : That is correct. President Smith: Is there any further discussion on this amendment? Mrs. Lindlof: I believe it is on the adoption of the motion to approve chapter I with the elimination of section 7. President Smith: Then we withdraw not only the original amendment but the original motion. Let us understand that. Do we have the consent of the original mover of the original motion to have his withdrawn? Mr. Oberholtzer: I consented to the withdrawal and the having of this motion presented for the original motion. President Smith: As the chair understands, it had permission for the withdrawal of the original motion and the first amendment to that. Now we have before us in place of that original motion, a motion to adopt the recommendation of the Com¬ mittee as that recommendation is embodied in chapter I, with the exclusion of section 7. Are you ready for the question? Section 7 is to be separately considered immediately after this motion is taken. (The question was taken and the motion unanimously carried.) President Smith : The next item before us is section 7 and the gentleman who spoke to that awhile ago now is recognized. Mr. Lefkowitz': In order that we may simplify both the vote and the discussion I shall divide my amendment into two parts. My amendment is as follows: The first part, that in place of a three-fourths vote we substitute a two-thirds vote. My second part is the elimination of the words “ in two successive years.” I shall now read the section as amended: No part of the principal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly and after all other requirements of the bylaws have been fulfilled. That is how the section will read under my amendment. President Smith: If it is proper according to the judgment of the parliamentarian, I would like to call for a vote on these two things separately because there are two things involved here. Would it be proper to call for discussion on the first item — the change to three-fourths vote? Mr. Henry M. Robert, Jr. (Parliamentarian) : Yes. President Smith: That is agreeable. Are you ready for the question? I recognize Mr. Oberholtzer. Mr. Oberholtzer: I would like to say one word. As I said in the opening, the fraction of two-thirds or three-fourths is not sacred. I would certainly oppose that three-fourths to two-thirds if you strike out two years. I think it is very essential to keep it at two years and I would be willing to say, as chairman of the Committee, that if there is no objection we might amend it by writing in two-thirds and leaving that as it is, but if you want to vote on the separate issues, I want that view before you at the time of voting on the three-fourths or two-thirds. I certainly think we should not cut down the majority vote until we have determined whether or not we are to have two successive years, and again I do not want to impose on the chairman but I would like to ask if he would put the other amendment first, whether we have it two years or one year. Mr. Lefkowitz: In order to simplify the procedure and enable us to finish this business, I will accept the proposal made by the chairman that it be two-thirds and two years. President Smith: Mr. Mooney. Mr. IV. B. Mooney (Colorado) : The problem that is before us is one that involves the principles of democratic government. I think most of us in our states have been troubled during the last several years with restrictions in our constitutions with reference to taxation. Those constitutions have thrown around the taxation problem so many safeguards that our regularly elected representatives have been tied so that they could not make an adjustment. The same, perhaps, applies to the Associational Records and Information 805 national Constitution. Now I am entirely in sympathy with the Committee’s program of trying to strike out of the charter, which is after all our constitution, this restrict¬ ing provision which interferes with the action by the Representative Assembly, but I am unable to see why they take one restriction out with reference to the Permanent Fund and put another one in that is quite as restrictive as the one they take out, if not more so, particularly if this amendment should not fail. It seems to me that we ought to seriously consider the question of eliminating the whole restrictive pro¬ visions in section 7 and leave it with a majority of this Representative Assembly to do what they please with reference to anything, even the Permanent Fund. Now that may seem alarming, but I am agreed with the thinkers of our day that the cure for democracy is more democracy, and for my part, while I shall vote for this restriction of two-thirds, I should like the matter referred back to the Committee for further study. President Smith: Mr. Saunders. Mr. Joseph H. Saunders (Virginia) .* The discussion which I desire to present to you involves this amendment and, therefore, I think is germane at this time. I feel it is my duty, as a representative teacher of a great state, if not a great organiza¬ tion, to present to you some facts in connection with this Permanent Fund. I feel it further my duty, having served for some seven years in the handling of that fund, to bring to the attention of many delegates in this convention who do not know what it is all about, who do not know what that Permanent Fund is, the status of that Permanent Fund. I expect to try, in as brief a time as possible, to give you some facts in connection with this that may make you think at least before you vote on this particular proposition. In the first place, I desire to call your attention to the very heading of this charter and ask you to consider the names of the men who originated it. For instance, there are Nathan C. Schaeffer, William T. Harris, F. Louis Soldan, James M. Green¬ wood, James H. Canfield, Nicholas Murray Butler, William H. Maxwell, James Y. Joyner, and others. I believe those men were wise in their generation, and I believe the facts which I am going to present to you will show that they were wise in the set-up which they made concerning this particular fund, and for that reason I am going to ask you to leave section 7 in the charter as it is now, without change. The reasons I am going to present to you. In the first place, this Permanent Fund was established before we got the present charter, but in 1905 there was only $147,000 in that fund, and it yielded profits to us for that year of $6552 for the operation of our Association. For the next twenty years, up until 1925, that fund grew very slowly, only adding $50,000 in twenty years. But then along came J. W. Crabtree and conceived this idea of Life Member¬ ships and made pledges to the teachers of this nation that if they would put $100 into this Permanent Fund that that $100 would go on forever serving the teach¬ ers of this nation, building education and democracy in this nation, and an implied obligation exists there. Over 5400 teachers have accepted that proposition and over $500,000, or more than a half million dollars, has come into the fund in that way. So in 1930 we had $605,000 in this fund and we built a building in Washington. Today my reports which I shall submit to you on Thursday will show that we have in that fund $802,664.47, and that fund has paid into our operating expenses this year $41,393. This is a million dollar corporation we are talking about, and we want to talk business, and how business is operated and handled in million dollar corporations. I submit to you that the present management of that fund, which is in the hands of the Board of Trustees, consisting of four members, one elected annually for a four-year term by your Board of Directors, to handle that fund, has handled it so that all thru this depression not a dollar of the principal has been lost, and since 1930 the fund has increased $200,000. President Scnith (Interrupting) : We have a rule of a limitation of five minutes in debate. I think that it is important to get this statement before us from the 806 National Education Association chairman of the Board of Trustees and I should like to ask the consent of the group to extend the time for this presentation. Is there any objection? Mr. Holmes: I so move. (The question was taken and the motion carried.) Mr. Saunders : I thank you for the privilege. I submit that under the present management of the small board of five trustees, a continuing board, that these funds have been so well handled there is not another business corporation in the United States can show the same record thru this period of depression. Now as to the proposed management, I call your attention to the proposal on page 9 under section 7 to the words in italics: The said corporation may by its bylaws provide for the custody, control, management, sale, mortgage, investment, and reinvestment of the principal of said Permanent Fund. And I submit, with all due respect to the chairman, that he has made a fundamental change. He is taking away the safeguards of the constitution when you can transfer all these things to bylaws, for bylaws can be amended at any subsequent meeting of this Association. And I have seen on the floor of this Representative Assembly a motion made to spend funds that were not in existence except in the Permanent Fund, and in a short while we could dissipate this entire Permanent Fund and lose our home in Washington, break faith with the Life Membership of the organization, and not have a million dollars paying $40,000 a year into the operating expenses to serve the teachers of this nation. I know the chairmen of both of these Committees are going to say, “We have safeguarded that by that three-fourths vote, and by two successive years,” but when you transfer this to the bylaws you have set up a proposition whereby these changes can be made that this fund can be dissipated, and we do not have the safeguards of the constitution. The constitution is a safeguard. It is a question of the principle involved — whether we want centralized versus decentralized control when it co’mes to the finances of your organization. I do not know a single business corporation operating with a million dollars, and with $500,000 annual expenditures which would for a moment think of turning over the control of those finances even to such a Board of Directors as we have, sixty people, half or more of whom are elected annually, and I certainly do not know of any business corporation in the United States that would turn over the handling of its entire funds annually to its whole group of stockholders, such as this Representative Assembly, with all due respect to the members of this body. I hope before you will vote the proposition submitted to you by the Committee on the amendment offered to that proposition, that you will consider seriously voting the whole thing down, which would leave it as it is in the charter and thereby be safeguarded, and thereby keep faith with the people who have created this fund. President Smith: We have rules and I believe in standing by those rules. In this particular instance I had felt that the first part was not primarily an argument; it was the laying before you of certain facts, and therefore, I did ask for an extension of time. I wanted that to be explained. I think the latter part of this discussion an argument, and properly so, on the question. I recognize Mr. Holmes. Mr. Holmes: If possible, I want to move a substitute motion, and before moving that I want to say that all of us here want to pay tribute to this magnificent Com¬ mittee which has done such a fine piece of work for this Association. We know the labors they have performed and we know their results are going to be of great benefit to this Association. As many of you know, I am in favor of democracy and more democracy in this Association. I am also in favor of harmony in this Association. I am also in favor of financial safety in this Association. I believe that we should leave the Per¬ manent Fund as it is in the excellent hands of those who have so managed it that it has proved one of the best managed funds in the whole nation. So I move, if it is possible to make this substitute motion, that this body leave the Permanent Fund as it is now in the charter. Associational Records and Information 807 President Smith: I am asking now for the judgment of the parliamentarian first on this motion. The motion has been made and seconded. Mr. Walls: I want to second that motion. President Smith: There is a question as to whether that is a proper motion and whether it is in order and I am awaiting the advice of the parliamentarian. I want to say to you that as chairman I am going to rule in accordance with the advice of the parliamentarian. Mr. Robert: At the present time there is pending an amendment to changing these words to require a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly. That amendment is pending. No other amendment is in order at the present time except an amendment to that amendment. Then the other gentleman may make a state¬ ment and he can move that later, after we have voted on this. Mr. Walls: I rise to a point of order. Air. Holmes has not offered an amendment. He offered a substitute for all that is before us. Is that not in order? President Smith: Will you please come to the front? Mr. Walls: In all deliberative bodies to which I have belonged, a substitute for all that is before us is always in order. That is the motion which Mr. Holmes made and which I seconded. Mr. Robert: I am sorry to say his position is not correct. A substitute motion is a primary amendment. When a primary amendment is pending, only a secondary amendment is in order. When a primary amendment is voted on, another primary amendment is in order. Mr. Walls: I make a motion then to lay this proposed amendment on the table. President Smith: I will call on the parliamentarian. Mr. Robert: The motion to lay the amendment on the table is out of order. President Smith: Let us see where we are. The original motion here before us is to approve section 7. An amendment has been proposed to that to change the wording of three-fourths to two-thirds. We are now debating that amendment. Mrs. Lindlof: I would like to point out that all that is being done in changing the Permanent Fund as specified in this amendment is putting that provision alone in the charter. It is perfectly possible, and I think most probable, that the Rep¬ resentative Assembly is just as anxious to conserve the funds of this Association for the welfare of the education of the children of this nation as any member on any executive body of this Association. You have heard this morning that our charter as it is at present is most cumbersome, that the only way it can be amended is by appealing to Congress for a bill which will carry out those amendments. If we put a provision in the charter which says that the Permanent Fund — the principal of the Permanent Fund — shall only be expended by a two-thirds vote of this Rep¬ resentative Assembly in two successive years, and in addition thereto you have in this section a provision that states that the Representative Assembly may by its bylaws take what other safeguards it may deem necessary — I believe if you actually believe in democracy, you will trust the people who are elected by their people at home to come here and transact the business of this Association, that you will not put any more strings on this Permanent Fund than is absolutely necessary. Adopt this amendment as the amendment to go into the charter, and then if you want other restrictions put them in your bylaws which will be subject to your will at all times when you determine. Voices: Question! Question! Question! President Smith: Mr. Kelley of Pennsylvania has the platform and he wants to speak to this question. Mr. J. Herbert Kelley (Pennsylvania) : I, along with you, desire to safeguard the Permanent Fund and I think I can speak for the state of Pennsylvania in this regard, for Pennsylvania has the largest number of life members, the largest number who have contributed $100 apiece to make up the Permanent Fund. I can also speak for myself, for while I am not as yet a genuine antique, I am the third oldest life member in the National Education Association. I took out my life mem¬ bership in 1921 and the only ones who preceded me are Hugh Alagill and W. A. 808 National Education Association Cook, the latter of the University of Cincinnati. I paid my $100. I have placed the matter before our magnificent membership of 60,000 in our State Association, and they have responded with $100’s in large numbers to build up this Permanent Fund. We believe it will be best safeguarded when the control is placed in this body. I believe too that the cure for democracy is more democracy. This par¬ ticular issue right now of the Permanent Fund is only incidental. It is not the main issue brought out by the reports of these two excellent committees. The main issue is democraticizing of the National Education Association, and we certainly need that. We want the authority placed in the hands of our active members. I, therefore, favor this motion very strongly and join with others in asking your support for these reports. Originally this Permanent Fund was in the hands of the Board of Trustees and nothing can be done with that money unless they initiate the movement. It says, “upon the recommendation of the Board of Trustees.” That group of five had to initiate any movement before it could even come before the Board of Directors or come before you. And the gentleman, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, said he had been our servant for seven years. He did not use the right word. “ Servant ” is not the right word. “ Domineerer ” is the word. Unless they initiate it, nothing can be done. President Smith: I should like to call on the chairman of the Committee for a statement now. Mr. Oherholtzer: I think you could vote on this amendment and then bring the issue of whether the Committee’s recommendations are to stand. ... I would like to call your attention to Mr. Mooney’s statement about democracy. He made the point that he thinks we are tying it stricter than it was or is in the original charter. I think we should vote on this amendment and decide whether it is two-thirds or three-fourths. Then immediately Mr. Holmes or someone is going to move to strike out the amendment and we will have the real issue before us. But as a matter of democracy, don’t let them becloud the issue. The honest people are not all within a certain group. They are scattered. Honest people will still remain in this Dele¬ gate Assembly, and if you really believe in that democracy, you can trust that group, and when you say “ two successive years,” I think largely that the prop¬ osition is that we are setting up those safeguards. The real issue is whether you want to change from the present set-up to the recommendations of the Committee. You can do that very simply if you vote this amendment down. The next step will be to strike out the amendments this Committee has recommended, and if you do that you leave it as it is. I think I state it fairly and squarely. Let us vote on this amendment, then go immediately to this issue whether you have any amendment at all. President Smith: I had thought nobody else was going to speak to this question and called upon Mr. Oherholtzer, but Mr. Sutton wants the platform, and I, there¬ fore, recognize him at this time. Mr. Willis A. Sutton (Georgia) : I had not intended to say anything, but I was stirred in my heart a little bit because of the reference made a moment ago. There is no man in this Assembly who believes more in the great principles for which you people have fought than I do. I believe in democratizing our charter. I have no objection to being ruled out as a life member delegate because my folks at home will elect me as a delegate anyhow. I have no objection to the question of chang¬ ing the Board of Directors and other phases that make our fundamental charter more democratic. I am speaking of this one phase of the Permanent Fund, which has never been the issue, as I see it, by any of those who have spoken, or thought, or planned on the question of making our organization more democratic. I do not think that has been in the minds of our people, or is it essential. I feel that I would be untrue to myself — I belong to a line of people that have practically all their lives been in the minority and nine times out of ten I have found that they have been right — I wish to say this, that in no sense have I the least bitterness, misunderstanding, or ill will toward any instrument to make this or- Associational Records and Information 809 ganization more democratic. I say, tho, that when it comes to the control of the Permanent Fund that there are grave dangers in what you are attempting to do. I love Oberholtzer, I love Miss Adair, I love all the folks who are making this report. I can still differ with them, tho I may love them. I can see that there are possibilities of people thinking that certain phases of education are so important that even two sessions of the Delegate Assembly might be elected on the basis of doing a particular thing with our Permanent Fund until it would be dissipated. I can see the possibilities of that going back into politics, if I may use that term, of the state associations in such a way that we would finally not have the support of this fund which these fine people from Pennsylvania, and whom I honor so much in making possible the having of this fund. I can see the possibilities of its being dissipated. It has been conserved under the present plan. There is not a shadow of a doubt about that. There is not a single person of the opposition who disputes it. It has been cared for, it has been enlarged, it has been used for the promotion of this organization, and in all love and sympathy I want to say I do not suppose any man in this organization has differed with Mr. Saunders more than I have, but I want to say this, no more faithful servant of this Association ever existed in its history. I must out of my heart say, as much as I love Kelley, as much as I love Pennsylvania, that not only have Mr. Saunders and Mr. Crabtree never tried to dominate this Association, but so far as my contact with this Association goes, never has a member of the Board of Trustees tried to dominate it. I must say, in pure fairness, that if we had in our organization or anywhere else a Board of Trustees that had conserved a fund, had seen it grow from $100,000 to a million dollars, then I think we should keep those people in charge of it. President Smith: The mover of this motion is asking for a word now. Mr. Lcfko'iuitz: I regret I have had to listen to so much irrelevant discussion which has nothing to do with the amendment. Under this proposed amendment, if the Committee approves, the same intelligent handling of the fund, I hope, will take place, and I hope the same men will handle the fund. The only question at issue is whether two-thirds of this body and a two-thirds vote of a succeeding body are intelligent enough and have enough integrity to handle the disposal of all funds upon the report of an intelligent committee. If those who favor the amend¬ ment believe that if a two-thirds vote of this body and a two-thirds vote of a succeeding body cannot vote intelligently, then we may just as well quit and admit that democracy and education are both failures. I have heard a lot about democracy and talk about democracy and there are many concepts of democracy, but at the present time if you do not vote in favor of the amendment it simply means that this great body of teachers is powerless to initiate expenditure, however imperative and necessary it may be, unless this small body does so. Under this proposed amendment this body by a two-thirds vote cannot do anything unless its action is again supported by a succeeding convention by a two-thirds vote. I hope the delegates of this convention have enough faith in their own intelligence, in their own integrity, and in the principle of democracy to approve the amendment. President Smith: The question is on an amendment to the motion to adopt section 7 of the report of the Committee on Reorganization of the National Education As¬ sociation. If this amendment is passed it means that on page 9 in the middle of the page, in italics, the word “ three-fourths ” as used there will be changed to “two-thirds.” Failure of this amendment to pass would mean that it would be left as it is at the present time. Are you ready for the question? As many as favor this amendment by striking out the word “ three-fourths ” and substituting the word “ two-thirds ” say “Aye.” Those opposed, “ No.” The chair is a little confused altho he feels fairly confident, but I think I will call for a show of hands first. Probably standing would be preferable. As many as are in favor of this amendment stand. (Those favoring arose.) Those opposed, please stand. (Those opposed arose.) The affirmative seems to have it. Unless there is a call for confirmation, the chair will announce the amendment is carried. 810 National Education Association Now that this amendment is disposed of we are on the original motion to adopt section 7 as amended by this amendment. Mr. Walls: Mr. Chairman, I understood the amendment made by that gentle¬ man was in two parts. “Three-fourths to two-thirds” — President Smith: (Interrupting) No. The mover of the motion consented to strike out the words “ or two successive years ” in his original motion. Now Mr. Holmes has the floor. Mr. Holmes: Without repeating what I said before — Mrs. Lindlof : (Interrupting) I believe we have not completed the vote. There should be a vote on section 7 as amended. We have only voted on the amendment. President Smith: The impression of the chair is this, that we are voting on the original motion to approve section 7 but opportunity is given to amend that if we want to and this is one amendment. Will you come to the platform and raise your question ? Mrs. Lindlof: My point of order is this: after you have come to the vote on a question on the amendment to a motion, there is no right to go back and make further amendments. If there were to be further amendments they should have been made before the vote was taken, because the correct order of business, as I understand it, is that amendments may be offered and then the vote is taken on the latest amendment first, and then on the preceding amendment. Since we have voted on the amendment, the proper procedure now should be to vote on section 7 as amended. Mr. Robert: If a primary amendment is adopted the lady is correct in saying that the question as amended is now pending, but it is now open to further primary amendment. This is now open to amendment and further debate. President Smith: Therefore, Mr. Holmes will be in order. He has the floor. Mr. Holmes: I would like to move a substitute motion that will bring back or restore the original section 7. If that is not possible, I will then move an amend¬ ment to strike out all that portion of the Committee’s report in section 7 that is printed in italics, and I want to move that on the ground that experience has taught us all over this country that permanent funds are placed in the hands of boards of trustees with large and liberal and responsible powers, that is the way it should be done in this Assembly, and that is the way the original charter makes provision. Edith L. Grosvenor (District of Columbia) : Second the motion. Mr. Lefko'ivitz: A point of order, Mr. Chairman. President Smith: Will you state your point of order? Mr. Lefko'ivitz: My point of order is Mr. Holmes’ substitute is out of order for these reasons — President Smith (Interrupting) : I think he made it as an amendment. Mr. Lefko'ivitz: It does not make any difference if it is an amendment. It is out of order in any form because it involves nullification of the motion just passed by this body by an overwhelming vote. It therefore can only be done logically or legitimately by a reconsideration, which would require a two-thirds vote. He may make an amendment which does not alter or nullify the vote just taken. Mr. Robert: When this amendment was adopted the only thing that the vote indicated was that if the proposal of the Committee was to be adopted they wished it to be two-thirds and not three-fourths. We have no indication whatever that they, so far as the vote is concerned, wish to adopt it either with two-thirds or with three- fourths. President Smith: The amendment, therefore, is in order. So the question is on the amendment which is to strike out of section 7 all the matter there in italics. Mr. Holmes: And leave in all matter in brackets. President Smith: Mr. Walls of Ohio. Mr. Walls: I want to speak to the main issue. If we leave the matter as it now stands in accordance with Mr. Holmes’ motion, we have this fund handled by Associational Records and Information 811 the Board of Trustees, under the Board of Directors, confirmed by a two-thirds vote of the active members. I happen to have been a member of the Board of Trustees of a permanent pension fund for the last seven years during this de¬ pression. I have the utmost confidence in the body of men that ultimately control that fund, a body of ministers. I have the utmost confidence in this Delegate As¬ sembly, but I see no reason for raising the question of democracy in handling the Permanent Fund. I had $100 paid into that Fund by my teachers and I take it under the conditions in which that $100 was paid that it was to be used in that Permanent Fund and subject to the Board of Trustees, and I will say that you have a record made by this Board of Trustees. They have had our interest reduced, they have not lost a cent of interest or principal, and why in the world should you want to change a plan that had brought results like that during the financial crisis thru which we have passed is beyond my understanding. I can simply say from my personal experience that the wisest thing this Delegate Assembly can do is to leave the initiative of the handling of the Permanent Fund to the Board of Trustees and the Board of Directors, with your approval, and in that way you are safeguarding a fund that has been set up as a Permanent Fund. President Smith : I am now asking for a reading of the motion. We have an amendment to strike out all in italics and restore all in brackets. That is the motion before the House. Mr. Robert: When you have a motion and a substitute, the best way to deal with it is to allow the motion to be open to amendment, also the substitute offered to be open to amendment, and after each is perfected then take a vote on the proposed substitute for the original motion. I suggest the best way to handle this question is to vote on each of these questions separately with the idea that that is the form that we approve in case we adopt the proposal of the Committee. Then we can take a vote also in making changes to the substitute which was to restore it to the original way. After that it would require your vote on amending your charter. That I think ought to meet the wishes of everyone. Mr. Lefkovoitz: My point of order is that the amendment is out of order for the reason that we have just voted to amend that part in italics by striking out three- fourths and substituting two-thirds. The effect of this amendment is to nullify what we have just approved. That requires a reconsideration and a two-thirds vote. President Smith: I rule this amendment is in order. The mover of the motion wishes to appeal from the chair and I will call — Mr. Lefkovnitz (Interrupting) : First, before I do that, I want a ruling of the parliamentarian on the point I raised. I want the parliamentarian to rule whether you can by an amendment nullify a previous amendment that has been approved. Mr. Robert: The word “three-fourths” was changed to “two-thirds” in this section. We have not expressed our opinion that we are in favor of two-thirds. President Smith: I will ask the mover of this motion if he still wishes to appeal from the decision of the chair. Mr. Lefkowitz: I do not but I still maintain you cannot nullify a vote except by a reconsideration and that is in Robert’s Rules of Order Revised. President Smith: Therefore, we are on the question of this amendment and the debate is still in order. I recognize Mr. Lamkin. Mr. Uel W. Lamkin (Missouri) : I come as a delegate from a state and with a right as a delegate to speak. I think we have gone far from the merits of this question. We are to determine here whether or not we are to change the plan of payment of the Permanent Fund. The Association raises money in two ways, just as you raise money in two ways in your own state. You raise money by taxation. The Association provides for taxation of $2 per member. It also raises money by interest on the Permanent Fund, as you raise money in your states by interest on certain funds which you have. Under the present situation you can use the Perma¬ nent Fund more quickly, if necessary, than you can by the change proposed by this Committee. In other words, in one year, on the recommendation of the Board of Trustees, the Directors, and by a two-thirds vote of the General Assembly you 812 National Education Association can use the Permanent Fund. In other words, to change your dues, it would take two years, while you could raise the Permanent Fund under the present situation in one year. You have to submit it in two different meetings, but you do not at the present time, and the Permanent Fund, if an emergency arises, which you are talking of sufficient to require us to go into our Permanent Fund, the Board of Trustees and the Directors and the Delegate Assembly can do it inside of two or three months. You think of the state of Colorado, for instance — Mr. Mooney talks about taxation — he would not think of turning over to the legislature the right to dispose of all public lands of Colorado and spend it in any one year or for any one purpose, and we must consider the people who have put $540,000 into this Perma¬ nent Fund which was to be kept as such and spent as provided by the constitution, and the charter and bylaws of this Association at the time it was contributed. I have purposely as a past president of this Association kept out of these delibera¬ tions, but I want to say to those of you who are interested in the passage of these amendments to the charter that in my judgment, the Congress of the United States is going to be very slow to change a charter that enables a Delegate Assembly elected as we are, to change the expenditures of a Permanent Fund of approxi¬ mately $500,000 to $700,000 by a two-thirds vote in two years. If you want this simplified charter adopted you had better leave the Permanent Fund safeguarded as it is at present. Now it can be used in case of an emergency within a period before the emergency elapses. I support Mr. Holmes’ motion. Miss Mary E. McGough (Minnesota) : I had intended coming up asking a ques¬ tion of the parliamentarian but since the chairman has mentioned the amendment in order I shall speak to the amendment. The last speaker mentioned the need of being able to act in emergency without having to wait two years to allow the procedure to be followed, but the question many will raise is: Who shall determine what the emergency is? Under the con¬ stitution as it now exists only the Board of Trustees may determine what is an emergency. When you place the power of disbursement in the hands of the Delegate Assembly, you have a large group to determine your emergency as well as the solution of your emergency, and you have a procedure that is in harmony with democracy. It seems to me there is the crux of the situation in one word. When we transfer the power to initiate to the Delegate Assembly, it may set up the control of the funds still in the Board of Trustees. The Board of Trustees is concerned with the investments. They certainly ought to be able to convince this Delegate Assembly. In other words, the Board of Trustees so far as this Assembly is con¬ cerned can initiate; the Assembly also can initiate. That it seems to me is true democracy while to have only that initiative power in this Board of Trustees is not democracy. Miss Smith (California): I move the previous question on the pending motion. Voice: Second the motion. President Smith : The previous motion has been made and I will take a vote on that. Mr. Joseph H. Saunders (Virginia) : I rise to a question of parliamentary privi¬ lege. I should like the parliamentarian to determine, according to Robert’s Rides of Order Revised, page 269, section 68, the vote that would be necessary to carry this proposition, which is in a sense an amendment to the constitution of this Asso¬ ciation since this Association adopted its charter as its constitution. President Smith: We are voting then on this amendment. Then later the main motion with other amendments, if there are any to come. We are voting now on the amendment and the effect of that amendment if that motion passes, would be to eliminate all in italics in section 7 and restore all in brackets. This question is not debatable. That is the reason I wanted you to know exactly what the motion is. As many as are in favor of this amendment, the previous question, say “ Aye.” Those opposed, “ No.” It would seem that — I will ask for a division vote. Associational Records and Information 813 Mrs. Johanna Lindlof (New York) : I believe there is a misunderstanding on what vote is being taken. As I understand it, it is a question of closing debate. That is what it means. President Smith: Yes. If this question is carried, then will open up the amend¬ ment for voting only. This is to close debate on that amendment. That is the pur¬ pose of it. (Motion put and carried.) Now we are voting upon the amendment which if passed would eliminate those phrases in italics and restore those in brackets. As many as are in favor of this amendment — Mr. Saunders (Interrupting) : Will the parliamentarian rule on my question in regard to that? President Smith: The parliamentarian has ruled that a majority vote would be required. Mr. Saunders: To pass this amendment? President Smith: That is my understanding. Mr. Saunders : To pass this amendment to the charter? Is that right, sir? (Motion put and carried.) President Smith: Now the original motion is open for discussion and further amendment or adoption. Are you ready to vote on it? Mrs. Lindlof: I want to make a motion. President Smith: We are ready now to vote on the original motion with the amendment and if this is passed, section 7 would stand as it is in the original charter. Mrs. Lindlof: Mr. Chairman — President Smith: There is no debate on this. Mrs. Lindlof: Mr. Chairman — President Smith: Is there a question? Mrs. Lindlof: It is a question. Mr. Chairman, I want to ask the chairman and the parliamentarian whether a question so important as this should be voted upon when numbers of people have come to this platform and said that they do not understand and did not understand when voting on that amendment just what they were voting upon. I believe that it is the right of the chairman of this Com¬ mittee to explain what the effect of your vote will be. We have stayed here so long, surely we can stay a few moments longer in order to make this question fully understood and properly voted upon on the basis of clear understanding. President Smith: I wish to ask the parliamentarian to make a statement here. Mr. Robert: I am sorry but I have been talking to a number of people and I may not always have heard just what you did. I will state what I understand the situation to be and then let us make sure that that was your intention when you were voting. Those who voted to adopt the substitute motion, was it clear that they intended to vote in favor of leaving section 7 in the charter as it now is rather than as it was proposed by the Committee? Voices: Yes. Yes. Yes. Mr. Robert: Is that clear? Mr. Holmes: That was my motion. Mr. Robert: Very well. Then I understand the motion was adopted and called for the previous question on all pending questions. Voice: Yes. Mr. Robert: If so, no further debate or amendment is in order except such ex¬ planation to make sure everybody knows what they are voting upon. The question, then, is on adopting chapter 1 of the report of the Committee on Reorganization on all sections except section 7 which remains as it is and has been in the charter. Is that clear? The previous question having been ordered, no further debate is in order and that is the pending question. (The question was taken and the motion carried.) President Smith: The next order of business is the question of adopting chapter II of the report of the Committee on Reorganization. 814 National Education Association Miss Cornelia S. Adair (Virginia) : I move the compensating bylaws as pre¬ sented to you be accepted, leaving the portion you have just stricken out in the charter, all other sections remaining as they were. Mr. Sutton: Second the motion. New York: I move we adjourn until 8:45 tomorrow morning. Voice: Second the motion. President Smith: The motion has been made and seconded we adjourn until 8:45 tomorrow morning. The question then is on this point of adjournment. Mr. Lamkin: May I suggest that there be a recess instead of adjournment? President Smith : There is a debate. It is debatable when you set the time for reconvening and we already have some very important things. I may say this, that the constitution and bylaws require that several nominations be made at this particu¬ lar session. We could take a recess but we could not adjourn. Voice: I move we recess until 2:30 o’clock today. Voice: We have other meetings. President Smith: Couldn’t we go ahead now? Voices: Yes. Yes. New York: I will accept the suggestion that we recess. Many have gone. That too is important. President Smith: Then the motion is to recess until* tomorrow morning at 8:45 We will vote on it. Is there any further discussion? We have a complete program on at that time. Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl (Minnesota) : The bylaws require we shall have nominations of our officers today and how can we recess? President Smith: Mrs. Dahl is raising the same point I raised a moment ago. The bylaws require we shall have nominations at this session today but we could have a recess and that would take care of that. New York: Just a point of order, please. Isn’t an adjourned session a part of that session? Voices: No. No. President Smith: Mr. Robert. Mr. Robert: The bylaws provide that something shall be done at this meeting. Therefore, when that comes up it is in order to postpone it to some other time in spite of the fact the bylaws require it shall be done at this meeting. It has been recommended for postponement because some people are absent. President Smith: May I make this suggestion: Would you be willing to make that at 2 o’clock this afternoon instead of tomorrow? New York: I am perfectly willing to make it at any time providing we have a recess. Two-thirds of this body have gone. Therefore, the reason why i stated 8:45 tomorrow morning was because I know many of these delegates would like to attend. But I believe if we stop running thru as many platform speeches as we have this morning we can get thru the business and do all that is necessary. President Smith: Then the mover of this motion does not consent to change it from 8:45 tomorrow morning to 2 o’clock this afternoon. So we are debating it. Voice: I move to amend the motion by substituting 2:30 o’clock this afternoon for 8:30 o’clock tomorrow morning. Miss Daisy Lord (Connecticut) : To bring us back at 2 o’clock this afternoon or 2:30 is very unfair to your departments which have arranged for important meet¬ ings this afternoon. It seems to me it would be much better for us to stay here and make our nominations, because after all, those people who have nominations to make are here to make them today. I think it would be much better to stay now and make our nominations here. There are plenty to make nominations. Those who have them to make have remained. But the other business could be put off to the next session, which will come tomorrow morning, and that is the fair thing to do to all your candidates and to all who have nominations, and also to the departments of this Association. Associational Records and Information 815 President Smith: We are voting upon the amendment which would substitute the hour of 2 o’clock this afternoon in place of the hour of 8 : 45 tomorrow morning. Are you ready for this question? (The question was taken and the amendment lost.) President Smith: We are on the original motion then to recess until tomorrow morning at 8:45. Are you ready for the question? (The question was taken and the motion lost.) We will continue our discussion. Miss Lord: I move we proceed to nominations at this time and carry the other business that comes in between over until tomorrow morning. Voice: Second the motion. Voice: You are out of order. President Smith: There is a motion then before the House to dispense with these other items of business and go immediately to the nomination of officers. Miss Adair: The motion to adopt our Committee report was before the House. President Smith: This motion to adjourn did intervene and we have not acted upon that motion. Miss Adair: My motion was that the compensating bylaws be adopted as in toto except where conflicting with the action of the Assembly on section 7. There was one point that was brought to our attention that might be brought over into those bylaws and which is not in conflict with the action on section 7. May I have your consent to write that in? Now I will read you that statement. On page 9 of the compensating bylaws in section 7 we have tried to omit material there in the paragraph “ Duties of Trustees.” It was not carried over. It does not conflict with your action on section 7. May I include that in the report? President Smith: Is there any objection to that? Mr. W. A. Walls (Ohio) : I move the consideration of this matter to be made the first order of business at the Assembly tomorrow morning. Miss Lord: I made a previous motion and I would like to ask this Assembly to give me leave to second this and that we proceed with this business. It will take only a few minutes. President Smith: Are you agreeable to that? The motion has been made and seconded that we postpone this business we are now on and that it be made the first order of business tomorrow morning. Are you ready for the question? (The ques¬ tion was taken and the motion carried.) President Smith: This matter of business then is pushed up until tomorrow morning as the first order of business. We are ready for the motion that was made awhile ago that we pass to the nominations for officers. Is there a motion to that effect ? Miss Lord.: Yes, and seconded. President Smith: Are you ready for the question? (The question was taken and the motion carried.) President Smith: I will ask the secretary to call the roll by states on the nomina¬ tion for presidency of the Association. Before that, however, we should have the report of the Committee on Arrangements for the balloting and I will call upon Harold W. Cowan who takes the place of the chairman of that Committee. Mr. Harold W. Cowan (Massachusetts) : Mr. Marsh has asked me to bring you this report of your Committee on Elections. The annual election will take place Thursday, July 4. The polls will open at 8 o’clock in the morning and remain open until 6 o’clock in the evening. The election will take place in the registration room on the ground floor of Headquarters Building, 810 Fourteenth Street. You will, therefore, vote in the same room in which you registered. That tells you when and where. Now for the procedure. When you registered as a delegate you were given a coupon or ticket, an election coupon. At one end your name was typed. At the other end is a stub. This stub you will sign in the presence of the election officer who will be asked to retain it and give you a printed ballot. This ballot should be marked and deposited before you leave the room. The ballot is marked in the 816 National Education Association usual way. It will express your wishes by marking an X after the name of your choice. Please mark them carefully so that there will be no doubt in the counting of your vote. The ballot is then deposited in the box. Only delegates may vote and only those delegates who present the election coupons. Please vote early. Your Committee will be on duty all day at the polls, 'l'he entire Committee will start to count the votes after 6 p. m. No votes will be counted before that hour. Mr. Chairman, I move the adoption of that report. (Motion seconded, and carried.) President Smith: Now we will proceed to the nomination of officers. May I remind you that we want everybody who is going to make a nomination, whether for president, vicepresident, or treasurer, to come to the platform and be ready to make the nominations. Nomination speeches for president will be limited to five minutes and seconding speeches to two minutes. I now call upon the secretary of the Association to call the roll of states for nominations for president. Mr. Givens. Secretary Givens: Alabama. Alabama: Alabama yields to Iowa. (Fred D. Cram of Iowa then took the floor and nominated Agnes Samuelson for the presidency of the Association.) Secretary Givens: Alaska. Alaska: Alaska yields to Vermont. ( E . W. Butterfield of Connecticut then took the floor and nominated Caroline S. Woodruff for the presidency of the Association.) Secretary Givens: Arizona. Mr. H. E. Hendricks : By request of the delegates from our state we are very happy to second the nomination of Agnes Samuelson for the presidency of this great organization. Secretary Givens: Arkansas. Arkansas : Arkansas yields to Georgia. (After speaking most highly of all three candidates for the presidency, Mr. Sutton seconded the nomination of Miss Samuelson.) Secretary Givens: California. California: California has no candidate. Secretary Givens: Colorado. Colorado: Colorado has no candidate. Secretary Givens: Connecticut. Connecticut: Connecticut has no candidate. Secretary Givens: Delaware. Delaware: Delaware is happy to yield to Massachusetts. ( William J. Sanders of Massachusetts then nominated Annie Carleton Wood¬ ward as candidate for the presidency of the Association.) Secretary Givens: District of Columbia. District of Columbia: No nominations. Secretary Givens: Florida — Georgia — Hawaii — Idaho. Idaho: No nominations. Secretary Givens: Illinois — Indiana — Iowa — Kansas — Kentucky — Louisiana. Louisiana: Second the nomination of Agnes Samuelson. Secretary Givens: Maine. Mr. W. B. Jack (Maine) : The state of Maine, like Mr. Sutton of Georgia, loves everybody, but seconds the nomination of Caroline S. Woodruff of Vermont. Secretary Givens: Maryland — Massachusetts — Michigan — Minnesota — Missis¬ sippi — Missouri — Montana — Nebraska. Nebraska: Nebraska seconds the nomination of Agnes Samuelson. Secretary Givens: Nevada — New Hampshire. New Hampshire: New Hampshire is proud to second the nomination for the next president of the N. E. A., Caroline S. Woodruff. Secretary Givens: New York. Associational Records and Information 817 New York: New York has no candidate but an individual delegate wishes to second a nomination. I, therefore yield to Mr. Frederick Houk Law of New York. (Mr. Law then took the floor to second the nomination of Caroline S. Woodruff.) Secretary Givens: North Carolina — New Jersey — Ohio — Oklahoma — Oregon. Oregon: Oregon seconds the nomination of Miss Woodruff. Secretary Givens: Pennsylvania. Mr. M. S. Bentz: Pennsylvania wishes to second the nomination of Agnes Samuelson. Secretary Givens: Rhode Island — South Carolina — South Dakota — Tennessee — Texas. Texas: Texas as a delegation has no nomination to place, but one of our members, W. A. Jam es, from Galveston, does have. (Mr. James then took the floor to second the nomination of Amiie C. Woodward.) Secretary Givens: Utah — Vermont. (Francis L. Bailey of Vermont then took the floor to second the nomination of Caroline S. Woodruff.) Secretary Givens: Virginia — Virgin Islands — Washington. (S. E. Fleming of Washington seconded the nomination of Agnes Samuelson.) Secretary Givens: West Virginia — Wisconsin — Wyoming. Mr. President, that completes the roll call for president. President Smith: You have heard nominations then for the president. We will now call for nominations for vicepresident. I will ask for a roll call of the states for that purpose. Secretary Givens: Alabama. (J. F. Pogue nominated Paul Munro for vicepresident.) Secretary Givens: Alaska. Alaska: Alaska yields to Utah. (C. Ray Evans of Utah nominated Norman Hamilton for vicepresident.) Secretary Givens: Arizona. Arizona: Arizona yields to Colorado. Colorado: Colorado as a delegation has no nomination to make. We as the host organization feel we would be taking advantage if we did such a thing. Secretary Givens: Arkansas. Arkansas: Arkansas yields to Nevada. (M. J. Clark of Nevada nominated Bertha C. Kncmcyer for vicepresident of the Association.) Secretary Givens: California. (J. Russell Croad of California nominated Vierling Kersey for vicepresident.) (As the names of the following states were called nominations were made.) (Daisy Lord of Connecticut nominated Ernest W. Butterfield for vicepresident.) (E. D. Vincent of Idaho nominated Raymond H. Snyder for vicepresident.) (Donald DuShane nominated George T. Avery of Colorado for vicepresident.) (Mrs. Emory Lively of Louisiana nominated L. P. T errehonne for vicepresident.) (Mr. Sherrard of New York nominated Frederick Llouk Law for vicepresident.) (Maisie Quinn of Rhode Island nominated Charles Carroll for vicepresident.) (A. C. Flora of South Carolina nominated Mary Eva Hite for vicepresident.) (O. H. Plenzke of Wisconsin nominated John Callahan for vicepresident.) Secretary Givens: That completes the required number of vicepresidents and more than the required number nominated. President Smith: I will call for the roll call on nominations for treasurer at this time. Mr. Saunders: I move the roll call on treasurer be dispensed with and that each state that has nominations to make come forward and save time. (Motion seconded and carried unanimously.) President Smith: All those who have nominations for treasurer please come forward. 818 National Education Association (Ohio then put R. E. Offenhauer in nomination for treasurer of the As¬ sociation.) (Missouri next nominated JV. T. Longshore for treasurer of the Association.) President Smith: Are there any other nominations? Neiv Jersey: New Jersey takes pleasure in seconding the nomination of Mr. Offenhauer on the basis of his record. President Smith: Now we will take up the nominations for directors. Mr. Saunders: I move that the roll call be dispensed with and that the name of each director as nominated by the state be placed upon the ballot. President Smith: I may say those nominations are all in here now. (The motion was seconded and unanimously carried.) President Smith: The motion is unanimously carried and the nominations for directors will stand as they have been nominated here. If there is no further business, we stand adjourned until 8:45 o’clock tomorrow morning. Willard E. Givens, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, President Second Business Session, Wednesday Morning, July 3, 1935 The second business session of the Representative Assembly convened at 9: 10 a. m. in the Municipal Auditorium following an organ recital by Clarence Reynolds. The invocation was delivered by Reverend Samuel J. Mathieson of the Central Christian Church. President Henry Lester Smith: Because of the pressure of business this morning I hope we may move along with as much dispatch as is possible and as is consis¬ tent with the proper consideration of the questions before us. You will note that the main point which we had originally on this program was the report of the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education. However, there is a special order of business this morning left over from yesterday by vote of this Assembly. May I read you the motion that is now pending before the Representative Assembly? It was a motion made by Cornelia S. Adair and is to this effect: “ I move that the compensating changes in the bylaws to take care of the simplification of the charter as set forth in chapter II of the Committee on Reorganization of the National Education Association be adopted, except where they may be in conflict with the action of the Assembly in relation to section 7 of the charter.” This refers to the material in chapter II of the report of the Committee on Reorganization of the N. E. A. Yesterday we took action in regard to section 7. So this motion that is before us refers to the adoption of all other parts in those compensating changes except that relating to section 7. Are you ready for the question? (The question was taken and the motion carried unanimously.) President Smith: I recognize now the chairman of the Committee on Reorganiza¬ tion of the National Education Association. Mr. E. E. Oberholtzer (Texas) : We want to take a little of your time to go thru chapters III and IV. We are not going to ask the adoption of anything unless there is unanimous consent. There are some things we think you are ready to agree upon and if you will look at chapter III you can go down the items and anything there is any question about, we serve notice that they will be in the form of amendments to be presented next year. If you will turn to chapter III, I shall ask Miss Adair, who has been chairman of the Committee on Amendments, to present that report and she will proceed by presenting these proposed amendments and call for your suggestions as to whether or not you want to give unanimous consent to the adoption. I think it would be a simple matter for you to say whether or not you want Robert's Rules of Order as the official guide in our parliamentary procedure. If you give us unanimous consent, that amendment will be approved, and so on. I call upon Miss Adair now. Miss Cornelia S. Adair (Virginia): I am going to ask you to read with me the first paragraph of chapter III which the Committee hopes will be adopted by the Associational Records and Information 819 Representative Assembly by unanimous consent. In our study of the bylaws we have found a number of things which, in the judgment of the Committee, should be modified and concerning which we believe there is general approval. It is not the intention of the Committee to present these items in a way that anyone may construe our proposals as “steam roller” tactics. We hope that a delegate who objects to the proposal will so indicate his objections briefly to the Assembly, then present them in writing to the Committee which will be sitting thruout the convention to hear such objections and the reasons therefor. Each of the proposals, to which there is no registered objection, may immediately become amendments to the bylaws. Otherwise, they must lay over for one year for further consideration and a two-thirds vote. You can read the changes listed. I am not going to take your time by reading that list, but we will proceed immediately to the first item, Robert’s Rules of Order. We always thought in the N. E. A. that Robert’s Rules of Order was our guidepost We have adopted Robert’s Rules of Order Revised for this convention. I move that it be made our official guide so far as it applies to our work. May we have unanimous consent for that? President Smith: Have we the unanimous consent for the adoption of Robert’s Rules of Order Revised \? (The motion was seconded and unanimously carried.) Miss Adair: Our secretary has simply been called the secretary of the Association and the Committee recommends he be called the executive secretary of the Associa¬ tion. Have I unanimous consent for that change? (The motion was seconded and unanimously carried.) Miss Adair: Now, there is a very queer clause in our constitution which says, “ Officers shall be permitted to hold meetings other than for business purposes and the expenses thereof shall be provided.” It seems that that ought to be deleted from the bylaws. May I have unanimous consent to do that? (The motion was seconded and unanimously carried.) Miss Adair: The next is in two parts. At least, I would like for you to consider it in two parts. It has to do with qualifications of delegates. Only active members of the National Education Association shall be eligible to be delegates to the Representative Assembly and to vote in the election of delegates in a state or local affiliated association. Now, this is the new part: No member shall be eligible to serve as a delegate to the Representative Assembly who has not been for two years immediately preceding his election a member of the state, district, territorial, or local affiliated educational association and of the National Education Association. I would like to divide that and ask your unanimous consent for that part. That is, no one can be a delegate unless he has been a member in the local association or state association for two years. That is so that they will know something about their home affairs. (The motion was seconded, but since it was not carried unanimously, this part will be presented next year for action.) Miss Adair: The second part of this I imagine you will wish to treat in the same way, so I present it to lay on the table for a year and to be voted upon next summer. There is no action then required at this time. The next is qualifications of the directors. At the first business meeting of the Representative Assembly on the second day of the annual meeting of the Association, nominations for the following officers should be made — president, vicepresident, and treasurer. Candidates for said offices should be nominated from the floor upon roll call of the states. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association the delegates of each state, territory, and district of the United States shall nominate one person for member of the Board of Directors and the name of such person shall be reported to the Representative Assembly at the first business meeting, upon roll call of the states. 820 National Education Association Here is the new part: Any person, to qualify to serve as director shall have been an active mem¬ ber with dues paid in the National Education Association and in the state or district or local association, if organized, for a five-year period immediately preceding the election. Only delegates who are active members of the National Education Association and whose dues have been paid in the state or district or territory or local association, if organized, respectively, shall have the right to vote for such directors. Mr. Holmes: I am going to offer a further amendment to this. President Smith: Wait. They do not understand Miss Adair yet. Miss Adair: Can you hear me now? Suppose Mr. Oberholtzer tries to use the microphone. Mr. Oberholtzer: Miss Adair has asked me this question, whether you are willing to give unanimous consent to the amendments suggested in chapter III-E. The words are italicized which are new and she read that portion which fixes the qualifi¬ cations of persons to serve as directors. (Mr. Oberholtzer reread the new part.) President Smith: The question is on the motion to adopt the contents of chapter III, section E, as published in this report concerning the qualifications of directors. Are you ready for that question? Mr. Albert Shaw (California). I cannot find where it says “respectively, shall have the right” — no, the third from the last line — “in each state, district, or territory, or local association.” Now, if we should happen to move from one asso¬ ciation to another in that five-year period, you would be disqualified. Miss Adair: That was not the intention. President Smith: Just a moment. May I let Miss Adair explain what the inten¬ tion was there, or Mr. Oberholtzer? Mr. Oberholtzer : Miss Adair assures me that was not the intention of the resolu¬ tion. I think the thought was anyone a member of any one of those associations would be qualified to vote. He must be of course a member of the National Education Association. Miss Adair: We would accept any amendment that would make that more definite. Mr. Shaw: If it read, “ a state or district association,” then you might vote from one to the other? Mr. Oberholtzer : We will insert the word “a” in place of “the” which will clarify it, I believe. May we have unanimous consent to do that? President Smith: It is the understanding that you substitute the word “ a ” in place of the word “ the ” in those instances and the motion before us takes that into consideration. I want now to recognize Mr. Holmes. Mr. Holmes: I have an addition I would like to offer that relates to the election of the Board of Directors, which reads as follows: That article II of the bylaws be amended by adding to the third sentence the following provision relating to the nomination of the Board of Directors, the provision to read: “Provided that after the annual meeting of the Association in 1935,” but it has to lay over for a year, then in 1936 or 1937 — “ no paid employee of state or local affiliated association shall be eligible for nomination for membership to the Board of Directors.” I do that because it is in line with the best administrative procedure known to administrative bodies and because it is also in the line of more democracy for this Association. If no superintendent shall serve on a board of education, so should no paid employee of an affiliated local or state association serve on the Board of Directors of this Association. President Smith: I would like to ask Mr. Oberholtzer to make a statement here. Mr. Oberholtzer : As chairman of the Committee I should like to have unanimous consent to the first portion and ask that Mr. Holmes consent for his amendment to lay over until next year for action, which will give you ample time to study the full import of that. I wonder if I have Mr. Holmes’ consent to have that lay over until next year. Mr. Holmes: Yes, I will be glad to have it lay over if that is to the best interest of the organization, and I think it is, in order that it may be given thoro consideration. Associational Records and Information 821 President Smith: The question is upon the motion to adopt the article that was read a moment ago for which we are asking action now and it is understood that the added part by Mr. Holmes will lay over another year. (The motion was seconded and unanimously carried.) Miss Adair: The next item is the u Qualifications of Trustees.” I suggest that it lay over until next year. This next one refers to the election of a Resolutions Committee. We also wish to have this lay over for a year. The next provides for a standing committee on bylaws and rules and I hope it will be accepted by unanimous consent. Will you read it yourselves? President Smith: The motion is now on section H of chapter III in regard to the provision of a committee on bylaws and rules. They are asking for unanimous con¬ sent. Are you ready for the question? (The motion was seconded and unanimously carried.) Mr. Oberholtzer: We are serving notice that chapter III-I and chapter III- J are presented as amendments to come up next year and will lay over. We think you should have time to study them over very carefully. Miss Adair wishes to make an explanation. Miss Adair: You notice on page 27 at the top that there is a somewhat complicated arrangement of how the number of delegates shall be apportioned. We just want to serve notice that we are going to suggest new methods of determining the number of new delegates, but we wish to be free in that item. So we serve notice that we are going to recommend something of this type in the selection of delegates but not necessarily the somewhat complicated method that you have before you. We would like the next item in regard to the change in the scale of fees paid by affiliated associations to lay on the table for a year. On chapter III-L and chapter III-J, section 7, we would like to serve notice for next year. On article VI, section 8 — “ The Representative Assembly may provide such additional Committees as it may deem wise,” I ask unanimous consent. President Smith: You are asking for unanimous consent for that portion under L in Chapter III, the provision for additional committees. Are you ready for the question ? (The motion was seconded and unanimously carried.) Miss Adair: We are asking for unanimous consent on chapter III-M. President Smith: This motion refers to section M in chapter III — printed ballots for amendments to bylaws. (The motion was seconded, but since it was not unanimously adopted, President Smith announced that it would lay over for a year.) Miss Adair: The items introduced at Washington may become effective by a two- thirds vote because they were presented in substantially this form to the Repre¬ sentative Assembly of 1934. At the meeting of the Representative Assembly in Washington an amendment to the bylaws was presented by Miss Adair of Virginia providing for the election of a Nominating Committee. At the same meeting of the Representative Assembly an amendment was proposed by Mr. Shaw of Pennsylvania providing for the use of preferential voting at all elections. The Committee on Reorganization discussed these two proposals and decided to combine the two ideas and present them to the Representative Assembly of 1935 as an amendment of article VI by the addition of section 7. The wording is so changed that I would not be willing to ask your action without further consideration. I will, therefore, serve notice that this amendment will lay over for a year. Mr. Shaw will present the amendment on preferential voting. Mr. Reuben T. Shaw (Pennsylvania) : I will move for chapter IV-B to stand in just the form it was presented at Washington. While there is no change or new developments, I found in discussing the matter with delegates from various states that the plan is not well understood. Therefore, I am going to propose that it will lay over until next year for actual voting. The Boy Scouts are at this moment passing out to you some information concerning preferential voting which I hope you will study and when next year comes you will understand what the matter is. 822 National Education Association Mr. Oberholtzer : We have completed our report on the first four chapters and we are hoping that we may consider the remainder of this in the session Thursday morning. We will ask especially that you read chapters V, VI, VII, and VIII and we will promise not to take any more time than necessary. We appreciate very much the consideration of the Assembly this morning in completing chapters II, III, and IV. President Smith: I should like at this time to recognize Mr. Hurst. Mr. A I. E. Hurst (Oklahoma) : I want to serve notice at the session of the Repre¬ sentative Assembly to be held tomorrow morning, Thursday, July 4, that I shall offer the following motion: That the report of the Committee on Reorganization as adopted Tuesday be amended so that in accordance with the recommendations Chairman Edgar G. Doudna, Secretary Indianapolis, Indiana October 17, 1934 The Board of Trustees met at the Columbia Club for an interview with Super¬ intendent Willard, E. Givens. All members were present except Chairman Saunders who because of illness was unable to attend. A long conference was held with Mr. Givens, and the Board then had an executive meeting at which no action was taken. Because President Smith and Mr. Gvuinn would be near St. Louis on No¬ vember 10 the Board adjourned to meet there at that time. Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman Edgar G. Doudna, Secretary St. Louis, Missouri Wednesday Morning, November 10, 1934 The Board of Trustees met in the Statler Hotel at 10 a. m. All members were present. The resignation of Secretary J. W. Crabtree was accepted effective as of Jan¬ uary 1, 1935. The following resolution was unanimously adopted. Resolved, That the Board of Trustees of the National Education As¬ sociation with great regret accept the resignation of Secretary J. W. Crab¬ tree effective January 1, 1935, and that they individually and collectively express their appreciation of his splendid services and courageous leadership which have resulted in carrying the cause of education in the United States to undreamed-of heights. That the National Education Association is now the largest professional organization in the world is due in large part to the leadership of Secretary Crabtree. Be it further Resolved, That the Board of Trustees of the National Edu¬ cation Association extends to Secretary Crabtree its best wishes for the future and the hope that his invaluable advice and counsel will be available to the Association for many years to come. The Board then proceeded to a discussion of a successor to Secretary Crabtree. An informal ballot was taken which showed no choice. On second ballot Superin¬ tendent Givens received a majority of all votes. It was then moved, seconded, and carried that the election be made unanimous. Trustee Gvoinn then offered the following resolution which was seconded by Trustee Whittenberg and passed with all trustees voting “Aye.” Resolved, That Willard E. Givens having been unanimously elected to the position of secretary of the National Education Association, that the term of office be made four years beginning January 1, 1935, and that the salary be fixed at $15,000 less whatever percent waiver the Executive Committee imposed upon all members of the headquarters staff. The Board then adjourned. JosEpH H SaunderSi Chairman Edgar G. Doudna, Secretary 894 National Education Association Atlantic City, New Jersey Sunday Afternoon, February 24, 1935 The Board of Trustees of the National Education Association convened in the Ambassador Hotel at 5 o’clock. All members of the Board were present: Joseph H. Saunders, chairman; Edgar G. Doudna, A. L. Whittenherg, J. M. Gwinn, and President Henry Lester Smith. Secretary Willard E. Givens and Harriett M. Chase were also present. The meeting was called to order by the chairman. The chairman, in commenting on the Board’s recent action in the selection of a secretary, mentioned his receipt of many communications commending the Board for its action and its wise choice of selection. A report of the condition of the Permanent Fund at the close of business January 31, 1935, was presented and discussed. The chairman explained items in detail. Principal points of his comments covered the gradual conversion of properties obtained thru the settlement of the Parker Estate into Government Bonds; the matter of handling uninvested cash thru time deposits drawing interest; expense out of Income from the Permanent Fund for partitions, radiators, painting, and re¬ placement of water piping in the administration building. On motion of President Smith, seconded by Mr. Gnvinn, the expenditures for the building upkeep were approved. On motion of Mr. Whittenherg, seconded by Mr. Givinn, action in selling five shares of American Can Stock and investing the proceeds in Home Owners Loan Corporation Bonds was approved. The chairman reported his action for exchange of Mortgage Bonds on property of Vito Marchetti in the amount of $1500 for Home Owners Loan Corporation Bonds in the amount of $1550 and the action was approved by the following resolution offered by Mr. Gvjinn and seconded by President Smith : Resolved, That the action of Joseph H. Saunders, chairman of the Board of Trustees in appointing C. W. McCarthy and/or the Drexel State Bank to receive in Chicago from the Home Owners Loan Corporation Bonds as follows : 1 $50 Coupon Bond . $50.00 1 $500 “ “ . 500.00 1 $1000 “ “ . 1000.00 $1550.00 is hereby ratified and approved and it is further resolved that Joseph H. Saunders, chairman, be and is hereby authorized to sign any and all papers necessary for the completion of the exchange of the Marchetti Real Estate Notes for Home Owners Loan Corporation Bonds. The chairman reported his action in declining to submit a bid for discounting Mortgage Note of $1000 on the Hisgen-Guettrich property, Chicago. He explained regarding the values of the property, indicating that the original loan, of which our note is a part, was $30,000 and has since been reduced to $14,500. On motion of Mr. Gveinn, seconded by Mr. Doudna, it was the expressed opinion of the Board that no amount less than the par value of the Bond should be accepted. Chairman Saunders gave information regarding the farms acquired thru the Parker Estate — one in Montana and two in North Dakota — in which the Parker heirs and the National Education Association have joint ownership. He explained regarding delinquency of taxes and receipts from the government thru Wheat Allotment Contracts. Approval was given to his action in authorizing receipts from Wheat Allotment Contracts to be applied to payment of taxes. It was suggested that further efforts be made to obtain more definite information about the properties. Associational Records and Information 895 Statement covering the history of reduction of the mortgage on the administration building was made. This indicated that the original loan of $200,000 from the Penn Mutual Insurance Company had been reduced to $115,000; that $5000 of the principal is payable on March 5; that when the principal is reduced to $100,000 the interest rate is reduced from 6 percent to 5^ percent. On motion of Mr. Doudna, seconded by Mr. Whittenherg, it was voted that the amount of $15,000 be paid on March 5, borrowing such amount from the Income of the Permanent Fund Account as might be necessary to add to the uninvested cash of the principal of the Permanent Fund to permit a payment in that amount. In summarizing the financial situation, the chairman pointed out that while the condition of the Association seems to be very satisfactory, there is need to go slowly about increased or additional expenses until there is greater certainty regard¬ ing income for the full year. Mr. Doudna suggested that the monthly financial report should be simplified and that a condensed recapitulation should be arranged. Secretary Givens agreed that effort would be made for simplification. On motion of President Smith, seconded by Mr. Doudna, the following resolution was passed : Resolved, That Joseph II. Saunders, chairman, and Willard E. Givens, secretary, be, and they are hereby authorized to borrow from the National Metropolitan Bank of Washington, D. C., or from any other bank or banker, the sum of $40,000 or as much thereof as may be needed for current obliga¬ tions of the institution, when and as such needs occur. Secretary Givens presented a communication from the American Book Company, dated January 21, 1935, with reference to the reports of the Committee of Ten and the Committee of Fifteen. The matter of demand for these reports, copyright condi¬ tions, and other details were discussed, and action on the matter was referred to the secretary for such reference as he might care to make to the Executive Committee. On motion, the meeting was adjourned at 5: 50 o’clock. Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman Edgar G. Doudna, Secretary Denver, Colorado Tuesday Afternoon, July 2, 1935 The Board of Trustees of the National Education Association convened in the president’s suite, Brown Palace Hotel. Members present were: Joseph H. Saunders, chairman; J. M. Givinn, A. L. Whittenherg, and President Henry Lester Smith. Secretary Givens was also present. In the absence of the secretary, Mr. Doudna, Mr. Whittenherg was elected secre¬ tary pro tern. The minutes of the previous meetings were read and approved. Chairman Saunders presented to the Board a report for the year. This report was discussed by the members and was approved by the Board. The Board directed Chairma?i Saunders to present the same to the Representative Assembly as the official annual report of the Board of Trustees. The Board approved the report of the chairman in the matter of the foreclosure of the Rosenheim property and authorized the chairman to conclude his arrange¬ ments with Foster A. Parker, attorney for the Parker heirs, in that suit. The Board authorized Chairman Saunders and Secretary Givens to negotiate a loan for $40,000 or as much thereof as may be necessary with any bank with whom they find it most convenient, said loan to be used for the discharge of current ex¬ penses until there shall be an accumulation of current receipts. The following reso¬ lution was adopted: 29 896 National Education Association Resolved, That Joseph H. Saunders, chairman, and Willard E. Givens, secretary, be, and they are hereby authorized to borrow from the National Metropolitan Bank of Washington, D. C., or from any other bank or banker, the sum of $40,000 or as much thereof as may be needed for current obliga¬ tions of the institution, when and as such needs occur. Secretary Givens presented a suggestion to the Board of Trustees that certain minor changes be made in the interior of the administration building in order that some improvement be made in the division of space. The Board authorized the secretary to use $1200 or so much thereof as may be necessary to complete such changes. The Board determined by unanimous vote to direct Chairman Saunders to have a surety bond issued covering the chairman of the Board of Trustees in the sum of ten thousand dollars ($10,000) and to pay the premium on such bond from the Association funds. No further business appearing, the Board adjourned to meet Thursday evening, July 4, at 810 14th Street, following the adjournment of the general session of the Association. Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman A. L. Whittenberg, Secretary Pro Tern Friday Morning, July 5, 1935 The meeting of the newly elected Board of Trustees convened at 12: 15 a. m., at the headquarters building. The meeting was called to order by Joseph H. Saunders, chairman of the previous Board. Members present were: Joseph LI. Saunders, chair¬ man; J. M. Gvoinn, President Agnes Samuelson, and A. L. Whittenberg. First Vice- president Henry Lester Smith and Secretary Givens also were present. In the absence of Secretary Doudna, Mr. Whittenberg was elected secretary pro tern. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and approved. On motion of Mr. Gvoinn, seconded by Mr. Whittenberg, it was voted that Mr. Saunders be continued as chairman of the Board of Trustees. On motion of Mr. Whittenberg, seconded by Mr. Gvoinn, it was voted that Mr. Doudna be elected secretary of the Board of Trustees. There being no further business, motion was made that the meeting be adjourned. Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman A. L. Whittenberg, Secretary Pro Tern FINANCIAL REPORT 1934-35 Submitted herewith is a complete financial statement for the fiscal year ended May 31, 1935. It is prepared for the information of the Representative Assembly, the Board of Directors, and the Officers of the Association. Included in the Financial Report is the Report of the Board of Trustees (financial), the Report of Auditors, in the form submitted by Wayne Kendrick and Company, Public Accountants, and covering completely the financial records of the Secretary’s Office and the Permanent Funds in the custody of the Board of Trustees, and the Report of the Treasurer. Willard E. Givens, Secretary. Associational Records and Information 897 Report of Board of Trustees — Financial It pleases the Board of Trustees to again report to the Association that our financial situation at the close of the current fiscal year, May 31, 1935, is satisfactory. Our permanent assets total $802,664.47 distributed as follows: Cash on hand . $3,430.63 Securities . 110,074.66 Life Membership Notes . 185,079.27 Real Estate and Equipment, Less Mortgage . 475,457.01 Elementary School Principals Fund . 6,718.86 Superintendence — Research Fund . 18,264.99 Teachers Welfare Fund . 3,639.05 $802,664.47 The corresponding total May 31, 1934, was $783,439.92, a gain during the year of $19,224.55. Our headquarters building, grounds, and equipment, less $8000 reserved for de¬ preciation, cost us $575,457.01. In order to build the headquarters building, we bor¬ rowed $200,000 at 6 percent with the proviso that the rate of interest would be decreased to percent when one-half the debt was paid. During the current year wre paid $25,000 on this mortgage which with the $75,000 previously paid reduced our debt to $100,000, thereby saving $500 per annum in interest. Interest on all our securities has been paid in full except on the bonds of the St. Louis and San Francisco Railway. This railroad is in the hands of a receiver. The Parker Estate is still in process of settlement. Five shares of American Can Preferred Stock and first mortgage notes amounting to $1500 have been converted into $2300 worth of Home Owners Loan Corporation Bonds and deposited in the Teachers Welfare Fund. Every effort is being made to secure all possible value out of the remaining properties — (See schedule, page 916). In our operating account our receipts were $472,302.82 and our expenditures were $495,033.14, a loss of $22,730.32. Adjustment of purchase and depreciation of equip¬ ment leave a net loss of $21,957.48. The Trustees feel that an emergency created by a depression of several years' standing may justify a temporary expenditure in excess of receipts, but that as a permanent policy the Association should balance its expenditures against its income, and re-create the reserve out of which the current loss has been paid. The Permanent Fund has paid net income to the Association for the past four years as follows: Increase over previous year 1931- 32 . $32,077 . 1932- 33 . 34,410 $2333 1933- 34 . 36,165 1755 1934- 35 . 41,393 5128 Any depletion of the Permanent Fund decreases the service the Association can render to the teachers of the nation. An itemized statement of the permanent funds follows: 898 National Education Association Permanent Fund — Principal Account — May 31, 1935 Cash Report General Funds Cash on hand, May 31, 1934 . $9,304.00 Receipts from Life Membership . 21,543.23 - $30,847.23 Disbursements: Reduction on Mortgage, 1201 16th St., N. W., Washington, D. C., held by Penn Mutual Life Insurance Co., Phila., Pa . 25,000.00 Tax on Checks . .12 Adjustment of Returned Checks . 25.00 Purchase on $2,391.48 State of Arkansas “ B ” Bonds from Income Account . 2,391.48 - * - 27,416.60 Cash on hand, May 31, 1935 . . . Elementary School Principals Fund Overdrafts, May 31, 1934 . $28.75 Receipts: City of Portsmouth Coupons . 25.00 Life Membership . 669.12 Cash on hand, May 31, 1935 . Department of Superintendence — Educational Research Fund Overdraft, May 31, 1934 . $177.04 Receipts : City of Portsmouth Coupons . 75.00 Membership . 1,424.55 Cash on hand, May 31, 1935 . Teachers JV elf are Fund Principal Cash on hand, May 31, 1934 . $376.00 Receipts : Proceeds of Sale of 5 shares American Can Pfd. 759.66 - $1,135.66 Disbursements : Purchase of $750 Home Owners Loan Corp., 3% Bonds. . . 758.34 $3,430.63 $665.37 $1,322.51 Cash on hand, May 31, 1935 $377.32 Associational Records and Information 899 T eachers Welfare Fund Income Cash on hand, May 31, 1934 . $673.94 Receipts : Interest . 286.95 Disbursements: Cost of Exchanging Marchetti Notes for HOLC Bonds — 2S% . $960.89 7.50 Cash on hand, May 31, 1935 . $953.39 Total Cash, May 31, 1935 . $6,749.22 DEPOSITED in American Security & Trust Co. — Checking Account . $5,164.01 DEPOSITED in American Security & Trust Co. — Thrift Account . 1,585.21 $6,749.22 Permanent Fund — Income Account — May 31, 1935 Balance in Liberty National Bank, Washington, D. C., May 31, 1934 _ $36,165.49 Receipts: Interest on Bonds . $4,229.68 Interest on Bank Deposit . 514.88 Rent for Headquarters Building for year ending May 31, 1935 . 43,000.00 Proceeds of State of Arkansas Bonds rec’d as interest sold to the Permanent Fund, Principal Account . 2,391.48 - 50,136.04 $86,301.53 Disbursements: ===== 1 Year’s interest on Mortgage of Headquarters Building to Penn Mutual Life Insurance Co., Phila., Pa . $7,200.00 E. Quincy Smith, Premium on Insurance Headquarters Building to Sept. 1937 . 486.00 Alterations and Repairs on Building . 806.93 Ralph D. Quinter — Retainer Fee . 250.00 Cost of Shipping Coupons . .16 To Treasurer of National Education Association for In¬ come 1933-34 . 36,165.49 To Treasurer of National Education Association for In¬ come 1934-35 . 41,392.95 $86,301.53 A full statement of the assets of the Permanent Fund is found in Exhibit “ D,” page 913. The list of the Permanent Fund securities is found in Exhibit “ E,” pages 914 and 915. The list of properties in the Teachers Welfare Fund is in Exhibit “ F,” page 916. ['Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman Board of Trustees June 21, 1935. E. G. Doudna, Secretary J. M. Gwinn A. L. Whittenberg Henry Lester Smith, President National Education Association Report of Auditors WAYNE KENDRICK & COMPANY CERTIFIED PUBLIC ACCOUNTANTS RUST BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D. C. June 20, 1935 Dr. Henry Lester Smith, President National Education Association of the United States 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: We have examined the books and records of account of the National Education Association of the United States for the fiscal year ended May 31, 1935, and submit herewith our report consisting of the following exhibits and comments: Exhibit “A ” — Statement of Assets and Liabilities As at May 31, 1935. Exhibit “ B ” — Condensed Comparative Statement of Income and Expenses For the Fiscal Years ended May 31, 1934 and 1935. Exhibit “C” — Income and Expenses For the Fiscal Year ended May 31, 1935. Exhibit “ D ” — Assets of Permanent Funds As at May 31, 1935. Exhibit “ E ” — Securities of Permanent Funds As at May 31, 1935. Exhibit “F ” — Properties Held for the Credit of the Teachers Welfare Fund As at May 31, 1935. Comments Our examination consisted principally of the verification of assets and liabilities of the Association as at May 31, 1935, but we made sufficient tests of income and expense accounts to substantially determine the accuracy thereof. Cash — $63,569.15. Cash in banks was verified by a comparison of all checks paid by the banks with the amounts entered in the books of account. We also inspected the checks as to payees and endorsements. All bank accounts were verified by direct correspondence with the depositories, and where statements were furnished by the banks, the balances shown thereon were reconciled to the amounts shown by the books. Cash on hand was verified by actual count. Permanent Fund Income Checks were verified by inspection of the checks showing payments to the Regular Account. Accounts Receivable amounting to $5,357.56 were verified by inspection of the individual accounts in the ledger. The greater part of these accounts are for current advertising, and were verified thru inquiries in the Business Manager’s Office. Protested Checks, $865.80, were examined by us insofar as possible. The majority of checks returned unpaid prior to February 1932, however, had been sent to the makers, and the only evidence available for our inspection was the letter of trans¬ mittal to the makers of such checks. Postdated and Foreign Checks Receivable (Time Checks), $1,286.60, were veri¬ fied by inspection of the time checks and by inspection of bank pass books for foreign checks entered for collection. Such checks as were returned by the banks unpaid at maturity date are included in “ Protested Checks.” After a careful check of these accounts, we believe the Reserve for Doubtful Accounts amounting to $1,958.66 is sufficient to take care of any loss from this source. Commercial National Bank Receiver’s Certificates were verified by inspection of the certificates. At the present time, it is estimated that this bank will pay 70 percent Associational Records and Information 901 of the funds on deposit at the time it closed in March 1933. On this basis you should realize $14,823.30 of the unpaid amount shown in the Balance Sheet. State, County, and Municipal Warrants were verified by inspection of such warrants. Stamped Envelopes and Cards, $392.30, and Office Supplies, $403.99, were in¬ ventoried by your staff, and an inspection was subsequently made by us to determine the reasonableness thereof. We also checked the calculations and extensions. Office Furniture and Fixtures, $22,900.00, is the net value shown by the records after deducting the Reserve for Depreciation amounting to $26,092.35. We verified the additions made during the year to this account by inspection of purchase invoices. A physical inventory was made by your employees, which we examined and com¬ pared with a similar inventory at May 31, 1934. Depreciation in the amount of $705.75 has been charged off for the year. While depreciation on the building is recognized, if such a deduction were made, it would be necessary to set aside cash from income accounts to increase the “ De¬ preciation Fund.” Depreciation has not been deducted for the past three years due to the fact that the income has been insufficient. While it may not be convenient to make an appropriation from income for this purpose for the ensuing year, the depreciation factor should be borne in mind. Should the depreciation deduction approximating $8000 annually be resumed, the income from the Permanent Fund would be reduced by this amount before the transfer thereof to the Regular or Operating Account. Notes Receivable — Life Members, $185,079.27, as shown in Exhibit “ D,” were examined and found to be in agreement with the books. We found payments had not been made since December 1932, on $90,561.50 of these notes. These are non- negotiable instalment notes given in payment of Life Memberships. An unascer- tainable amount of the above payments have been extended at the request of the makers. Investments in Securities were verified by actual inspection. It will be noted from Exhibit “E” that no interest was received on the St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad Bonds during the year. The St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad is in default on interest due January 1, 1933, and subsequent thereto. According to the agreement of the Manhattan Railway Company, interest due April 1, 1935, which was not paid at May 31, 1935, became delinquent on the latter date, but has since been paid. 902 National Education Association It will be noted from Exhibit “A” that the total net equity value of the Perma¬ nent Fund Assets was $802,664.47 at May 31, 1935, as compared to $783,439.92 at May 31, 1934. The increase is accounted for as follows: Gross Value at May 31, 1934, as shown by prior audit report . $908,439.92 Less: First Trust Payable — 'May 31, 1934 . 125,000.00 Net Equity shown above at May 31, 1934 . $783,439.92 To Which Add: Increase in Life Memberships . 14,537.88 Increase in Elementary School Principals Account — Net . 670.09 Department of Superintendence — Transferred from National Education Association . 1,427.47 Teachers Welfare Fund . 2,589.11 NET EQUITY MAY 31, 1935— As shown by Exhibit “A” . $802,664.47 Vouchers Payable $31,889.94, were verified by inspection of invoices and state¬ ments from creditors and examination of the accounts in the voucher register. We also ascertained from the cash book that none of these liabilities had previously been paid. Inquiry was made of the purchasing department to determine that no purchases had been made that were not recorded on the books. We checked the amounts due the Elementary School Principals, American Educational Research, and Department of Superintendence with records kept by these Departments. Amounts due other Associated Departments were accepted as shown by the books. The total shown on Exhibit “A” consists of amounts due Departments as follows: Superintendence . $20,131.70 Rural Education . 1,421.48 Lip Reading . 91.99 Elementary School Principals . 1,899.63 Adult Education . 208.55 American Educational Research . 8,423.60 Secondary School Principals . 24.00 Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics . 414.03 Supervisors and Directors of Instruction . 107.73 $32,722.71 The first trust note payable, $100,000, against the real estate and building at 16th and M Streets, was verified by direct correspondence with the holder of the note. This note was curtailed $25,000 during the year reducing it from $125,000 to $100,000 as shown above. Associational Records and Information 903 Your Association owns certain personal and real property received from the Estate of Manila Z. Parker, as shown in Exhibit “F” of this report. These assets have not yet been entered on the books, due to the uncertain value of some of the securities. As values are established by exchange or otherwise they are being recorded on the books as an increase to the Teachers Welfare Fund. The total expenditures authorized in the budget for the fiscal year ended May 31, 1935, were $488,285.00 as compared to the actual expenditures of $495,033.14. The excess of expenditures over allowance is amply accounted for by the increased payments to the Department of Superintendence and the larger expenses of the convention exhibit in February both of which exceeded budget estimates and both of which were automatically increased by the greater size and earnings of the exhibit beyond those estimated at the time the budget was prepared. It should be further noted that the budget adopted for the year ended May 31, 1935, authorized an excess of expenditures over estimated income to the amount of $42,085.00. On account of increase in actual income over estimated income the actual excess of expenditures over income is $22,730.32 or eliminating the expendi¬ ture for Furniture and Fixtures is $21,251.73. A comparative summary of budgeted and actual expenditures showing the amounts under or over the budgeted figures, is shown below: Board of Trustees . Executive Committee . President’s Contingent Fund . Board of Directors . General Secretary’s Office . Field Division — Legislative . . . Division of Business . Division of Publications . Division of Research . Division of Classroom Service . Division of Administrative Service . Division of Records and Membership . Physical Plant . General Office — Operating Expense . Furniture and Fixtures Purchases . Annual Conventions . National Education Association Journal.... Other Publications . Financing Delegates . Department and Committee Appropriations. . Association Membership Fees . Retirement Annuities and Insurance . Emergency Fund . Over or Actual Budget Under Expenditure Allowance Budget $1,492.52 $2,000.00 $507.48 4,312.15 \2, 500.00 J 500.00 1,312.15 9,704.23 8,000.00 1,704.23 36,235.29 32,065.00 4,170.29 12,888.41 13,600.00 711.59 17,889.64 18,365.00 475.36 45,120.27 44,370.00 750.27 63,115.71 62,795.00 320.71 7,308.14 7,725.00 416.86 9,162.69 9,185.00 22.31 55,032.03 54,835.00 197.03 56,032.38 54,665.00 1,367.38 7,665.58 6,730.00 935.58 1,478.59 1,500.00 21.41 29,260.80 20,500.00 8,760.80 72,270.93 75,000.00 2,729.07 21,276.41 15,100.00 6,176.41 6,488.75 9,000.00 2,511.25 27,730.33 37,300.00 9,569.67 1,100.00 1,200.00 100.00 9,468.29 9,350.00 118.29 2,000.00 2,000.00 $495,033.14 $488,285.00 $6,748.14 From the Emergency Fund shown above amounts totaling $800 were transferred by authority of the Executive Committee to the credit of several budgeted items under the head of “ Special Appropriations,” which are included therein and enumerated in Schedule “ B-6.” 904 National Education Association It is noted that no cash value for the retirement Annuities Insurance Policies owned by the Association on the lives of its employees is carried on the books. The cash surrender value of all policies issued under this insurance plan at May 31, 1935, aggregates $102,603.30, of which under the operation of the plan approxi¬ mately $64,691.14 belongs to employees and $37,912.16 belongs to your Association. Prepaid subscriptions and memberships have been treated as income at the time received. Likewise such items as costs of unprinted journals, prepaid insurance, prepaid commission on renewal of first trust note payable, etc., have been treated as expenses at the time the invoices were received. The following is a summary of the Permanent Fund Income Account for the current year: Income Interest on Deposits . $514.88 Interest on Bonds . 4,229.68 Rent at Headquarters Building . 43,000.00 Proceeds of State of Arkansas Bonds Received as Interest . 2,391.48 $50,136.04 Deduct: Expenses Attorney’s Fee . $250.00 Interest on First Trust Note Payable . 7,200.00 Insurance . 486.00 Postage on Coupons . .16 Building Repairs . 806.93 - 8,743.09 Balance Transferred to Treasurer of National Education Asso¬ ciation . $41,392.95 Subject to the foregoing comments, we hereby certify that in our opinion, the attached Statement of Assets and Liabilities, marked Exhibit “A,” reflects the true financial position of the National Education Association as at May 31, 1935. Respectfully submitted, Wayne Kendrick & Company, By T. Delos Paxman, Certified Public Accountant. Associational Records and Information 905 Statement of Assets And Liabilities as at May 31, 1935 Assets GENERAL ACCOUNTS EXHIBIT ,(A ” Cash On Deposit and On Hand Special Account . $16,329.33 Regular Account On Deposit . $7,761.69 Permanent Fund Income Checks On Hand . 39,001.47 - 46,763.16 Petty Cash . 476.66 - $63,569.15 Accounts Receivable Advertisers, Publications, etc . $3,205.16 Postdated and Foreign Checks . 1,286.60 Protested Checks . 865.80 $5,357.56 Less': Reserve for Doubtful Accounts . 1,958.66 - 3,398.90' Commercial National Bank Receiver’s Certificates . $37,055.70 Less: Reserve for Unpresented Checks . 185.00 - 36,870.70 State, County, and Municipal Warrants . 10,268.66 Inventories Stamped Envelopes and Cards . $392.30 Office Supplies . 403.99 Volumes of Proceedings and Publications . 500.00 - 1,296.29 Travel Advances . 226.31 Office Furniture and Fixtures . $48,992.35 Less: Reserve for Depreciation . 26,092.35 - 22,900.00 TOTAL GENERAL ACCOUNTS ASSETS . $138,530.01 PERMANENT FUNDS ASSETS— Per Exhibit “D ” . 802,664.47 TOTAL ASSETS . $941,194.48 Liabilities and Net Worth LIABILITIES Vouchers Payable . $31,889.94 Due to Associated Departments . 32,722.71 Real Estate Trust Notes Payable ($100,000.00 Contra — Deducted from Assets in Exhibit “D”) $64,612.65 NET WORTH— REPRESENTED BY Permanent Funds General Fund . $774,041.57 Elementary School Principals Fund . 6,718.86 Department of Superintendence — Educational Research Fund . 18,264.99 Teachers Welfare Fund . 3,639.05 - 802,664.47 Surplus Balance June 1, 1934 . $95,874.84 Deduct: Net Loss for the Fiscal Year ended May 31, 1935 — From Exhibit " B ” . 21,957.48 - 73,917.36 TOTAL LIABILITIES AND NET WORTH . $941,194.48 906 National Education Association Condensed Comparative Statement of Income and Expenses for the Fiscal Years Ended May 31, 1934 and 1935 INCOME Memberships from Secretary’s Office . N. E. A. Journal — Subscriptions and Ad¬ vertising . Commercial Exhibits . Research Bulletins . Honorariums . Rentals . Sales of Reports, Pamphlets, etc . American Education Week — Material Sales Permanent Fund — Net Income . Sundry Income . Contributions — Legislative Commission for Federal Emergency Aid . EXHIBIT “B ’’ Fiscal Year Ended May 31 1935 Increase or Decrease 1934 1935 Over 1934 $163,555.54 $166,443.33 $2,887.79 182,862.61 189,901.71 7,039.10 30,372.45 36,515.70 6,143.25 4,504.85 6,313.07 1,808.22 2,489.38 2,242.94 246.44 8,980.44 9,176.87 196.43 7,937.46 9,333.82 1,396.36 6,617.87 7,581.20 963.33 36,165.49 41,392.95 5,227.46 306.71 354.42 47.71 5,894.86 3,046.81 2,848.05 $449,687.66 $472,302.82 $22,615.16 TOTAL INCOME Associational Records and Information 907 EXHIBIT “B” 1935 Increase or Fiscal Year Ended May 31 Decrease Schedule 1934 1935 Over 1934 EXPENSES Board of Trustees . .. “B-1” $601.16 $1,492.52 $891.36 Board of Directors . . . " B-1 ” 7,248.93 9,704.23 2,455.30 Executive Committee . . . “ B-2 ” 2,701.1 7 4,312.15 1,610.98 General Headquarters . . . “B-2” 6,591.58 7,665.58 1,074.00 Physical Plant . . . “B-4” 54,498.32 56,032.38 1,534.06 Institutional Expense . . . “B-5” 100,911.55 122,808.14 21,896.59 Special Appropriations . . . “B-6” 27,517.24 27,730.33 213.09 Associations’ Membership Fees. . . “B-6” 1,200.00 1,100.00 100.00 Financing of Delegates . . . “B-6” 9,352.25 6,488.75 2,863.50 Life Annuities and Insurance. . . . “B-6” 8,913.87 9,468.29 554.42 General Secretary’s Office and Division of Accounts . . . “B-7” 29,984.92 36,235.29 6,250.37 Division of Legislation . . . “B-8” 12,020.26 12,888.41 868.15 Division of Business . . . “B-9” 16,308.25 17,889.64 1,581.39 Division of Publications . . . “ B-10 ” 42,324.67 45,120.27 2,795.60 Division of Research . .. “B-ll” 54,900.10 63,115.71 8,215.61 Division of Classroom Service. . . “B-12” 7,313.85 7,308.14 5.71 Division of Administrative Service . .. “B-12” 8,544.68 9,162.69 618.01 Division of Records and Membership . .. “B-14” 51,679.65 55,032.03 3,352.38 TOTAL OPERATING EXPENSES . $442,612.45 $493,554.55 $50,942.10 NET INCOME OR LOSS BEFORE PRO- VISION FOR BAD DEBTS, PROTEST- ED CHECKS, AND DEPRECIATION.. $7,075.21 $21,251.73 Deduct: Provision fnr Bad Debts . $911.47 Depreciation of Office Furniture and Equipment . $705.75 $911.47 $705.75 INCOME OR LOSS FROM OPERATIONS. $6,163.74 $21,957.48 Deduct: NON-OPERATING DEDUCTIONS . 3,477.73 NET INCOME OR LOSS FOR THE FIS- CAL YEARS ENDED MAY 31, 1934 AND 1935 — Transferred to Exhibit “A”.. $2,686.01 $21,957.48 908 National Education Association Income and Expenses for the Fiscal Year Ended May 31, 1935 EXHIBIT “ C ” INCOME Memberships fr» Membership Dues . $354,000.00 Journal, Advertising . 46,000.00 Exhibits . , . 40,000.00 Sales of Reports . 9,300.00 Research Bulletins . 3,000.00 Honorariums . 2,000.00 Rentals . 9,000.00 American Education Week Sales . 7,800.00 Permanent Fund — Net Income . 39,500.00 Sundry Income . 400.00 Total Estimated Income . $511,000.00 THE BUDGET COMMITTEE W. B. Mooney, Denver, Colorado Charles Carroll, Providence, Rhode Island Helen T. Collins, New Haven, Connecticut A. C. Flora, Columbia, South Carolina Thomas J. Walker, Columbia, Missouri Associational Records and Information 929 THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY The report of the Secretary of the National Education Association for 1935 covers the work of two secretaries. On January 1, 1935, J. W. Crabtree, who had served this Association in an outstanding manner for more than seventeen years, became Secretary Emeritus. I succeeded him at that time as Secretary of the National Education Association of the United States and am striving diligently to carry forward the professional banner which he passed on to me. Dr. Crabtree, as Secretary during the past seventeen years, has played a major part in building the National Education Association of the United States into a great professional organization, with a record of true service guided by high ideals. The size and spirit of our organization is a tribute to his idealism, his vision, and his fine human qualities. The Secretary’s Report, this year, covers the culmination of the seventeen years’ program of Dr. Crabtree much more than it does the beginning of the program of the new Secretary. The report, which follows, gives a brief summary of the work of the various divisions and departments housed in the national headquarters. Following these reports, you will find the program of action for 1935-36, as outlined by the new Secretary. Business The business of the National Education Association has been ably handled during the 5^ear by the Business Manager, Harold A. Allan, and his . ' i assistants. The business activities of our Association are administrative and revenue- producing. They are related both to outside agencies and to the Associa¬ tion’s own activities. The more important business functions are: General administration — Direct assistance to the Secretary in the many business phases of the Association’s affairs, including supervision of expendi¬ tures, interpretation of financial accounts, budget preparation, and other related matters. Advertising — Solicitation, contracts, records, collections, copy handling, and directing the general advertising policy for the Journal of the National Education Association. Purchasing — All materials and supplies used by the Association and its divisions, departments, and committees. Auditing — Approval of bills for payment. Publications — Estimates, contracts, specifications, schedules, and price determination on all institutional printing. Personnel — Pay rolls, attendance records, employment, and administra¬ tion of retirement insurance plan. Coordination service — Unifying institutional effort thru procurement and distribution of materials. Building supervision — Direction of building service and responsibility for operation of building and equipment. 930 National Education Association Conventions — Arrangement and administration for summer convention and cooperation in administration of convention for Department of Superin¬ tendence, also arrangement and assignment of space and operation of ex¬ hibits at both summer and winter conventions. The wise planning of the Association’s business affairs is essential to the success of its general program. Evaluation must be made of the relative importance of various projects; economies must be effected which help rather than handicap. Income must be increased by plans which consider the future as well as the present. Classroom Service The Division of Classroom Service was established at national head¬ quarters in 1922 for the purpose of developing a closer relationship between the teachers of the country and the National Education Association, and to give greater service, thru our Association, to the classroom teachers of America. During the year just closed, Agnes Winn and her assistants have ren¬ dered secretarial help to the Department of Classroom Teachers thru exten¬ sive correspondence; thru preparation of minutes and financial statements; planning field trips of officers and carrying on follow-up correspondence; editing, publishing, and distributing information and publicity folders, the annual report, and the five issues of the News Bulletin ; working with the Research Division on plans for the yearbook; and assisting the President with plans for the summer and winter conventions. Much time has been given to local affiliated organizations of classroom teachers which have been supplied with timely material on legislative questions and other important problems. There is need for an extended service to the classroom teachers of the nation ; a service developed to a place where eventually it would reach all of our classroom teachers, helping to improve their status thru better salaries, more security, reasonable tenure, and more ideal conditions for work. Field Service The Field Service is carried on by Chari Ormond Williams arid her office assistants. During the past year, Miss Williams spent 225 days in the field. She traveled 32,000 miles, visited 69 cities in 39 states, and attended 77 local, state, and national meetings, 1 1 of which were state meetings of lay people. At these meetings formal and informal addresses were made, individual and group conferences were held, and round table discussions conducted. Preparation for these field trips and follow-up work have occupied a con¬ siderable portion of office time. Each trip was carefully planned in advance and an itinerary worked out which afforded the broadest contacts in the shortest space of time. The chairmanship of the Committee on School Education of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, and the first vicepresidency of the Na- Associational Records and Information 931 tional Federation of Business and Professional Women’s Clubs allowed the field secretary to cooperate closely with these lay groups and to aid in ad¬ vancing their educational programs. Membership on the Women’s Joint Congressional Committee, composed of representatives of eighteen national organizations, is another avenue for the development of lay relationships. Considerable correspondence was carried on with lay people, and bulletins and other publications of the Association were supplied when they could serve a specific purpose. Articles were prepared for lay magazines, such as the Independent Woman , the Democratic Digest , and the National Parent- Teacher Magazine. Messages and brief statements on various subjects of an educational nature were prepared for state bulletins of lay organizations. Promoting the study and use of Our Public Schools , published last May by the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, has provided an oppor¬ tunity for cooperating with lay groups. Over 11,000 copies of this book are now being used by leaders in parent-teacher groups. The big problem which our Association faces in field service is that of developing nationwide interest in public education, and support for it. Some plan should be devised and followed to organize a broader lay study of our public schools — their support, control, administration, and organiza¬ tion; their past history and their place in the life of our nation. A lay study of the curriculum of our schools should be encouraged, so that our lay people may understand the trend of education today and what the schools are trying to do in the civic life of our nation. Laymen need to consider teacher welfare measures — adequate salary laws, tenure, and retirement plans — and what these mean in the education of their children. Such interest on the part of the general public can be greatly accelerated by the participation of teachers in the civic life of their communities. Publications The work of the Division of Publications is in charge of Joy Elmer Morgan and his staff. The Journal of the National Education Association has the largest circulation of any professional magazine in the world. The Journal has had a marked influence on professional activities and on the growth of membership. To look ahead to a circulation of 500,000, with a corresponding gain in quality and influence, would be to expect no more during the future than has occurred in the past. From its beginning in 1921, the Journal has emphasized pioneer under¬ takings in education and in the life of the Association, and has sought to relate them to social and economic advance. It has sponsored and taken the lead in developing the following projects, each of which made substantial gains during the past year: American Education Week The interpretation of education Home and school leaflets Vitalized commencements 932 National Education Association Faculty meetings and group study Vitalized school journalism Nationwide high-school printing, cartoon, and editorial projects N. E. A. student membership in teachers colleges Various types of special packet service to schools. Every issue of the Journal contains some analysis or discussion of social and economic problems to help readers to a better understanding of the present crisis in American life and education. The Journal is widely quoted ; often entire articles are reprinted in magazines, books, or as leaflets for distribution. The National Education Association is now a large publisher of material on the profession. If one were to buy a single copy of each of the publica¬ tions issued by our Association, and its departments, during the past year, the cost would be $35. Our regular members receive most of this material without charge. The total number of pages printed in our major publica¬ tions for the past year amounts to more than 109,000,000. The program of interpretation of the National Education Association has been sixfold: To encourage superior service in the classroom; to en¬ courage contacts between home and school; to lead in the development of American Education Week; to develop teacher materials so that the story of education can be taught in the schools from first grade thru college; to make the present service at conventions as effective as possible; and to de¬ velop contacts with the public thru the lay press, the radio, and various organizations interested in developing programs of published materials about the schools. American Education Week has become the greatest single observance for the interpretation of education. Materials developed by our Association for this observance cover practically the entire range of the school system. We gave special help to more than 4000 communities last year in the planning and observance of American Education Week. An effort has been made, during the past year, to increase the services of our Association in the teachers colleges. A plan was devised whereby 2454 senior students in teachers colleges in twenty-five different institutions have been enrolled as student members and have become profitably acquainted with our Association thru the Journal. Thru its various publications, our Association must have an increasingly greater influence on our profession and must help to build adequate support for public education. Membership and Records The work of our Association in the promotion of membership and the keeping of membership records is done by T. D. Martin and his co-workers. The work falls under four main headings : Promotion of membership ; keeping of membership records ; answering inquiries regarding membership ; and addressing, from the records on file, the Journal and other publications to members. Associational Records and Information 933 The handling of the records of approximately 200,000 individual mem¬ bers during the year is a tremendous task. This work is complicated by the . fact that teachers move frequently without notifying us of their new ad¬ dresses, some marry without telling us of their changed names, and often dues are sent in by the chairmen of local enrolment committees who spell the names differently or who make no notations regarding previous addresses. Copies of the Journal are mailed to every member of the Association each month during the school year. During the past year more than 2,000,000 copies of the various publications of the Association and its departments have been addressed to members. This mammoth task is facilitated by the use of modern mechanical devices. Membership maintenance and promotion include the following activities : Notices direct to members regarding the payment of dues Letters to superintendents, principals, and officers of local and state associations soliciting their cooperation in the enrolment campaign Articles in the Journal, in state and local association journals, in lay magazines, and newspapers regarding the work of the Association and the importance of edu¬ cation and the imperative need of unified action Leaflets reporting the program and the activities of the Association Field trips involving conferences with leaders at conventions, institutes, and local teachers meetings The maintenance of registration facilities at conventions. Growth in membership depends fundamentally on the service to the teachers and the children of the nation, and our ability to encourage local and state leaders to develop effective enrolment plans. Membership records reflect professional spirit and effective local leader¬ ship. The average teacher, when she learns about the splendid work which the Association is doing, intends to join, but she often neglects to do so unless a systematic enrolment plan, sponsored by a recognized local leader, brings the matter to her attention at the right time. The prospects for next year are difficult to predict. Improved economic conditions will be reflected in restored salaries, full school terms, and ex¬ panded service. A growing recognition of the importance of education in the new social order is evident. Leaders in fields outside of education frankly admit that the schools have borne more than their share of the burden of the depression. Organized and vigorous action must give back to children and teachers their just rights. If our Association is to meet successfully the challenge of the time, we must have an increased membership. Some of the significant facts about membership in the National Education Association of the United States, during the past year, are: The total membership for the year was 187,645. This was 22 times that of 1917 and nearly 38 times that of 1907, less than 1 percent below the 1933 total — 189,173 — and less than 15 percent below the maximum figure of 220,149 reached in 1931. The total paid membership ($2, $5, and Life) was 8278 greater in 1934 than in 1933. Pennsylvania again won first place for largest total (25,237). 934 National Education Association California stood second (19,467), Ohio third (17,360), New York fourth (12,689), Illinois fifth (11,321). Twenty-two states, the District of Columbia, Hawaii, and other possessions, excepting Puerto Rico, made increases ranging from 7 to 1106. California made the largest increase (1106). Louisiana and the District of Columbia made the largest percent of increase over 1933. States having 50 percent or more of their teachers enrolled were: Hawaii (89 percent) ,. District of Columbia (76 percent), Nevada (62 percent), Delaware (56 percent), Arizona (55 percent), Utah (50 percent). Cities having more than 2000 members were: Los Angeles (4619), Philadelphia (4172), Chicago (3087), St. Louis (2699), Pittsburgh (2555), Milwaukee (2518), Detroit (2267), Washington, D. C. (2178), Cleveland (2053), New York (2044). States having 100 percent counties were: Utah (4), Tennessee (3), Pennsylvania (2), Ohio (2), California (1), Delaware (1), Florida (1), Maryland (1), Nevada (1). The ultimate goal of our Association is the enrolment of all our profes¬ sional workers in behalf of the best interests of children and teachers. Research The research work of the National Education Association is directed by William G. Carr, who is ably assisted by efficient helpers. Ten years ago the Research Division, then three years old, had settled down to persistent endeavors along certain important lines. Two nation¬ wide surveys of teachers’ salaries had been conducted ; a study had been made of the unequal abilities of states to support education ; materials in the field of curriculum reconstruction had been widely distributed. Thus had been laid the foundations for the present efforts to throw light upon such fields as state legislation, taxation, school finance, tenure, retirement, salary scheduling, administration, supervision, and character education. During the past year the Division has continued its biennial salary survey, which involved reports from 2000 cities and 400,000 school employees. A considerable amount of time has been given to the gathering of infor¬ mation in support of the Association’s program of federal aid for education. A comprehensive survey of school indebtedness and inquiry into school building needs, with reference to public works funds, and two telegraphic surveys of the closed school situation have been conducted. This material has been used in research bulletins, newspaper releases, and hearings before Congressional committees. Much work has been done thru the state school legislative reference service in order to provide the factual basis for policies concerning state school legislation. Material has been distributed to a mailing list of about 1000 selected leaders in education, child welfare, taxation, and government. Five issues of the Research Bulletin have been distributed during the year to Life and Five-Dollar members; members of the Departments of Superintendence, Rural Education, and Educational Research; subscribers to the Educational Research Service; and to approximately 1000 libraries and other special subscribers. Approximately 19,000 copies of each Research Bulletin have been printed. Associational Records and Information 935 The September Bulletin, National Deliberative Committees in Educa¬ tion , provided the first comprehensive guide available to the field of educa¬ tion with reference to the scope and conclusions of important national investigating surveys. The November Bulletin, Alodern Social and Educational Trends, depicts in a series of brief, graphic statements the major trends in social and eco¬ nomic life and shows the educational implications of these new forces. The January Bulletin, The Nation's School Building Needs, touches upon a field which has suffered greatly from neglect during the depression. This bulletin brought together information concerning the number of schools which have been condemned because of age and the number of children attending school part time or in rented or portable buildings, as well as other evidences of school construction needs. The March Bulletin, Salaries of School Employees, 1934-35 , reports the high-lights from our biennial survey of salaries. The May Bulletin, Creating Social Intelligence, is a finding-list covering approximately 170 schools and school systems which are doing outstanding work in the field of social and civic education. The Research Bulletins for the coming year are tentatively planned to deal with the following topics: (1) Progressive methods in the teaching of reading in the first six grades; (2) costs and standards of living in the teaching profession; (3) the construction of teacher salary schedules; (4) tax coordination and federal aid for education; and (5) current practises in the improvement of rural schools. During the year the Research Division has continued its policy of assist¬ ing many committees and departments in the preparation of reports and yearbooks, and in other phases of their work. The Research Division collaborates with the Department of Superin¬ tendence in the management of the Educational Research Service. Circulars issued by this Service during the past year include : ( 1 ) Teacher Sick Leave ; (2) School and City Current Expenses Compared, 1932; (3) Education Discussed in Lay Magazines (5 issues) ; (4) Salary Schedules for Teachers, 1934-35; (5) Teachers’ Salaries in Suburban School Systems, 1934-35; (6) State School Legislation, 1934; and (7) Recent Trends in Public Educational Expenditures and Other Governmental Expenditures. During the year the Research Division answered approximately 4300 letters, 100 telegrams, and 1200 telephone calls, relating to such matters as school finance, teachers’ salaries, curriculum revision, and other topics of educational interest. In looking to the future it is evident that many, if not most, of the areas of past endeavor will continue to require attention. Many states have highly unsatisfactory school finance systems ; less than half the teachers of the nation have reasonable old-age security; the schools still fall short of their full contribution to American life. Work must continue upon all such problems. Two new areas offer immediately promising possibilities for service. These are rural education and higher education. In the past, limita¬ tions of funds have often made it necessary for the Research Division to 936 National Education Association use and adapt as well as possible data originally collected by others for a different purpose. This “ service research ” will always be important, but if the Association is to take its place as the outstanding source of professional leadership and information, it must make many of its own investigations. The Research Division desires to continue to render service to the entire field of education efficiently and promptly. Secretary’s Office During the past year Harriett M. Chase, Chief Assistant to the Secre¬ tary, and her co-workers have given much time to general correspondence, which is a heavy responsibility. In addition, correspondence has been carried on for the officers of the Association, the Executive Committee, the Board of Trustees, and the Board of Directors. Miss Chase has served as headquarters secretary for the Department of Rural Education, has directed special life membership drives, prepared One Hundred Percent and Life Membership Certificates, directed the recording of cash receipts of the Association, con¬ tacted local and state affiliated associations, directed the filling of all orders for publications, and helped in the preparation of the program for the annual convention. She arranges for the life membership dinner and handles the registration of delegates at the convention. The members of the Secre¬ tary’s Office have acted as hostesses for the Association during the year in conducting hundreds of visitors thru the headquarters building. Many other duties are performed by this office to relieve the Secretary, who has to spend much of his time in the field and in conferences with staff members, officers, outside agencies, and in carrying out the plans and policies of the Executive Committee, the Board of Directors, and the Representative Assembly. The work of keeping the financial accounts of the Association is done by Mary J. Winfree and her co-workers. Miss Winfree has the responsibility of assisting the Treasurer of our Association in accounting for all regular funds and of working with the Board of Trustees in accounting for the Permanent Fund of the Association. All notes representing the life member¬ ship payments are handled by her. It is from the income of the life member¬ ship payments that our national headquarters building has been built and is being maintained. The National Education Association of the United States has twenty- four departments. The secretarial personnel of three of these departments is housed in the national headquarters. Deans of Women Gwladys Jones carries on the work for the Deans of Women. Some of her major activities have included help in the preparation and distribution of the quarterly bulletin to the members of the Department; preparation and presentation of a national radio program concerning the work of the dean of girls; publicity for the work of the dean thruout the country; stimulation of organization of state groups of deans ; planning and prepara¬ tion for Atlantic City convention; focusing of the interest of deans of Associational Records and Information 937 women on economic and community problems; helping to publish and dis¬ tribute the yearbook of the Deans of Women. The Department is striving, thru adequate service, to secure a larger membership, to interpret the work of the dean to the community, to encour¬ age continuous professional growth among the members, to encourage the selection of adequately prepared persons for the position of dean, and to prepare the girls and the women with whom the deans work to meet changed conditions of living. Elementary School Principals The work, at the national headquarters, for the Department of Elemen¬ tary School Principals, is carried on by Eva G. Pinkston and her assistants. During the year some of the major activities of this Department have been publishing the Thirteenth Yearbook, Aids to Teaching in the Elementary School ; publishing the regular bulletin of the Department, The National Elementary Principal , (5 issues) ; helping to plan and administer two con¬ vention programs — Washington and Atlantic City, and developing plans for the Denver program ; rendering service to individuals and groups, deal¬ ing with such subjects as state association programs, local group programs, curriculum changes, and the answering of all sorts of questions; preparing articles for state journals and other educational magazines; participating in two national radio programs. The Department of Elementary School Principals desires to render serv¬ ice to every elementary principal in the United States. It hopes, thru this service, to help build better elementary schools for children and better con¬ ditions for teachers. Superintendence The Department of Superintendence is guided by S. D. Shankland and his fellow-workers. The three outstanding phases of work being done thru cooperation with this Department are : The work of the Division of Administrative Service ; the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education; and the Educational Research Service. The Division of Administrative Service was officially made a part of the National Education Association headquarters organization in 1923. Thru this Division contacts are made with departments and organizations which are concerned with school administration and supervision. It provides part of the machinery by which superintendents, principals, supervisors, teachers, and other school people may better work together in solving educational problems of national interest. This Division answers promptly and effi¬ ciently all types of questions which daily pour in to the national headquarters. The Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education was created in 1933. The primary function of this Commission was to serve as a center around which professional educational organizations, interested in protect¬ ing the public schools in America, might rally. The entire headquarters staff cooperated loyally in promoting the work of the Commission. The Division 938 National Education Association of Administrative Service coordinated all activities sponsored by the Com¬ mission. The emergency commission has done yeoman service for education during the past three years. The Educational Research Service was organized in 1924. It furnishes annually four or five articles, published in the Journal , and cooperates with the Research Division in answering letters of inquiry on all sorts of ques¬ tions. It keeps a comprehensive bibliography and reference file on educa¬ tional questions. The Department of Superintendence is carrying forward a remarkable program in the field of administration. Each winter it conducts a conven¬ tion that has far-reaching effects on American education. Program of Action for 1935-36 You may keep in touch with the program of our Association each week during the school year by listening to the national radio broadcasts, “ Our American Schools.” Two fifteen-minute programs will be nationally broad¬ cast by our Association each week thru the courtesy of the National Broad¬ casting Company — one at 1 1 : 00 o’clock, Eastern Standard Time, each Saturday morning, dealing with classroom problems ; the other, at 7 : 30 o’clock, Eastern Standard Time, each Wednesday evening, dealing with the problems of American education. It becomes increasingly clear that the crisis in human life thruout the world today goes to the very roots of our system of values and that it par¬ ticularly involves those personal rights, political liberties, and representative institutions which we associate with the ideal of democracy. The survival of democracy in America and the development of a cultural life in keeping with an American ideal must depend upon the schools and their power to really awaken the aspirations and finer impulses of the people as a whole. Under these circumstances the National Education Association of the United States has a peculiar significance because, in its own spirit and organization and in the schools which it represents, it is democratic in char¬ acter and purpose. Our Association has a special mission in that it is the cooperative enterprise of the largest group of publicly employed persons in the nation. What our Association does during the next few years may easily become the central influence in national destiny. Its achievement will be measured not only by its success in safeguarding child welfare, teacher status, and school support, but also in ideas grasped and purposes formed, in spirits disciplined and loyalties attached to greater ideals. Our Association can perform an important service by helping to conserve and pass on the tradition of the great teachers of all time who have put humanity first in their lives and work. There is no limit to the service which can be rendered by a unified, cooperative association of teachers in our democratic country. What is our Association going to mean to you this year? Will it be a mere name which you will pass by? Will it be an organization to which you contribute a membership fee but nothing more? Will it be a Associational Records and Information 939 center of action whose various projects you will follow with the interest of a bystander? Or will it be you, yourself, in action in cooperation with your fellow-teachers, giving not only your money but your time, your en¬ thusiasm, and your heart to the building of a better profession, to the im¬ provement of the schools, to the safeguarding of American institutions, to the building up in this country of a culture so fine and universal as to com¬ mand enthusiasm and satisfaction everywhere? I am setting forth, in the following five paragraphs, the lines of action which I believe our Association should aggressively pursue. We should focus the Association’s work upon the development of a vital relationship between education and the life of today. This can be done thru encouraging the teaching in high school and college of the Social-Economic Goals of America , (a masterly report just finished by a committee of our Association) ; thru helping schools to give attention to the problems of un¬ employed youth ; by leading in a movement to provide civilian conservation opportunities for girls, at least equal to those now available for boys ; thru fostering the development of adult education and public recreation ; thru relating the service of the school more closely to home and community life, with special emphasis on cooperating with the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, with Dads’ Clubs, and other interested lay groups. We must strengthen the Association so that it can render increased serv¬ ice to children and teachers. Our proposed plan is to encourage democracy and teacher participation within the Association; to foster teacher growth and encourage the study of the work of our Association in school faculties so that members may be informed of its plans and activities; to extend student membership among seniors in teachers colleges and schools of edu¬ cation ; to integrate and further develop the departments of the Association ; to plan more carefully the Association’s conventions, departmental activities, and committee work ; to develop closer cooperation between local, state, and national education associations ; and to bring about closer cooperation be¬ tween our Association and institutions of higher education. We shall attempt to improve the services of the Association to teachers and schools. The proposed plan is to restore the September issue of the Journal and to continue the improvement of the Journal to meet the grow¬ ing demands of the profession ; to gather, analyze, and present facts so that the Association’s entire program may be based on the best available knowl¬ edge; to improve the status of teachers — their salaries, security, tenure, conditions of work; to encourage teacher participation within the schools and within the Association ; to develop further the Association’s service to high schools and colleges; and to develop public appreciation of the work of the teacher. We shall attempt to develop higher standards of teaching, administration, and finance. To achieve this end we propose to continue the campaign for permanent federal aid to education, with the minimum of federal control ; to seek larger administrative units and higher standards for rural education ; to improve the quality and quantity of preparation for teaching and to raise the standards for certification. 940 National Education Association We shall continue the development of an intelligent public opinion re¬ garding the work of the schools. As a means of keeping the facts about education before the public, we plan to obtain a wider observance of Ameri¬ can Education Week; to foster more general participation of teachers in a year-round program of interpreting the schools to the public; to encourage the teaching of the story of the schools and their social setting, from the first grade thru college; to develop further plans for celebrating important educational anniversaries — such as the Horace Mann Centennial in 1937. These, then, are the tasks and opportunities which the Association faces during the coming school year. Their successful accomplishment depends partly on the leadership of the Association’s officers, divisions, departments, and committees and upon the untiring effort of the national headquarters staff; but their effectiveness rests even more upon the enlightened and vigor¬ ous support of every member of the profession — upon YOU. Will you pledge yourself to a renewed dedication to the teaching profession, to the local association, to the state association, and to the national association ? “ Life is indeed darkness, save when there is urge; And all urge is blind, save when there is knowledge ; And all knowledge is vain, save when there is work ; And all work is empty, save when there is love; And when you work with love, you bind yourself to yourself, and to one another, and to God. . . . Work is love made visible.” ! Associational Records and Information 941 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY RICHARD R. BROWN, PRESIDENT, DENVER CLASSROOM TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, DENVER, COLO. It is only fitting that we pause and in a few moments of silent meditation recall with loving memory those educators who have gone to their heavenly reward. There is something extremely comforting in the thought that these loved ones are now no longer subject to the ever-increasing demands upon their time and their energy; that at last they have achieved that peace and quiet which so many of us so eagerly anticipate as we labor together in these days of ever-increasing change. Our records will show in the necrology report for this year approximately fifteen hundred educators have passed away. It is with loving tribute that we file their names in the archives of our Association. ALABAMA Alford, Margaret Bader, Barbara Bethune, Miss Jim Camp, Wylie Campbell, Willnita Capps, T. A. Dean, Mrs. Martha Drake, Mrs. Ethel Hayes, Mrs. Nettie Herrin, W. B. Hodges, P. W. Hodnett, E. J. Hodson, E. M. Kilpatrick, Mrs. Nova Klutts, Ethel Knight, Marguerite McCampbell, Mrs. Edna McClendon, Mrs. Robert Manasco, Lucille Mathers, Evaelyne Milburn, Nell Millsap, George Stanley Moody, Mrs. Etta Moore, Mamie Moore, Mrs. Minnie Lee Nation, Mrs. Elizabeth Newby, Miss Row Porter, W. S. Posey, Velma Price, Ben N. Price, Mrs. Susan Jones Ryan, Lattie Taylor, S. E. Tidwell, Mildred Parker Todd, Lillie Ward, James Stillman Wright, Edgar M. ALASKA Keturi, Gertrude ARIZONA Case, Charles Orlando Collins, Nellie Davidson, A. H. Hansen, Ora Jaycox, Gretchen Jones, Bertine LaChance, Marie Merrill, Margretha Post, Mary Elizabeth Richart, Mrs. Lillah ARKANSAS Atkinson, Mrs. Eleanor C. Austin, Mrs. J. H. Bryson, Mrs. Ed Eaton, J. C. Elson, William Harris Harrelson, R. T. Haygood, James R. Haynes, Thomas L. Holmes, Edward Kline, Mrs. D. E. Mcllroy, James Hode Mathis, Fannie Mock, Rufus A. Perrill, J. P. Presson, Mrs. J. A. Reed, Vollie Sheppard, Luella Woods, George M. CALIFORNIA Adams, Sir John Bain, Dorothea M. Bennett, Eva Brown, Buford Otis Brown, Louis A. Burdick, Burton A., Jr. Camper, Charles H., Costigan, George P. Ditmars, Freda Doty, Frank C. Dreiske, Helen Fertner, Frank W. Gardner, Ernestine Gibbon, Ben H. Hall, Mrs. M. A. Harris, Harvey E. Hayward, Edna Holbrook, Richard T. Jameson, J. A. Jenkins, Oliver P. Kenfield, Coralie Lommen, Minnie Mantz, Anna Martin, Ernest G. Morken, Virginia J. Munson, Oscar F. Nichols, P. F. Nutting, Herbert C. Orr, Anna Peckham, Mildred Rhodes, Thaddeus H. Rosenberg, S. L. M. Ryan, Joseph H. Seibilio, Doris Gaily Sheldon, Hiram F. Short, Howard Smith, Robert Dhu Snell, Harry M. Stillman, Stanley Tavernetti, Thomas Thompson, Nellie Turnbull, William F. Vandegrift, Albert F. Walker, Cornelia Wilhelmy, George COLORADO Anderson, Dorothy M. Blaine, W. D. Boyd, Florence A. Day, Merrill J. Doble, Flora I. Fleming, Emma Hill, Norma Peck, Ruby Pierce, Margaret E. Remley, Elizabeth F. Searles, Addie H. Sloan, Frank M. Smiley, William Henry Smith, Rose Lee Zirkle, H. W. CONNECTICUT Carr, S. F. Close, Mary Curran, Agnes Higgins, Lothrop Lynch, Agnes Malin, Mary Robbins, F. 0. Russell, Claude DELAWARE Ballance, Mary J. Butler, J. Katherine Gray, Nellie Henvis, Susanna Crozier Nichols, Walter F. O’Connor, Genevieve Ross, Alice H. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Thomas, Augustus 0. 942 National Education Association GEORGIA Ashmore, Otis Gaines, T. N. Gaisert, Thelma Harman, W. L. Houser, H. P. Moore, Eric Dean Pound, Jerry M. Smith, John Wesley Soule, Andrew M. Thomas, Walter P. HAWAII Bradshaw, Sarah J. Crone, Mrs. Rosina C. Kaimuloa, Mrs. Margaret Kalaau, David Lumsden, Mrs. Elizabeth Modorikawa, Miss Shizue Payne, Mrs. Agnes ILLINOIS Abel, Novell Curtis Ackert, Abram Anderson, Andrew L. Ashley, J. F. Babcock, L. P. Bach, Blase Bartow, Bertha Black, Florence Boosinger, Eila Borden, Emma W. Bosomworth, Dorothy Brown, Frank R. Brown, V. I. Burghardt, Teresa Burton, J. D. Decker, B. E. Dierkes, Mrs. Rosalia Dugger, Mrs. Mary A. Fairchild, Malcomb Furr, W. A. Gardner, Phoebe Haight, R. A. Haller, Henry Hallquist, Grace Harris, Abram W. Hellyer, P. H. Herndon, Mary Grace Hill, A. Lulu Johnson, A. P. Kessinger, M. M. Kiefer, Joseph F. Kirby, E. Mae Lewis, J. M. McCartney, M. N. McKinnies, R. E. Manley, Maude Martin, Mollie Milgate, Fred J. Morrison, Edgar C. Newlin, Susan Barnett Park, Rufus L. Parks, John Pollock, Anna Potter, Mrs. Mae Pratt, Caroline Randall, Ella Randolph, Robert Saltzgiver, Frank Scott, B. W. Scully, Florence Shryock, Henry W. Sims, Mildred Slosson, Norma Irene Smith, Ralph P. Steers, Mrs. Maude Ulen Stipp, Daniel W. Sullivan, Mrs. Margaret M Swartzbaugh, Mrs. Fannie Terrell, Ethel Thompson, Jacob C. Thorpe, S. L. Treesh, Irvon Wakeley, John E. Wilson, Mrs. C. J. INDIANA Ackerman, Louis A. Alley, Mary jane Andrews, Gertrude F. Beer, Margaret C. ' Bender, Robert Berry, Florence Black, James C. Bodemer, Lena Boss, Walter Broecker, Lucille C. Bush, Wallace Caine, Daniel William Calveet, Belle Carey, Angeiine P. Carle, Lucy Castner, WTliam Chapman, Enoch F. Couglan, William H. Creahan, Matheriue Downey, Nettie Evans, Virgilee Farnesly, Ethel Ferguson, Joseph 0. Finn, Ruth Alford Forthman, Martin F. Gatterer, Frederick Gerkin, Eunice Gillaspie, James W. Gregg, Eva Belle Griffity, A. May Hall, Mary D. Hall, Tillie Hatfield, Anna Hayward, Ruby Hockett, Oliver Hoffner, Percy Hutchinson, Nathaniel Imel, H. G. Jack, Lettie Florence Jacoby, Gertrude Jarrett, Lillian Kemp, Jessie Kennerly, Mary B. Kerins, Katherine Kessler, Ebeneier Kessler, Mathilde E. Lackey, Lena L. Lamb, Rufus P. Leruasters, James B. Lucan, Lydia McKay, Jennie McKeag, Ellen McNabb, William McNaPy, Margaret Mahan, Edythe Mallory, Percy Marshall, Isabelle B. Martin, John F. Merrill, Rosalinda Modlin, Eliza Morgan, Kate W. Naylor, George A. Olsen, Elsa H. Parkins, Russel W. Payne, Kirby B. Perkins, Lola I. Peters, Alice E. Phillips, Carmel Phillips, Eathel Pick, Martha M. Pitcher, David H. Pittman, Grace Raschbacher, Margaret Reed, Charles L. Rice, Elmer Robling, Thelma C. Roush, Charles G. Rutledge, Roy B. Sage, Mabel F. Schulz, Magdalena Shealy, Josephine Snider, Lester Spradler, Iva Starr, Martha Stewart, Delean Street, Hazel V. Sturm, Helene Suter, Edgar M. Taylor, Mary Taylor, Nellie Jane R. Terry, Ina Thomas, Alsa Jane Thomas, Anita Thomas, Malache B. Towlin, James H. Townsend, Lizzie Lee Trent, J. C. WaUace, Ruth Werner, Mabel M. Wilson, Weltha A. IOWA Albee, Elbert A. Anderson, Charlotte Athearton, Walter Scott Belt, Laura JL. Berg, Jennie I. Betts, George H. Bishop, Helen Bovee, Mrs. Earl E. Bronson, E. 0. Brown, Fannie Brown, Heien Chapman, Harriet Josephine Christie, Geneva Christie, Mrs. Mary S. Clark, Rachel Cobb, Charles S. Craig, Mattie L. Day, Mrs. Olive DePoar, Mrs V. V. Diggs, Sue Rich Enfield, Helen Falkner, Laura Frame, W. T. Frazier, Jessie Funnemark, Helen Go’try, Mrs. Everett Granger, Lottie Hainer, Julius C. Hankins-Ludwig, Carrie Hathaway, Annette Hamilton, Bessie Hever, Dora Hills, Mary Hoadley, C. W. Holmes, Edmund M, Hruska, Victoria Hungerford, Mary Shipton Hutchinson, Mrs. 0. L. Iler, Ernest Jacobson, P. W. Johnson, Mrs. Forrest Kauffman, Louise Marie Keith, Margaret Kimble, Murray Knapp, Herman McDaniels, Abraham McElroy, Mrs. W. 0. Mclntire, M. M. Marine, Charles B. Miller, Alonzo Alexander Miller, Mrs. Ella Ford Nelson, Nellie Nicklin, Myrtle A. Osborn, Hazel Peck, Ella Mabel Remensnyder, Emma Ritner, Nellie Rose, J. L. Ross, Victor Saylor, J. W. Schell, Ida Seerley, Mrs. Homer H. Steece, Nellie Studebaker, C. H. Todd, Marian S. Townsend, Eugene Collins Vagenitz, 0. 0. Veach, Mrs. Laura Wagner, W. J. Wechware, Mrs. Mary Williams, Sylvester Niles Wilson, Flora Associational Records and Information 943 KENTUCKY Bell, William C. LOUISIANA Allen, Cammie Bax ey, Lelia Byrd, 0. Carver Dunckelman, W. R. Holla'way, Mrs. Agnes Jackson, Miss Sammie LeBianc, Luvil’e Leopold, Mrs. Addie P. McGehee, Lucius D. Martin, H. D. Richardson, Maggie Roark, L. E. Sellers, Mrs. George Smith, Jewell Strickland, Nena Tugwell, Lois Wooldridge, H. J. MAINE Burton, Mrs. Lucy Agnes Butler, Kathleen Davis, Ida Douglas, Ella Gordon, Etta Hammond, Oswald K. Hart, Ethel Mae Libby, AUce J. Lunt, Mildred F. Merrill, John C. Palmer, Mary Parker, John F. Preble, Mrs. Kitty Redlon, Clara A. Sawyer, Susan Small, ETa Smith, Genevieve Smith, Leola P. Tolman, Mrs. Villa Vinal, George H. MARYLAND Arnold, Grace S. Bell, Hattie V. Eiggs, Irma V. Blair, Mamie W. Bonnotte, Ferdinand Bruff, Thomas C. Burrier, Serena Carroll, Margaret A. Cavanagh, M, Bina Conklin, Verna Cotton, Hattie L. Coulehan, Charlotte Davis, Horace M. Dean, Gordon M. Dorman, Stella Fales, Laura G. E. Kabliston, Charles C. Hall, M. Susie Harman, Frances Hubbard, Elizabeth J. Jackowick, Joseph A. Jacobs, Sadie C. Kelley, Jennie M. Kravitz, Anna G. Lamb, Arthur Lease, Mary J. McCleary, Standish McCuTough, Alice McDaniels, H°len R. Medwedeff, Minnie V. Merrick, Samuel K, Mills, Marie L. Neal, L. E. Neugoal, Mary E. NicoUs, Roberta C. Nusinow, Mary Phillips, Frank W. Pietsch, Andrew J. Pollitt, Alice Porter Harry W. Root, Francis M. Rosenthal, Melvin Rurah, John Shanks, Lewis P. Shipley, Paul G. Sibley, I 'ora Smyth, Elizabeth A. Stephens, Alma Stinson, H. W. Tolson, Mary K. Unger, M. S. H. Ware, John D. Watkins, Frank Watts, E. Virginia Wightman, Virginia Wilhelm, Mabel Williams, Viola M. Wright, Eleanore Zipp, Elizabeth MICHIGAN Allord, Helen Bullis Anderson, Arthur Arnold, Mrs. Mattie Auguston, Isabel Battle, Eleanor Baker, J. Fred Barnes, Jane M. Barr, Beatrice Farr Bender, Mrs. Idalene Webb Bennett-Nott, Marcella Blakley, Lila Boardman, Martha Bowen, Dwight C. Bradford, Mrs. Marietta Brandau, Emelia W. Branyan, Mrs. Ethel Braule, Dorothy Breppe, Harold Broderick, Ann McPharlin Bromley, Lillian Brown, Mrs. Nettie Buss, E. C. Campbell, Mrs. Hattie C. CampbeT, Mrs. Mary Louise Card, Lila M. Carney, Frank Cesal, Louise Chamberlin, Beatrice Christopher, Katherine Clemens, Thomas J. Connell, Henry M. Cowen, Sylvia Levy Craddock, Sue Cranda 1, Mrs. Harry C. Crane, Mrs. Lena Crawford, Malcolm J. Curry, Mrs. Ida Davis, Lucia Adell Deal, Anna M. Derby, Marjorie Doolittle, Vera Lord Doolittle, WiTiam Clark Doxie, Georgina Eby, Mrs. Leslie Eckstrom, Leonore M. Ehlers, Mrs. Mary Hughes Elliott, Felestia Elliott, Mary L, Llson, William H. Emmons, Helen R. Ferguson, Mrs. Clara Findley, John Fitzsimmons, Gladys Louise Francis, Myrtle D. Frederick, Oliver G. Frostic, Mrs. Sarah Fu’ler, Florence Garbutt, George H. Getty, Irene Louise Gillesby, L. 0. Gooding, Mrs. Martha M. Graham, James R. Graham, Mrs. Sarah Grigg, Dorothy Lacey Gunn, Mrs. Josie Hamill, B. M. Hawley, Helen Heinonen, Saimi Hirchy, Walter Hoben, Allen Hough, Grace Huber, G. Carl Hurst, John T. Hutchins, Ella J. Johnson, Mrs. Myrtle Josin, Julia E. Kaufman, Frederick Kelleher, Elizabeth M. Kergan, Margaret King, F. E. Koopman, Mrs. Philip U. Kratz, Everett Larson, Emma E. Lemon, Mrs. Kate Linn, Caroline Little, E. L. McClure, Carrie E. McCormick, Charles J. McCulloch, George L. McGoldrick, Mary McGregor, Florence A. McIntyre, Jessie MacKenzie, Bertha C. McKnight, Mrs. Freda McNair, Martha Macomber, Harriet Mans, Louise Marchelle, Grace B. Marshall, Alice Irene Mertz, Emma Miller, Edwin L. Miller, Mrs. Josephine Miller, Raymond Mi’ler, Rutherford B. Moore, Mrs. Grace Nacy, Alice L, Nancarrow, Mrs. Helen R. Neilson, James A. Nelson, Winifred James Nestle, Mrs. Ethel Kenyon Nisewander, Mrs. S. B. O'Brien, Annie Otto, Maude Pollock, James B. Post, Mrs. John C. Reck, Mrs. George D. Reppe, Harold B. Richards, Galia Robinson, Mrs. Lilly Rodda, Mrs. Anna B. Rogers, Frances Beattie Rose, Mrs. Frank G. Rowe, Mabel Ruehle, Mrs. Sarah J. Schick, Grace Schulze, Margaret L. Smith, Mrs. Dorothy Sowers, Charles Spaulding, Mrs. Floville Stetson, H. L. Stuart, Louise Sutton, Ransome Swift, Claude D. Tabor, Sam Thomas, Lois Thomas, Mrs. Norman J. Todd, Nancy Elizabeth Trottles, Olive Turrel, James Upton, Mrs. Josephine Visser, Lena Mae Von Schrader, Augusta Doris Welch, Mrs. Myra True White, Ona Belle Wilkinson, Arthur 0. Wi kinson, George Melvin Williams, Edith A. Willis, Alice E. Willson, Phillip J. Wolf, Florence D. Woodworth, Mrs. Della Zindler, Fred L. 944 National Education Association MINNESOTA Agnes, Mother Mary Bergquist, J. Victor Cooper, Charles H. Hudec, Marie A. MISSOURI Adams, Ruth L. Anderson, Mrs. Blanche Barrington, Carrie Beard, Ruth Bing, Nettie G. Bolen, Bettie Boxx, Mrs. Cleo Brachvogel, Madeline Bristol, Mrs. Edith C. Brown, Mrs. E. B. Browne, Katherine R. Bruffey, Mattie Calhoun, Elizabeth Carroll, Agnes I. Carroll, Susie G. Carter, Amy Carter, Isabel C. Cockrell, E. R. Crosby, Clifford Culver, Mary D. Curtis, Lina N. Dake, Charles L. Davis, Mrs. Irene Deneke, S. F. Denning, R. L. Doellner, Bertha E. Dover, Mary V. Downing, Mabel E. Duffy, Margaret Eddy, Gertrude England, N. R. Farr, Harry Farrell, Allease Fickas, Evelyn Gibson, Isabella Gladback, Mary C. Godwin, J. F. Griswold, Lizzie Hacke, Virgil G. Hamilton, Orville Hammond, Edith Hamring, Augusta Harrison, Mrs. W. E. Harwood, Mayme B. Herdman, Pearl Higgins, Catherine M. Hinchey, Allan Holmes, R. V. Howe, Jennie C. Hussey, F. N. Hutcheson, Nancy Jackson, Creola Jaudon, Virgil H. Jefferson, Harriet L. Jenkins, Florence Johnson, Mrs. Bess Johnson, Daisy Johnston, T. A. Jones, Virginia Judd, Jesse A. Kelly, Kate E. Kelsey, Sidney Kent, J. M. Kinyon, Mrs. Mary I. Knox, Eloise Lewis, Eva Long, Avery Looney, Inez McGlathery, Sallie Machen, Zora Malone, R. N. Manning, Mrs. Emily Matson, Penn Meadows, Harris Morerod, Harold Morris, Elizabeth Myers, Hilda Nathan, Albert North, Mary Oehler, Kate O’Rear, M. A. Parks, James Lewis Peabody, Elsa Frances Pickles, Ella A. Pollock, Elmer Ponder, Addie Rabe, Anna E. Rand, Zelma Spaulding Rau, W. A. Ray, Jessie F. Richardson, Mrs. Alice Richardson, Izel Swope Robinson, Oletha Robnett, Frances D. Schaefer, Angie Scott, Gertrude Sexton, S. Nora Shinnick, Eveleen M. Smith, William B. Speece, Aura Belle Stacey, T. H. B. Stanton, Elizabeth Stewart, Anna B. Stuhlman, Ted Suhrie, Eloise Swindell, Herbert Tate, Dr. Templeton, Marie Thomas, Ruth E. Thompson, Susie E. Tripp, Dessa Crouch Vogel, Antoinette S. Webb, Walter F. Wells, R. A. Whitney, Maud M. Williams, Ida Woods, Mrs. Emma Work, Elizabeth Wilcox, Walter E. MONTANA Ambercrombie, Lillian Blakeslee, Mrs. George Brannon, Mrs. M. A. Dana, Paul R. Daum, Mrs. Mary C. Dennett, Florence A. Eaton, Lewis T. Ehrlich, Freda Fitzgerald, Mrs. Dorothy Foot, Mrs. Cora Bateman Gray, Virginia Hanelt, Adeline Hastings, Beatrice Collins Hogue, Drusilla E. Inbody, Ray Jansen, Mrs. Manda Laird, Cassie LeMere, Anna Lewis, James M. Marion, Mrs. Bessie R. Newlin, Mrs. Carl Nystrand, Alice G. Provo, Mary M. Riedell, C. H. Smith, Kathrine Wilson Smith, Mrs. Myrtle 0. Soper, William L. Streibich, Anne G. Weise, Marie Wilkinson, Elfie NEBRASKA Adkins, R. F. Ala, Mrs. A. J. Beebe, Mrs. William Behm, Caroline Blackman, Julian R. Britell, I. H. Burdick, Burton Butler, Mildred Carney, Mrs. Grace L. Cline, Effie Corbett, Virginia Costigan, George P., Jr. Cox, Vernon Fagan, Nellie M. Francis, John French, Calvin Frye, Bessie Frye, P. H. Fling, Fred Morrow Goodell, Walter E. Gregg, Mrs. Iva Noddings Griffiths, Mrs. Nora Halverson, Mrs. Blanche Perks Henricksen, Erna Heyne, Glenville Hinman, Mrs. Alice H. Hitchcock, George G. Irwin, Charles W. Lucas, John R. M’Brien, Jasper L. McClun, Blanch Mackey, Mrs. Irvie Van Ostrand Nelson, Geraldine H. Nordin, Lillian Nottingham, John F. Paxton, Ella Powell, Martha Priel, Mrs. Nettie Sandeen, Mrs. Charlotte Saylor, J. W. Schmidt, Yvonne E. Snyder, William P. Stormer, Myron E. Strong, Frank Swails, Pearle Swezey, G. D. Taylor, Annabe Westgate, Vernor V. Williams, Henry NEW HAMPSHIRE Barnes, Ernest E. French, Harold W. Gile, Abigail Hopkins, George I. Ross, Howard A. Rundlett, Louis J. Willard, Alta Cera NEW JERSEY Bailey, Alice Evelyn Bauer, Mrs. Flora Beebe, Grace Bimbler, Joseph F. Blau, Elsie Bodme, Mrs. Florence C. Brelle, Olga Brumbaugh, Charles Burke, Mrs. Minnie V. Carlin, Theresa L. Concannon, Anna B. Cooley, Mrs. F. F. Corson, David B. Cusick, John Davis, Margaret B. Day, Stephen S. Demarest, Mrs. Mary Denton, Mabel Dressel, Herman Duncan, Bertha Egan, Eileen Engel, Mrs. Frich, Francis Joseph Galluba, Mildred A. Gibson, Gladys E. Goodwin, Mrs. Amy Gunnison, Florence R. Hamburg, Mrs. A. V. Hamlin, Edna C. Hart, Ray H. Hatfield, H. DeW. Heath, George B. Heery, Mary Hinton, Marceline Lewis Hoag, Winfred A. Huston, Jennie M. Johnson, Ruth Grant Associational Records and Information 945 Keating, Dorothy Kempf, Emilie Kline, Ambrose B. Leino, Martha A. Lewis, A. Mabel Lloyd, Robert Mabie, Martha E. McFaddin, Clara McLaughlin, Mrs. Nora F. Miller, Ruby A. Mintz, Dorothy Moller, E. Fred Montgomery, Genevieve Morse, Hebert N. Morse, Minnie E. Murphy, Virginia Oaks, Alexander M. O’Callahan, Marguerite O’Stephens, Mrs. Ray Overgne, Louise C. Potts, Fenelle Quinlan, May L. Reed, E. Paulene Rohn, William L. St. George, Hilda Scudder, Myron Tracy Sinclair, J. Edwin Sullivan, Arthur E. Thomas, Maud S. Warren, Viola W. Whiton, Mrs. Adeline N. NEW YORK Alford, Eunice Allen, Helen J. Anderson, Floyd F. Avery, Emma M. Avery, Fannie Barrett, Ellen B. Bates, Mildred Beal, George H. Beckins, Ida M. Bedwin, Theodore M. Belden, Arthur E. Bell, George H. Bible, Rose M. Biederbick, Marguerite A. Blackford, Margaret E. Blau, Estelle Bleknap, Genevieve R. Book, Arthur E. Borener, George Brady, Catherine R. Brett, Anna Briggs, Jean Broerick, Mary Burritt, Alice J. Cahill, John Chapin, Phillip P. Christophere, Catherine M. Collis, Mary M. Condon, Margaret A. Coonan, Catherine E. Copeland, Grace S. Cosgrove, RoseLa Cripps, Gladys M. Curry, Rose B. Dabbus, Bertha L. de Fromen, Juanita M. Dennis, Eserline M. Drury, Thomas J. Duncan, Mary E. Dyer, Sara F. Earle, Cora B. Ehrle, Caroline B. Elliot, Lillian M. Ellsworth, Ida L. Falk, Louis J. Farman, Mary E. Finegan, Julia A. Fischer, Mary B. Fisher, Louise D. Fitzgerald, Mary W. Fitzsimmons, Mary V. Frawley, Helen M. Gallagher, Helen J. Gernon, Mary Gibney, Eugene C. Gillard, Benjamin G. Ginter, Marie H. Gordon, Anna Graham, Eva B. Green, Jean Hurowitz Green, John C. Greene, Elizabeth A. Griffin, Joseph T. Guinnip, George H. Hall, Audrey F. Hancock, Mary Handy, Seymour Hanigan, Lillian R. Harter, Eugene W. Harvey, Helen W. Herdling, Emma Hough, Jean W. Huggins, Isabelle S. Hunt, Esther G. Hurley Helen Q. Jameson, Charles B. Jones, Alfred A. Jones, Anna V. Jones, Gary Joyce, Sarah I. Kane, James J. Kelley, Frank B. Kelley, Mary R. Keresey, John S. Keune, Anna F. Knox, Margaret Kramlich, Emma F. Kroeger, John W. LaFrance, Erwin J. Lambert Sophia W. Lampert, Besse R. Lfinning, Helen F. Larsh, Charles H. Lefkowitz, Joseph Leinswand, Lillian E. Lennon, He’en Lennon, Lauretta E. Levitas, Arnold Lynch, James T. Lyons, Frances A. McLaughlin, Mary E. McTernan, Josephine Mahoney, Rose A. R. Manahan, Margaret E. Manning, Ella M. Manning, John T. Markham, Luther 0. Marsh, Marian M'arum, Norma Maxfield, Marshall J. Maxwell, Julia A. Meltzer, Bella E. Memhert, Blanche B. Mendesohn, Henry Meyer, Anna Millar, Effie G. C. Moran, Loretta M. Mosbacher, Irving Moses, Edward I. Mowen, Littie K. Mulligan, Anna M. Munson, Elizabeth R. Murphy, Mary G. Mustor, E’sie S. Nidel, Lewis Novak, Henry A. O’Brien, Elizabeth A. O’Connor, May R. O’Hara, Cecilia E. Olney, Anne O’Meara, Lily E. Page, Elizabeth A. Patrie, Everett G. Patterson, Louise E. Payson, Elsie S. Pearse, Mabel E. Phillips, Elizabeth V. Piatt, Herman S. Pines, Sophia R. Pope, Mary D. P. Purgold, Estella L. Quigley, Harriet A. Rafferty, Clara Redding, Arthur F. Redmond, Daniel W. Rendell, Harriet E. Sackman, Esther B. Sandowsky, Fannie S. Sauer, Elizabeth M. Saul, Gertrude E. Seaman, Mary E. Schwab, Sophie Schwartz, Estelle H. Simmons, William M. Smith, Anna Smith, Jane Stevens, Plowdon, Jr. Stieneck, Adelheit M. Stonehouse, George F. Swartz, Sidney A. Thompson, Edith C. Townsend, Charlotte Townsend, Harold B. Trunkey, Gertrude N. Tucci, Mary A. Turner, Eva G. VanName, Warren M. VanSiclen, Lillian L. VanThoff, Josephine Walsemanns, Amelia Walsh, Agnes Wells, Helen L. Widemeyer, Constance M. Willard, Florence Wimberg, Ruth Woodhurn, Caroline Woods, Elsie S. NORTH CAROLINA Arnold, Moxley Bell, Clara Bell, J. M. Blair, Elizabeth H. Butler, Lelia Floy Carroll, Elizabeth D. D. Catlett, Washington Cobh, Collier Fortune, Mabel Foster, John Milton Graham, Alexander Gray, Inez Lanier, Mary McLeod, Mrs. F. A. Martin, Emma Newell, Margaret B. Perry, W. Y. Preston, Lois W. Purser, P. 0. Rabb, Mary Sanford, Ruth Mae Sentelle, R. E. Troth, Dennis C. Venable, Francis P. Washington, Ettie Whitaker, Eleano? Whitener, John S. Worthington, Alma Mae Wright, Robert W. Yorke, Mattie M. NORTH DAKOTA Auforth, Allan Bublitz, Mrs. William Cunningham, Elsie Denny, Anna Cook Dickerson, W. H. Dreis, Gladys Fish, H. C. Hartl, Emily Lee, Arthur McIntyre, Annie W. McKensie, Duncan Marean, Ora Paulson, Adolph Scheiss, Angeline Sullivan, Helen 946 National Education Association OHIO Bryan, E. B. Cowen, Marie L. Daley, Edward L. Davis, George E. Detrick, Rebecca Foster, George M, Gilmore, Katherine Flowers, Charles M. Hammond, Rose Lytle Kern, John W. Lucas, Lund W. McLean, Grace Mechling, G. V. Palmer, Harry D. Pryor, Howard R. '< Richey, R. R. Tarr, Ruth A. Taylor, Arthur Washburn, Carl D, Wood, Annie E. Wyman, Cecilia M. OKLAHOMA Athearn, Walter Scott Barnett, C. A. Baxter, L. L. Chilcote, Minnie Clark, Bessie Combest, Mrs. Pearl H. Davis, Mrs. LiPie R. Dawson, Miss Floy Dunlap, Frances Farrell, Bess Griffiths, Minnie Hacker, Albert J. Hammond, M. P. Hankey, R. V. Harrell, Mrs. Henry Harris, Mary K. Hoover, Sarah Hopkins, S. N. Howell, Rhea Kyme, George Lee, Mrs. Lila M. Lively, Isah Horah McBrien, J. L. Murray, John Pearson, Mary Ellen Pearson, Paul Vickory, Bruce Wise, Althea Wolfinger, Roy PENNSYLVANIA Aiken, Mary Aldinger, Mildred Armor, WiTiam R. Armstrong, Elizabeth E. Bacon, Grace P. Bailey, Fannie Bard, Edna M. Baumgardner, Algie Brown, Elmer Ellsworth Brown, Ruth Brownlee, Mary Brunner, WiPiam A. Budde, Wesley E. Bumbaugh, Frank D. Carter, Charles E. Ca.vill, Alice Clever, S. Blanche Coley, Mathilda Coulomb, Char’es A. Darlington, Ella C. DeHaven, John J. DetwiUr, Richard J. Dick, William Diener, Mary E. Dil’inger, Carrie Dugan, Cora E. Eastwood, Albert 0. Elson, William Harris Farr, Chester Nye, Jr. Foltz, Frederick F. Francis, Maude Teter Fritz, Kathryn B. Frowen, James A. GaTagher, James J. Gilliam, Bessie B. Golden, H. W. Gorman, Marguerite Grafius, Emma I. Graper, Marie C. Groth, Herman Hackett, Clara B. Hazlett, J. Marcus Hittle, Alonzo C. Hollibaugh, U. G. Holmes, Sarah C. Hoskin, Florence A. Howe, John F. Huber, Mary S. Humphrey, James H. Jameson, Joseph M. Kelly, William, A. Kennedy, William F. Killius, James Kirk, Anna Virginia Kuhns, Luther J. Lesher, Dorothy A. Lessig, Hi’ary M. Lewis, S. Katherine Lewis, Sutton P. Linn, Karl H. McConnell, Ella McCoy, Grace McCrea, Lona B. McDonald Margaret H. McGuigan, Elwood J. Martin, Dorothy Miller, Jennie Miller, Maude G. Minor Margaret Mitchell, Mary W. Nealon, Kathryn N. New’in, Catherine Oliver, David Brown O’Malley, Anna M. Patterson, Thomas K. Pickett, Julia PurceG, Helen Reag’e, Sarah E. Reisfar, Charles Rife, William M. Roeder, Elmer H. Roland, Marie E. Rutter, Harry J. Sands, L. Florence Sheppard, Margaret Shure, Velma Orndorf Small, C. S, Smith. Rebecca R. Spangler. John A. Statler, Lonnie L. Stewart, W. M. Straesser, Mare-aret Z. Street, James L. Thomas, Martin H. Tindal, Emma V. T, Watts, E. L. Webb, Carrie C. Welsh, J. P. WMte, Mary WiUon, Fannie Wright, J. Anson SOUTH CAROLINA Eating, Ro~alyn Hollis. G. T. Parker. Henry Clay Stanley, M. M. SOUTH DAKOTA .Andrews, Freeman H. Pa’dridge, Irvine E. Bedford. Gertrude Beede, Aaron Bennett, Inez L. Davis, Addie M. Fleming Mrs. Wager French, Calvin H. Gibbon, Ben H. Horst, Arthur Ireland, A. T. Kalisch, Jerry Long, Frank McClellan, Frank C. McGill, Lillian McQuistian, Christina Remley, Clara Rishoi, Ada Messner Welch, Fremont TENNESSEE Johnson, J. D. Kennedy, Annis O’Connor, Mrs. G. E. Smith, Leona Tinnell, Robert E. TEXAS Adamson, W. H. Axson, Stockton Broussard, Mrs. Cecil H. Cowart, Lora E. Davenport, Geraldine Estill, Mrs. Loulie S. Funk, Bertha Love, Mrs. Clay Foe, Susie Lee Red, lone UTAH Allred, W. Lyle Augason, Ruth C. Beason, J. E. Blackham, Gwendolyn Blackham, Olive S. Bradford, Hail L. Brady, Edward L. Cameron, Cliffie Child, Julia A. Clark, E. J. Corey, Matilda Dailey, Maughn H. Davis, Caroline Mills Davis, Rosamond Dragon, Martha B. Ekins, Ste.la McMullin Erickson, Hugh M. Fitzsimmons, Ida Gardner, Fred C. Glenn, Walter J. Greenwood, Joshua Hallock, E. S. Hayes, Henry H. Higgs, Mary A. Hutchinson, Ella V. Jameson, Olivia Jennings, Martha B. Keele, Charles H. King, Annie J. P. Larson, Joseph A. Lee, Eli F. Lewis, David T. Madsen, Floyd Allred Marehant, Mary E. Merrill, Thomas H. Miller, May 0. Morrill, A. ice Mortenson, Lillian Neilson, Bespie G. Nielson, Beth Ollerton, Mary A. OUon, C. P. Olson, Sally Ann Pack, Ivy M. Quinn, George M. Rich, Mae F. Schwenke, Charles Scofield, Jane Scorun, Emma T. Underwood, W. L. Wakefield, Roma S. Walton, Joseph S. Westrope, Minnie T, Associational Records and Information 947 VERMONT Bliss, Clara Osgood, Mary L. White, Carroll H. Wright, Alice G. VIRGINIA Chandler, J. A. C. Coddington, Kate Folkes, Mary Fulton, Lucy Glenn, Sarah Ellis Kerns, Ruby Maury, Sarah S. Munoz, Christine Nicholson, Alice A. Petty, Mrs. W. C. Pickett, Elizabeth Richard, Mrs. W. R. Shelton, Carrol J. Sweeney, Bettie 0. WASHINGTON Bean, Mabel L. Berg, Eva Boten, Julia Brainard, Cora Davidson, Johanna Davis, Margaret L. Dewey, Myrtle Finch, Mary Louise Fish, H. C. Greenberg, Edith Haesler, W. E. Hastings, B. C. Hooper, Mary Horan, Nell Hubbard, Alice Leedham, C. M. Meany, Edmond S. Miller, Helen G. Moores, Genevieve Owen, Myrtle Ragan, Marie Roberts, Beatrice Rust, Verlin Wilbur, E. St. John Scholes, Stella Seymour, Glen Smith, Helen B. Woodward, Beulah Wright, Nelle WEST VIRGINIA Ashburn, Clarence M. Floyd, Ulysses Grant Husted, W. A. Riley, John Wes’ey Tabor, Aubrey H. WISCONSIN Ames, Edith Anderson, Mabel Armstrong, Edwin T. Bartlett, Frank A. Bayless, Celeste C. Beck, Pearl Berg, Arnold Bliss, Ida Breed, Sadie M. Briggs, Emma R. Brown, Edwin B. Brown, N. B. Brown, Nellie Bruegger, Myrtle F. Bruins, Hazel J. Buchanan, Viola D. Burhans, Helen L. Calkins, Ella A. Carpenter, Agnes Carpenter, Eolia Cartwright, Marion Christie, Mrs. John Clark, Lilian Colburn, Willis P. Conley, John D. Cooper, Bess Crary, Helen Daliege, Mabel Davidson, Joseph M. Davison, Helen E. Dedrick, Ada L. Dolan, Frances Dolven, Beal Doorley, Ellen E!a, Ida L. Emmons, Stella Feak, Geneva J. Fifield, Catherine Finch, Mary L. F’anagan, Florence Florin, Aurelia B. Foley, May G. Freier, Cora Gage, Sarah T. Galligan, Annie V. Geerlings, Tillie M. Geilfuss, Alma Gill, Nellie Gorman, Loretta D. Gregerson, Harriet Gumpert, Emmy Haass, J. J. Hamman, B’anche Haskell, Herbert Herbst, Fannie Hianny, He*en Hil\ M. 0. Hogue, Mrs. W. F. Horton Ruby Jensen, Anne W. Kamke, Lydia Keller, Jacob M. Kennedy, Nora Ketchum, Anna Krauslach, Emma Langer, Grace Larson, Gertrude F. Leonard, Ermina N. Loos, George J. Lund, Bertha Mahon, Margaret A. Martin, Katherine M. McCafferty, Ethel McCormick, Agnes Mead, Winnie Meinhardt, Mary Melcher, H. A. Merrill, Isabel Mills, Ebin Mortimer, George B. Nimtz, Mary E. Nowinski, Martha Oppreicht, Edward J. Paulson, Olga Peil, Leo A. Perry, Walter H. Peterson, Mabel Press, R. L. Putman, Mrs. Giles H. Quan, John J. Reppe, Harold Richardson, Mary Robbins, Kate Russell, Sarah T. Salmon, Mary C. Sather, Irene Sauer, James Schuman, Edward W. Scott, Eileen 0. Sharp, Jane Snyder, George F. Somrud, Laura Spiegelhoff, Mrs. Harold Steinke, Elsie Stewart, Walter W. Taggart, Richard C. Terry, Lois Tesch, Ruth L. Thompson, Helen F. Tobey, Mrs. S. B. Trautwein, Julia A. Voigt, A. J. F. Wallace, Mrs. Herbert Ward, Mrs. Annit Werely, Natalie S. Whalen, Margaret Wilde, H. Samuel Williams, Dewey W. Wi’son, Berta D. Wright, He’en E. Ziperski, Dorothy 948 National Education Association THE FIFTEENTH REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY Delegates who attended the seventy-third annual meeting of the National Education Association in Denver, Colorado, June 30-July 5, 1935. The classification of positions in¬ cludes (1) directors and supervisors, (2) superintendents, (3) principals, (4) classroom teachers, (5) college and normal school presidents, (6) educational editors and secretaries, and (7) ex-officio members. ALABAMA Coons, Mabel Anderson (Teacher), 605 E. Clinton St., Huntsville; Alabama Edu¬ cation Association. Copeland, Ben S. (Superintendent of Schools), Talladega; Alabama Education A conpi 51 f i Emond, Faye' (Teacher), 1501 N. Twelfth Court, Birmingham; Birmingham Teach¬ ers Association. Force, Mary (Teacher), Selma; Alabama Education Association. Graves, Oliver (Teacher), 1151 N. Thir¬ teenth St., Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Association. Gray, M. P. (Teacher), 2140 Sixteenth Ave., S., Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Association. Grove, Frank L. (Secretary), Alabama Edu¬ cation Association, 21 Adams Ave., Mont¬ gomery; Alabama Education Association. Holmes, Vera (Teacher), 1340 Fourteenth Ave., S., Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Association. Huff, Ottie (Teacher), 1340 Fourteenth Ave., S., Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Association. Pogue, J. V. (Principal), 1408 Thirty-second St., N., Birmingham; Birmingham Teach¬ ers Association. Tharp, S. M. (County Superintendent), Bay Minette; Alabama Education Association. Thomas, Elizabeth (Teacher), Lakeview School, Birmingham; Alabama Education Association. Vaughn, G. T. (Principal), 5521 First Ave., S., Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers A c cn p 1 5j 4 1 nil Williams, J. D. (N. E. A. State Director), Principal, Avondale School, Birmingham; Alabama Education Association. ALASKA Garrett, Paul E. (Principal), Kodiak; Alaska Education Association. McDonald, Eora (Teacher), Ketchikan; Alaska Education Association. ARIZONA Berryhill, Gertrude (Teacher), 902 W. Latham St., Phoenix; Arizona Education Boehringer, C. Louise (Director), 2506 N. Eleventh St., Phoenix; Arizona Education Association. Booth, Jonathan L. (Teacher), 522 E. Second St., Tucson; Tucson Teachers Association. Bosworth, Nell (Teacher), 1412 N. Twelfth St., Phoenix; Arizona Education Asso¬ ciation. Chambers, Dorothy (Teacher), 1406 E. North St., Tucson; Tucson Teachers Association. Clarson, J. W., Jr. (N. E. A. State Direc¬ tor), Dean, 2143 E. Fourth St., Tucson; Tucson Teachers Association. Doyle, Mrs. Lena (Teacher), 2016 E. Speed¬ way, Tucson ; Tucson Teachers Associa¬ tion. Hendrix, H. E. (State Superintendent of Public Instruction), Phoenix; Arizona Education Association. Hill, Ned W. (Director). 2025 E. McDowell St., Phoenix; Arizona Education Asso¬ ciation. Jones, Olive (Supervisor), St. Francis Apt., Prescott; Prescott Teachers Association. Johnson, Everett (Assistant Superinten¬ dent), Phoenix; Arizona Education Asso¬ ciation. Larson, E. L. (Teacher), University of Ari¬ zona, Tucson; Arizona Education Asso¬ ciation. Mitchell, A. L. (Superintendent), Nogales; Arizona Education Association. Overpeck, Stella (Teacher), 704 N. First Ave., Tucson; Tucson Teachers Associa¬ tion. Rouse, Laurence T. (Principal), High School, Bisbee ; Arizona Education Asso¬ ciation. Sutherland, Edith (Supervisor), 810 N. Third Ave., Phoenix; Phoenix Teachers Mutual Benefit Association. ARKANSAS Allen, C. F. (Principal), West Side School, Little Rock; Arkansas Education Asso¬ ciation. Hall, W. F. (Supervisor), State Department of Education, Little Rock; Arkansas Edu¬ cation Association, Phipps, W. E. (N. E. A. State Director). Commissioner, State Department of Edu¬ cation, Little Rock; Arkansas Education Association. Pipkin, John (Business Manager), Little Rock Public Schools, Little Rock; Arkan¬ sas Education Association. White, Mrs. Claire T. (Supervisor), 2905 Fulton St., Little Rock; Little Rock Classroom Teachers Association. CALIFORNIA Allen, Mrs. Rhea E. (Teacher), 2121 Locust St., Long Beach; California Teachers Association. Armstrong, Hubert C. (Teacher), 2621 La Cuesta St., Oakland; Oakland Teachers Association. Arnold, David R. (Principal), Avalon School, Catalina Island; California Teachers Association. Baker, Alfred E. (Teacher), 6149 Hill Rd., Oakland; Alameda County Educational Association. Baker, Claude (Teacher), 836 Alberta St., Santa Barbara; Santa Barbara City Teachers Club. Baker, Ethel I. (District Superintendent), 1517 Fortieth St., Sacramento; Sacra¬ mento County Teachers Association. Balch, A. E. (Principal), 836 Clinton St., Fresno ; Fresno City Council of Education. Ball, Mary A. (Assistant Secretary), 155 Sansome St., San Francisco; California Teachers Association. Barker, Martha Pearl (Teacher), 1715 E. Sixty-fifth St., Long Beach; City Teach¬ ers Club of Long Beach. Baxter, Alfred (Teacher), 5866 Buena Vista Ave., Oakland; Berkeley Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Berry, J. J. (District Superintendent), Oak¬ dale; Stanislaus County Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Biedenbach, C. L. (Principal), 40 Hillcrest Rd., Berkeley; California Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Birch, John (Principal), Willows; Cali¬ fornia Teachers Association. Blackstone, Mrs. Anna E. (Teacher), 1562 Seventh St., San Pedro; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Associational Records and Information 949 Brolliar, F. E. (Principal), 2188 Third Ave., Sacramento; California Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Buchser, Herman (Teacher), San Jose; California Teachers Association. Buckalew, Harry L. (Principal), 408 N. Fulton St., Fresno; California Elemen¬ tary School Principals Association. Burk, J. M. (Teacher), 2333 Carlton St., Berkeley; Berkeley Teachers Association. Bush, George C. (Teacher), Oakland; Cali¬ fornia Kindergarten Principals Associa¬ tion. Butler, Renette (Teacher), 193 Bimini PI., Hollywood; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Callaghan, James (Teacher), 1836 Second Ave., Sacramento; California Teachers Association. Cave, Elmer L. (Superintendent of Schools), Vallejo; California Teachers Association. Chaim, Henry I. (Teacher), 1755 Van Ness Ave., San Francisco; California Teachers Association. Chapman, Edith (Teacher), 2521 Regent Street, Berkeley; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Clayton, Mrs. Rose C. (Principal), 1821 Pepper St., Alhambra; Alhambra City Teachers Club. Cloud, Roy W. (Secretary), 155 Sansome St., San Francisco; California Teachers Association. Cohn, Flora (Teacher), 1500 Wooster St., Los Angeles; California Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Cohn, Sam H. (Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruction), Library and Courts Bldg., Sacramento; California Teachers Association. Cooper, Mrs. Ruby M. (Teacher), E. Ninth St., Pomona; California Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Corey, Arthur F. (Assistant County Super¬ intendent), Court House, Santa Ana; California Teachers Association. Couch, E. B. (Registrar), 1133 N. Everett St., Glendale; California Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Crawford, Ida L. (Teacher), 535 Bellevue Ave., Oakland; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Croad, J. Russell (N. E. A. State Director), Principal, Sierra School, Sacramento; California Teachers Association. Croak, Margaret M. (Viceprincipal), 345 Taylor St., San Francisco; California Teachers Association. Denham, C. F. (District Superintendent), Box 464, Hanford; California Teachers Association. Derr, Lucile (Teacher), 612 E. Seventy- sixth PI., Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Dickey, Ruth (Teacher), 510 N. Mentor Ave., Pasadena; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Dodson, Mrs. May (Teacher), 3516 Downing St., Glendale; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Doren, John E. (Teacher), 2505 L St., Eureka; California Teachers Association. Eby, George S. (Teacher), 454 Thirty-fifth St., Richmond; Classroom Department of the California Teachers Association, Bay Section. Edmonds, Mattie C. (Teacher), 2234 Inez St., Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Eggenberger, Emma (Teacher), 744 Re¬ dondo St., Long Beach; City Teachers Club of Long Beach. Eklof, Carl M. (Teacher), 55 Merced Ave., San Francisco; San Francisco Classroom Teachers Association. Emerson, Muriel D. (Teacher), 1980 Oak St., South Pasadena; Pasadena Teachers Association. Estes, Sallie (Teacher), 945 Grosvenor PL, Oakland; Oakland Teache'rs Association. Farr, Jessie V. (Teacher), 405 W. Adams Blvd., Los Angeles; High School Teach¬ ers Association of Los Angeles. Fergus, Mabel E. (Teacher), 409 Dayman St., Long Beach; City Teachers Club of Long Beach. Ferguson, Minerva (County Superinten¬ dent), Box 265, Lakeport; California Teachers Association. Foley, Louis F. (Principal), 1323 N. Las Palmas St., Hollywood; Los Angeles High School Principals Association. Gansberger, Dorothy (Teacher), Box 102, San Lorenzo; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Goold, James H. (Teacher), 2526 Twelfth Ave., Oakland; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Green, Virginia (Teacher), 848 S. Oxford St., Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elemen¬ tary Teachers Club. Gustafson, Myrtle (Teacher), 5825 Keith Ave., Oakland; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Hale, George N. (Director), 602 Soldano Ave., Azusa; California Elementary School Principals Association. Hampton, Charles L. (Teacher), 5536 Thomas St., Oakland; Classroom Depart¬ ment of the California Teachers Associa¬ tion, Bay Section. Hampton, Mrs. Florence K. (Teacher), 1210 Granada Ave., San Marino; The California Kindergarten Primary Association. Haw, Harry H. (Principal), 1413 Golden Gate Dr., San Diego; California Elemen¬ tary School Principals Association, South¬ ern Section. Hayden, Carrie (Teacher), 1629 \ N. Kings¬ ley Dr., Los Angeles; Los Angeles Ele¬ mentary Teachers Club. Hayden, Sabra (Teacher), 1512 N St., Sacramento; Sacramento City Teachers Association. Hayes, C. K. (Principal), 931 Fresno Ave., Berkeley; Berkeley Teachers Association. Hayes, John D. (District Superintendent), Box 8, El Modena; Elementary Education Association of Orange County. Heacock, A. B. (Principal), 4737 Hollywood Blvd., Hollywood; California Teachers Association. Heacock, Carrie Wyman (Teacher), 709 E. Windsor Rd., Glendale; Los Angeles Ele¬ mentary Teachers Club. Henderson, Frank A. (Superintendent of Schools), Santa Ana; California Teachers Association. Hollenbeck, Vida B. (Teacher), 4549 Palm St., La Mesa; San Diego County Teach¬ ers Association. Holt, Cora M. (Teacher), 4278 Kansas Ave., Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Holt, Helen F. (Teacher), 1543-B Santa Clara Ave., Alameda; Classroom Depart¬ ment of the California Teachers Associa¬ tion, Bay Section. Howard, Bailey W. (Teacher), 1088 N. Hol- liston Ave., Pasadena; Pasadena Teach¬ ers Association. Howell, Cleo V. (Teacher), 629 Humboldt St., Richmond; Richmond Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Huxtable, R. B. (Teacher), 1100 W. Forty- fifth St., Los Angeles; High School Teach¬ ers Association of Los Angeles. Iversen, Ida Christine (Principal), 349 N. Wilton PL, Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elementary Principals Club. 950 National Education Association Jackson, C. W. (Teacher), 4301 E. Four¬ teenth St., Long- Beach; City Teachers Club of Long Beach. Janssen, Lawrence (Teacher), 1509 Thirty- eighth St., Sacramento; Sacramento City Teachers Association. Jenkins, Anna Irene (Teacher), 344 S. Boyle Ave., Los Angeles; California Teachers Association. Johnston, Mrs. Olive (Teacher), Santa Barbara High School, Santa Barbara; Santa Barbara City Teachers Club. Johnston, Olive S. (Teacher), 628 E. Sola St., Santa Barbara; California Teachers Association. Johnstone, Belle B. (Teacher), 988 S. New Hampshire Ave., , Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Jones, Mrs. Eugenia West (Teacher), 318 S. Benton Way, Los Angeles; The Cali¬ fornia Kindergarten Primary Association. Josten, George W. (Teacher), 1501 N. Allen Ave., Pasadena; Pasadena Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Joyce, James A. (District Superintendent), Taft; California Teachers Association. Kertell, Lillie (Teacher), 332 Elm St., San Mateo; Classroom Department of the California Teachers Association, Bay Sec¬ tion. Knoles, Grace (Teacher), Centerville; Cali¬ fornia Teachers Association. Kunz, Henry (Teacher), Turlock; Cali¬ fornia Teachers Association. Lee, Iva Reeves (Principal), 477 N. Shafer St., Orange; California Teachers Asso¬ ciation. LeFevre, 0. L. (Teacher), 3962 Michigan Ave., Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Libby, Mrs. Ruth H. (Teacher), 2150 Locust Ave., Long Beach; California Teachers Association. Locke, James (Teacher), 2022 Ninth Ave., Oakland; Oakland Teachers Association. Lord, Helen M. (Teacher), 1417 Fourth Ave., Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elemen¬ tary Teachers Club. Lovejoy, Ida May (Teacher), 2954 Laurel St., San Diego; San Diego Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Lyon, Harley W. (Principal), 95 N. Sierra Bonita Ave., Pasadena; California Ele¬ mentary School Principals Association, Southern Section. McCandless, Aileen (Teacher), 2950 Regent St., Berkeley; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. McCardle, May (Teacher), 417 W. Be’mont Ave., Fresno; Fresno City Council of Education. Macomber, F. G. (Teacher), 2889 Fairmount Blvd., Riverside; California Teachers Association. Mallory, Gertrude (Librarian), 1518 Arden- dale Ave., San Gabriel; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Manlove, Marae (Teacher), 327 W. Sixth St., Long Beach; City Teachers Club of Long Beach. Maple, Vera W. (Teacher), 117 Park Rd., Burlingame; California Teachers Associa¬ tion. Marcus, Elizabeth (Teacher), 491 Rich St., Oakland; Oakland Teachers Association. Matley, Marie (Teacher), 1833 W. Fifth St., Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Matthes, Helen (Teacher), 585 Forty-fourth St., Oakland; Oakland Teachers Associa¬ tion. Meade, Mrs. Agnes W. (County Superin¬ tendent), Marysville; California Teachers Association. Mendenhall, Mrs. Arbie (Teacher), 1407J-A Kenneth Rd., Glendale; Glendale City Teachers Club. Miller, Jessie E. (Teacher), 2018 Forty- seventh Ave., Oakland; Oakland Teachers Association. Morgan, Natalie (Teacher), 232 N. Almont St., Beverly Hills; Los Angeles Elemen¬ tary Teachers Club. Mortensen, L. H. (Teacher), 5026£ N. Figueroa St., Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Mount, Gertrude H. (Teacher), 2430 Ocean View Ave., Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Napier, John H. (Superintendent of Schools), Emeryville; Alameda County Educational Association. Nicho’son, B. Pearl (Teacher), 1911 Spur¬ geon St., Santa Ana; California Teach¬ ers Association. Noble, Lucia Benton (Teacher), 817 Walnut Ave., Inglewood; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Norton, Mrs. Alice R. (Principal), 840 Gerry St., San Francisco; California Ele¬ mentary School Principals Association. Noyes, Vivian (Teacher), 1746 N. Cherokee St., Hollywood; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Palmer, John H. (Principal), Box 106, Placerville; California Teachers Associa¬ tion. Parsons, Georgia B. (Teacher), 1801 N. Alexandria St., Hollywood; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Paulding, Ruth (Teacher), 21 Carr St., Watsonville; California Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Perrott, C. F. (Principal), Turlock High School, Turlock; Stanislaus County Teach¬ ers Association. Pinger, Lulu M. (Teacher), 2523 Ridge Rd., Berkeley; Classroom Department of the California Teachers Association, Bay Section. Preston, C. W. (Principal), 1427 Holbrook St., Los Angeles; Principals Club of the Los Angeles City Elementary Schools. Raymond, Wilford E. (Teacher), 1085 De Garmo St., Los Ang-eles; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Reh, Agnes (Teacher), 1833 W. Fifth St., Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers C.ub. Robinson, Mardele (Teacher), 1809 Gillette St., E., South Pasadena; South Pasadena Education Association. Rowell, Virginia (Teacher), 200 W. One Hundred Seventh St., Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los An¬ geles. Sayler, Mrs. Edith C. (Teacher), 969 Ven¬ tura Ave., Berkeley; Berkeley Teachers Association. Sexson, John A. (Superintendent of Schools), Pasadena; California Teachers Associa¬ tion. Shadforth, Harriett C. (Teacher), 401 S. Madrova St., Brea; California Teachers Association. Shaw, Albert M. (Teacher), 2833 Estara Ave., Los Angeles; California Teachers Association. Shepard, Anne Loomis (Principal), 5102 El Rio Ave., Eagle Rock; Principals Club of the Los Angeles City Elementary Schools. Shipp, Frederic T. (Viceprincipal), 1480 Calaveras Ave., San Jose; Santa C.ara County Teachers Association. Shotwell, Caroline (Teacher), 831 Atlantic Ave., Long Beach; City Teachers Club of Long Beach. Associational Records and Information 951 Sims, Mrs. Julia E. (Teacher), 3019 Cali¬ fornia St., San Diego; San Diego Teach¬ ers Association. Sires, Jewell (Teacher), 813 S. Flower St., Los Angers; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Smith, Miss Dean G. (Teacher), 3915 Maple Ave., Oakland; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Smith, John AFan (Teacher), 856 S. Cata¬ lina St., Los Angeles; High School Teach¬ ers Association of Los Angeles. Smith, Josephine P. (Teacher), 827 Green Ave., Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elemen¬ tary Teachers Club. Smith, Nina Grace (Teacher), 121 E. Fifth St., Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elemen¬ tary Teachers Club. Snyder, R. W. (Principal), 546 Rosal Ave., Oakland; Oakland Teachers Association. Spencer, Marie (Teacher), 328 Irving St., San Francisco; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Spindler, Helen (Teacher), 2622 Rochon Way, Sacramento; Sacramento City Teachers Association. Standley, L. L. (Principal), Burbank Junior High School, Berkeley; Alameda County Educational Association. Stevenson, Mrs. Mary E. (Teacher), 4411 Thirty-sixth St., San Diego; San Diego Teachers Association. Sullivan, Dorothy Hazlett (Teacher), 300 Trinity Bldg., Los Angeles; Los Angeles Kindergarten Club. Sullivan, Margaret (Teacher), 1205 Twelfth Ave., San Diego; San Diego Teachers Association. Swan, Rose (Teacher), 934 S. Flower St., Los Angeles; Los Ange’es Elementary Teachers Club. Tarr, Mrs. Lydia Stone (Teacher), 952 La Alameda St., San Pedro; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers C"ub. Thiriot, George M. (Teacher), 2341 Valley St., Oakland; Oakland Teachers Associa¬ tion. Tobin, Mrs. Sadie (Teacher), 1632 W. Eleventh St., Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Traynor, Marie H. (Principal), 1762 Turk St., San Francisco; San Mateo County Teachers Association. Tucker, W. A. (Teacher), 721 E. Burnett St., Long Beach; City Teachers Club of Long Beach. Utter, J. P. (Principal), R. R. 1, Box 539, Va’lejo; California Teachers Association. Vandegrift, Rubetta S. (Teacher), 324 N. Ridgewood PI., Los Angeles; Los Ange'es Elementary Teachers Club. Vanderlip, Verner (Teacher), Junior High School, South Pasadena; South Pasadena Education Association. Van Loenen, C. Addison (Principal), La¬ guna; California Teachers Association. Vicklund, Marie (Teacher), 3835 W. Fifty- ninth PL, Los Angeles; Los Angeles E e- mentary Teachers Club. Walton, Thomas A. (Teacher), 2526 Pamo Ave., San Diego; San Diego Teachers Association. Washburn, E. E. (Teacher), 4025 Brighton Ave., Oakland; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Waugh, Charles A. (Teacher), 5665 Santa Clara St., Berkeley; Classroom Depart¬ ment of the California Teachers Associa¬ tion, Bay Section. Weakley, Guy A. (Superintendent of Schools), El Centro; Imperial County Teachers Association. Wheat, Mrs. Helen (Teacher), 5249 Balti¬ more St., Los Angeles; Los Angeles Ele¬ mentary Teachers Club. White, Lawrence J. (Teacher), 555 N. Larchmont Blvd., Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. White, Mrs. Phoebe (Teacher), 1623 N. El Dorado St., Stockton; Stockton Elemen¬ tary Teachers Association. Whitley, Edith (Teacher), 140 W. Fifty- ninth St., Los Angeles; Los Angeles Ele¬ mentary Teachers Club. Whitton, Elizabeth (Teacher), Stonehurst School, Oakland; California Teachers Association. Wigginton, Pauline (Teacher), 114A W, Dryden St., Glendale; Glendale City Teachers Club. Wilson, Mrs. Alice (Teacher), 833 Ashbury St., San Francisco; San Francisco High School Teachers Association. Wilson. Rena P. (Teacher), 1207 W. Mira¬ mar St., Los Angeles; High School Teach¬ ers Association of Los Angeles. WFt, Willard H. (Teacher), 4^26 Willow- brook Ave., Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Withrew, Mrs. Ada V. (Teacher), 129 Page St., San Jose; California Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Wixman, S. M. (Teacher), 535 N. Helio¬ trope Dr., Los Angeles; Los Angeles Classroom Teachers Federation. COLORADO Avery, George T. (Professor) Colorado State College, Fort Collins; Classroom Teachers Department of the Colorado Education Association. AyJard, Carlton (Teacher), 1553 Fillmore St., Denver; Denver Teachers Club. Aylard, Margaret (Teacher), 1553 Fillmore St., Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Beech, Mrs. Ruth (Teacher), 2223 E, Twenty-first St., Denver; Denver Class¬ room Teachers Association. Bennet, Aubrey T. (Principal), 1650 Locust St., Denver; Denver Teachers Club. Brown, Richard R. (Boys Adviser), 2245 Birch St., Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Burgess, Grace (Teacher), 142 W. Cedar Ave., Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Conboy, Irene (Teacher), High School, Sterling: Classroom Teachers Department of the Co’orado Education Association. Cross, E. A. (Professor), State Teachers College, Gree’ey; National Council of Teachers of English. Detmoyer, Mary (Teacher), 909 Madison St., Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Eagleton, W. H. (Principal), 2346 Fairfax St., Denver; Denver Teachers Club. Ellis, Douglas B. (Boys Adviser), 1200 New¬ port St., Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Essex, Mrs. Elsie (Teacher), 1342 N. Prospect St., Colorado Sorings; Colorado Springs Classroom Teachers Association. Evans, Dave D. (Principal), 2538 Elm St., Denver; Denver Teachers Club. Force, Anna Laura (Principal), 2254 Lowell Blvd., Denver; Colorado Education Asso¬ ciation. Galbraith, Marie (Teacher), Shirley-Savoy Hotel, Denver; Denver Teachers Club. Glenn, P. R. (Superintendent), Fowler; Otero County Teachers Association. Greear, H. L. (Superintendent), Sargent Consolidated School, Monte Vista; Colo¬ rado Education Association. Gruenler, A. M. (Principal), 415 Franklin St., Denver; Denver Teachers Club. 952 National Education Association Harrington, Mary L. (Teacher), 1251 Clark¬ son St., Denver; Classroom Teachers De¬ partment of the Colorado Education Asso¬ ciation. Henley, M. J. (Superintendent), Fountain; Colorado Education Association. Holcombe, Greta (Teacher), 1258 S. Race St., Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Johnson, Anna (Teacher), 2449 Hayward PL, Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Joyal, Arnold E. (Professor), University of Denver, Denver; Colorado Education A tinn Kimball, Martha N., (Teacher), 2055 S. Columbine St., Denver; Denver Teachers Club. Krusen, Alma (Teacher), 1345 S. Lafayette St., Denver; Colorado Education Associa¬ tion. Langdon, Roy M. (Teacher), 1538 S. College Ave., Fort Collins; Classroom Teachers Department of the Colorado Education Association. Lind, Nellie V. (Principal), 3038 York St., Denver; Denver Teachers Club. Lort, Lydia T. (Teacher), 725 S. High St., Denver; Denver Teachers Club. MacFarlane, Hazel (Teacher), 2401 Grand Ave., Pueblo; Pueblo Education Associa¬ tion, District #1. McClintock, R. D. (Superintendent), Jules- burg; Colorado Education Association. McNair, Madge M. (Teacher), 505 N. Cas¬ cade St., Colorado Springs; Colorado Springs Teachers Association. McNeal, R. H. (County Superintendent), La Junta; Otero County Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Macey, Guy E. (Superintendent of Schools), N. Avondale; Colorado Education Asso¬ ciation. Matteson, Blanche (Teacher), 129 Jackson St., Pueblo; Pueblo Classroom Teachers Association. Mooney, W. B. (N. E. A. State Director), Secretary, 530 Commonwealth Bldg., Den¬ ver; Colorado Education Association. Pantall, Myrta (Principal), 515 S. Third St., Sterling; Sterling Federated Teach¬ ers Club. Porter, Maude (Teacher), 2575 Dahlia St., Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Read, Hazel U. (Teacher), 131 Vernon PL, Pueblo; Pueblo Classroom Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Record, Blanche (Teacher), 1229 E. Sixth St., Pueblo; Pueblo Education Associa¬ tion. Reno, Eva L. (Teacher), 3531 Decatur St., Denver; Denver Teachers Club. Ritter, Gladys E. (Teacher), 608 E. Twelfth Ave., Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Saunders, George (Teacher), 2039 Pine St., Boulder; Boulder Community Education Association. Sievers, Thomas G. (Teacher), 1458 Glencoe St., Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Slavens, Leon E. (Principal), 707 E. Tenth Ave., Denver; Denver Teachers Club. Smith, Florence (Teacher), 2135 S. Colum¬ bine St., Denver; Denver Teachers Club. Smith, Mrs. Margaret Mendenhall (Princi¬ pal), 1522 Lafayette St., Denver; Denver Principals and Directors Association. Threlkeld, A. L. (Superintendent of Schools), 414 Fourteenth St., Denver; Colorado Education Association. Ullemeyer, Richard W. (Adviser), 2662 Stuart St., Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Varney, Maud (Teacher), 1560 Downing St., Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Whitman, Bertha (Teacher), 1626 Eleventh Ave., Greeley; Greeley Classroom Teach¬ ers Association. Wilson, Albert V. (Principal), High School, Paonia ; Colorado Education Association. Wilson, Claude E. (Teacher), 1315 Ninth St., Boulder; Colorado Education Asso¬ ciation. Wilson, Glenn T. (Superintendent of Schools), La Junta; La Junta Teachers Club. Wood, W. Clement (Principal), Delcarbon; Huerfano County Community Education Association. CONNECTICUT Brown, R. N. (Superintendent of Schools), Thomaston; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Butterfield, E. W. (ex officio), Commis¬ sioner of Education, Hartford. Collins, Helen T. (N. E. A. State Director), Principal, 41 Fifth St., New Haven; New Haven Teachers League. Elmendorf, Louise F. (Teacher), 271 S. Marshall St., Hartford; Hartford County Teachers Association. Fitzgerald, Joseph A. (Teacher), 564 Town¬ send Ave., New Haven; New Haven Teachers League. Gray, Miss Caro M. (Principal), 123 Stearns St., Bristol; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Harrington, F. E. (Secretary), State Office Bldg., Hartford; Connecticut State Teach¬ ers Association. Jeffords, H. M. (Superintendent of Schools), Wallingford; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Kennedy, Mary E. (Teacher), 20 South St., Waterbury; Waterbury Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Lord, Daisy (Teacher), Central High School, Waterbury; Hartford County Teachers Association. McGuinniss, Anna E. (Teacher), 137 Rock¬ well St., Norwich; Norwich Teachers League. Parker, W. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Danielson; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Penniman, Alice W. (Teacher), 156 College St., Middletown; Connecticut State Teach¬ ers Association. Pilcher, Daisy (Teacher), West Willington; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Richardson, Thomas (Teacher), New Haven; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Rock, Margaret M. (Teacher), 118 Lenox Ave., Bridgeport; Bridgeport Teachers Association. DELAWARE Burnett, Marguerite H. (Director), State Department of Adult Education, Wilming¬ ton; Delaware Education Association. . Holloway, H. V. (N. E. A. State Director), Superintendent of Public Instruction, Dover; Delaware Education Association. Miller, Barbara (Field Worker), Eleventh and Washington Sts., Wilmington; Dela¬ ware Education Association. Stouffer, S. M. (Superintendent), Wilming¬ ton; Delaware Education Association. Talbot, R. L. (Principal), Wilmington; Delaware Education Association. Wagner, M. C. (Assistant Superintendent), Wilmington; Delaware Education Asso¬ ciation. Associational Records and Information 953 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Bruce, John C. (Supervising Principal), 1839 Thirteenth St., Washington; Colum¬ bian Educational Association. Coope, Jessie (Assistant Principal), 1425 Rhode Island Ave., Washington; Educa¬ tion Association of the District of Columbia. Crabtree, J. W. (ex officio), Secretary- Emeritus, National Education Associa¬ tion, 1201 Sixteenth St., Washington. Givens, Willard E. (ex officio), Secretary, National Education Association, 1201 Six¬ teenth St., Washington. Grosvenor, Edith (N. E. A. State Director), Teacher, Central High School, Washing¬ ton; High School Teachers Association. Higbie, E. C. (President), Wilson Teach¬ ers College, Washington; Education Asso¬ ciation of the District of Columbia. Minear, Irene (Teacher), Taft Junior High School, Washington; Education Associa¬ tion of the District of Columbia. Powers, J. Orin (Professor), 822 Emerson St., Washington; Education Association of the District of Columbia. Studebaker, J. W. (ex officio), United States Commissioner of Education, Washington. Wagoner, Ada L. (Teacher), 2101 New Hampshire Ave., Washington; District Education Association. FLORIDA Campbell, Erma (Teacher), 221 W. Wis¬ consin St., De Land; Florida Education A ccopifl f inn King, Mrs. Ethel A. (Principal), 616 Fern St., West Palm Beach; Florida Educa¬ tion Association. Olson, Mrs. Clara M. (Teacher), 134 N. Wilson St., Gainesville; Florida Educa¬ tion Association. GEORGIA Alfriend, Kyle T. (Secretary), Georgia Education Association, 934 Vineville Ave., Macon; Georgia Education Asso¬ ciation. Collins, M. D. (N. E. A. State Director), Superintendent of Public Instruction, At¬ lanta; Georgia Education Association. Rhodes, Maude (Principal), Atlanta; Georgia Education Association. Sanford, S. V. (Chancellor), University of Georgia, Athens; Georgia Education Asso¬ ciation. Sutton, Willis A. (Superintendent), At¬ lanta; Georgia Education Association. Thompson, M. E. (State Supervisor), Ameri- cus; Georgia Education Association. HAWAII Anderson, Blanche (Teacher), Waialua, Oahu; Hilo Teachers Union. Browning, Jeanette (Teacher), Beach Walk Inn, Honolulu; Oahu Education Associa¬ tion. Chong, Bertha (Teacher), 1313 McCully St., Honolulu; Oahu Education Association. Cullen, Carrie (Teacher), Sixth Avenue, Kaimuki, Honolulu; The Teachers Coun¬ cil of the Territory of Hawaii. Cullen, Catherine (Teacher), Spencer St., Honolulu; The Teachers Council of the Territory of Hawaii. Dyson, Clarence (Principal), Box 53, Aiea, Oahu; Oahu Education Association. Dyson, Mrs. Lucy (Teacher), Box 53, Aiea, Oahu; The Hawaii Education Association. Goto, Horace (Teacher), Waimea, Kauai; Kauai Education Association. Jackson, Archie (Teacher), 547 Haili St., Hilo; The Hawaii Education Association. Jackson, Mrs. Archie (Teacher), Hilo High School, Hilo; The Hawaii Education Asso¬ ciation. Kim, Jennie (Teacher), Waiahole, Oahu; Kauai Education Association. Koehler, Lucy (Teacher), 2478 Tusitala St., Honolulu; The Hawaii Education Asso¬ ciation. Lacy, Mrs. Mabel V. (Principal), 3440 Leahi Ave., Honolulu; The Hawaii Education Association. McConnell, Mabel C. (Teacher), Lahaina, Maui; The Hawaii Education Association. Mitchel, Eva (Principal), Honolulu, Oahu; Hilo Teachers Union. Mossman, Rebecca K. (Teacher), 840 Fif¬ teenth Ave., Honolulu; Oahu Education Association. Moses, Mrs. Kathleen (Teacher), High School; Hilo; Hilo Teachers Union. Shimokawa, Ralph (Teacher), Box 736, Lahaina; Maui Teachers Association. Skinner, Franklin (Supervising Principal), Box 155, Kahului, Maui; Maui Teachers Association. Stibbard, Mrs. Harriet (Teacher), Box 894, Wailuku; Maui Teachers Association. Tucker, Mrs. Maud L. (Principal), 2614 Oahu Ave., Honolulu; The Hawaii Edu¬ cation Association. Wedemeyer, May A. (Teacher), Box 3, Waialua, Oahu; Oahu Education Associa¬ tion. Willett, Mrs. Elva (Teacher), Laie, Oahu; Oahu Education Association. IDAHO Cole, O. D. (Superintendent of Schools), Fruitland; The Idaho Education Associa¬ tion. Davenport, Mrs. Minnie A. (County Super¬ intendent), Caldwell; The Idaho Educa¬ tion Association. Denman, George E. (Superintendent of Schools), Burley; The Idaho Education Association. Grey, George E. (Principal), 1309 Manitou St., Rt. 5, Boise; The Idaho Education Association. Vaughn, E, Norman (Superintendent of Schools), Pocatello; Pocatello Education Association. Vincent, W. D. (Superintendent of Schools), Boise; The Idaho Education Association. ILLINOIS Abbe, Mary M. (Teacher), 6619 Lafayette Ave., Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Apt, Chris (County Superintendent), Oquawka; Western Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Beach, Maud (Teacher), 1044 Fayette Ave., Springfield; Association of Elementary Classroom Teachers of Springfield. Beattie, Annie J. (Teacher), 2926 Pine Grove Ave., Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association. Beckemeyer, H. J. (Superintendent of Schools), Hillsboro; Southwestern Divi¬ sion, Illinois State Teachers Association. Beem, Harlan D. (County Superintendent), Mattoon; Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Benson, Elmer B. (Teacher), 2440 Twenty- seventh St., Moline; Illinois State Teach¬ ers Association. Bergwall, M. C. (Teacher), Junior High School), Rock Island; Illinois State Teachers Association. Biester, F. L. (Principal), Glen Ellyn; Illinois State Teachers Association. 954 National Education Association Bogan, William J. (Superintendent of Schools), 228 N, La Salle St., Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Bowman, C. W. (Principal), Hutsonville; Southeastern Division; Illinois State Teachers Association. Bradley, R. L. (Principal), Pecatonica; Northwestern Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Brown, W. L. (Director), 1600 Washington St., Wilmette; Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Camenisch, Sophia C. (Teacher), Chicago Normal College, Chicago; National Coun¬ cil of Teachers of English. Canan, Cuba (Teacher), 803 S. Grove Ave., Oak Park; Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Cassady, Clara (Teacher), 3625 Sunnyside Ave., Brookfield; Chicago Division, Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Cassady, E. N. (Superintendent of Schools), Brookfield; Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Chance, Paul B. (County Superintendent), Salem; Southwestern Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Clarida, T. W. (Teacher), Centralia; Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Costello, Mamie (Teacher), 337 N. Seventh St., East St. Louis; East St. Louis Teach¬ ers Association. Crowder, Dorothy (Teacher), 255 Randolph St., Peoria; Peoria Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Bady, Margaret (Assistant Principal), Waukegan; Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Denison, S. A. (Superintendent of Schools), Glen Ellyn; Du Page Valley Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Fahy, Mildred (Principal), 1128 Morse Ave., Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Fetherston, Roy (Superintendent of Schools), Monmouth; Western Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Fildes, R. E. (Teacher), 517 S. Fourth St., Springfield; South Central Division, Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Finifrock, S. R. (Superintendent of Schools), Leaf River; Rock River Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Fisher, E. C. (Superintendent of Schools), Peoria; Peoria Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Garst, Barbara (Teacher), 701 Twenty- fifth St., Moline; Black Hawk Division Illinois State Teachers Association. Gilligan, Lena Belle (Teacher), 5918 N. Knox Ave., Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Goldberg, Stella (Teacher), 696 Irving Park Blvd., Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Gordon, B. E. (Assistant Principal), La Grange; Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Goreham, W. J. (Principal), Sidell; Illinois State Teachers Association. Graham, Ray (Superintendent), Mason City; Illinois State Teachers Association. Grote, Caroline (Dean), Monroe Hall, Ma¬ comb; Western Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Grove, Grace (Teacher), 4519 N. Ashland Ave., Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Hall, Homer (Professor), DeKalb; Northern Division, Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Hansen, Herbert C. (Principal), 1045 N. Locksend St., Chicago; Chicago Princi¬ pals Club. Harden, Frances E. (Teacher), 1520 Vera Lazo, Palos Verdes, California; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Henderson, Margaret G. (Teacher), Buena Vista Apts., Pekin; Pekin Teachers Club. Hensleigh, Margaret (Teacher), 5460 Wood- lawn Ave., Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Hughes, Jennie (Teacher), 11536 Eggleston Ave., Chicago; Chicago Teachers League. Hurley, Helen A. (Teacher), 4946 Jackson Blvd., Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Jackson, Loretto M. (Teacher), 660 W. Wood St., Decatur; Decatur Public School Teachers Association. Jensen, F. A. (Superintendent of Schools), Rockford; Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Jones, Lettie (Teacher), 2202 N. Main St., Decatur; Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Jones, W. Morris (Supervisor), 2542 Forest PL, East St. Louis; Southwestern Divi¬ sion, Illinois State Teachers Association. Keenan, Anne (Teacher), Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Keenan, Robert C. (Teacher), 2465 E. Seventy-fourth PL, Chicago; Chicago Di¬ vision, Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Krumseik, W. W. (Principal), Edwards- ville; Southwestern Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Larimore, Mrs. Leona E. (Principal), La Grange; Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Lindsey, R. V. (Principal), 1104 S. Fifth St., Pekin; Peoria Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Lockhart, A. V. (Principal), 4 Detroit St., Calumet City; Lake Shore Division, Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Lukenbill, E. H. (County Superintendent), Lincoln; Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Mack, Helen A. (Principal), Alton; South¬ western Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Martell, Clyde (Superintendent of Schools), E. Dubuque; Northwestern Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. McArdle, Margaret (Teacher), 111 Broad¬ way St., Wilmette; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. McKay, Muriel (Teacher), 3250 Adams St., Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. McManus, James B. (Superintendent of Schools), 748 Gooding St., La Salle; Illi¬ nois Valley Division, Illinois State Teach¬ ers Association. Meyer, Frank (Teacher), 326 Garfield Ave., Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Meyer, W. W. (Superintendent of Schools), Harvard; Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Middleton, Anthony (Principal), 221 Arthur Ave., Peoria; Peoria Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Miller, Margaret E. (Teacher), 525 Forest Ave., Oak Park; Chicago Division, Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Mitchell, Cora D. (Teacher), 948 Edgecomb Pl., Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Moore, R. C. (Secretary), Carlinville; Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Morgan, Gertrude (Teacher), 1607 Hall St., E. St. Louis; East St. Louis Grade Teachers Fellowship Society. Moynihan, Laura (Teacher), 626 S. Kenil¬ worth Ave., Oak Park; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Associational Records and Information 955 Mummart, C. B. (Superintendent of Schools), Prophetstown ; Rock River Di¬ vision, Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Myers, John T. (Teacher), 5354 Ferdinand St., Chicago; Chicago High School Teach¬ ers Association. Nichelson, Arthur M. (Principal), 154 N. Mason Ave., Chicago; Chicago Principals Club. Noehring, Caroline L. (Assistant Principal), 409 E. Seventy-third St., Chicago; Chi¬ cago Association of Assistant Principals. O’Rourke, Catherine (Teacher), 3057 W. Jackson Blvd., Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association. Oxford, Frances (Teacher), 736 N. Main St., Pontiac; Livingston County Teachers Association. Page, William J. (Administrative Officer), 4345 Adams St., Chicago; Chicago Divi¬ sion, Illinois State Teachers Association. Patterson, 0. F. (Assistant Superintendent of Pub'ic Instruction), 401 Centennial Bldg., Springfield; Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Paul, H. G. (Professor), 713 W. Oregon St., Urbana; East Central Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Perrin, H. A. (Superintendent of Schools), Joiet; North Eastern Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Petersen, Waldo H. (Teacher), 4815 W. Erie St., Chicago; Chicago Division, Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Prefcle, Mrs. F. Blanche (Teacher), 10855 Vernon Ave., Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association. Pygman, C. H. (Assistant Superintendent of Schools), 1513 S. Sixth St., Maywood; Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teach¬ ers Association. Reed, Ethel May (Teacher), 906 Belden Ave., Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Reinhardt, Emma (Instructor), Eleventh St., Charleston; Eastern Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Romig, Hath B. (Teacher), 1510 Rosemont Ave., Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Rose, Myrtle (Instructor), 41 N. Fourth St., Savanna; Northwestern Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Rothgeb, Helen L. (Supervisor), 505 E. Jackson St., Macomb; Western Illinois State Teachers Association. Rueben, Helen M. (Teacher), 4819 N. Saw¬ yer Ave., Chicago; Illinois State Teach¬ ers Association. Russell, Charlotte (Teacher), 448 W. Sixty- second St., Chicago; Chicago Teachers League. Ryan, Laura (Teacher), 728 N. Court St., Rockford; Rockford Teachers Club. Ryan, Nellie F. (Principal), 5734 Washing¬ ton Blvd., Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Scully, Sucan (Teacher), 1441 East 65th Place, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association. Sigsworth, Mrs. Lotta J. (Principal), 304 S. Tremont St., Kewanee; Black Hawk Division, Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Simmonds, E. S. (Superintendent of Schools), Pittsfield; Mississippi Valley Division, Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Smith, Adeline M. (Teacher), 1440 Edge- wood Ave., Chicago Heights; Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Smith, Fielding A. (Principal), High School, Viola; Black Hawk Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Smith, Floyd (Principal), High School, Ben¬ ton; Illinois State Teachers Association. Spriggs, L. V. (Superintendent of Schools), Villa Grove ; Eastern Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Staley, George C. (Teacher), 7023 Stewart Ave., Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Steele, M. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Mendota; Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Steinmetz, Kathryn E. (Principal), 8045 Drexel Ave., Chicago; Chicago Principals Club. Swanson, Arthur (Teacher), 2019 New York Ave., Peoria; Peoria Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Thalman, John W. (N. E. A. State Direc¬ tor), Superintendent, Waukegan Town¬ ship High School, Waukegan; Waukegan Township High School. Thomsen, Marie C. (Teacher), 2100 Lincoln Park, West, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Trabue, James (Teacher), Bellevi.le ; South¬ western Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Tyler, Allen C. (Superintendent of Schools), Spring Valley; Illinois Valley Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Unnewehr, Charles A. (Teacher), 206 N. Lockwood St., Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Vance, C. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Danville; Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Walker, David E. (Superintendent of Schools), Evanston; Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Waller, Katherine (Librarian), The Drake Hotel, Chicago; Evanston Teachers Club. Walston, Mrs. Ethel (Teacher), 1264 E. Sedgwick St., Decatur; Decatur Public School Teachers Association. Waiters, O. V. (Principal), 469 S. Smith St., Aurora; Northeastern Division, Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association, Wells, George N. (Superintendent of Schools), Elmwood Park; Lake Shore Di¬ vision, Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Wells, Jennie E. (Principal), 1495 W. Macon St., Decatur; Decatur Public School Teachers Association. Whittenherg, A. L. (Assistant Superinten¬ dent of Schools), Springfield; Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Wieland, John A. (State Superintendent of Public Instruction), Springfield; Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Wierson, Leonard (Superintendent of Schools), Lanark; Northwestern Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Wilhite, L. E. (County Superintendent), Carlinville; Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Williams, C. R. (Superintendent of Schools), Waterman; Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Wilson, Irvin (Principal), 437 S. Stone Ave., La Grange; Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation, Chicago Division. Wolaver, Florence (Teacher), 1734 Orring- ton Ave., Evanston; Evanston Teachers Club. Wood, Victor B., Rushville; Illinois State Teachers Association. INDIANA Adolay, Helen (Teacher), 2749 Manker St., Indianapolis; Indianapolis Grade Teach¬ ers Association. 956 National Education Association Amos, Ruth Esther (Teacher), 710 Terrace Ave., Indianapolis; Indianapolis Grade Teachers Association. Axt, Bertha (Teacher), 4120 Tacoma Ave., Fort Wayne; Fort Wayne Teachers Asso- • ciation. Bag-well, Olive (Supervisor), 525 N. Wabash St., Wahash; Wabash Teachers Club. Baker, Custer (County Superintendent), Franklin ; Indiana State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Barnhart, Wilbur S. (Department Head), 5702 E. Michigan St., Indianapolis; Fed¬ eration of Indianapolis Public School Teachers. Bennett, Rosalie (Teacher), 800 S. Gover¬ nor St., Evansville; Evansville Teachers Federation. Blanchard, H. H. (Teacher), 319 N. Taylor St., South Bend; South Bend Teachers Federation. Borden, W. W. (Superintendent of Schools), 1751 Oliver St., Whiting; First District Teachers Association. Boyer, Ruth (Teacher), 1033 N. Rural St., Indianapolis; Federation of Indianapolis Public School Teachers. Brown, Edythe J. (Principal), Mar Main Apts., South Bend; South Bend Teachers Federation. Buschmann, Frances (Teacher), 1135 Broad¬ way, Indianapolis; Federation of Indian¬ apolis Public School Teachers. Byers, Edward (Principal), 1448 S. 9th St., Terre Haute; Terre Haute Teachers Fed¬ eration. Callis, C. D, (Principal), Greentown; Indi¬ ana State Teachers Association. Clark, Bernice E. (Department Head), 1214 E. South St., South Bend; South Bend Teachers Federation. Dicus, T. A. (County Superintendent), Marion; Indiana State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Dorsey, Martha (Teacher), 1516' N. Penn St., Indianapolis; Federation of Indian¬ apolis Public School Teachers. Drake, Flora (Principal), 2230 Brookside Ave., Indianapolis; Federation of Indian¬ apolis Public School Teachers. DuShane, Donald (Superintendent of Schools), Columbus; Indiana State Teach¬ ers Association. Elliott, William T. (Teacher), 7023 Wood- lawn Ave., Hammond; First District Teachers Association. Ewing, Sara C. (Teacher), 5461 Pleasant Run Pkwy., Indianapolis; Federation of Indianapolis Public School Teachers. Free, Albert (Superintendent of Schools), Spencer; Indiana State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Garner, Opal (Teacher), 6034 College Ave., Indianapolis; Indianapolis Grade Teach¬ ers Association. Hadsell, Gail (Teacher), 3360 N. Meridian St., Indianapolis; Indianapolis Grade Teachers Association. Hargrave, E. B. (Viceprincipal), 2215 W. Washington St., Indianapolis; Indian¬ apolis Schoolmen’s Club. Knight, H. G. (Principal), 226 Buckingham Dr., Indianapolis; Federation of Indian¬ apolis Public School Teachers. Hawbaker, M. O. (Teacher), R. R. #7, South Bend; Indiana State Teachers Association. Haynes, Helen (Teacher), 2035 N. Meridian St., Indianapolis; Federation of Indian¬ apolis Public School Teachers. Hougham, Robert B. (Secretary), Indiana State Teachers Retirement Fund, Frank¬ lin; Indiana State Teachers Association. Hussey, John S. (County Superintendent), Moblesville; Indiana State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Jones, Letitia (Teacher), 5953 Park PL, Hammond; First District Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Julian, Roy B. (Superintendent of Schools), Valparaiso; Indiana State Teachers As¬ sociation, Kirvan, Mary (Teacher), 3240 Ruckle St., Indianapolis; Federation of Indianapolis Public School Teachers. Knight, Leona B. (Teacher), 226 Bucking¬ ham Dr., Indianapolis; Indianapolis Grade Teachers Association. Llewelyn, E. J. (Superintendent of Schools), Newcastle; Indiana State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Llewelyn, Martha M. (Teacher), Box 428, Newcastle; Newcastle City Teachers As¬ sociation. Long, Ena (Dean), New Harmony; Evans¬ ville Teachers Federation. Maehling, Hildegarde (Teacher), 1357 Third Ave., Terre Haute; Terre Haute Teach¬ ers Federation. Mark, Erie (Teacher), 710 Park Ave., South Bend; South Bend Teachers Federation. Mourer, H. H. (Principal), 1515 Thirteenth St., Bedford; Indiana State Teachers Association. Murphy, Marguerite (Teacher), 505 W. La Salle St., South Bend; South Bend Teach¬ ers Federation. Nicely, O. W. (Teacher), Room 310, State House, Indianapolis; Federation of Indianapolis Public School Teachers. Nicolai, Florence E. (Teacher), 4441 Cen¬ tral Ave., Indianapolis; Indianapolis Grade Teachers Association. Northrup, Maida (Teacher), Edison School, Hammond; Hammond City Teachers As¬ sociation. Perkins, Sue (Teacher), 1214 E. South St., South Bend; South Bend Teachers Fed¬ eration. Phillips, L. V. (Principal), 502 Broadway, Vincennes; Indiana State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Phipps, Esther (Teacher), 2108 Maumee Ave., Fort Wayne; Indiana State Teach¬ ers Association. Phipps, Laura E. (Teacher), 2108 Maumee Ave., Fort Wayne; Fort Wayne Teachers Association. Pittenger, L. A. (Principal), Ball State Teachers College; Muncie; Ball State Teachers College Faculty. Rodebaugh, Clara (Teacher), 1300 N. Penn¬ sylvania St., Indianapolis; Indianapolis Grade Teachers Association. Sengenberger, Ella (Teacher), 3609 Carroll¬ ton St., Indianapolis; Federation of Indianapolis Public School Teachers. Senour, A. C. (Assistant Superintendent of Schools), 4133 Ivy St., East Chicago; First District Teachers Association. Simmons, Vesta (Teacher), 1423 119th St., Whiting; Whiting City Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Smith, Ara K. (Teacher), 401 Tremont St., Michigan City ; Michigan City Teachers Federation. Smith, Henry Lester (ex officio), Indiana University, Bloomington. Speer, Mrs. Susie (Teacher), 504 E. Cottage Grove St., Bloomington; Bloomington Public School Teachers Association. Studebaker, M. E. (Department Head), Ball State Teachers College, Muncie; Eastern Commercial Teachers Association. Stultz, F. W. (Teacher), 935 N. Denny St., Indianapolis; Indiana State Teachers Association. Sullivan, Mary (Teacher), 3515 N. Penn¬ sylvania St., Indianapolis; Federation of Indianapolis Public School Teachers. Thomas, Alice C. (Teacher), 3922 New Haven Ave., Fort Wayne; Fort Wayne Teachers Association. Associational Records and Information 957 True, Elva (Teacher), 2354 Central St., Indianapolis; Federation of Indianapolis Public School Teachers. Weeks, Ora (Teacher), 1304 S. Fourth St., Terre Haute; Terre Haute Teachers Fed¬ eration. Weir, D. T. (Assistant Superintendent of Schools), 2142 Carrollton St., Indian¬ apolis; Federation of Indianapolis Public School Teachers. Whitacre, Charles (Principal), Highland; Indiana State Teachers Association. Williams, Charles 0. (N. E. A. State Di¬ rector), Secretary, Indiana State Teach¬ ers Association, 205 Hotel Lincoln, Indian¬ apolis; Federation of Indianapolis Public School Teachers. Wyatt, Robert H. (Teacher), 233 E. Jeffer¬ son St., Fort Wayne; Fort Wayne Teach¬ ers Association. Zetterberg, Edward (Teacher), 1101 N. Jefferson St., Muncie; Muncie Teachers Federation. Ziegner, Dorothy (Teacher), 982 Maryland Dr., Woodruff PI., Indianapolis; Indian¬ apolis Grade Teachers Association. IOWA Cram, Fred D. (N. E. A. State Director), Director, Extension Division, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls; Iowa State Teachers Association. Creswell, Isabel (Teacher), 121 S. Iowa Ave., Ottumwa; Ottumwa Teachers Club. Crow, Jane (Teacher), 11 Acher Apt., Fort Dodge; Fort Dodge Teachers Federation. Crowell, Deanna (Teacher), 505 Seventeenth St., Sioux City; Sioux City Teachers Club. Dankle, Lynn (Superintendent of Schools), Coburg; Iowa State Teachers Association. Deamer, Arthur (Superintendent of Schools), Cedar Rapids; Cedar Rapids Teachers Association. Faint, Agness (Principal), 618 W. Third St., Waterloo; West Waterloo Teachers Association • Finch, Bertha (Teacher), 3900 Sixth Ave., Sioux City; Sioux City Teachers Club. Fitzgerald, J. E. (Principal), 1821 Ross St., Sioux City; Sioux City Administration Club. Fuller, A. C. (Director), Alumni Affairs, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls; Iowa State Teachers College Unit of the N. E. A. Hanigan, Agnes (Teacher), 615 Benton St., Council Bluffs; Council Bluffs Teachers Club. Hannum, Roy F. (Superintendent of Schools), Ottumwa; Iowa State Teachers Association. Hapke, Mrs. Sophia N. (Teacher), 51 Ken¬ wood Ave., Davenport; Scott County Teachers Association. Herman, Hazel (Teacher), 2025 Grand View Blvd., Sioux City; Sioux City Teachers Club. Jewett, A. E. (County Superintendent), Waterloo; Iowa State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Kercheval, James W. (Teacher), East High School, Waterloo; East Waterloo Teach¬ ers Club. Kirn, G. W. (Principal), 218 Harrison St., Council Bluffs; Council Bluffs Teachers Club. McDowell, Lillian (Teacher), 227 High St., Keokuk; Keokuk Elementary Teachers Club. Merrill, A. W. (Superintendent of Schools), 629 Third St., Des Moines; Iowa State Teachers Association. Pence, W. G. (Superintendent of Schools), Fairfield ; Iowa State Teachers Associa¬ tion, Roberts, T. R. (Superintendent of Schools), Decorah; Iowa State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Sewell, L. P. (Superintendent of Schools), Denison; Iowa State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Shannon, Bernice (Teacher), 1617 W. Ninth St., Des Moines; Des Moines Teachers Federation. Sheldon, James A. (Superintendent of Schools), Garden Grove; Decatur County School Masters Club. Skinner, Kate (Teacher), Fort Dodge High School, Fort Dodge; Iowa State Teachers Association. Slayman, Evelyn (Teacher), 2903 Kingman St., Des Moines; Des Moines Teachers Federation. Sletwold, O. F. (Teacher), East High School, Sioux City; Iowa State Teachers Association. Tierney, Rose B. (Teacher), 721 S. Ninth St., Council Bluffs; Council Bluffs Teach¬ ers Club. Wauer, Clarence (Teacher), 2215 W. Third St., Sioux City; Sioux City Teachers Club. KANSAS Birch, C. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Lawrence; Kansas State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Comer, Lena (Principal), 645 Ann Ave., Kansas City; Elementary Principals Club of Kansas City. Hughes, J. F. (Superintendent of Schools), Eldorado; Kansas State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Johnston, Clara (Teacher), 1509 Clay St., Topeka; Topeka Teachers Association. McGiffert, Rachel (Teacher), 1181 Clay St., Topeka; Topeka Teachers Association. McNaughton, Given (Teacher), 2736 N. Eleventh St., Kansas City; Kansas City Grade Teachers Club. Markham, W. T. (State Superintendent of Public Instruction), State House, To¬ peka; Kansas State Teachers Association. Miller, Elizabeth (Principal), Cooper School, Kansas City; Kansas State Teachers As¬ sociation. Muncil, Margaret (Teacher), 2605 N. Thirty- seventh St., Kansas City; Kansas City Grade Teachers Club. Murphy, J. W. (Superintendent of Schools), Augusta; Kansas State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Pearson, Irene (Teacher), 2837 Parkwood Blvd., Kansas City; Kansas City Grade Teachers Club. Petit, L. H. (Superintendent of Schools), Chanute; Chanute Teachers Association. Schlagle, F. L. (N. E. A. State Director), Superintendent of Schools, Library Build¬ ing, Kansas City; Kansas State Teachers Association. Smith, Nell G. (Teacher), 1244 Western Ave., Topeka; Kansas State Teachers Association. Stonecipher, E. E. (Teacher), Kansas State Teachers College, Pittsburg; Kansas State Teachers Association. Taylor, Lillian (Teacher), 815 Washington Blvd., Kansas City; Du Bois Teachers Club. Van Slyck, Willard N. (Principal), Topeka High School, Topeka; Kansas State Teachers Association. Voss, Viola (Teacher), 1432 McVicar St., Topeka; Topeka Classroom Teachers Club. Youmans, Edith (Teacher), Rosedale High School, Kansas City; Kansas State Teach¬ ers Association. 958 National Education Association KENTUCKY Bertram, Anna L. (County Superintendent), Lewis County Schools, Vanceburg; Ken¬ tucky Education Association. Hibbs, W. F. (Superintendent of Schools), Bardstown; Kentucky Education Associa¬ tion. Holloway, Christine (Teacher), Ellis Apts., Paducah; Kentucky Education Associa¬ tion. Jaggers, R. E. (Director of Teacher Train¬ ing), State Department of Education, Frankfort; Kentucky Education Associa¬ tion. King, W. P. (Secretary), Kentucky Educa¬ tion Association,, 1422-23 Heyburn Bldg., Louisville; Kentucky Education Associa¬ tion. Maguire, Mary J. (Teacher), 377 S. Lime¬ stone St., Lexington; Lexington Teachers Club. Richmond, James H. (State Superintendent of Public Instruction), Frankfort; Ken¬ tucky Education Association. Tempel, H. V. (Principal), Rt. 3, Shelby- ville ; Kentucky Education Association. LOUISIANA Colvin, H. J. (Teacher), 548 Columbia St., Shreveport; Louisiana Teachers Associa¬ tion. Hinrichs, Amy H. (Principal), 7336 Hurst St., New Orleans; New Orleans Princi¬ pals Association. Hurst, H. (Teacher), Louisiana State Uni¬ versity, Baton Rouge; Louisiana Teach¬ ers Association. Lively, Mrs. Emery C. (Teacher), 2900 Pry- tania St., New Orleans; Louisiana Teach¬ ers Association. Moncla, S. A. (Principal), Opelousas; Louisiana Teachers Association. Robert, Vernon (Principal), Rt. 2, Minden; Louisiana Teachers Association. Terrebonne, L. P. (Superintendent of Schools), Iberville Parish, Plaquemine; Louisiana Teachers Association. MAINE Allen, William H. (Principal), Woodland; Washington County Teachers Association. Annas, Phillip (Principal), 29 Water St., Hallowell; Kennebec County Teachers Association. Baker, Gladys (Teacher), Brewer; Penob¬ scot County Teachers Association. Bryant, Ethel R. (Teacher), 62 Wall St., Portland; Portland Teachers Association. Burnham, Christine (Teacher), 655 Con¬ gress St., Portland; Cumberland County Teachers Association. Cutts, Cecil J. (Principal), Hartland; Maine Teachers Association. Deane, Mrs. Onata. L. (Teacher), Milo; Piscataquis County Teachers Association. Dodge, Edith (Teacher), East Boothbay; Lincoln-Sagadahoc County Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Dodge, Mrs. Grace F. (Teacher), Boothbay; Maine Teachers Association. Durepo, Levi G. (Teacher), 469 Virgin St., Rumford; Maine Teachers Association. Earle, Gilbert L. (Principal), Brownville Junction; Maine Teachers Association. Folger, Ruth M. (Teacher), R. F. D. 7, Augusta; Waldo County Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Goodwin, Florence (Teacher), 229 Prospect St., Portland; Cumberland County Teach¬ ers Association. Hale, Florence (Editor), The Grade Teacher, Prince George Hotel, New York City; Hancock County Teachers Association. Harding, Mrs. Jennie G. (Teacher), Stock- ton Springs; Maine Teachers Association. Harmon, Edith H. (Principal), 363 Main St., S. Portland; York County Teachers Association. Haskell, Lue’la A. (Teacher), 774 Forest Ave., Portland; Portland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Jack, William B. (N. E. A. State Director), Superintendent of Schools, Portland; Androscoggin County Teachers Associa¬ tion. MacDonald, Lillian (Teacher), 229 Prospect St., Portland; Cumberland County Teach¬ ers Association. McCobb, Helen (Teacher), Camden; Maine Teachers Association. McLaughlin, Verna B. (Teacher), Maple- ton; Aroostook County Teachers Associa¬ tion. Menish, Esther (Teacher), 34 Belmeade Rd., Portland; Portland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Menish, Gertrude (Teacher), 34 Belmeade Rd., Portland; Cumberland County Teach¬ ers Association. Merriman, San Lorenzo (Principal), 101 Main St., Presque Isle; Aroostook County Teachers Association. Moody, Maude E. (Teacher), Seventh St., Portland; Somerset County Teachers As¬ sociation. Moreau, Cecilia (Teacher), 334 N. Main St., Presque Isle; Aroostook County Teach¬ ers Association. Packard, Bertram (State Superintendent of Public Instruction), Augusta; Franklin County Teachers Association. Smalley, E. A. (Superintendent of Schools), Vinalhaven; Knox County Teachers As¬ sociation. Smith, Charlotte T. (Teacher), 187 Spring St., Portland; Maine Teachers Associa¬ tion. Snow, Mary L. (Teacher), 94 Pleasant Ave., Port and; Kennebec County Teachers Association. Wood, Eleanor A. (Teacher), 25 Paris St., Norway; Oxford County Teachers Asso¬ ciation. MARYLAND Dunn, Wendell (Principal), 1704 Lakeside Ave., Baltimore; Maryland State Teach¬ ers Association. Meyer, Arthur A. (Teacher), Boys’ Voca¬ tional School, Howard & Center Sts., Baltimore; Maryland State Teachers As¬ sociation. Neely, Helen (Teacher), Olney; Maryland State Teachers Association. Young, Dorothy (Teacher), Bethesda; Mont¬ gomery County Teachers Association. MASSACHUSETTS Abeley, Eleanor (Teacher), 73 St. Andrew St., East Boston; Stoneham Teachers Club. Barnard, Florence (Teacher), 1658 Beacon St., Brookline; Everett Teachers Club. Boland, Juaa A. (Teacher), 13 Broads Ave., Natick; Middlesex County Teachers As¬ sociation. Boland, Marie E. (Teacher), 13 Broads Ave., Natick; Middlesex County Teachers As¬ sociation. Boyle, Harry A. (Principal), 48 Burncoat Ter., Worcester; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Bragg, Wilhelmina (Teacher), Farm and Trade School, Thompson’s Island, Boston; Middlesex County Teachers Association. Associational Records and Information 959 Brodhead, John (Assistant Superintendent of Schools), 15 Beacon St., Boston; Massachusetts School Superintendents As¬ sociation. Buckingham, Burdette R. (Teacher), 15 Ashburton PI., Boston; Newton Teachers Federation. Chalmers, James A. (Principal), Fitchburg High School, Fitchburg; Worcester County Teachers Association. Chase, Dorothy (Teacher), 21 South Main St., Sharon; Arlington Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Church, Beulah C. (Teacher), 141 Elm St., Marblehead; Massachusetts Teachers Fed¬ eration. Coleman, Ethel R. (Teacher), Chestnut Street School, Springfield; Springfield Teachers Economic Association. Colesworthy, George B. (Teacher), 44 Adams Ave., Watertown; Cambridge Teachers Club. Collins, Ada M. (Principal), 23 Pine St., Gloucester; Gloucester Teachers Associa¬ tion. Collins, David P. (Teacher), High School, Peabody; Essex County Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Cowan, Emma D. (Teacher), 12 Abbott Rd., Dedham; Norfolk County Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Cowan, Harold E. (Teacher), High School, Dedham; Massachusetts Teachers Federa¬ tion. Crane, Winnifred G. (Teacher), 17 Somer¬ set St., Worcester; Worcester County Teachers Association. Cutler, Blanche C. (Teacher), 125 N. Wash¬ ington St., North Attleboro; Massachu¬ setts Teachers Federation. Davoren, Edna B. (Teacher), Stacy School, Milford; Worcester County Teachers As¬ sociation. Davoren, John L. (Principal), 4 Prentice Ave., Milford; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Downey, Rose S. (Teacher), Hopewell School, Taunton; Bristol County Teachers Association. Dunham, Annie D. (Teacher), 192 Washing¬ ton St., Wellesley Hills; Eastern Com¬ mercial Teachers Association. Eastland, Helen C. (Teacher), 15 High St., Marblehead, Essex County Teachers As¬ sociation. Edgecomb, Edna F. (Teacher), 84 Union St., Leominster; North Adams Grade Teach¬ ers Association. Emerson, Mrs. Mary E. (Teacher), 177 Washington St., Wellesley; Beverly Teachers Association. Emery, Amy E. (Teacher), 45 Auburn St., Brookline; Boston Teachers Club. Garrick, Marcella M. (Teacher), 295 Lowell St., Somerville; Middlesex County Teach¬ ers Association. Gilmore, Joseph (Principal), 265 Lowell St., Peabody; Essex County Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Goodspeed, Alice L. (Principal), 24 Marion St., Dedham; Massachusetts Elementary Principals Association. Grayson, Gladys M. (Teacher), Stacy School, Milford; Worcester County Teachers As¬ sociation. Grayson, Raymond H. (Teacher), 159A Park St., Attleboro; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Guyton, Mary L. (Supervisor, Department of Education), State House, Boston; Es¬ sex County Teachers Association. Jenks, Mildred B. (Teacher), 320 Union St., Springfield; Springfield Teachers Eco¬ nomic Association. Johnson, Helen C. (Teacher), 13 Whiting St., Plymouth; Plymouth Teachers Club. 31 King, Henry A. (Teacher), High School, Peabody; Massachusetts Teachers Fed¬ eration. Lang, Ruth M. (Teacher), 65 Clarendon Ave., W. Somerville; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Lusk, George, 50 Beacon St., Boston; Essex County Teachers Association. Lyon, Helena B. (Teacher), Chelmsford; Middlesex County Teachers Association. McIntosh, Everett J. (Teacher), 62 Front St., Weymouth; Brookline Teachers Club. McIntosh, Helen (Teacher), 62 Front St., Weymouth; Brookline Teachers Club. McManus, Elizabeth S. (Principal), 25 Vas- sar St., Worcester; Worcester Elemen¬ tary Teachers Association. McSkimmon, Mary (Teacher), 205 Tappan St., Brookline; Massachusetts Association for Childhood Education. Mann, Mrs. Elizabeth J. (Teacher), Hov/ard Street School, Springfield; Springfield Teachers Economic Association. Markham, Myrtle L. (Teacher), 57 N. Main St., Natick; Middlesex County Teachers Association. Marshall, Mabel (Teacher), 21 Washington Ave., Andover; Essex County Teachers Association. Magee, Georgia P. (Teacher), 102 North Ave., Natick; Norfolk County Teachers Association. Meacham, Mrs. Rena M. (Teacher), Farm and Trade School, Thompson’s Island, Boston; Middlesex County Teachers As¬ sociation. Meacham, W. M. (Principal), Farm and Trade School, Thompson’s Island, Boston; Middlesex County Teachers Association. Moyer, James A. (Head), University Ex¬ tension, State Dept, of Education, Boston; Newton Teachers Federation. Nixon, Hugh (Secretary), Massachusetts Teachers Federation, 15 Ashburton PL, Boston; Massachusetts Schoolmasters Club. O’Connor, Alice F. (Teacher), Stacy School, Milford; Worcester County Teachers As¬ sociation. O’Connor, Deborah F. (Teacher), 3 Wayne Ter., Worcester; Worcester Teachers As¬ sociation. O’Connor, Eileen (Teacher), 3 Wayne Ter., Worcester; Worcester Teachers Associa¬ tion. O’Connor, Martin F. (Principal), 989 Me¬ morial Drive, Cambridge; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. O’Connor, Mary Elizabeth (Supervisor), High School, Natick; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Patterson, Alice M. (Teacher), 21 Austin Rd., West Medford; Somerville Teachers Club. Pickup, Mrs. Mary M. (Teacher), 9 Gibson St., Medford; Medford Teachers Club. Price, Ellen (Teacher), 29 Cottage St., Sharon; Malden Teachers Association. Rhodes, Eleanor M. (Teacher), 28 Arling¬ ton St., Lynn; Lynn Teachers Club. Richardson, Mary E. (Principal), 50 Fair- view, Dedham; Massachusetts Elemen¬ tary Principals Association. Richmond, Helen F. (Teacher), 18 Fitz- henry Square, Revere; Middlesex County Teachers Association. Roscoe, Isa B. (Teacher), 51 Gregory St., Marblehead; Marblehead Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Sanders, William J. (Teacher), 80 Chestnut St., Haverhill; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Smith, Edgar B. (Principal), High School, Greenfield; Massachusetts Teachers Fed¬ eration. 960 National Education Association Smith, Mrs. Jane Morse (Teacher), 120 High St., Greenfield; Franklin County Teachers Association. Snell, Mrs. Bertha A. (Teacher), 39 Depot St., Sharon; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Taylor, Harriett C. (Teacher), 28 Chestnut St., Melrose; Melrose Teachers Club. Thistle, James S. (Principal), 34 Whittier Rd., Wellesley Hills; Norfolk County Teachers Association. Tolland, Mary (Teacher), 50 Orchard St., Jamaica Plain; High School Women’s Club of Boston. Wheeler, C. Arthur (Principal), 34 Mar¬ shall St., Watertown; Middlesex County Teachers Association. Woodbury, Mrs. Grace I. (Teacher), 4 Lake- croft Court, Melrose; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Woodward, Annie C. (N. E. A. State Di¬ rector), 78 Highland Ave., Somerville Massachusetts Teachers Federation. MICHIGAN Anschutz, Irma (Teacher), 1110 Wilson St., Bay City; Bay City Teachers Club. Bader, Edith M. (Assistant Superintendent of Schools), Board of Education, Ann Arbor; Michigan Education Association. Codling, Reta B. (Teacher), 321 E. First St., Royal Oak; Detroit Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Cody, Frank (Superintendent of Schools), 1354 Broadway, Detroit; Michigan Edu¬ cation Association. Cogshall, Charles (Principal), 1950 Francis Ave., Grand Rapids; Grand Rapids Teach¬ ers Club. Cowin, John W. (Teacher), 121 S. Broad St., Adrian; Adrian Teachers Club. Crosby, Otis A. (Editor), Detroit Education News, 1346 Broadway, Detroit; Michigan Education Association. Culham, Florence (Coach), 1700 Madison Ave., Grand Rapids; Grand Rapids Teach¬ ers Club. Dacey, Cecile (Teacher), 9374 Wildemere St., Detroit; High School-College Divi¬ sion, Detroit Teachers Association. Davis, Homer (Teacher), 815 W. Walnut St., Kalamazoo; Michigan Education As¬ sociation. Draxten, Lilah (Teacher), Ontonagon; Michigan Education Association. Ebaugh, A. Raymond (Teacher), Starr School, Royal Oak; Michigan Education Association. Goodall, Harold B. (Teacher), 21522 Homer St., Dearborn; Fordson Teachers Club. Hart, William H. (Teacher), 6019 Maple St., Dearborn; Michigan Education Asso¬ ciation. Helmer, Harriet (Teacher), 106 Fourth St., Jackson; Michigan Education Association. Land, Mina (Teacher), 305 Gardenia Ave., Royal Oak; Royal Oak Teachers Club. Leopold, Selma E. (Teacher), #2 Hamilton Apts., Muskegon; Muskegon Teachers Club. Lockwood, Ida A. (Teacher), 2234 Chicago Blvd., Detroit; Detroit Teachers Asso¬ ciation. MacKay, Jean Armour (Teacher), 121 High¬ land Ave., Highland Park; Classroom Teachers Association of Highland Park. Mummery, Mary V. (Teacher), 106 Fourth St., Jackson; Jackson Teachers Club. Pursell, Evangeline (Teacher), Birming¬ ham; Michigan Education Association. Reese, Dora (Teacher), 317 Fulton St., E., Grand Rapids; Grand Rapids Teachers Club. Riddering, A. A. (Superintendent of Schools), Board of Education, Melvindale; Michigan Education Association. Stone, Raymond W. (Teacher), 603 Colling- wood Ave., Detroit; High School-College Division, Detroit Teachers Association. Stout, Grover (Principal), 4221 Cortland St., Detroit; Michigan Education Asso¬ ciation. Thompson, A. W. (Teacher), Grand Rapids; Michigan Education Association. Thurkettel, Mrs. Mabel (Teacher), 456 Cheshire Dr., Grand Rapids; Grand Rapids Teachers Club. Westcott, Harold I. (Teacher), 2455 Thomas St., Flint; Flint Teachers Club. MINNESOTA Ahlstrom, Dorris (Teacher), 2547 N. E. Arthur St., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Di¬ vision, Minnesota Education Association. Anderson, Arthur C. (Teacher), 919 Clear St., St. Paul; St. Paul Division, Minne¬ sota Education Association. Andreen, F. B. (Superintendent of Schools), New Ulm; Minnesota Education Associa¬ tion. Angst, Jessie D. (Teacher), 2126 S. Garfield Ave., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Classroom Teachers Association. Axvall, C. C. (Principal), Detroit Lakes; Minnesota Education Association. Bank, Albert M. (Principal), 4537 Colfax Ave., S., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Di¬ vision, Minnesota Education Association. Brown, Daisy (Teacher), 407 S. Sixth St., Stillwater; Minnesota Education Asso¬ ciation. Buckle, Mrs. Laurel L. (Teacher), 2254 N. E. Arthur St., Minneapolis; Minne¬ apolis Division, Minnesota Education As¬ sociation. Bullard, Irma L. (Teacher), 3539 Blaisdell St., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Association. Byrnes, Mary (Teacher), 922 W. Thirty- eighth St., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Di¬ vision, Minnesota Education Association. Chapel, Winnie M. (Teacher), 1834 Irving Ave., N., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Class¬ room Teachers Association. Cochrane, Jane (Teacher), Curtis Hotel, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minne¬ sota Education Association. Dahl, Mrs. Myrtle H. (Teacher), Hiawatha School, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Divi¬ sion, Minnesota Education Association. Dash, Alma E. (Teacher), Madison School, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Teachers League. Dickerson, D. F. (Superintendent of Schools), Winona; Minnesota Education Association. Doyle, Mary C. (Teacher), 2165 Fairmount Ave., St. Paul; Minnesota Education As¬ sociation. Dunlop, Mrs. Carrie (Teacher), 5022 Stevens Ave., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Association. Feetham, Nellie L. (Teacher), Hotel Du¬ luth, Duluth; Minnesota Education Asso¬ ciation. Freeman, Mrs. Eva (Teacher), 3341 Second Ave., S., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Di¬ vision, Minnesota Education Association. Glenn, Edna L. (Teacher), 2453 S. Aldrich Ave., Minneapolis; Grade Teachers Sec¬ tion of Minneapolis Teachers League. Hartwell, S. O. (Superintendent of Schools), 1446 Fairmount Ave., St. Paul; Minnesota Education Association. Harms, Mrs. Mabel A. (Teacher), 1044 Burns Ave., St. Paul; Minneapolis Di¬ vision, Minnesota Education Association. Harvey, Maude I. (Principal), 2198 Stan¬ ford Ave., St. Paul; St. Paul Division, Minnesota Education Association. Associational Records and Information 961 Hellesen, Anne (Teacher), 4700 Bryant Ave., S., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Di¬ vision, Minnesota Education Association. Kimball, Florence (Teacher), Roosevelt High School, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Classroom Teachers Association. Kreimann, Agena (Teacher), Curtis Hotel, Minneapolis ; Minneapolis Division, Minne¬ sota Education Association. Leonard, Alice E. (Teacher), 628 S. E. Fourth St., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Di¬ vision, Minnesota Education Association. Loughrea, Mildred (Teacher), Linwood School, St. Paul; Minnesota Education Association. Maney, Ruth (Teacher), Twenty-sixth E. Kent Road, Duluth; Duluth Teachers As¬ sociation. McGhee, Flora (Teacher), Rochester; Ro¬ chester Education Association. McGough, Mary E. (Teacher), 1701 James St., St. Paul; St. Paul Education Associa¬ tion. Meldahl, Andrew (Principal), 105 Carlisle Ave., Duluth; Minnesota Education As¬ sociation. Moe, Floyd B. (Dean), Junior College, Vir¬ ginia; Minnesota Education Association. Murphy, Edna I. (Supervisor), Grand Rapids; Minnesota Education Association. Patrick, Karl H. (Teacher), 1920 Laurel Ave., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Association. Pearson, Katie E. (Teacher), 402 N. Lexing¬ ton Ave., St. Paul; St. Paul Division, Minnesota Education Association. Peterson, F. G. Eric (Teacher), 418-19£ Ave., W., Duluth; Duluth Teachers As¬ sociation. Ray, Charlotte D. (Teacher), Hampshire Arms, Minneapolis; Grade Teachers Sec¬ tion of Minneapolis Teachers League. Richards, Mary L. (Teacher), 201 W. Fif¬ teenth St., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Di¬ vision, Minnesota Education Association. Russell, Martha C. (Teacher), Leamington Hotel, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Association. Schenck, Maude E. (Teacher), 707 S. E. Fifth St., Minneapolis; Grade Teachers Section of Minneapolis Teachers League. Skinner, Margaret A. (Teacher), 2950 Park Ave., Minneapolis; Grade Teachers Sec¬ tion of Minneapolis Teachers League. Wahlstrand, H. L. (N. E. A. State Direc¬ tor), 824 Third St. E., Willmar; Minne¬ sota Education Association. Wikre. L, M. (Superintendent of Schools), St. James; Minnesota Education Associa¬ tion. Wood, Harriet (Principal), 1786 Hennepin Ave., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Association. MISSISSIPPI Drexeler, Mrs. Charles (Teacher), Port Gib¬ son; Mississippi Education Association. Sullivan, Jack (County Superintendent), Hazlehurst; Mississippi Education Asso¬ ciation. MISSOURI Allen, Alva L. (County Superintendent), Bethany; The Northwest Missouri Teach¬ ers Association. Altheide, Lorene (Teacher), 4406 Red Bud Ave., St. Louis; St. Louis District, Mis¬ souri State Teachers Association. Banks, Charles (Superintendent of Schools), University City; Southeast Missouri Teachers Association. Baye, John A. (Teacher), 744 Tuxedo Blvd., Webster Groves; St. Louis District, Mis¬ souri State Teachers Association. Brite, G. B. (Teacher), Seneca; Southeast Missouri Teachers Association. Brown, Edmund F. (Teacher), 5700 Clemens St., St. Louis; St. Louis District, Mis¬ souri State Teachers Association. Carter, E. M. (Secretary), Missouri State Teachers Association, Columbia; North¬ east Missouri Teachers Association. Chandler, Emeline (Teacher), 3425 Harri¬ son St., Kansas City; Kansas City Teach¬ ers Club. Crocker, Gertrude E. (Teacher), 5889 Cates Ave., St. Louis; St. Louis District, Mis¬ souri State Teachers Association. Cunningham, Marie C. (Teacher), 2209 Mis¬ souri Ave., St. Louis; St. Louis District, Missouri State Teachers Association. Downs, Marguerite (Teacher), Senate Hotel, Kansas City; Association of High School Women of Kansas City. EllifF, Miles A. (Superintendent of Schools), Lebanon; Missouri State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Emerson, Ethel (Teacher), 1200 Linwood St., Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. Eylar, Verda (Teacher), 1800 Linwood St., Kansas City; Missouri State Teachers Association. Flynn, Margaret C. (Teacher), 566 Holly¬ wood PI., Webster Groves; St. Louis Grade Teachers Association. Flynn, Mary A. (Teacher), 566 Hollywood PI., Webster Groves; St. Louis Grade Teachers Association. Garner, Charles E. (Teacher), 628 Yedde Ave., Webster Groves; Southeast Mis¬ souri Teachers Association. Gerling, Henry J. (Superintendent of Schools), St. Louis; St. Louis District, Missouri State Teachers Association. Gilleland, Emma (Teacher), Baltimore Hotel, Kansas City; Kansas City Teach¬ ers Club. Girault, Leonide M. (Principal), 1802 Long¬ fellow St., St. Louis; Elementary School Principals Association of St. Louis. Gordon, Hattie H. (ex officio), 5616 Wyan¬ dotte St., Kansas City. Goslin, Willard E. (Superintendent of Schools), Webster Groves; Southeast Mis¬ souri Teachers Association. Green, G. H. (Principal), 6189 Kingsbury St., St. Louis; St. Louis District, Mis¬ souri State Teachers Association. Greene, J. Edna (Teacher), 4555 Main St., Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. Hailey, Ray (Superintendent of Schools), Ava; Missouri State Teachers Association. Hendricks, E. L. (President), Central Mis¬ souri State Teachers College, Warrens- burg; Central Missouri Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Henke, Flora (Teacher), 2210 Howard St., St. Louis; St. Louis District, Missouri State Teachers Association. Higginbotham, Florence (Teacher), 221 Catherine St., Ferguson; St. Louis Dis¬ trict, Missouri State Teachers Association. Hudson, C. B. (Teacher), Central Missouri State Teachers College, Warrensburg; Central Missouri State Teachers College Community Association. Keller, Fred L. (Superintendent of Schools), Tarkio; Missouri State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. King, Harry L. (Teacher), 3233 Copelin Ave., St. Louis; St. Louis District, Mis¬ souri State Teachers Association. King, Lloyd W. (State Superintendent of Public Instruction), Jefferson City; Mis¬ souri State Teachers Association. Lamkin, Uel W. (President), Northwest Missouri State Teachers College, Mary¬ ville; Missouri State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Lankford, Mrs. Jennie C. (County Superin¬ tendent), Plattsburg; Missouri State Teachers Association. 962 National Education Association Layton, Esther Irene (Teacher), 201 S. Pendleton St., Independence; Missouri State Teachers Association. Loftus, Anna S. (Teacher), 2132 Russell Blvd., St. Louis; St. Louis Grade Teach¬ ers Association. Longshore, W. T. (Principal), 520 W. Fortieth St., Kansas City; Missouri State Teachers Association. McGraw, Frank (County Superintendent), Marshall; Missouri State Teachers As¬ sociation. Markham, Carrie (Teacher), 814 Clara Ave., St. Louis; St. Louis District, Missouri State Teachers Association. Martin, R. Lee (Teacher), 30 E. College St., Augora; Southwest Missouri Teachers Association. Murphy, Mattie B. (Teacher), 1336 Union Blvd., St. Louis; St. Louis District, Mis¬ souri State Teachers Association. Neal, Bert Clare (Teacher), 3210 Michigan St., Kansas City; Missouri State Teach¬ ers Association. O’Connell, May (Principal), 409 E. Armour St., Kansas City; Elementary School Principals Association of Kansas City. Ralls, Mary C. (Teacher), 6529 Jefferson St., Kansas City; Missouri State Teach¬ ers Association. Reid, Angie (Teacher), 435 Gladstone St., Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. Riddle, Anna (Teacher), 2 Summit PI., St. Joseph; St. Joseph District #8, Missouri State Teachers Association. Robeson, James A. (Principal), 4147 Mont- gall St., Kansas City; Missouri State Teachers Association. Schiller, Mary T. (Teacher), 4143 Castle- man Ave., St. Louis; St. Louis District, Missouri State Teachers Association. Schmidt, Halloween (Teacher), 6336 Page Blvd., St. Louis; St. Louis District, Mis¬ souri State Teachers Association. Schott, Marion (County Superintendent), Kirksville; Northeast Missouri Teachers Association. Seeger, May (Teacher), Kansas City; Kan¬ sas City Teachers Club. Shaffer, Minnie A. (Principal), 225 S. Ver¬ mont St., Sedalia; Sedalia Community Teachers Association. Slocomb, Grace (Teacher), 4800 Park St., Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. Smith, C. A. (Teacher), 703 Atlanta Ave., Webster Groves; St. Louis District, Mis¬ souri State Teachers Association. Study, H. P. (Superintendent of Schools), Springfield; Missouri State Teachers As¬ sociation. Stutsman, I. F. (Superintendent of Schools), 316 N. Twentieth St., St. Joseph; St. Joseph District #8, Missouri State Teach¬ ers Association. Thompson, Anna M. (Teacher), Corlton Hotel, Kansas City; Missouri State Teachers Association. Thompson, Mary A. (Principal), 1111 Mc- Causland Ave., St. Louis; St. Louis Dis¬ trict, Missouri State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Trice, Daisy M. . (Principal), 1921 E. Twenty-fourth St., Kansas City; Council of Negro Teachers. Varner, Calla E. (Principal), 1821 Clay St., St. Joseph; St. Joseph District #8, Mis¬ souri State Teachers Association. Walker, Thomas J. (N. E. A. State Direc¬ tor), Editor, School and Community, Columbia; Missouri State Teachers As¬ sociation. Wheatly, Helen F. (Teacher), 1802 Long¬ fellow St., St. Louis; St. Louis Grade Teachers Association. Winkelman, Mathilda (Teacher), 3912 Rus¬ sell Blvd., St. Louis; St. Louis District, Missouri State Teachers Association. Womack, Mary B. (Teacher), 5716 Cates Ave., St. Louis; St. Louis Grade Teachers Association. MONTANA Branigan, Gladys (Dean), Household and Industrial Arts, Montana State College, Bozeman; Montana Education Associa¬ tion. Bruner, T. A. (Superintendent of Schools), Harlem; Montana Education Association. Robinson, Fred (Supervisor), Industrial Arts, Helena; Montana Education Asso¬ ciation. Williams, Don (Teacher), High School, Great Falls; Montana Education Asso¬ ciation. Williams, D. S. (Superintendent of Schools), Bozeman; Montana Education Associa¬ tion. NEBRASKA Ames, W. D. (Teacher), 2730 Arlington, Lincoln; Lincoln Teachers Association. Anderson, J. T. (Dean), State Teachers Col¬ lege, Kearney; Nebraska State Teachers College, N. E. A. Unit. Baldridge, Chloe (State Director), Depart¬ ment of Public Instruction, Lincoln; Ne¬ braska State Teachers Association. Connell, Ella T. (Teacher), Colonial Hotel, Omaha; Omaha Teachers Forum, Dillow, Verna Ruth (Teacher), 3301 Dewey Ave., Omaha; Omaha Teachers Forum. Eaton, Roy (Editor), Mid-west School Re¬ view, 1113-17 Nicholas St.,< Omaha; Ne¬ braska State Teachers Association. Haverly, Cordula (Teacher), 610 N. Fortieth St., Omaha; Omaha Teachers Forum. Holmes, Stella (Principal), 4216 S. Twenty- second St., Omaha; Omaha Teachers Forum. Jimmerson, John A. (Superintendent), Au¬ burn; Nebraska State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Knipprath, George F. (N. E. A. State Direc¬ tor), Omaha Technical High School, Omaha; Nebraska State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Laugel, Mrs. Antoinette (Teacher), 81 Car¬ ter Lake Club, Omaha; Omaha Teachers Forum. Lefler, M. C. (Superintendent of Schools), Board of Education, Lincoln; Nebraska State Teachers Association. Long, Martha (Principal), 2012 Sixth Ave., Kearney; Kearney Teachers Association. McAfee, F. Ethel (Teacher), 2722 N. Fifty- eighth St., Omaha; Omaha Teachers Forum. Partridge, H. R. (Superintendent of Schools), Alliance; Nebraska State Teach¬ ers Association. Porter, D. E. (Principal), 2715 N. Forty- seventh Ave., Omaha; Omaha Teachers Forum. Pound, Olivia (Assistant Principal), 1632 L St., Lincoln; Lincoln Teachers Associa¬ tion. Purcell, Anna (Teacher), 5170 Jones St., Omaha; Omaha Teachers Forum. Riddlesbarger, Ada (Teacher), 2702 Jack- son St., Omaha; Omaha Teachers Forum. Rost, Grover F. (Teacher), 912 N. Wheeler St., Grand Island; Grand Island School Club. Runsteen, Grace (Teacher), 2952 N. Fifty- fifth St., Omaha; Omaha Teachers Forum. Rustin, Mrs. Leora A. (County Superinten¬ dent), Court House, Chadron; Nebraska State Teachers Association. Shick, Charlotte M. (Teacher), 6419 Bal¬ lard St., Lincoln; Lincoln Teachers As¬ sociation. Associational Records and Information 963 Smith, Mrs. Mary Deahn (Teacher), 1725 Washington St., Lincoln; Lincoln Teach¬ ers Association. Stewart, Ethel (Teacher), 3301 Dewey Ave., Omaha; Omaha Teachers Forum. Yorhies, Birdie (State Supervisor), Depart¬ ment of Vocational Education, Lincoln; Nebraska State Teachers Association. Young, J. P. (Superintendent of Schools), David City; Nebraska State Teachers As¬ sociation. NEVADA Black, Mary S. (Principal), Battle Moun¬ tain; Nevada State Educational Asso¬ ciation. Clarke, M. J. (Superintendent of Schools), Ely; Nevada State Educational Associa¬ tion. Griffith, Bernice (Secretary), Nevada State Educational Association, Ely; Nevada State Educational Association. Knemeyer, Bertha C. (Principal), High School, Elko; Nevada State Educational Association. Roosa, Angie (Teacher), High School, Las Vegas; Nevada State Educational Asso¬ ciation. NEW HAMPSHIRE Doherty, Helen F. (Guidance Director), 321 State St., Portsmouth; Rockingham Teachers Association. Ewing, Lyle W. (N. E. A. State Director), Submaster, High School, Bible Hill, Clare¬ mont; New Hampshire State Teachers Association Thompson, Elizabeth M. (Teacher), Cole- brook Academy; Colebrook; New Hamp¬ shire State Teachers Association. NEW JERSEY' Alden, Rose (Teacher), 24 Johnson Ave., Newark; High School Women Teachers Association. Applegate, Mrs. Stella S., 307 Stacy-Trent Hotel, Trenton; New Jersey State Teach¬ ers Association. Arildson, Louise E. (Teacher), 140 Haw¬ thorne Ave., Nutley; Nutley Teachers Association. Barnes, Mary (Teacher), 223 Summit Rd., Newark; Classroom Teachers of the De¬ partment of Elementary Education of New Jersey. Beers, Dorothea (Teacher), Central School, Glen Rock; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Dolan, John J. (Principal), Longfellow School, Teaneck; New Jersey State Teach¬ ers Association. Doremus, Marjorie J. (Teacher), Byrd School, Glen Rock; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Doremus, Mattie S. (ex officio), 614 E. Twenty-ninth St., Paterson. Edwards, Elizabeth A. (Supervising Princi¬ pal), Maywood; New Jersey State Teach¬ ers Association. Eisenberg, Ephraim (Teacher), 8 Ruby PL, Newark; Newark Teachers Association. Elder, Elizabeth (Teacher), 284 Beech St., Hackensack; Rutherford Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Fredericks, Helen J. (Teacher), Wilson Ave. School, Newark; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Goodfellow, Raymond B. (Director), 31 Green St., Newark; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Gurley, Raymond B. (N. E. A. State Direc¬ tor), Principal, Barringer High School, Newark; New Jersey State Teachers As¬ sociation, Harrison, Clara L. (Teacher), Roebling School, Roebling; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Hawes, J. Holbrook (Teacher), Center Grove Rd., Doyer; Morris County Teach¬ ers Association. Heller, Alma (Teacher), Mt. Prospect Ave., Newark; Classroom Teachers of Depart¬ ment of Elementary Education of New Jersey. Heller, Lillian (Viceprincipal), 583 Mt. Prospect Ave., Newark; Classroom Teach¬ ers of Department of Elementary Educa¬ tion of New Jersey. Hepbron, E. Adele (Teacher), 133 Summit Ave., Summit; New Jersey State Teach¬ ers Association. Hopkins, Mary M. (Teacher), 440 Jersey Ave., Elizabeth; Elizabeth Teachers As¬ sociation. Johnson, Laurence B., Newark; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Mitchell, Helen (Principal), 215 Morris St., Phillipsburg; Classroom Teachers of Department of Elementary Education of New Jersey. Moffett, Marcella G. (Teacher), 48 N. Hermitage Ave., Trenton; Trenton Teach¬ ers Association. Nelson, Mable (Teacher), Fetters School, Camden; New Jersey State Teachers As¬ sociation. Neuffer, Gertrude A. (Teacher), 17 Webster PL, East Orange; Grade Teachers Asso¬ ciation of Newark. Neulen, Leon N. (Superintendent of Schools), City Hall, Camden; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Parkhurst, Elsie (Teacher), 34 Pine Grove Ave., Summit; Summit Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Perkins, Anna B. (Teacher), 117 Albion Pl., Passaic; Passaic Teachers Associa¬ tion. Pickell, Frank G. (Superintendent of Schools), Board of Education, Montclair; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Porreca, Lena M. (Teacher), 70 Johnson Ave., Hackensack; Hackensack Teachers Association. Reed, Margaret E. (Teacher), Brooklawn School, Mt. Ephraim; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Robinson, Fannie A. (Teacher), 75 Paterson Ave., Paterson; Paterson Teachers As¬ sociation, Ryan, Louise (Teacher), 284 Beech St., Hackensack; Hackensack Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Schooler, Clare (Teacher), Trenton State Teachers College, Trenton; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Shepherd, Homer P. (Superintendent of Schools), 739 Fourth St., Lyndhurst; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Smith, F. Blanche (Teacher), 121 Prospect St., Passaic; Passaic Teachers Associa¬ tion. Steel, Charles L. Jr. (Principal), High School, Teaneck; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Stratton, Mason A. (Principal), 272 Huron Ave., Absecon; Atlantic City Teachers Association. Walklett, Martha L. (Teacher), Gibbsboro School, Gibbsboro; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Wamsley, Mrs. Jessie M. (Principal), Wall School, Pitman; New Jersey State Teach¬ ers Association. Zimmerman, Roy R. (County Superinten¬ dent of Schools), Hackensack; New Jersey State Teachers Association. 964 National Education Association NEW MEXICO MacKay, Donald W. (Teacher), Portales; New Mexico Educational Association. McCollum, J. It. (Principal), Lew Wallace School, Albuquerque; New Mexico Edu¬ cational Association. , , . Murphy, Irvin P. (Superintendent of Schools), Grenville; New Mexico Educa¬ tional Association. Pope, D. N. (Superintendent of Schools), Roswell; New Mexico Educational Asso¬ ciation. , „ Rose, Charles L. (Extension Director), New Mexico Normal University, Las Vegas; New Mexico Educational Association. NEW YORK Ahles, Inez M. (Retired Teacher), Red¬ wood; New York State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Anderson, Grace M. (Teacher), 252 N. Vil¬ lage Ave., Rockville Center; New York State Teachers Association. Armitage, Edith E. (Teacher), 28 Howard St., Auburn; New York State Teachers Welfare League. Avins, E. Rena (Teacher), Marcellus; New York State Teachers Association. Benton, Mrs. Ethel T. (Teacher), Moss Street, Hudson Falls; New York State Teachers Association. Breese, Mrs. Leona (Teacher), 22 Harmon St., White Plains; White Plains Teach¬ ers Association, Broderick, Lillian (Teacher), 216 Park Ave., Yonkers; Westchester County Teachers A C! OflPI 3 tl AD Brown, Florence E. (Teacher), 223 S. Sec¬ ond Ave,, Mt. Vernon; Mount Vernon Teachers Association. Camen, Lillian (Teacher), 17 Frederick St., Binghamton; Binghamton Teachers As¬ sociation. Carrier, Julia M. (Teacher), 1002 Orchard St., Peekskill; New York State Teachers Association • Clark, Natalie (Teacher), 1 Winding Way, Binghamton; Binghamton Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Cleary, Jane A. (Teacher), 267 Hoosick St., Troy; New York State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Cole, Cordelia L. (Teacher), Box 92, Con¬ gers; New York State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Conant, Eugene F. (Teacher), 13 Grove St., Amsterdam; Gloversville Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Dann, George J. (Superintendent of Schools), Oneonta; New York State Teachers Association. Densmore, David W. (Principal), 279 Ridge Road W., Rochester; Rochester Teachers A CO AAl Q fl AD Diven? Betty' Lou (Teacher), 21 Hancock St., Little Falls; New York State Teach¬ ers Association. Donohue, John C. (Principal), Vocational High School, Syracuse; Syracuse Teach¬ ers Association. Eberwein, Ella (Teacher), 115 Jefferson Ter., Rochester; Rochester Teachers As¬ sociation. Eldred, Arvie (Secretary), 152 Washington Ave., Albany; New York State Teachers Association. Engelhardt, E. M. (Teacher), 500 Webster Ave., Rochester; Rochester Teachers As¬ sociation. Ernst, Christine C. (Supervisor), 366 Quail St., Albany; New York State Teachers Association * Evans, May (Teacher), 175 W. Ninety-third St., New York City; Kindergarten — 6 B Teachers Association Inc. Fahey, Sara H. (Teacher), Girls Commer¬ cial High School, Brooklyn; High School Teachers Association of New York City. Freeborn, Lena 0. (Teacher), 27 Walnut St., Oneonta; New York State Teachers A CQAPifl fi AD Friend, Constance (Teacher), 127 W. Seventy-ninth St., New York City; Kindergarten — 6 B Teachers Association Inc. Haller, Ralph W. (Teacher), 211 Egmont Ave., Mt. Vernon; High School Teachers Association of New York City. Hardy, H. Claude (N. E. A. State Director), Superintendent of Schools, White Plains; White Plains Teachers Association. Haver, Zula A. (Principal), 15 Shuler St., Amsterdam; New York State Teachers Association. Hayden, Sarah L. (Teacher), 41 Lockwood Ave., New Rochelle; New York State Teachers Association. Hayes, Frieda L. (Teacher), 156 Tremper Ave., Kingston; New York State Teach¬ ers Welfare League. Holmes, William H. (Superintendent of Schools), 2 Park Lane, Mount Vernon; Mount Vernon Teachers Association. Knight, Mrs. Lida (Teacher), 298 Vestal Ave., Binghamton; Binghamton Teachers Association. Langham, Olive (Teacher), 290 W. Seneca Turnpike, Syracuse; Syracuse Women High School Teachers Association. Lasher, Dorothy (Teacher), Schuylerville ; New York State Teachers Association. Law, Frederick Houk (Teacher), 472 Argyle Road, Brooklyn; High School Teachers Association of New York City. Lefkowitz, Abraham (Teacher), 10414 Twenty-seventh Ave., E. Elmhurst, New York City; Joint Committee of Teachers Organizations. Levenson, Samuel M. (Principal), 10920 Union Hall St., Jamaica; Queensboro Teachers Association. Lewis, Ernest D. (Assistant Principal) Evander Childs High School, Bronx; High School Teachers Association. Lewis, Grace T. (Dean), 223 S. Second Ave., Mt. Vernon; Mount Vernon Teachers As¬ sociation. Lindlof, Mrs. Johanna M. (Teacher), 45 W. Eighty-first St., New York City; Kinder¬ garten — 6 B Teachers Association Inc. McKibbon, Mrs. Emily (Teacher), 26 Harts- dale Rd., Rochester; New York State Teachers Association. MacVay, Anna P. (Dean), Wadleigh High School, Manhattan; High School Teach¬ ers Association of New York City Inc. Matthews, Cora B. (Teacher), 108 State St., Seneca Falls; New York State Teach¬ ers Association. Norton, John K. (Professor), Teachers Col¬ lege, Columbia University, New York City; Teachers College, Columbia Uni¬ versity. O’Hargan, Lucy (Teacher), 220 Main St., Binghamton; Binghamton Teachers As¬ sociation. Pease, Mrs. Harriet F. (Teacher), 855 Cen¬ tral Parkway; Schenectady; City Teach¬ ers Association of Schenectady. Raschke, Arnetta K. (Teacher), 29 Shufeldt St., Kingston; New York State Teachers Association. Rhodes, Catherine I. (Teacher), 223 S. Second Ave., Mount Vernon; Mount Ver¬ non Teachers Association. Rockwell, Rena (Teacher), 364 W. Clinton St., Elmira; New York State Teachers Welfare League. Rae, Janette (Principal), Albany; New York State Teachers Association. Associational Records and Information 965 Savides, A. P. (Teacher), Russell Sage Col¬ lege, Troy; New York State Teachers Association. Sherrard, John P. (Principal), 141 Parkside Ave., Buffalo; Buffalo Teachers Associa¬ tion. Simpson, Mabel E. (Director), Board of Education, Rochester; New York State Teachers Association. Simpson, Margaret I. (Teacher), 61 W. Grand St., Mount Vernon; Mount Vernon Teachers Association. Slick, Maud M. (Teacher), 165 Van Dam St., Saratoga Springs; New York State Teachers Association. Smallwood, Winifred (Principal), 524 Os- trom Ave., Syracuse; New York State Teachers Association. Stauterman, Eda B. (Teacher), 419 W. First St., Elmira; Elmira Teachers As¬ sociation. Stever, Kathryn (Teacher), 612 Park Place, Mechanicville ; New York State Teachers Association. Stoeber, Lavina (Teacher), 141 Norton St., Rochester; New York State Teachers As¬ sociation. Stone, Frederick L. (Teacher), 1441 S. Sa- lina St., Syracuse; Syracuse Teachers Association. Sumner, S. C. (Principal), Seymour St., Syracuse; New York State Teachers As¬ sociation. Tarbell, Emily A. (Teacher), 235 Glenwood Ave., Syracuse; New York State Teachers Welfare League. Van Arsdale, Mary M. (Principal), 338 Bryant St., Buffalo; Buffalo Teachers Federation. Wickes, Bessie (Teacher), 10 Daniels St., Seneca Falls; New York State Teachers Association. Wilber, D. Emma (Assistant Editor), New York State Education, 152 Washington Ave., Albany; New York State Teachers Association. Witter, Mrs. Rose K. (Teacher), 117 Fair St., Kingston; New York State Teachers Association. NORTH CAROLINA Guthrie, Mrs. T. W. (Teacher), Kinston; North Carolina Education Association. Lafferty, Oma C. (Teacher), City Schools, Charlotte; North Carolina Education As¬ sociation. Ranson, Mrs. R. E. (Principal), Junior High School, High Point; North Carolina Education Association. Warren, W. F. (Superintendent of Schools), Durham; North Carolina Education As¬ sociation. Washburn, Mary (Teacher), High School, High Point; North Carolina Education Association. NORTH DAKOTA Bertelson, Mathilda (Teacher), 915 Tenth Ave., N., Fargo; North Dakota Educa¬ tion Association. Rodewald, Anne (Teacher), 205 Fifth St., Bismarck; North Dakota Education As¬ sociation. Rue, Judith (Teacher), 711 Avenue “A,” Bismarck; North Dakota Education As¬ sociation. Shaw, Christine M. (Teacher), 418 S. Main St., Minot; North Dakota Education As¬ sociation. Stevenson, Adeline (Teacher), 313 Seventh St., S., Moorhead, Minnesota; North Dakota Education Association. White, L. A. (N. E. A. State Director), Superintendent of Schools, Minot; North Dakota Education Association. OHIO Alexander, Rosanna B. (Teacher), 960 N. Howard St., Akron; The Akron Teachers Association. Anderson, Mrs. Clara Belle (Teacher), Box 296, Fairlawn; Ohio Education Associa¬ tion. Andrews, D. James (Teacher), Cincinnati; The Cincinnati Schoolmasters Club. Barnes, Charles F. Dillonvale; Ohio Edu¬ cation Association. Barnhill, 0. J. (Teacher), 329 Pioneer St., Akron; Ohio Education Association. Bates, E. D. (Teacher), 329 Pioneer St., Akron; Ohio Education Association. Bates, H. L. (Superintendent City Schools), Jackson; Ohio Education Association. Benedict, Claude B. (Teacher), 3267 Ormond Rd., Cleveland Heights; Cleveland Teach¬ ers Federation. Bliss, W. B. (Secretary), Ohio Education Association, 1221-28 Beggs Bldg., 21 E. State St., Columbus; Ohio Education Association. Bogart, Elizabeth (Teacher), 4718 Ward St., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers As¬ sociation. Borden, Ruby L. (Teacher), 719 Euclaire Ave., Bexley; Ohio Education Association. Bowman, M. Eleanor (Teacher), 30 S. Wal¬ nut St., Akron; The Akron Teachers As¬ sociation. Bowman, H. L. (Superintendent of Schools), Willard; Ohio Education Association. Bradley, Helen (Assistant Principal), 2349 Ashland Ave., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers Association. Bunn, P. C. (Principal), 1151 Seventh St., Lorain; Ohio Education Association. Burke, Lillian M. (Teacher), 1700 Preyer Rd., Cleveland Heights; Ohio Education Association. Cadwallader, R. W. (Teacher), Withrow High School, Cincinnati; Ohio Education Association. Carr, A. T. (Principal), Nathan Hale Junior High School, Cleveland; Ohio Education Association. Cooper, Margaret (Teacher), 1981 Indianola Ave., Columbus; The Columbus Teachers Federation. Crano, Rose (Teacher), 565 E. Tallmadge Ave., Akron; The Akron Teachers As¬ sociation. Crawford, O. 0. (Superintendent of Schools), St. Clairsville; Ohio Education Associa¬ tion. Culp, Lillian (Teacher), Lakewood; Lake- wood Teachers Association. Davis, Helen A. (Teacher), 13809 Clifton Blvd., Cleveland; Ohio Education Asso¬ ciation. Davis, Jane (Teacher), McMillan St., Cin¬ cinnati; Cincinnati Teachers Association. Davis, Orin W. (County Superintendent), Jackson; Ohio Education Association. Dehn, A. 0. (County Superintendent), Port Clinton; Ohio Education Association. Dick, L. C. (County Superintendent), Lon¬ don; Ohio Education Association. Disher, L. L. (Principal), 2364 Glenwood Ave., Toledo; Toledo Teachers Associa¬ tion. Drummond, Glenn (County Superintendent), Bellefontaine; Ohio Education Associa¬ tion. Dunham, Lucy (Teacher), 125 Mason St., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers Associa¬ tion. Ellis, S. Freda (Teacher), 6121 Woodmont Ave., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers As¬ sociation. Emde, John M. (Teacher), 846 Storer Ave., Akron; Ohio Education Association. 966 National Education Association Forester, Lena R. (Teacher), R. F. D. #1, Brecksville; Cuyahoga County Education Association. Geiger, Ruth (Teacher), 2936 Montclair St., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers Associa¬ tion. Harkness, Charles S. (County Superinten¬ dent), Bowling Green; Ohio Education Association. Hastings, Helena (Teacher), 526 Parmalee St., Youngstown; Youngstown Education Association. Hatfield, Mrs. Dora Brown (Teacher), 208 Noble Ave., Akron; Ohio Education As¬ sociation. Hawke, Oscar T. (County Superintendent), Springfield; Ohio Education Association. Henning, Mary E. (Teacher), 359 Irving St., Toledo; Toledo Teachers Association. Herfurth, Mrs. Oneida (Teacher), 1973 Madison Rd., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers Association. Hetzler, Glen R. (Teacher), Norwood Junior High School, Blue Ash; Norwood Teach¬ ers Association. Hick, Hugh R. (Superintendent of Schools), Cambridge; Ohio Education Association. Hirst, Alice (Teacher), 1372 Myrtle Ave., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers Associa¬ tion. Howard, Zelmah L. (Teacher), 733 E. Church St., Marion; Marion City Teach¬ ers Association. Hughes, C. J. (Teacher), 2709 Central Ave., Middletown; Ohio Education Association. Jones, Winifred (Teacher), 359 Ludlow Ave., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers As¬ sociation. Keller, Edith M. (Supervisor), State De¬ partment of Education, Columbus; Ohio Education Association. Kirkbride, Wilma L. (Teacher), 852 Fifth Ave., Youngstown; Ohio Education Asso¬ ciation. Lyons, David R. (Teacher), 1919 Catalina Ave., Cincinnati; Ohio Education Asso¬ ciation. Meola, Librador (Teacher), 10820 Carnegie Ave., Cleveland; Cleveland Teachers Fed¬ eration. Metcalf, Tom R. (Teacher), 820 Oakwood Ave., Columbus; The Columbus Teachers Federation. Moore, Katherine (Teacher), 1676 Parkwood Rd., Lakewood; Lakewood Teachers As¬ sociation. Moorman, Edna (Teacher), 3655 Middleton Ave., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers As¬ sociation. Oifenhauer, R. E. (ex officio), Superinten¬ dent of Schools, Lima. OfFerman, Elizabeth (Assistant County Superintendent), Oak Harbor; Ohio Edu¬ cation Association. Ogden, W. H. (Superintendent of Schools), Oxford; Ohio Education Association. Oldaker, Helen (Teacher), 2301 Volney Rd., Youngstown; Youngstown Education As¬ sociation. Opperman, Doris (Teacher), Tontogany; Wood County Teachers Association. Oppy, J. A. (Superintendent of Schools), Reynoldsburg; Ohio Education Associa¬ tion. Peirsol, Jesse (Librarian), 56 E. Northwood Ave., Columbus;' The Columbus Teachers Federation. Phillips, Howard (Principal), 115 S. Port¬ land St., Youngstown; Youngstown Edu¬ cation Association. Pierce, John A. (Supervisor), Board of Education, Cleveland; Ohio Education As¬ sociation. Pore, O. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Newark; Ohio Education Association. Reed, J. M. (Superintendent of Schools), Fostoria; Ohio Education Association. Ricksecker, C. W. (Principal), Chaney High School, Youngstown; Ohio Educa¬ tion Association. Ridgway, Sara (Teacher), Hotel Virginia, Columbus; The Columbus Teachers Fed¬ eration. Roberson, H. C. (Supervisor), 754 W. Elm St., Lima; Lima Teachers Association. Schramm, Erna A. (Teacher), 3223 W. 100th St., Cleveland; Ohio Education Associa¬ tion. Schroeder, Henry (Assistant Principal), Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers Associa¬ tion. Schulz, Louise (Teacher), 901 Pennsylvania Ave., Columbus; The Columbus Teachers Federation. Secrist, Homer (Teacher), 1343 Kenilworth Ave., Lakewood; Cuyahoga County Edu¬ cation Association. Snavely, Hazel (Teacher), 2114 Logan Ave., Youngstown; Youngstown Education As¬ sociation. Stanton, B. F. (Superintendent of Schools), Alliance; Ohio Education Association. Sutherland, Anne (Teacher), Alexandria Apts. Gilbert Ave., Cincinnati; Cincin¬ nati Teachers Association. Thew, Mary Martha (Teacher), 1535 Lake- wood St., Lima; Lima Teachers Associa¬ tion. Thomas, Alma (Teacher), 3028 Somerton Rd., Cleveland Heights; Cleveland Teach¬ ers Federation. Walls, W. A. (Superintendent of Schools), Kent; Ohio Education Association. Waterhouse, R. H. (Superintendent of Schools), Akron; Ohio Education Asso¬ ciation. Wildermuth, Mrs. Nelle P. (Teacher), 418 Oakland Park Ave., Columbus; The Columbus Teachers Federation. Williams, Elda (Teacher), 3579 Randolph Rd., Cleveland Heights; Cleveland Teach¬ ers Federation. Wright, Florence (Teacher), 2842 Pine Grove Ave., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers As¬ sociation. Yaw, Rachael O. (Teacher), 1744 Chapman Ave., East Cleveland; Ohio Education Association. Ziebold, Margaret B. (Teacher), 295 W. Hubbard Ave., Columbus; The Columbus Teachers Federation. OKLAHOMA Brooks, Hilda (Teacher), 3116 W. Fortieth St., Tulsa; Tulsa Classroom Teachers Association. Clay, Mrs. J. D. (Teacher), Tulsa; Okla¬ homa City Classroom Teachers Associa¬ tion. Davis, E. O. (Principal), Box 18, Ardmore; Oklahoma Education Association. Demand, L. S. (Teacher), Box 145, Route 3, Oklahoma City; Oklahoma City Class¬ room Teachers Association. Duke, E. A. (Rural Supervisor), Oklahoma City; Oklahoma Education Association. Farris, Zelda (Teacher), 1115 Ash St., Muskogee; Muskogee Teachers Associa¬ tion. Frank, Anna (Teacher), Hotel Tulsa; De¬ partment of Classroom Teachers of the Oklahoma Education Association. Frank, Kate (Teacher), Central High School, Muskogee; Department of Class¬ room Teachers of the Oklahoma Educa¬ tion Association. Gregory, Parthenia F. (Teacher), 510 Irving St., Muskogee; Muskogee Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Associational Records and Information 967 Grove, Edith (Teacher), 2646 N. W. Twelfth St., Oklahoma City; Oklahoma City Class¬ room Teachers Association. Grove, Mabel (Teacher), 2646 N. W. Twelfth St., Oklahoma City; Oklahoma City Class¬ room Teachers Association. Hodges, J. H. (Principal), 1142 N. Main St., Tulsa; Oklahoma Education Associa¬ tion. Howell, C. M. (Secretary), Oklahoma Edu¬ cation Association, 326 Key Building, Oklahoma City; Oklahoma Education As¬ sociation. Hurst, M. E. (N. E. A. State Director), Teacher, Central High School, Tulsa; Tulsa Classroom Teachers Association. Irizarry, Oscar (Teacher), Central High School, Tulsa; Oklahoma Education As¬ sociation. Kennedy, Ruth (Teacher), 1111 S. Denver St., Tulsa; Tulsa Classroom Teachers Association. Kieser, Eula Lee (Teacher), 2307 E. Fourth PI., Tulsa; Tulsa Classroom Teachers Association. Meloy, Mrs. Jessie C. (Teacher), 719 S. Zunis St., Tulsa; Oklahoma Education Association. Pratt, Gabriella (Teacher), 1611 S. Main St., Tulsa; Tulsa Classroom Teachers Association. Raines, Ona C. (Teacher), 1631 E. Fourth St., Tulsa; Oklahoma Education Associa¬ tion. Scales, Martha (Teacher), 609 Dayton St., Muskogee; Department of Classroom Teachers of the Oklahoma Education As¬ sociation. Scales, Opal (Teacher), 609 Dayton St., Muskogee; Department of Classroom Teachers of the Oklahoma Education As¬ sociation. Shirley, Mary (Teacher), 1114 Fremont, Muskogee; Department of Classroom Teachers of the Oklahoma Education As¬ sociation. Weatherford, Nelle (Teacher), 1601 E. Fourteenth St., Tulsa; Tulsa Classroom Teachers Association. White, Naomi (Teacher), 216| Eastside Blvd., Muskogee; Department of Class¬ room Teachers of the Oklahoma Educa¬ tion Association. Zaneis, Mrs. Kate Galt (President), South¬ eastern State Teachers College, Durant ; Oklahoma Education Association. OREGON Bray, Beatrice (Teacher), 420 Fourth St., Oregon City; Oregon State Teachers As¬ sociation. Cannon, A. M. (County Superintendent), Toledo; Oregon State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Clarke, Ethel E. (Teacher), 1935 S. E. Ash St., Portland ; Portland High School Teachers Association. Crissey, Angenette H. (Teacher), 3172 N. E. Thirty-fifth PL, Portland; Portland Grade Teachers Association. Hampton, A. C. (Superintendent), City Hall, Astoria; Oregon State Teachers As¬ sociation. King, H. W. (Teacher), 1103 N Ave., La Grande; Classroom Teachers Association. Landreth, Austin (Superintendent), Pendle¬ ton; Oregon State Teachers Association. Lobaugh, Dean (Principal), Pendleton High School, Pendleton; Oregon State Teachers Association • Martin, M. Elizabeth (Teacher), 1802 S. W. Tenth Ave., Portland; Portland Grade Teachers Association. Merrill, Birdine (N. E. A. State Director), Gresham; Portland Grade Teachers As¬ sociation. Nye, Birdine (Teacher), 2306 N. E. Forty- second Ave., Portland; Oregon State Teachers Association. Rice, C. A. (ex officio), 1656 S. E. Twenty- fifth St., Portland. Simpson, Mabel (Teacher), 1110 S. W. Eleventh Ave., Portland; Portland Grade Teachers Association. Skinner, Jessie A. (Teacher), 5700 N. E. Tenth Ave., Portland; Portland High School Teachers Association. Smith, Agnes B. (Teacher), Route 1, Box 298, Oswego; Portland Grade Teachers Association. Smith, Elphe K. (Teacher), Route 1, Box 22, Tigard; Portland Grade Teachers As¬ sociation. Turnbull, L. W. (Superintendent), North Bend; Oregon State Teachers Association. Webb, Horton E. (Principal), 3740 S. E. Tenth Ave., Portland; Portland Elemen¬ tary School Principals Association. Wilde, Jessie (Teacher), 2621 S. E. Twenty- third Ave., Portland; Portland Grade Teachers Association. PENNSYLVANIA Allen, J. G. (Principal), Pennsylvania Soldiers Orphan School, Scotland; Penn¬ sylvania State Education Association. Attinger, F. S. (County Superintendent), Snyder County, Selinsgrove; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Beatty, Eugenie (Teacher), 316 E. Broad St., Chester; Chester Teachers Associa¬ tion. Bentz, M. S. (County Superintendent), Cam¬ bria County. Ebensburg; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Blair, H. L. (Assistance County Superin¬ tendent), Warren County Schools, War¬ ren; Pennsylvania State Education Asso¬ ciation. Boehm, Charles H. (Assistant County Superintendent), Morrisville; Pennsyl¬ vania State Education Association. Boyer, Emma E. (Teacher), 6420 N. Twelfth St., Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Boyer, Martha E. (Principal), 6420 N. Twelfth St., Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Brooder, Margaret (Teacher), 301 Bausman St., M't. Oliver Sta., Pittsburgh; Pitts¬ burgh Teachers Association. Burke, C. A. (Supervising Principal), Gil- berton; Pennsylvania State Education As¬ sociation. Burkholder, Mary E. (Teacher), 722 N. Six¬ teenth St., Harrisburg; Harrisburg Teach¬ ers League. Chambers, Will Grant (Dean), Pennsylvania State College, State College; Pennsyl¬ vania State Education Association. Chapman. E. T. (Superintendent of Schools), New Kensington; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Clark, Robert Wayne (Teacher), 615 Up¬ land Ave., Jenkintown; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Clemens, Mary E. (Teacher), 6 N. Ninth St., Stroudsburg; Pennsylvania State Educa¬ tion Association. Conerford, Mary T. (Teacher), 4742 Phila¬ delphia St., Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Costello, Helen M. (Principal), 3601 Powle- ton Ave., Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Davis, Charles S. (District Superintendent), Steelton; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Deevers, R. G. (Principal), Taylor- Allder- dice High School, Pittsburgh; Pennsyl¬ vania State Education Association. 968 National Education Association Eichler, G. A. (Superintendent of Schools), Northampton; Pennsylvania State Edu¬ cation Association. Eldridge, Sophie W. (Teacher), 4921 Royal St., Germantown, Philadelphia; Pennsyl¬ vania State Education Association. Farrell, Beatrice C. (Principal), 938 E. Twenty-second St., Erie; Erie Teachers Association. Ferree, Lavon (Teacher), 316 E. Broad St., Chester; Chester Teachers Association. Fish, H. G. (Supervising Principal), Mt. Jewett; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Forsyth, Joseph W. (Teacher), 1424 Comly St., Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Foster, Blanche (Teacher), Tilden Junior High School, Philadelphia; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Fretz, Floyd C. (Supervising Principal), Downingtown; Pennsylvania State Educa¬ tion Association. Fritz, Victor (Teacher), 111 E. Wyoming Ave., Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teach¬ ers Association. Gerber, Mildred L. (Teacher), 1205 E. Market St., York; York City Teachers Association. Gilbert, Levi (Principal), 805 Fifty-eighth St., Altoona; Pennsylvania State Edu¬ cation Association. Gillespie, J. J. (Teacher), 841 N. Valley Ave., Olyphant; Pennsylvania State Edu¬ cation Association. Graham, Ben G. (Superintendent of Schools), Administration Bldg., Pittsburgh; Penn¬ sylvania State Education Association. Grant, Richard W. (Director), Pennsylvania State College, State College; Pennsyl¬ vania State Education Association. Gray, Jessie (ex officio), Stevens School of Practice, Philadelphia. Greger, Elizabeth (Teacher), 4560 Baker St., Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Grimm, S. R. (Supervising Principal), Sid- man; Pennsylvania State Education As¬ sociation. Heeter, N. E. (County Superintendent), Clarion County, Clarion; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Herlinger, H. V. (Superintendent of Schools), Mount Lebanon; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Herrington, Frank H. (Teacher), 131 S. Lexington Ave., Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh Teachers Association. Houck, George W. (District Principal), 218 S. Franklin St., Wilkes-Barre; Pennsyl¬ vania State Education Association. Howell, A. H. (County Superintendent), Wayne County, Honesdale; Pennsylvania State Education Association. James, Aelfric, Sr. (Teacher), 801 Spring Garden St., Easton; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Jones, P. A. (Principal), 1018 E. State St., Sharon; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Keboch, F. D. (Supervising Principal), Aspinwall; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Kelley, J. Herbert (Executive Secretary), Pennsylvania State Education Association, 400 North Third St., Harrisburg; Penn¬ sylvania State Education Association. Kennedy, J. B. (District Superintendent), Columbia; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Klinedinst, Paul E. (Teacher), 450 W. Market St., York; York City Teachers Association. Kob, J. F. (Supervising Principal), 1501 Swatara St., Harrisburg; Harrisburg Teachers League. Koontz, Norman C. (District Superinten¬ dent), Indiana; Pennsylvania State Edu¬ cation Association. Kriner, Harry L. (Dean), State Teachers College, California; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Liggitt, E. O. (District Superintendent), 87 Union Ave., Crafton; Pennsylvania State Education Association. McDonough, Mrs. Mary S. (Teacher), 439 Phelps St., Scranton; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Malloy, Charles (Teacher), Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Marshall, Esther L. (Teacher), 500 Knau St., Du Bois; Du Bois Teachers Associa¬ tion. Maxwell, Charles F. (County Superinten¬ dent), Westmoreland County, Court House, Greensburg; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Meyer, Mrs. Anna B. (Teacher), Alden Park Manor, Germantown, Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Miller, Charles S. (President), State Teach¬ ers College, Slippery Rock; Pennsylvania State Education Association. O’Dea, Katherine (Teacher), 169 S. Main Ave., Scranton; Pennsylvania State Edu¬ cation Association. Phillips, Jesse C. (Teacher), 718 S. Fifty- fifth St., Philadelphia; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Potter, J. W. (District Superintendent), Carlisle; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Quigley, J. Wynn (Teacher), Eighth and Lehigh (134) Sylvania, Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Replogle, S. H. (Assistant County Superin¬ tendent), 345 County Office Bldg., Pitts¬ burgh; Pennsylvania State Education As¬ sociation. Roberts, Wm. Ely (Teacher), 207 McKinley Ave., Lansdowne; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Rogers, F. G. (County Superintendent), Centre County Schools, Bellefonte; Penn¬ sylvania State Education Association. Ross, Carmon (President), State Teachers College, Edinboro; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Scott, Jessie M. (Teacher), 2655 Perrysville Ave., Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh Teachers Association. Shalfer, C. C. (Supervising Principal), Con¬ fluence; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Shaw, Reuben T. (Head), Science Depart¬ ment, Northeast High School, Phila¬ delphia; Philadelphia Teachers Associa¬ tion. Sharp, Susan E. (Teacher), 4308 Rnawn St., Holmesburg, Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Springer, Kenneth LeRoy (Teacher), 422 E. Prospect St., York; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Stetser, Margaret C. (Principal), 1602 Up¬ land St., Chester; Chester Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Stull, Arthur M. (Supervising Principal), 30 Akers St., Johnstown; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Tennyson, H. L. (Supervising Principal), Midway; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Walker, Anna W. (Principal), 5732 Spruce St., Philadelphia; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Weikert, Miriam A. (Supervisor), Court House, York; Pennsylvania State Educa¬ tion Association. Weschler, Florence (Teacher), 4625 High- view Blvd., Erie; Erie Teachers Associa¬ tion. Associational Records and Information 969 Wolsey, Enid E., Jr. (Teacher), 143 N. Craig St., Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh Teachers As¬ sociation. Woodside, Fannie R. (Teacher), 5636 Elgin Ave., Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh Teachers Association. Woodside. Janey (Teacher), 5636 Elgin Ave., Pittsburgh; Pennsylvania State Education Association. RHODE ISLAND Anderton, Marion K. (Teacher), 77 Dexter- dale Rd., Providence; Rhode Island Insti¬ tute of Instruction. Carroll, Charles (ex officio), Director, Rhode Island State Board for Vocational Edu¬ cation, 122 State House, Providence. Ford, Elizabeth M. (Supervisor), Wood- socket; Rhode Island Institute of Instruc¬ tion. Quinn, Maisie E. (Assistant Superintendent of Schools), West Warwick; Rhode Island Institute of Instruction. SOUTH CAROLINA Carson, Mrs. W. L. (Teaches), Beaufort; South Carolina Education Association. Coates, J. P. (Secretary), South Carolina Education Association, 1218 Senate St., Columbia; South Carolina Education As¬ sociation. Flora, A. C. (N. E. A. State Director), Superintendent of Schools, Columbia; South Carolina Education Association. Hill, Mrs. Evelyn C. (Teacher), Spartan¬ burg; South Carolina Education Associa¬ tion. Young, Doris (Teacher), York; South Caro¬ lina Education Association. SOUTH DAKOTA Curran, Clay (Principal), Lead; South Dakota Education Association. Hines, J. F. (State Superintendent), Pierre; South Dakota Education Association. Hunkins, R. V. (Superintendent), Lead, South Dakota Education Association. Hunt, R. L. (Superintendent), Madison; South Dakota Education Association. Lamb, W. 0. (County Superintendent), Philip; South Dakota Education Associa¬ tion. Schar, Francena (County Superintendent), Bison ; South Dakota Education Associa¬ tion. TENNESSEE Bass, W. A. (Executive Secretary), Ten¬ nessee Education Association, 601-602 Cotton States Building, Nashville; Ten- ne:see Education Association. Brandon, James D. (Principal), Hillcrest Ave., Nashville; Davidson County Teach¬ ers Association. Caldwell, Nelle (Teacher), 970 Forrest Ave., Memphis; Memphis Education Associa¬ tion. Clark, Harry (Superintendent of Schools), Knoxville; Tennessee Education Associa¬ tion. Cocking, Walter D. (State Superintendent of Public Instruction), Memorial Bldg., Nashville; Tennessee Education Associa¬ tion. Jones, Mrs. Grace (Teacher), 3539 Vernon Ave., Memphis; Tennessee Education As¬ sociation. McCall, Mrs. Lottye (Teacher), 1703 Glen¬ view, Memphis; Memphis Education As¬ sociation. McKeen, Laura Mae (Teacher), 2165 Monroe St., Memphis; Tennessee Education As¬ sociation. Maybry, W. L. (Principal), 1893 Crump St., Memphis; Memphis Education Asso¬ ciation. Northcutt, C. L. (Teacher), 2525 Chicago Ave., Knoxville; Knoxville Teachers League. Powers, Sue M. (County Superintendent), 301 Court House, Memphis; Tennessee Education Association. Ragsdale, S. L. (N. E. A. State Director), Principal, 659 N. Manassas St., Memphis; Memphis Education Association. Smith, S. L., 502 Cotton States Bldg., Nash¬ ville; Tennessee Education Association. Srygley, H. F. (Superintendent of Schools), Nashville; Tennessee Education Associa¬ tion. West, J. L. (Principal), E. E. Jeter School, Lucy; Shelby County Teachers Associa¬ tion. Williams, Elizabeth (Teacher), Loudon; Tennessee Education Association. TEXAS Alexander, W. B. (Superintendent), Cleve¬ land; Texas Teachers Association. Allison, Laura (Teacher), 1807 East Ave., Austin; Texas Teachers Association. Bradford, Mrs. H. H. (Teacher), 3400 Ave. “ H,” Fort Worth; Fort Worth Grade Teachers Council. Bushman, W. W. (Teacher), Cliff Towers, Dallas; Dallas High School Teachers As¬ sociation. Butler, Mrs. L. W. (Teacher), 1904 Ave. “ M,” Galveston; Galveston City Teach¬ ers Association. Caldwell, Rush M. (N. E. A. State Direc¬ tor), Teacher, 2527 Ross Ave., Dallas; Texas Teachers Association. Cochran, J. C. (Superintendent), Board of Education, San Antonio; Texas Teachers Association. Coleman, Vi Belle (Teacher), 5500 Tremont, Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Council. Cunningham, Mrs. Percy M. (Teacher), 2300 Morrow Ave., Waco; Waco Classroom Teachers Association. Evans, A. W. (Dean), Texas Technological College, Lubbock; Texas Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Fahrner, Mrs. W. S. (Teacher), Blackstone Hotel, Amarillo; Amarillo Teachers Club. Fordtran, Myrtle (Teacher), 3908 Garrott St., Houston; Houston Teachers Associa¬ tion. Gaines, Emma (Teacher), 1128 Bissonnett St., Houston; Houston Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Grigsby, Sarah (Teacher), 2508 McKinney St., Dallas; Dallas High School Teachers Association. Hunter, Eula (Teacher), 920 College St., Fort Worth; Texas Teachers Association. James, W. A. (Principal), Ball High School, Galveston; Texas Teachers Association. Jarvis, Ruth (Teacher), 5528 Victor St., Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Council. Lake, Gertrude (Teacher), 1729 N. Hender¬ son St., Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Council. McFarland, Cora (Teacher), 1729 N. Hen¬ derson St., Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Council. Mock, Lula (Teacher), 1921 Park Ave., Dallas; Texas Teachers Association. Murray, Marion (Teacher), 4022 McKinney St., Dallas; Dallas High School Teachers Association. Oberholtzer, E. E. (Superintendent), Hous¬ ton; Texas State Teachers Association. Shaver, C. N. (President), Texas State Teachers Association, Huntsville; Texas State Teachers Association. 970 National Education Association Shaw, Lucile (Teacher), 1605 Harold St., Houston; Houston Teachers Association. Stewart, Bessie (Teacher), 6417 Hillcrest St., Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Council. Strong, Vera (Teacher), 2506 Truxillo St., Houston; Houston Teachers Association. White, Blanche (Teacher), San Jacinto Hotel, Houston; Houston Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Wilcox, Louise (Teacher), 4810 Tremont St., Dallas; Dallas High School Teachers A ccnf»ici f i ab Willis, Mrs. S. J. (Teacher), 625 Hughes St., Fort Worth; Fort Worth High School Teachers • Winne, Eva (Teacher), Houston; Houston Teachers Association. Woodall, Belle (Teacher), 138 Castillo St., San Antonio; San Antonio Teachers Council. Woods, Quata (Teacher), 4313 Avondale St., Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Associa¬ tion. UTAH Beecher, S. W. (Teacher), Brigham City; Box Elder Teachers Association. Bott, Victor J. (Principal), Brigham City; Box Elder Teachers Association. Brady, Kenneth (Teacher), Sandy; Jordan District Teachers Association. Bradley, Harold (Teacher), Sandy; Jordan District Teachers Association. Ensign, Miss Ivie (Teacher), 1026 S. Ninth St. E., Salt Lake City; Utah Education Association. Evans, C. Ray (Principal), North Summit High School, Coalville; Utah Education Association* Gardner, C. C. (Teacher), Bountiful; Utah Education Association. Hale, H. H. (Teacher), 123 S. Fifth St. E., Salt Lake City; Granite Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Hamilton, Norman (Principal), Carbon County High School, Price; Utah Educa¬ tion Association. Jensen, N. Howard (Principal), Central School, Tooele; Utah Education Associa¬ tion. Kilburn, H. Parley (Principal), 156 W. Fourth St. N., Logan; Logan Teachers Association. Learned, Welthea M. (Teacher), 853 E. Third St. S., Salt Lake City; Utah Educa¬ tion Association. Peterson, J. M. (Teacher), Box 7, Draper; Utah Education Association. Smith, J. R. (Principal), 1833 S. Fifteenth St. E., Salt Lake City; Utah Education Association. Strate, Fred C. (Principal), Parker School, Provo; Utah Education Association. VERMONT Bailey, Francis L. (Commissioner of Educa¬ tion), Montpelier; Vermont State Teach¬ ers Association. Batchelder, Carl (Deputy Commissioner of Education), Montpelier; Vermont State Teachers Association. Black, Florence (Teacher), Castleton; Rut¬ land County Teachers Association. Burbank, Natt (Teacher), Danville; North¬ eastern Tri-County Teachers Association. Jackson, Marcella (Teacher), Castleton Normal School, Castleton; Vermont State Teachers Association. Jenkins, Ralph (Teacher), Johnson Normal School, Johnson; Vermont State Teachers Association. Kincaid, W. A. (Teacher), Montpelier; Winooski Valley Teachers Association. Morrill, Alice (Teacher), Castleton; Ver¬ mont State Teachers Association. Wiggin, Joseph A. (Principal), High School, Bellows Falls; Vermont State Teachers Association. Woodruif, Caroline S. (ex officio), Principal, Castleton State Normal School, Castleton. VIRGINIA Adair, Cornelia S. (Principal), 3208 Haw¬ thorne Ave., Richmond; League of Rich¬ mond Teachers. Brewbaker, J. J. (Principal), 422 Westover Ave., Norfolk; Norfolk Education Asso¬ ciation. Cook, Roland E. (Superintendent of Schools), Salem; Virginia Education As¬ sociation. Dunivin, Kate (Teacher), 3220 Carolina Ave., Richmond; League of Richmond Teachers. Farmer, Oliver (Clerk), 100 Kentucky Ave., Ingleside; Norfolk Education Association. Galvin, W. Roland (Teacher), 701 Colonial Ave., Richmond; League of Richmond Teachers. Greer, Elizabeth (Teacher), St. Paul, Vir¬ ginia Education Association. Heatwole, C. J. (Secretary), Virginia Edu¬ cation Association, 401 N. Ninth St., Richmond; Virginia Education Associa¬ tion. Joynes, Mrs. Edith B. (N. E. A. State Direc¬ tor), Principal, 410 W. Fourteenth St., Norfolk; Norfolk Education Association. Martin, John E. (Superintendent of Schools), Suffolk; Virginia Education As¬ sociation. Massey, Louise (Teacher), 3010 West Ave., Newport News; Newport News Teachers Association. Moseley, Miss E. Lyne (Teacher), 2407 Kensington Ave., Richmond; League of Richmond Teachers. O’Hara, Mrs. Jessie S. (Teacher), 8312 King William Rd., Richmond; League of Rich¬ mond Teachers. Pace, Nannie (Teacher), 3308 Hanover Ave., Richmond; League of Richmond Teachers. Pettus, Dorothy (Teacher), R. F. D. 3, Box 6, Portsmouth; Norfolk County Education Association. Pusey, Mary B. (Supervisor), Parskley; Virginia Education Association. Rogers, Elizabeth B. (Teacher), 230 Fifty- fifth St., Newport News; Virginia Edu¬ cation Association. Rush, Mary Alston (Teacher), Suffolk; Vir¬ ginia Education Association. Saunders, Elizabeth (Teacher), 5906 Hunt¬ ington Ave., Newport News; Virginia Education Association. Saunders, Joseph H. (Superintendent of Schools), Newport News; Newport News Teachers Association. Thompson, Constance (Teacher), Hot Springs; Virginia Education Association. Townsend, Lizzie M. (Teacher), 649 River- view Ave., Portsmouth; Portsmouth Edu¬ cation Association. Whitehead, Frances N. (Teacher), 110 Com¬ monwealth Ave., Norfolk; Norfolk County Education Association. Wood, Mrs. J. B. (Teacher), Goshen; Vir¬ ginia Education Association. WASHINGTON Beach, C. E. (Superintendent), 1935 Cal¬ houn St., Seattle; Washington Education Association. Bean, Mrs. Clara T. (Teacher), Issaquah; Washington Education Association. Bond, Mary (Teacher), Purnell Apts., Bell¬ ingham; Bellingham Classroom Teach¬ ers Association. Associational Records and Information 971 Calder, Henrietta (Teacher), 415 N. Six¬ tieth St., Seattle; Seattle Grade Teachers Club. Campbell, E. W. (Superintendent), Renton; Washington Education Association. Dunmore, Blanche (Teacher), 1910 N. Forty- ninth St., Seattle; Seattle Grade Teach¬ ers Club. Fassold, Mary B. (Teacher), 5422 Forty- second St., S. W., Seattle; Seattle Grade Teachers Club. Fleming, S. E. (N. E. A. State Director), Assistant Superintendent, Seattle Public Schools, Seattle; Washington Education Association. Foster, Olive Reeves (Teacher), Y. W. C. A., Bellingham; Washington Education Asso¬ ciation. Friars, Lola (Teacher), 3706 N. Eighteenth St., Tacoma; Tacoma Association of Classroom Teachers. Gonderman, May (Teacher), S. 155 Oak St., Spokane; Spokane Grade Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Horrall, Pansy (Principal), W. 2009 Pacific Ave., Spokane; Spokane Education Asso¬ ciation. Johnson, Leslie W. (Teacher), 8032 Brook¬ lyn St., Seattle; Washington Education Association. Marsh, Arthur L. (Secretary), 707 Lowman Building, Seattle; Washington Education Association. Mauseth, Clara P. (Teacher), Woman’s Athletic Club, Spokane; Spokane Grade Teachers Association. McDonnell, Alberta (Teacher), 3411 N. Twenty-fourth St., Tacoma; Tacoma As¬ sociation of Classroom Teachers. McRae, Christine (Teacher), Culmstock Arms Apts., Spokane; Spokane High School Teachers Association. Muse, H. M. (Superintendent), Cowiche; Washington Education Association. Patterson, Don S. (Principal), 704 Pearl St., N., Ellensburg; Washington Educa¬ tion Association. Post, Edith (Teacher), 1548 Fifteenth Ave., N., Seattle; Seattle Classroom Teachers Association. Raber, Ruth (Teacher), 2920 N. Twenty- fifth St., Tacoma; Tacoma Association of Classroom Teachers. Schuster, Ethyl (Teacher), 1402 N. Fifth St., Tacoma; Tacoma Association of Classroom Teachers. Sells, Mrs. Winona (Teacher), Chelan Falls; Washington Education Association. Stewart, Lyle P. (Teacher), 750 N. Eightieth St., Seattle; Seattle Junior High School Teachers Club. Wardrobe, Mary B. (Teacher), Sillman Hotel, Spokane; Spokane Grade Teachers Association. Warren, Jessie (Teacher), 4215 Twelfth Ave., N. E., Seattle; Washington Edu¬ cation Association. Williams, Helen Irene (Teacher), 3320 Mt. Baker Blvd., Seattle; Seattle Grade Teachers Club. WEST VIRGINIA Barnes, W. H. (Teacher), 309 Stewart St., Morgantown; Monongahela Valley Round Table. Buckey, W. E. (Principal), High School, Fairmont; Monongahela Valley Round Table. Core, Elsie Lee (Teacher), Masontown ; Monongahela Valley Round Table. Davis, James R (County Superintendent), Hurricane; Southwestern Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Dodd, M. R. (Assistant Superintendent), Kanawha County Schools, Charleston; West Virginia State Education Associa¬ tion. Hendershot, Nan (Teacher), Moundsville ; Marshall County Teachers Association. Hickman, J. H. (Secretary), West Virginia State Education Association, 1816 Wash¬ ington St., Charleston; West Virginia State Education Association. Long, C. Dare (Assistant County Superin¬ tendent), Huntington; Southwestern Teachers Association. Mclntire, Andra (Teacher), Elkins; West Virginia State Education Association. Marsh, J. Frank (President), Concord State Teachers College, Athens; West Virginia State Education Association. Power, F. Ray (Assistant State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction), Charles¬ ton; West Virginia State Education As¬ sociation. Rosier, Joseph (President), Fairmont State Teachers College, Fairmont; West Vir¬ ginia State Education Association. Shawkey, M. P. (President), Marshall Col¬ lege, Huntington; Southwestern Teach¬ ers Association. Trent, W. W. (N. E. A. State Director), State Superintendent of Public Instruc¬ tion, Charleston; West Virginia State Education Association. Young, Marguerite (Teacher), Adrian; Tygarts Valley Round Table. WISCONSIN Aim, Mrs. Helena (Teacher), Phillips; Wis¬ consin Education Association. Axtell, Annie D. (Principal), 401 Maple Ave., Madison; Madison Public and Voca¬ tional Teachers Association. Bannach, Henry E. (Teacher), Stevens Point; Wisconsin Education Association. Bannerman, G. W. (Principal), 615 Hamil¬ ton St., Wausau; Central Wisconsin Teachers Association. Byrne, Alice (Teacher), 812 King St., La Crosse; Wisconsin Education Association. Byrnes, Chester (Teacher), East Troy; Wisconsin Education Association. Carnachan, Mrs. Marguerite (Teacher), 1721 E. Newton Ave, Milwaukee; Milwaukee Teachers Association. Cassels, Grace (Supervisor), Monroe County Schools, Sparta; Western Wisconsin Teachers Association. Chapel, J. C. (Teacher), 7939 Twenty-sixth Ave., Kenosha; Kenosha Teachers Club. Chell, Elsie M. (Supervising Teacher), Bal¬ sam Lake; Wisconsin Education Asso¬ ciation. Chenoweth, Margaret (Supervisor), 1026 Carrington St., Janesville; Janesville Teachers Association. Cox, A. J. (Department Head), William Horlick High School, Racine; Racine Teachers Association. Danielson, Marie (Teacher), Lincoln School, Racine; Racine Teachers Association. Dierschke, Anna (Teacher), 2041 W. Atkin¬ son Ave., Milwaukee; Milwaukee Teach¬ ers Association. Ford, Mrs. Myrtle (Teacher), 1111 Main St., Oconto; Wisconsin Education Asso¬ ciation. Fowler, Lotta B. (Teacher), 2153 N. Forty- seventh St., Milwaukee; Milwaukee Teachers Association. Fredrich, Ida (Teacher), 1611 S. Eleventh St., Milwaukee; Milwaukee Teachers As¬ sociation. Gaulke, Robert J. (Teacher), South Wayne; Wisconsin Education Association. Genske, Clara (Teacher), 723 N. Fifty-third St., Milwaukee; Milwaukee Teachers As¬ sociation. 972 National Education Association Healy, Hazel M. (Teacher), 2424 N. Forty- ninth St., Milwaukee; Wisconsin Educa¬ tion Association. Hirsch, E. C. (Superintendent of Schools), Wauwau; Wisconsin Education Associa¬ tion. Jelinek, Frances (Teacher), 3405 Lisbon Ave., W., Milwaukee; Milwaukee Teach¬ ers Association. Keenan, Mary (Teacher), 1226 W. Wis¬ consin Ave., Milwaukee; Milwaukee Teachers Association. Kindschi. Lowell (Teacher), Platteville; Wisconsin Education Association. Korotev, Elsie M. (Supervising Teacher), Gillett; Wisconsin Supervising Teachers Association. McCormick, Elizabeth (Principal), Superior; Wisconsin Education Association. McCormick, Lillian F. (Teacher), 509 Twenty-first Ave. E., Superior; Superior Classroom Teachers Association. McGill, Anna (Teacher), 1606 Seventeenth St., Superior; Superior Classroom Teach¬ ers Association. McKean, E. J. (President), Wisconsin Edu¬ cation Association, Tomah; Wisconsin Education Association. Mietz, Doris (Teacher), 3115 W. Garfield Ave., Milwaukee; Milwaukee Teachers Association. Nelson, James (Teacher), 192 E. Second St., Fond du Lac; Fond du Lac Council of Education. Nienow, Emily (Teacher), 3009 N. Murray Ave., Milwaukee; Wisconsin Education Association. Noble, Isabel R. (Teacher), 1820 W. Wells St., Milwaukee; Milwaukee High School Teachers Association. Padway, Rhoda (Teacher), 3621 W. Custer Ave., Milwaukee; Milwaukee High School Teachers Association. Perry, Charles W. (Teacher), 820 E. Knapp St., Milwaukee; Milwaukee High School Teachers Association. Peterson, George K. (Teacher), Sheboygan; Wisconsin Education Association. Plenzke, O. H. (Secretary), Wisconsin Edu¬ cation Association, 716 Insurance Bldg., Madison; Wisconsin Education Associa¬ tion. Potter, Milton C. (Superintendent of Schools), 1111 N. Tenth St., Milwaukee; Milwaukee Principals Association. Rankin, George R. (Teacher), 319 W. Vir¬ ginia St., Milwaukee; Milwaukee High School Teachers Association. Rowen, Ross B. (Teacher), 425 Brockway Ave., Oshkosh; Northeastern Wisconsin Education Association. Runnestrand, Esther (Teacher), 1506 Madi¬ son St., La Crosse; The Teachers Club of La Crosse. Ryan, Clara J. (Teacher), 1712 S. Thirty- second St., Milwaukee; Milwaukee High School Teachers Association. Sanford, Mrs. Autie (County Superinten¬ dent), Ladysmith; Wisconsin Education Association. Wall, Erwin (Teacher), Washington Park High School, Racine; Racine Teachers Association. Watters, James M. (Teacher), 3900 N. Cramer St., Milwaukee; Milwaukee High School Teachers Association. Wheelock, J. H. (Principal), Viroq.ua; Wis¬ consin Education Association. WYOMING Belt. L. J, (Superintendent of Schools), Wheatland; Wyoming Education Associa¬ tion. Dunaway, Julia (Teacher), 620 E. Second St., Casper; Casper Classroom Teachers Association. Morgan, N. D. (Superintendent of Schools), Gillette; Wyoming Education Association. Rennard, R. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Carpenter; Laramie County Teachers As¬ sociation. Stephenson, Eva (Teacher), High School, Cheyenne; Laramie County Teachers As¬ sociation. Stigall, M. D. (Superintendent of Schools), Glenrock; Wyoming Education Associa¬ tion. Watson, Frank R. (Superintendent of Schools), Worland; Wyoming Education Association. Winchell, Karl F. (Principal), High School, Rock Springs; Wyoming Education Asso¬ ciation. INDEX ' . ■ i ■ ' f ■ - (• < . I ' of ki -< ' < | vr — INDEX1 Academic freedom, in a period of transition (John L. Childs), 233; panel jury discussion group (Hobart M. Corning), 106; (Arvie Eldred), 108; (George W. Frasier), 107; (Arnold E. Joyal), 107; (John R. Nichols), 108; (M. R. Owens), 107; (Mrs. F. Blanche Preble), 106; (Emily Tarbell), 107; report of 1935 committee on — department of class¬ room teachers (Emily Tarbell), 300. See also 604 _ Activities of the curriculum commission of the National Council of Teachers of English (W. Wilbur Hatfield), 629 Adair, Cornelia S. The economic status of the teacher — panel jury discussion group, 109 Adams, Mrs. A. Virginia. Count for one, 358 Adams, O. D. Technological changes in indus¬ try and the new apprentice, 732 Adaptation of art to classroom work, The (Edna Hellstern), 724 Address (J. W. Crabtree), 147; (Paul V. McNutt), 125; (Josephine Roche), 297 Address of welcome (Ed. C. Johnson), 54; (Mrs. Inez Johnson Lewis), 56; (Benjamin F. Stapleton), 21; (A. L. Threlkeld), 21 Administrative women in education, depart¬ ment of, 251; historical note, 252; secretary’s minutes, 253 Adult education, department of, 255; his¬ torical note, 256; secretary’s minutes, 266 Adventures in faculty cooperation and partici¬ pation in the training school (L. R. Gregory), 675 American Library Association, report of com¬ mittee on cooperation with the National Edu¬ cation Association (Anna Clarke Kennedy), 153 Anderson, J. T. Betterment of rural education thru improved leadership, 426 Appreciation for headquarters staff (Joy Elmer Morgan), 146 Around the year with the president — depart¬ ment of classroom teachers (Daisy Lord), 287 Art education, department of, 271; historical note, 272 Art in adult education (Lyman Bryson), 30 Art problems of the general supervisor, The (Julia C. Harney), 637 Associational records and information, 743 Auditors, report of, 900 Auditory deficiency and delayed speech (Sara Stinchfield Hawk), 489 Augustus O. Thomas (Rev. Raphael Miller), 740 Averill, Lawrence A. Directing the activities of the classroom toward the mental health objective, 640 Avery, George T. Report of committee on resolutions, 207 Avocational training for the new leisure (George W. Braden), 435 Background of significant information, A (Ruth West), 473 Bailey, Edna W. The teacher’s health— panel jury discussion group, 117; what is a pro¬ gram of school health service adequate to meet presentday needs, 431 Balch, Mary M. Making the program fit the needs of individual pupils, 480 Ballenger, Harvey L. The education of the retarded child, 497 Ballou, Frank W. Social change and educa¬ tion — jury panel discussion, 547 Barnard, Mrs, Florence. The economic status of the teacher — panel jury discussion group, 109 Barnes, Mrs. Mary D. The teacher’s health — panel jury discussion group, 117 Barr, A. S. The measurement of teaching ability, 337 Bayles, Ernest E. The social significance of science teaching, 446 Beard, Charles A, The quest for national security, 510 Bennion, Milton. Education’s oldest challenge — character— panel jury discussion group, 113 Betterment of rural education thru improved leadership (J. T. Anderson), 426 Betts, Gilbert L. Problems in the measure¬ ment of teaching ability, 336 Bishop, Merrill. Visualized education in ap¬ preciation of the arts, 721 Bland, Rose. Some aspects of the program of the elementary school as it is planned to meet the challenge in this period of social change, 366 Boehringer, C. Louise. The teacher as a citizen — panel jury discussion group, 111 Braden, George W. Avocational training for the new leisure, 435; the challenge of leisure. 265 Bradley, Helen. The economic status of the teacher — panel jury discussion group, 108 Brooker, John W. The school plant in a re¬ directed program, 412 Broome, Edwin C. The place of home eco¬ nomics in developing better citizens, 647 Broun, Heywood. The city room and the school room. 604 Brown, Edythe Jeannette. Education’s oldest challenge — character — panel jury discussion group, 113 Bryson, Lyman. Art in adult education, 30; social change and education — jury panel dis¬ cussion, 538 Buckingham, B. R. The economic status of the teacher, 159; jury panel discussion, 108 Budget committee, report of, 920 Building thru life memberships (Joseph H. Saunders), 137 Burnett, Marguerite H. A state program of adult education, 28 Burns, Samuel T. Pioneering in music educa¬ tion, 399 Bush, Robert N. Youth bids for a needed op¬ portunity, 89 Business education, department of, 275; his¬ torical note, 276; secretary’s minutes, 282 Butterfield, Ernest W. Teaching is a social grace, 688 Bylaws of National Education Association, 750 Caldwell, Otis W. A coherent science teach¬ ing program, 441 1 All addresses are listed by titles and authors’ names, dhe book is also indexed by subject headings, which, together with authors’ names, are set in bold face. [ 975 ] 976 National Education Association Caldwell, Rush M. Progress of public educa¬ tion in Texas— panel discussion, 295 Calendar of meetings of National Education Association, 762 Can character be taught (Albion U. Jenkins), 354 Carmody, T. E. Conservation of hearing, 393 Carpenter, Harry A. The question of science equipment and materials, 634 Carr, William G. Improved methods of financing rural education, 424 Cave, Hazel. The program of girls’ athletics from the 1935 viewpoint, 433 Challenge of leisure, The (George W. Braden), 265 Chalmers, James A. The high-school principal looks at youth problems of today, 451 Character education, 113 Characteristics in still pictures for instructional use in the classroom (Lelia Trolinger), 723 Characteristics of successful college teaching (Zenos E. Scott), 681 Charter, report of committee on amending (Reuben T. Shaw), 151 Chase, Harriett M. Crabtree life membership dinner, 133 Chase, Stuart. The economy of abundance, 526 Cherrington, Ben M\ What of the future of democracy, 263 Cheskin, Louis. Social aspects of art, 273 Child in relation to the twentieth century, The (Mary E. Woolley), 580 Childs, John L. Academic freedom in a period of transition, 233; social change and educa¬ tion — jury panel discussion, 544 Choosing the new road (O. H. Plenzke), 407 City room and the school room, The (Heywood Broun), 604 Civic institutions and interests as source ma¬ terial in art education (Harry W. Jacobs), 636 Clark, Robert. Consolidated and village schools as avenues for redirecting learning programs in rural areas, 411 Classroom teachers, department of, 285; his¬ torical note, 286; report of 1935 committee on academic freedom (Emily Tarbell), 300; report of committee on resolutions, 306; report of president, 287; secretary’s minutes, 302 Clement, Bess. Report of the 1935 yearbook committee (department of elementary school principals), 353 Coffman, Lotus D. A plea for sanity, 359; education and public service, 575 Coherent science teaching program, A (Otis W. Caldwell), 441 College woman in the world community, The (Mary E. Woolley), 316 Collier, Robert F., Jr. How to prepare and present a science night program, 722 Commission plan for youth, A (C. S. Marsh), 454 Committees, department. See respective de¬ partment headings Committees, N. E. A., list of members, 777; reports of, 149; introduction, 150; amending charter (Reuben T. Shaw), 151; American Library Association on cooperation with the National Education Association (Anna Clarke Kennedy), 153; committee to cooperate with National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools (N. C. Newbold) , 156; economic status of the teacher (B. R. Buckingham), 159; health problems in education (Thomas D. Wood), 162; international relations (Annie C. Woodward), 164; joint commis¬ sion on the emergency in education (John K. Norton), 166; National Education Associa¬ tion and the National Congress of Parents and Teachers (Mrs. B. F. Langworthy), 167; legislative commission (Sidney B. Hall), 168; national commission on the enrichment of adult life (James A. Moyer), 172; reorgani¬ zation of the National Education Associa¬ tion (E. E. Oberholtzer), 175; retirement al¬ lowances (Anna Laura Force), 204; resolu¬ tions (George T. Avery), 207; rural educa¬ tion (Richard E. Jaggers), 216; social- economic goals of America (Fred J. Kelly), 218; tenure (Donald DuShane), 221 Connor, Paul. Credit unions — panel jury dis¬ cussion group, 115 Conservation of hearing (T. E. Carmody), 393 Consolidated and village schools as avenues for redirecting learning programs in rural areas (Robert Clark), 411 Cooperation with this generation (Irma C. Voigt), 83 Corning, Hobart M. Academic freedom — panel jury discussion group, 106 Costigan, Edward P. Education and the gen¬ eral welfare, 73 Couch, Edward B. What next in legislation — panel discussion, 296 Count for one (Mrs. A. Virginia Adams), 358 Counts, George S. Presentday reasons for requiring a longer period of pre-service preparation for teachers, 694 Cowles, Le Roy E. Problems of youth as seen among freshmen in a state university, 92 Crabtree, J. W. Address, 147; biennial report (World Federation of Education Associa¬ tions), 737; concluding discussion on the future of the National Education Associa¬ tion, 238 Crabtree life membership dinner (Harriett M. Chase), 133 Crane, A. G. The teacher as a citizen — panel jury discussion group, 111 Creating character values thru high-school edu¬ cation (Rev. Vere V. Loper), 453 Credit unions- — panel jury discussion group (Paul Connor), 115; (A. S. Dodd), 116; (F. Y. Fox), 115; (C. R. Orchard), 115; (Mrs. Georgia B. Parsons), 115; (L. A. Pinkney), 116; (Thomas A. Walton), 115; (J. D. Williams), 115 Culminating activity in visual education using the opaque projector (Inez C. Larson), 725 Curriculum content — junior college (Lloyd L. Jones), 282; junior high school (Ann E. McCormick), 281; senior high school (E. E. Washburn), 280 Cushman, C. L. Greetings (department of lip reading), 391 Cutright, Prudence. The problem of grade placement — symposium, 630 Dakin, Wilson S. Improvement of rural edu¬ cation thru coordination, 419 Davis, Edna E. The deaf child and public re¬ sponsibility, 491 Davis, Sheldon E. Teachers colleges versus liberal arts colleges in the education of teach¬ ers, 240 Deaf child and public responsibility, The (Edna E. Davis), 491 Dean looks at youth problems of today, The (Dorothy C. Stratton), 451 Deans of women, department of, 311; his¬ torical note, 312 Deibler, Frederick S. Social change and edu¬ cation — jury panel discussion, 541 Delegates to the fifteenth representative assembly, 948 Departments of the Association, 249; intro¬ duction, 250; officers of, 1934-35, 766, 1935- 36, 773; administrative women in education, 251; adult education, _ 255; art education, 271; business education, 275; classroom teachers, 285; deans of women, 311; educa¬ tional research, 327; elementary school prin¬ cipals, 349; kindergarten-primary education, 379; lip reading, 389; music education, 397; rural education, 403; school health and phys¬ ical education, 429; science instruction, 439; secondary education, 449; secondary school Index 977 principals, 461; social studies, 471; special education, 483; superintendence, 499; super¬ visors and directors of instruction, 627; supervisors and teachers of home economics, 645; teachers colleges, 659; visual instruc¬ tion, 719; vocational education, 727 Directing the activities of the classroom toward the mental health objective (Lawrence A. Averill), 640 Directors, board of, members of 1934-35, 764, of 1935-36, 771; minutes of meetings of, 848 Distinction between course of study writing and curriculum development — panel, 641 Dobbs, Ella Victoria. The gospel of beauty, 382 Dodd, A. S. Credit unions — panel jury discus¬ sion group, 116 Donovan, H. L. Our next order of business, 661; the teachers college in the service of the state and nation, 709 Double crisis of the schools, The (Glenn Frank), 515 Doudna, Edgar G. The future of the National Education Association, 229 Dunn, D. Y. A twelve-grade program in a county system of schools, 409 DuShane, Donald. Report of committee on tenure, 221 Early recollections (J. Y. Joyner), 135 Eastman, Linda A. The place of the library in adult education, 31 Economic status of the teacher, The — panel jury discussion group (B. R. Buckingham), 108; (Cornelia S. Adair), 109; (Mrs. Flor¬ ence Barnard), 109; (Helen Bradley), 108; (Sara C. Ewing), 109; (A. D. H. Kaplan), 109; (W. D. Mooney), 109; (J. W. Smith), 110 Economic status of the teacher, report of the committee on (B. R. Buckingham), 159 Economy of abundance, The (Stuart Chase), 526 Edmonson, J. B. Social change and educa¬ tion — jury panel discussion, 539 Education and public service (Lotus D. Coff¬ man), 575 Education and the general welfare (Edward P. Costigan), 73 Education in the Tennessee Valley Authority (Floyd W. Reeves), 329 Education of exceptional children in a rural state, The (Maude Sholty), 496 Education of leaders for adult education — dis¬ cussion (Mary L. Guyton), 257, 261; (Ben M. Cherrington), 263 Education of the retarded child (Harvey L. Ballenger), 497 Education’s most dangerous rival (Frederick M. Hunter), 118 Education’s oldest challenge — character — panel jury discussion group (A. L. Threlkeld), 113; (Milton Bennion), 113; (Edythe Jean¬ nette Brown), 113; (R. C. T. Jacobs), 114; (George L. Maxwell), 114; (Mrs. Lois Coffey Mossman), 113; (Faye Read), 114; (Charles A. Rice), 114 Educational leadership in a troubled world (.George D. Strayer), 559 Educational research, department of, 327 ; his¬ torical note, 328; secretary’s minutes, 346 Elder, Harry E. Larger units of organization, 427 Eldred, Arvie. Academic freedom — panel jury discussion group, 108 Elementary school principals, department of, 349; greetings (Willard E. Givens), 351, (R. H. Palmer), 365; historical note, 350; report of professional relations committee (Mason A. Stratton), 371; report of resolu¬ tions committee (Aaron Kline), 370; report of the 1935 yearbook committee (Bess Clem¬ ent), 353; secretary’s minutes, 371 Emergency in education, report of joint com¬ mission on (John K. Norton), 166 Emotional training in the rural school (Wallace T. Wait), 493 English curriculum built cooperatively, An — - symposium (Elisabeth M. Lincoln), 632 Enrichment of adult life, report of national commission on the (James A. Moyer), 172 Environment and its relation to the school, The — panel discussion, 363 Eskildson, Hugo N., Jr. What the social studies have done for me, 476 Ewing, Sara C. The economic status of the teacher — panel jury discussion group, 109 Executive committee, members of 1934-35, 764, of 1935-36, 770; minutes of the meet¬ ings of, 879 Expedition of youth, The (Agnes Samuelson), 324 Facing the future in secondary education (Raymond A. Schwegler), 467 Facts as employers find them, The (Jean L. Shepard), 319 Financial report 1934-35, 896 Fleming, Samuel E. How much flexibility in secondary education is needed in the face of youth problems of today, 453 Force, Anna Laura. Report of committee on retirement allowances, 204 Fox, F. Wilcken. A wide area of visual in¬ struction service, 725 Fox, F. Y. Credit unions— -panel jury discus¬ sion group, 115 Frank, Glenn. The double crisis of the schools, 515 Frank, Kate. The teacher as a citizen — panel jury discussion group, 111 Frasier, George W. Academic freedom — panel jury discussion group, 107; what has hap¬ pened to the finances of the teachers colleges during the depression, 662 Frazier, Ben W. Redirecting the training pro- ^ gram for rural school administrators, 417 Functions of the school in this democracy (A. J. Stoddard), 66 Future of the National Education Association, The (Edgar G. Doudna), 229; (Willard E. Givens), 230; as envisioned by its president (Henry Lester Smith), 227; concluding dis¬ cussion on (J. W. Crabtree), 238 Germany and its youth (George Norlin), 455 Gifted child and his education, The (Howard Taylor), 495 Givens, Willard E. Greetings (department of elementary school principals), 351; presenta¬ tion of volume of tributes, 147 ; secretary’s report (National Education Association), 929; the future of the association, 230 Gosling, Thomas W. Home economics: a fundamental in the curriculum, 648; the problem of vocabulary — symposium, 631 Gospel of beauty, The (Ella Victoria Dobbs), 382 Governmental planning in the United States (Charles E. Merriam), 501 Graham, Ben G. A social, economic, and political philosophy, 473 Greetings (C. L. Cushman), 391; (Willard E. Givens), 351; (R. H. Palmer), 365; (Mrs. A. E. Palmquist, Jr.), 391; (Henry Lester Smith), 653; (Mrs. Leila Bunce Smith), 647 Gregory, L. B,. Adventures in faculty co¬ operation and participation in the training school, 675 Guidance in the selection of subjects in junior and senior high schools (Eugene H. Hughes), 278 Guyton, Mary L. An interpretation of basic English, 257; a new emphasis in education for citizenship, 261 978 National Education Association Hale, Florence. Now it can be told, 141; the place of radio in adult education, 33. Hall, Sidney B. Report of legislative com¬ mission, 168 Hand, Harold C. The teacher as a citizen — panel jury discussion group, 110^ Happiness, the longer view (F. B. Knight), 118 Harmful effects of propaganda and their avoid¬ ance, The (Arthur M. Jordan), 464 Harney, Julia C. The art problems of the general supervisor, 637 Hartman, Albert L. The principal’s responsi¬ bility for teacher growth, 355 Hatfield, W. Wilbur. Activities of the cur¬ riculum commission of the National Council of Teachers of English, 629 Hawk, Sara Stinchfield. Auditory deficiency and delayed speech, 489; the psychology of exceptional children, 485 Hayes, Freda L. What next in legislation — panel discussion, 292 Headquarters staff, National Education Asso¬ ciation, 766 Health and physical education for the new era (Strong Hinman), 432 Health, of teacher, 116 Health problems in education, report of joint committee on (Thomas D. Wood), 162 Heffernan, Helen. Meeting the needs of ex¬ ceptional children in rural schools, 486 Hellstern, Edna. The adaptation of art to classroom work, 724 Herrington, E. H. The place of the moving picture in a building activity, 368 Heyl, Helen Hay. Redirecting the training program of teachers of rural children, 413 Higher leadership, The (Rev. Francis J. McConnell), 17 High-school principal looks at youth problems of today, The (James A. Chalmers), 451 Hill, Sam R. Integration of education for better living — panel discussion, 655 Hinman, Strong. Health and physical educa¬ tion for the new era, 432 Home economics: a fundamental in the cur¬ riculum (Thomas W. Gosling), 648 Home economics in the school curriculum (E. E. Oberholtzer), 654 Home economics teachers of the nation, To the (Henry Lester Smith), 653 Houghton, Neale D. The teacher as a citizen — panel jury discussion group, 110 How may the state staff aid in redirecting the program of rural education in terms of pres- entday needs thru supervision (Harry B. King), 418 How much flexibility in secondary education is needed in the face of youth problems of today (Samuel E. Fleming), 453 How to prepare and present a science night program (Robert F. Collier, Jr.), 722 Hughes, Eugene H. Guidance in the selection of subjects in junior and senior high schools, 278 Hunter, Frederick M. Education’s most dan¬ gerous rival, 118 Ideals for the future development of the social studies program (Earle U. Rugg), 481 Implications of present trends in the high- school program (A. J. Stoddard), 463 Improved methods of financing rural education (William G. Carr), 424 Improvement of rural education thru coordina¬ tion (Wilson S. Dakin), 419 Inspiration toward worthy character and good citizenship, An (George W. Rosenlof), 475 Integration of education for better living — panel discussion (Sam R. Hill), 655 Integration of the child — the goal of the edu¬ cational program, The (Ira S. Wile), 638 Integration of the curriculum thru the arts, The (Manley E. Irwin), 635 Inter-institutional relationships in developing a state program for the education of teachers (Henry Klonower), 702 International relations, report of committee on (Annie C. Woodward), 164 Interpretation of basic English, An (Mary L. Guyton), 257 Irwin, Manley E. The integration of the cur¬ riculum thru the arts, 635 Issues in the supervision of English— sym¬ posium (Prudence Cutright), 630; (Thomas W. Gosling), 631; (Elisabeth M. Lincoln), 632 Jacobs, Harry W. Civic institutions and in¬ terests as source material in art education, 636 Jacobs, It. C. T. Education’s oldest chal¬ lenge — character — panel jury discussion group, 114 Jaggers, Richard E. Report of cooperative committee on rural education, 216 Jean, F. C. The preparation of teachers of science to meet the needs of the new pro¬ gram, 445 Jenkins, Albion U. Can character be taught, 354 Jessup, A. S. The teacher’s health — panel jury discussion group, 117 Johnson, Ed. C. Address of welcome, 54 Joint commission on the emergency in edu¬ cation, report of the (John K. Norton), 166 Jones, Lloyd L. Junior college — curriculum content, 282 Jones, Winifred. What next in legislation- panel discussion, 293 Jordan, A. M. Reading interests, 342; the harmful effects of propaganda and their avoidance, 464 Joyal, Arnold E. Academic freedom — panel jury discussion group, 107 Joyner, J. Y. Early recollections, 135 Junior college — curriculum content (Lloyd L. Jones), 282 Junior high school- — curriculum content (Ann E. McCormick), 281 Tunior school — its plan and purpose (Robert Hill Lane), 381 Kaplan, A. D. H. The economic status of the teacher — panel jury discussion group, 109 Kelley, J. Herbert. Should the profession thru the National Education Association pro¬ vide for the protection of teachers and ad¬ ministrators who are unjustly treated, 237 Kelly, Fred J. Report of committee on social- economic goals of America, 218; social change and education — jury panel discus¬ sion, 544; the needs of youth as seen by the Office of Education, 102 Kennedy, Anna Clarke. Report of American Library Association committee on coopera¬ tion with the National Education Association, 153 Kilpatrick, William H. Public education as a force for social improvement, 567; the school and the present social situation, 57 Kindergarten-primary education, department of, 379; historical note, 380; secretary’s minutes, 387 King, George H. Redirecting the training pro¬ gram for teachers of adults in rural areas, 416 King, Harry B. How may the state staff aid in redirecting the program of rural education in terms of presentday needs thru super¬ vision, 418 Kline, Aaron. Report of resolutions committee (department of elementary school principals), 370 Index 979 Klonower, Henry. Inter-institutional rela¬ tionships in developing a state program for the education of teachers, 702 Knight, F. B. Happiness, the longer view, 118 Lane, Robert Hill. The junior school — its plan and purpose, 381 Langworthy, Mrs. B. F. Report of joint com¬ mittee of the National Education Association and the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, 167 Larger units of organization (Harry E. Elder), 427 Larson, Inez C. Culminating activity in visual education using the opaque projector, 725 Leadership of the department of public instruc¬ tion for rural education (Tohn A. Wieland), 420 Legislative commission, report of (Sidney B. Hall), 168 Lewis, Ernest D. Problems of youth from the standpoint of social studies, 90 Lewis, Mrs. Inez Johnson. Address of wel¬ come, 56 Life directors, National Education Associa¬ tion, 1934-35, 764; 1935-36, 771 Life membership dinner, 131; historical note, 132 Lincoln, Elisabeth M. An English curriculum built cooperatively — symposium, 632 Lind, Nellie V. Music appreciation — its con¬ tribution to leisure-time interests, 369 Lip reading, department of, 389; historical note, 390; greetings (C. L. Cushman), 391, (Mrs. A. E. Palmquist, Jr.), 391; secretary’s minutes, 394 Looking ahead in education (Henry Lester Smith), 39 Looking ahead toward educational recovery (John K. Norton), 590 Loper, Rev. Vere V. Creating character values thru high-school education, 453 Lord, Daisy. Around the year with the presi¬ dent (department of classroom teachers), 287 ; the teacher as a citizen — panel jury dis¬ cussion group, 112 Lyon, Harley W. The teacher’s health — -panel jury discussion group, 117 McClure, Worth. Social change and educa¬ tion — jury panel discussion, 546 McConnell, Beatrice. The youth problem from the point of view of the Children’s Bureau, 96 McConnell, Rev. Francis J. The higher leadership, 17 McCormick, Ann E. Junior high school — cur¬ riculum content, 281 Maclean, Lola. Placement of graduates in the commercial field, 279 McNutt, Paul V. Address, 125 Making the program fit the needs of individual pupils (Mary M. Balch), 480 Marsh, C. S. A commission plan for youth, 454; _ problems of youth as seen in the Civilian Conservation Corps camps, 99; voca¬ tional training in the CCC, 729 Maxwell, George L. Education’s oldest chal¬ lenge — character — panel jury discussion group, 114 Mears, Louise M. Mrs. Crabtree’s contribu¬ tion to a successful career, 139 Measurement of teaching ability, The (A. S. Barr), 337 Meeting the needs of exceptional children in rural schools (Helen Heffernan), 486 Melrose, Mary. Science in the elementary schools of Cleveland, 443 Mental hygiene and education (Bert A. Nash), 492 Mental hygiene as related to the problem of deficient hearing (Mrs. Esther H. Rees), 392 Meola, L. K. The noon-day movies, educa¬ tion’s new tool, 721 Merriam, Charles E. Governmental planning in the United States, 501 Michael, Raymond. What’s it all about, 357 Michell, Elene M. Recent experimentation in social studies teaching, 477 Miller, Rev. Raphael H. Augustus O. Thomas, 740 Mooney, W. D. The economic status of the teacher — panel jury discussion group, 109 More effective county and local school organiza¬ tion (William McKinley Robinson), 406 Morgan, Joy Elmer. Appreciation for head¬ quarters staff, 146 Moss, Bernice. The teacher’s health — panel jury discussion group, 117 Mossman, Mrs. Lois Coffey. Education’s old¬ est challenge — character — panel jury discus¬ sion group, 113 Moyer, James A. Report of national com¬ mission on the enrichment of adult life, 172 Mrs. Crabtree’s contribution to a successful career (Louise M. Mears), 139 Munitions investigations by the United States Senate (Gerald P. Nye), 130 Murray, Elwood. Speech curriculums from a personality approach, 488 Music appreciation — its contribution to leisure¬ time interests (Nellie V. Lind), 369 Music education, department of, 397; his¬ torical note, 398; secretary’s minutes, 402 Nash, Bert A. Mental hygiene and educa¬ tion, 492 National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools, report of committee to cooperate with the (N. C. Newbold), 156 National Congress of Parents and Teachers, report of joint committee of the National Education Association and the (Mrs. B. F. Langworthy), 167 National Council of Education, 225; his¬ torical note, 226; secretary’s minutes, 243 National Education Association, act of in¬ corporation, 745; board of directors, members of 1934-35, 764, of 1935-36, 771; board of trustees, members of 1934-35, 764, of 1935- 36, 771; bylaws, 750; calendar of meetings, 762; committees, members of, 1934-35, 777; delegates to fifteenth representative assembly, 948; executive committee, members of 1934- 35, 764, of 1935-36, 770; headquarters staff, 766; life directors, 1934-35, 764, 1935-36, 771; minutes of the fifteenth representative assembly, 793; officers, 1934-35, 764, 1935- 36, 770; state directors, 1934-35, 765, 1935- 36, 771 Nature and function of home economics, The (Effie Raitt), 651 Necrology committee, report of (Richard R. Brown), 941 Needed legislation in the interest of all types of exceptional children (Catherine Nutter- ville), 485 Need for a unifying purpose, The (Henry A. Wallace), 595 Needs of adult education — forum (Marguerite H. Burnett), 28; (Lyman Bryson), 30; (Linda A. Eastman), 31; (Florence Hale), 33; (Mrs. J. K. Pettengill), 34; (J. W. Studebaker), 35 Needs of youth as seen by the Office of Educa¬ tion, The (Fred J. Kelly), 102 Needs of youth — forum (Robert N. Bush), 89; (LeRoy E. Cowles), 92; (Fred J. Kelly), 102; (Ernest D. Lewis), 90; (Beatrice Mc¬ Connell), 96; (C. S. Marsh), 99; (Dorothy C. Stratton), 93; (Goodwin Watson), 104 Neff, Andrew Love, The teacher as a citizen — panel jury discussion group, 112 Newbold, N. C. Report of committee to co¬ operate with the National Association of Teachers in Colored Softools, 156 980 National Education Association New emphasis in education for citizenship, A (Mary L. Guyton), 261 Newlon, Jesse H. Social change and educa¬ tion — jury panel discussion, 540; the place of the educational profession in the national life, 23 Nichols, John R. Academic freedom — panel jury discussion group, 108 Noon-day movies, education’s new tool, The (L. K. Meola), 721 Norlin, George. Germany and its youth, 455 Norton, John K. Looking ahead toward edu¬ cational recovery, 590; report of joint com¬ mission on the emergency in education, 166 Now it can be told (Florence Hale), 141 Nutterville, Catherine. Needed legislation in the interest of all types of exceptional chil¬ dren, 485 Nye, Gerald P. Munitions investigations by the United States Senate, 130 Oberholtzer, E. E. Home economics in the school curriculum, 654; report of committee of seven on reorganization of the National Education Association, 175 Odell, William R. Training beyond high school to meet requirements of present em¬ ployment levels, 277 Officers, of departments, 1934-35, 766, 1935-36, 773; of National Education Association, 1934-35, 764, 1935-36, 770 One-room rural school in a redirected program, The (Charles H. Tye), 408 Orchard, C. R. Credit unions — panel jury discussion group, 115 Our next order of business (H. L. Donovan), 661 Owens, M. R. Academic freedom — panel jury discussion group, 107 Palmer, R. H. Greetings (department of ele¬ mentary school principals), 365 Palmquist, Mrs. A. E., Jr. Greetings (de¬ partment of lip reading), 391 Parsons, Mrs. Georgia B. Credit unions — panel jury discussion group, 115 Patterson, O. F. The teacher as a citizen — panel jury discussion group, 110 Patterson, William F. Vocational education and the NRA, 733 Pettengill, Mrs. J. K. The place of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers in adult education, 34 Pinkney, L. A. Credit unions — panel jury discussion group, 116 Pioneering in music education (Samuel T. Burns), 399 Pittenger, L. A. The ways and means of arousing public interest in the financial needs of teachers colleges, 668 Placement of graduates in the commercial field (Lola Maclean), 279 Place of home economics in developing better citizens, The (Edwin C. Broome), 647 Place of radio in adult education, The (Florence Hale), 33 Place of science in the elementary-school pro¬ gram, The (I. Jewell Simpson), 633 Place of the educational profession in the na¬ tional life. The (Jesse H. Newlon), 23 Place of the library in adult education, The (Linda A. Eastman), 31 Place of the moving picture in a building activity, The (E. H. Herrington), 368 Place of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers in adult education, The (Mrs. J. K. Pettengill), 34 Place of women in the community, The (Mrs. Franklin Delano Roosevelt), 313 Plea for sanity, A (Lotus D. Coffman), 359 Plenzke, 0. H. Choosing the new road, 407 Power, Leonard. What constitutes socially useful activities for early elementary pupils, 629 Powers, Sue M. Report of the committee on resolutions (department of rural education), 422 Practical program for the social studies, A (John A. Sexson), 478 Preble, Mrs. F. Blanche. Academic freedom — panel jury discussion group, 106 Preparation of teachers of science to meet the needs of the new program, The (F. C. Tean), 445 Presentation of volume of tributes (Willard E. Givens), 147 Presentday reasons for requiring a longer period of pre-service preparation for teachers (George S. Counts), 694 Principal’s job today — panel discussion, The, 362 Principal’s participation in politics, The (Wil¬ liam Twitchell, Jr.), 352 Principal’s responsibility for teacher growth, The (Albert L. Hartman), 355 Problem of grade placement, The — symposium (Prudence Outright), 630 Problem of vocabulary, The — symposium (Thomas W. Gosling), 631 Problems in the measurement of teaching ability (Gilbert L. Betts), 336 Problems facing young women in the high schools and colleges of today (Dorothy C. Stratton), 93 Problems of youth as seen among freshmen in a state university (LeRoy E. Cowles), 92 Problems of youth as seen in the Civilian Con¬ servation Corps camps (C. S. Marsh), 99 Problems of youth from the standpoint of social studies (Ernest D. Lewis), 90 Problems of youth — what does youth most need (Goodwin Watson), 104 Professional relations, report of committee on — - department of elementary school principals (Mason A. Stratton), 371 Program of girls’ athletics from the 1935 view¬ point, The (Hazel Cave), 433 Progress of public education in Texas — panel discussion (Rush M. Caldwell), 295 Psychology of exceptional children, The (Sara Stinchfield Hawk), 485 Public affairs forums as agencies for adult education (J. W. Studebaker), 35 Public education as a force for social improve¬ ment (William H. Kilpatrick), 567 Purpose of the junior school, The (Nila Banton Smith), 385 Quest for national security, The (Charles A. Beard), 510 Question of science equipment and materials, The (Harry A. Carpenter), 634 Raitt, Effie. The nature and function of home economics, 651 Read, Faye. Education’s oldest challenge- — ■ character — panel jury discussion group, 114 Reading interests (A. M. Jordan), 342 Ream, Glen O. The use of cartoons and the chalk talk in the classroom, 723 Recent experimentation in social studies teach¬ ing (Elene M. Michell), 477 Redirecting rural education thru a better under¬ standing of and wider participation in county and local school programs in rural areas by state departments of education (Ray P. Snyder), 405 Redirecting the training program, for teachers, of adults in rural areas (George H. King), 416; of rural youth (R. M. Stewart), 415; of rural children (Helen Hay Heyl), 413; for rural school administrators (Ben W. Frazier), 417 Rees, Mrs. Esther H. Mental hygiene as related to the problem of deficient hearing, 392 Index 981 Reeves, Floyd W. Education in the Tennessee Valley Authority, 329; vocational education and the TVA, 730 Reorganization of the National Education Association, report of committee of seven on (E. E. Oberholtzer) , 175 Reports of committees. See Committees, N. E. A. See also Committees, department Representative assembly, delegates to, 948; minutes of meetings of, 793 Resolutions, report of committee on (George T. Avery), 207 Retirement allowances, report of committee on (Anna Laura Force), 204 Rice, Charles A. Education’s oldest chal¬ lenge — character— panel jury discussion group, 114 Robinson, William McKinley. More effec¬ tive county and local school organization, 406 Roche, Josephine. Address, 297 Roosevelt, Mrs. Franklin Delano. The place of women in the community, 313. Rosenlof, George W. An inspiration toward worthy character and good citizenship, 475 Rugg, Earle IT. Ideals for the future develop¬ ment of the social studies program, 481 Rural education, department of, 403; his¬ torical note, 404; report of the committee on resolutions (Sue M. Powers), 422 Rural education, 493, 496; report of coopera¬ tive committee on (Richard E. Jaggers), 216 Russell, William F. So conceived and so dedicated, 609 Roys, Cassie F. The teacher as a citizen — panel jury discussion group, 112 Samuelson, Agnes. The expedition of youth, 324 Saunders, Joseph H. Building thru life mem¬ berships, 137 School and the present social situation, The (William H. Kilpatrick), 57 School health and physical education, de¬ partment of, 429; historical note, 430; secre¬ tary’s minutes, 436 School plant in a redirected program, The (John W. Brooker), 412 Schwegler, Raymond A. Facing the future in secondary education, 467 Science instruction, department of, 439; his¬ torical note, 440; secretary’s minutes, 447 Science in the elementary schools of Cleveland (Mary Melrose), 443 Scott, Zenos E. Characteristics of successful college teaching, 681 Secondary education, department of, 449; his¬ torical note, 450; secretary’s minutes, 458 Secondary school principals, department of, 461; historical note, 462 Secretary, National Education Association, annual report of, 929 Senior high school- — curriculum content (E. E. Washburn), 280 Sexson, John A. A practical program for the social studies, 478 Shaw, Reuben T. Report of committee on amending charter, 151 Shepard, Jean L. The facts as employers find them, 319 Sholty, Maude. The education of exceptional children in a rural state, 496 Should the profession thru the National Edu¬ cation Association provide for the protection of teachers and administrators who are un¬ justly treated (J. Herbert Kelley), 237 Simpson, I. Jewell. The place of science in the elementary-school program, 633 Skills and drills in the new junior school (Nila Banton Smith), 386 Small, George D. Youth and the present crisis, 457 . , Smith, Henry Lester. Looking ahead in edu¬ cation, 39; the future of the National Educa¬ tion Association as envisioned by its presi¬ dent, 227; to the home economics teachers of the nation, 653 Smith, J. W. The economic status of the teacher — panel jury discussion group, 110 Smith, Mrs. Leila Bunce. Greetings (depart¬ ment of supervisors and teachers of home economics), 647; report of president, 657 Smith, Nila Banton. The purpose of the junior school, 385; skills and drills in the new junior school, 386 Snyder, Ray P. Redirecting rural education thru a better understanding of and wider participation in county and local school pro¬ grams in rural areas by state departments of education, 405 Social aspects of art (Louis Cheskin), 273 Social change and education, the 1935 year¬ book — jury panel discussion (John W. Stude- baker), 534; (Frank W. Ballou), 547; (Ly¬ man Bryson), 538; (John L. Childs), 544; (Frederick S. Deibler), 541; (J. B. Ed¬ monson), 539; (Fred J. Kelly), 544; (Worth McClure), 546; (Jesse H. Newlon), 540; (W. W. Theisen), 548; (Carroll Hill Wooddy), 542 Social, economic, and political philosophy, A. (Ben G. Graham), 473 Social-economic goals of America, report of committee cn (Fred J. Kelly), 218 Social significance of science teaching, The (Ernest E. Bayles), 446 Social studies, department of, 471; historical note, 472; secretary’s minutes, 482 So conceived and so dedicated (William F. Russell), 609 Seme aspects of the program of the elementary school as it is planned to meet the challenge in this period of social change (Rose Bland), 366. Some implications of progressive education, 364 Special education, department of, 483; his¬ torical note, 484 Speech curriculums from a personality ap¬ proach (Elwood Murray), 488 Stammerer — whose responsibility, The (Mary A. Willsea), 490 Stapleton, Benjamin F. Address of welcome, 21 State directors, of National Education Asso¬ ciation, 1934-35, 765; 1935-36, 771 State program of adult education, A (Mar¬ guerite H. Burnett), 28 Stewart, R. M. Redirecting the training pro¬ gram for rural youth, 415 Stoddard, A. J. Functions of the school in this democracy, 66; implications of present trends in the high-school program, 463; some implications of progressive education, 364 Stratton, Dorothy C. Problems facing young women in the high schools and colleges of today, 93 ; the dean looks at youth problems of today, 451 Stratton, Mason A. Report of professional re¬ lations committee (department of elementary school principals), 371; the teacher as a citizen — panel jury discussion group, 111 Strayer, George D. Educational leadership in a troubled world, 559 Studebaker, J. W. Public affairs forums as agencies for adult education, 35; social change and education — jury panel discus¬ sions, 534 Superintendence, department of, 499; his¬ torical note, 500; joint meeting with secon¬ dary school principals, 559; letter from Presi¬ dent Roosevelt, 622; report of the committee on resolutions, 618; secretary’s minutes, 623; social change and education, the 1935 year¬ book — jury panel discussion, 534 Supervisors and directors of instruction, de¬ partment of, 627; distinction between course of study writing and curriculum develop¬ ment — panel, 641; historical note, 628; sec¬ retary’s minutes, 642 982 National Education Association Supervisors and teachers of home eco¬ nomics, department of, 645; greetings (Mrs. Leila Bunce Smith), 647; historical note, 646; integration of education for better liv¬ ing — panel discussion, 655; report of presi¬ dent, 657; secretary’s minutes, 658 Tarbell, Emily. Academic freedom — panel jury discussion group, 107; report of 1935 committee on academic freedom (department of classroom teachers), 300 Taylor, Howard. The gifted child and his education, 495 Teacher as a citizen, The— panel jury discus¬ sion group (Harold, C. Hand), 110; (C. Louise Boehringer), 111; (A. G. Crane), 111; (Kate Frank), 111; (Neale D. Hough¬ ton), 110; (Daisy Lord), 112; (Andrew Love Neff), 112; (O. F. Patterson), 110; (Cassie F. Roys), 112; (Mason A. Stratton), 111 Teacher’s health, The — panel jury discussion group (Thomas D. Wood), 116; (Edna W. Bailey), 117; (Mrs. Mary D. Barnes), 117; (A. S. Jessup), 117; (Harley W. Lyon), 117; (Bernice Moss), 117; (A. W. Thomp¬ son), 116; (Charles G. Wilson), 117 Teachers colleges, department of, 659; his¬ torical note, 660; list of accredited institu¬ tions, 714 Teachers college in the service of the state and nation, The (PI. L. Donovan), 709 Teachers colleges versus liberal arts colleges in the education of teachers (Sheldon E. Davis), 240 Teaching is a social grace (Ernest W. Butter¬ field), 688 Technological changes in industry and the new apprentice (O. D. Adams), 732 Tenure, 237; report of committee on (Donald DuShane), 221 Theisen, W. W. Social change and educa¬ tion — jury panel discussion, 548 Thompson, A. W. The teacher’s health — panel jury discussion group, 116 Threlkeld, A. L. Address of welcome, 21; edu¬ cation’s oldest challenge — character — panel jury discussion group, 113 Training beyond high school to meet require¬ ments of present employment levels (William R. Odell), 277 Treasurer, report of, 917 Trolinger, Lelia. Characteristics in still pic¬ tures for instructional use in the classroom, 723 Trustees, board of, financial report, 897; min¬ utes of meetings of, 892; members of 1934- 35, 764, 1935-36, 771 Twelve-grade program in a county system of schools, A (D. Y. Dunn), 409 Twitchell, William, Jr. The principal’s par¬ ticipation in politics, 352 Tye, Charles H. The one-room rural school in a redirected program, 408 Use of cartoons and the chalk talk in the classroom, The (Glen O. Ream), 723 Visual instruction, department of, 719; his¬ torical note, 720 Visualized education in appreciation of the arts (Merrill Bishop), 721 Vocational education and the NRA (William F. Patterson), 733 Vocational education and the TVA (Floyd W. Reeves), 730 Vocational education, department of, 727; historical note, 728; secretary’s minutes, 734. See also 319, 324, 329 Vocational training in the CCC (C. S. Marsh), 729 Voigt, Irma C. Cooperation with this genera¬ tion, 83 Wait, Wallace T. Emotional training in the rural school, 493 Wallace, Henry A. The need for a unifying purpose, 595 Walton, Thomas A. Credit unions — panel jury discussion group, 115 Washburn, E. E. Senior high school — cur¬ riculum content, 280 Watson, Goodwin. Problems of youth — what does youth most need, 104 Ways and means of arousing public interest in the financial needs of teachers colleges, The (L. A. Pittenger), 668 Weet, Herbert S. What do we mean by adapting the schools to social and pupil needs, 583 West, Ruth. A background of significant in¬ formation, 473 What constitutes socially useful activities for early elementary pupils (Leonard Power), 629 What do we mean by adapting the schools to social and pupil needs (Herbert S. W'eet), 583 What has happened to the finances of the teachers colleges during the depression (George W. Frasier), 662 What is a program of school health service adequate to meet presentday needs (Edna W. Bailey), 431 What’s it all about (Raymond S. Michael), 357 What next in legislation — panel discussion (Rush M. Caldwell), 295; (Edward B. Couch), 296; (Freda L. Hayes), 292; Wini¬ fred Jones), 293; (Robert H. Wyatt), 290 What of the future of democracy (Ben M. Cherrington) , 263 What the social studies have done for me (Hugo N. Eskildson, Jr.), 476 Wide area of visual instruction service, A (F. Wilcken Fox), 725 Wieland, John A. Leadership of the depart¬ ment of public instruction for rural educa¬ tion, 420 Wile, Ira S. The integration of the child — the goal of the educational program, 638 Williams, J. D. Credit unions — panel jury discussion group, 115 Willsea, Mary A. The stammerer — whose re¬ sponsibility, 490 Wilson, Charles G. The teacher’s health — - panel jury discussion group, 117 Wood, Thomas D. Report of joint committee on health problems in education, 162; the teacher’s health — panel jury discussion group, 116 Wooddy, Carroll Hill. Social change and edu¬ cation — jury panel discussion, 542 Woodward, Annie C. Report of committee on international relations, 164 Woolley, Mary E. The child in relation to the twentieth century, 580; the college woman in the world community, 316 World Federation of Education Associations, 735; historical note, 736; biennial report (J. W. Crabtree), 737 Wyatt, Robert H. What next in legislation — panel discussion, 290 Youth and the present crisis (George D. Small), 457 Youth bids for a needed opportunity (Robert N. Bush), 89 Youth problem from the point of view of the Children’s Bureau, The (Beatrice McCon¬ nell), 96 / t